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[ "In many psychotic individuals, the wide eyed look is because of their intense anxiety levels. It's more than just the eyes though. In someone psychotically agitated, you'll see facial grimacing and body postures indicating stress or aggression as well.\n\nThe scariest patients are the ones that have a flat affect, meaning they just have a blank stare all the time. Though many of them are lost in their own world and harmless, some are not. They are concerning because i can't judge their propensity towards violence at any given time.\n\nSource: IAMA Psychiatric RN", "People with schizophrenia process the visual world qualitatively differently. Often, they are unable to focus on features, and many do not have stable gaze patterns. For example, they would be unable to follow a cursor with their eyes smoothly; their pupils track objects in a herky jerky pattern. The \"crazy eyes\" are apparent to us because these people are seeing the world differently from 95% of the rest of folks we see.\n\nEdit: Added source of original finding.\nHolzman, Proctor, & Hughes (1973). Eye-tracking patterns in schizophrenia. Science, 181(4095), 179-181.", "I think this might be a better question for /r/askscience. You're going to get a lot of unevidenced, personal opinions on this one.", "I am not sure you could be so certain people are crazy because of their eyes", "> Whenever you meet / see someone with their eyes \"wide open\" all the time - meaning, you can see the whites of their eyes around the entire perimeter of the iris, it's virtually a guarantee that they are severely mentally unstable.\n\nUm, what? I live with a serious mental illness. I've spent enough time in and out of mental hospitals over the last 13 years or so to have seen people far, far crazier than I was when I was highly symptomatic. I went and asked others who know me well and they never noticed a \"crazy look\" in my eyes. They noticed my odd behavior, but never \"crazy eyes\".\n\nI've never noticed a \"crazy look\" in highly symptomatic mentally ill peoples' eyes before. I have a lot of experience in this, mind you. I've seen them quite distracted, sometimes paying more attention to a visual hallucination than to me, but it didn't look crazy; it just looked as though they were paying closer attention to something else.\n\nI've been right up close with some incredibly fucking crazy, highly symptomatic mentally ill people before and I've never noticed this crazy look you mention. I've had very ill schizophrenic room mates in hospitals and I never saw their eyes going crazy.\n\n > The Sandy Hook and Aurora shooters are very obvious recent examples of this, but it occurs frequently enough in the news and in real life that I can't help but notice the pattern. So, what is going on there?\n\nDo you have any examples of this crazy look you speak of that we can look at? Preferably more than just a handful of examples to show that this happens as frequently as you claim? Also, do you know for certain and can you provide information to show that all of the examples of crazy-eyed people have indeed been diagnosed as having a mental illness of some kind?\n\nI'm not denying that highly disturbed people experiencing a traumatic psychological crisis may possibly have a wild look in their eyes, but from the way you've phrased things it appears that you believe all mentally ill people have this crazy-eyed thing going on, which just doesn't fit with my life experience. Ever see footage of people who aren't mentally ill who've just been involved in a life-threatening, very traumatic incident? I've seen those people have crazed eyes.\n\nThe only real explanation I can give is that if a schizophrenic is experiencing visual hallucinations his gaze may be directed towards the hallucination and not the people and things that are actually there in front of him. That sort of thing can happen when you full-on see things that aren't actually there.\n\nPlease let me know if I've misunderstood anything you've written.", "A big part of it has to do with something called [Binocular Disparity](_URL_0_). Which is the difference is the distance seen with each eye, This is very common in people with schizophrenia and shows us that something deeper inside the brain is not using visual cues properly.\n\n(Not so much for 5 yr olds)\n Things we take for granted such as shadows, motion blur, expectation that faces are convex not concave, parallax of known objects (E.g. is it picture of something with the camera really close, Or is it a picture with the camera very far away but zoomed in a shit load)\n\nShadow edge blurring of not quite point source lighting such as the sun (look at the shadow of a small tree, the shadow of the base has a very clean edge. The shadow of the top is pretty clean, You can see the individual leaves. Now look at a giant tree, the canopies shadow is all just a blurred silhouette)\n\nThese all add up (and many many more) to meaning that the relaxed way we look at the world still gives us pretty much all the information we need to know about what and where everything is in front of us with minimum effort, This is far from true for schizophrenics. Bad visual cues or lack of them mean that they may even have trouble keeping their eyes focused at the right distance or Pointing both in the right direction at a close object. Or even recognise a simple object subconsciously meaning mundane things will take them by surprise before they have to consciously realise they are not a threat.", "I forget where but I read the Japanese have a saying like, 'three whites of the eyes' that meant a person showing white on the sides and below the iris is crazy or possessed or something. And if you look at pix of many well known major-crazy killers and such...there it is.", "I have a brother with mild autism and sometimes he gets a strange look when he talks to me. Its not wide-eyed or shifty, but looks as though he's looking through me and not at me.", "> it's virtually a guarantee that they are severely mentally unstable\n\nThis is an awfully incorrect statement. Not only is it not a guarantee, but I doubt there's enough evidence to even consider it as an indication of mental health. Secondly, associating mental disease with violent behavior is a huge myth. Most mentally ill people don't exhibit violent behavior. It's scary for a violent person to be mentally ill because they might not have any control over their violence. But mentally ill people are no more violent than those that are healthy.", "eh....when it comes to these killers, think about the fact that WHEN THEY CAN, the authorities are going to pick and choose what pictures to release. Every now and then the media will get their hands on other pictures, but generally speaking the pics come from LE and their pics are going to show the villain in a bad light.", "As you can gather from the replies, it's a few things, but I think the simplest and best explanation is mania. They're in a hyperactive state.", "We know that a person's eyes can reveal certain types of emotions. For example, your pupils will widen when you look at someone you love. That's why attraction is so hard to hide. I've spent the past few decades observing people's eyes to see if they reveal other secrets as well. One thing stands out. \n\nI have a hypothesis that you can detect in a person's eyes when they have a preference for imagination over direct observation. Let's call that look Crazy Eyes because it can be unsettling to the third-party observer. With Crazy Eyes, I think the brain is accessing the imagination instead of the rational part of the brain, and it causes the eyes to have a sort of glassy, unblinking, dreamy, scary look. At least that's how it looks to me.\n\nI was noticing this again recently as I watched a news program about religious activists who were organizing their lives around a worldview that needs to be imagined because it can't be directly observed. Their eyes had a spooky, dreamy look when they spoke of their plans, as if they were accessing their imaginations instead of whatever part of the brain does math. I'm not saying their worldview is wrong. I'm only saying that objective evidence in support of their worldview can't be directly observed, so imagination necessarily has an important role in their daily lives, and their eyes showed it. They had Crazy Eyes. \n\nSuppose you did a study where you took one group of religious people and one group of skeptics and filmed each of them speaking about whatever is important to them. Then you cropped out everything but the eyes and showed the films to a group of volunteer subjects. Could the volunteers distinguish the skeptics from the believers just by their eyes? I think they could, at least more than chance would predict.\n\nI thought of this topic because the other day while working out in the gym I was having an exceptionally good hypomanic creative flood. It was wonderful. One good idea after another was popping into my head. I stopped to use the restroom, and when I was washing my hands I looked in the mirror and noticed that I had Crazy Eyes. I was so deep in my imagination that my eyes looked different even to me. It was jarring.\n\n_URL_1_", "A lot of the time specific \"looks\" which make you think of someone in a particular way are due to the whites of the eyes and the appearance of the eyes. Humans have more whites to their eyes than any other mammal because it helps us to empathize and to judge mood without having to ask them.\nSo, when a great deal of white to someones' eyes are showing, it usually unnerves other people due to the fact that the \"wide eyed\" look implies that they are shocked, upset, or otherwise \"riled up\" and have a great deal of adrenaline in their systems. Sooo, you percieve these eyes as abnormal or \"crazy\" due to the fact that they show a great deal of anxiety very clearly.", "Wow, I have a customer that comes into my job and he always freaks me out. His eyes are always open really wide. One second he will be smiling and the next second he will be serious and just stare at me. I can never hold eye contact with him cuz I cant read his face and his eyes make me feel like im looking into something evil! Its hard to explain but a few coworkers have felt the same" ]

[ "cultural backgrounds who were shown a series of faces and asked to sort them into piles in which every face showed the same emotion. Fixation on different features of the face leads to disparate reading of emotions. Asians' focus on the eyes lead to the perception of startled faces as surprise rather than fear. As a result, previous associations or customs of an individual can lead to different categorization or recognition of emotion. This particular difference in visual perception of emotion seems to suggest an attention bias mechanism for wishful seeing, since certain visual cues were attended to", "\"People see dark faces out there, and the perception is that they're African-American. They're not us. They're impostors. Even people I know come up and say: 'Hey, what color is Vladimir Guerrero? Is he a black player?' I say, 'Come on, he's Dominican. He's not black.' ... As African-American players, we have a theory that baseball can go get an imitator and pass them off as us. It's like they had to get some kind of dark faces, so they go to the Dominican or Venezuela because you can get them cheaper. It's like, 'Why should I get this kid", "(literally 'darkened eyes') to refer to individual amok. Laurens van der Post experienced the phenomenon in the East Indies and wrote in 1955:\n'Gelap mata', the Dark Eye, is an expression used in Sumatra and Java to describe a curious and disturbing social phenomenon. Socially speaking, the Malays, Sumatrans and Javanese are the best behaved people I have ever encountered. On the surface they are an extremely gentle, refined, submissive people. In fact the word 'Malay' comes from 'malu', 'gentle', and gentleness is a quality prized above all others among the Malays and their neighbours. In their family life, in their", "that others could distinguish people solely on facial differences.\nProsopagnosia in children may be overlooked; they may just appear to be very shy or slightly odd due to their inability to recognize faces. They may also have a hard time making friends, as they may not recognize their classmates. They often make friends with children who have very clear, distinguishing features.\nChildren with prosopagnosia may also have difficulties following the plots of television shows and movies, as they have trouble recognizing the different characters. They tend to gravitate towards cartoons, in which characters have simple but well-defined characteristics, and tend to wear", "is constantly looking at them and judging, feeling the need to look \"perfect\". A teen who has a pimple on their face will think that everyone will notice and that it is covering half of their face. (This is one very common example of imaginary audience.) In reality, only a small percentage of those people have any interest in a person’s activities, and a maturing worldview will usually reduce the impression that this imaginary audience exists. Some people, however, maintain this misapprehension well into their adult years. Studies Gerald Adams and Randy Jones conducted a study to test imaginary audience", "often used to describe a person who blindly follows trends without thought with the implication that they have a poor taste or behaves in a bad way. It could also mean that he or she has nothing productive to do so as to idly squander their time wandering around the streets of Mong Kok. Appearance The origin of their dressing style is believed to be the movie series Young and Dangerous produced in the 1990s, which describes the lives of Hong Kong gangsters and their triad activities. However, some other people believe that it is because this group of people", "tend to portray positive personality traits, like kindness for instance, are typically seen as more attractive than people who portray negative personality traits. Eye candy Eye candy is a slang term for superficial attractiveness. In a 2017 Boston Globe article about the potential for cheerleading at the Olympics, eye candy was used to describe cheerleaders as \"entertainment popularized by professional sports in the United States.\" The term has also been used in professional sports in the United States referring to female athletes.", "not only saw the mysterious person, but felt him or rather his stripes upon their backs with his switch. The annual visitor would make his appearance some hours after dark, thoroughly disguised, especially the face, which would sometimes be covered with a hideously ugly phiz - generally wore a female garb - hence the name Christmas woman - sometimes it would be a veritable woman but with masculine force and action. He or she would be equipped with an ample sack about the shoulders filled with cakes, nuts, and fruits, and a long hazel switch which was supposed", "up the way anyone expected. After all, looks are deceptive. Everything that they say or possess or even do leads them to further obstacles. Whether it's the suspicious footage of the boys being at Rashtriya pati bhawan, or the Arabic and Pakistani Porn that they find in Rohan's bag, Whether it's the bomb like looking device in Dhruv's bag which he states to be his physics project or the fact that the 27-year-old Bulai who resembles a most wanted terrorist and doesn't carry any id or even a cell phone. At the same time the Intelligence has reports that a", "could do this awful thing to you then fades away, he explains.\nRound Eyes derives its title from the Chinese nickname for Westerners. While the name refers directly to the sunglasses foreigners wear and the lack of the epicanthic fold in many Europeans, it is also an innuendo, metaphorically, at the naiveté of the outsiders who only through a haze saw the nation they were living in. Most westerners lived lavishly, interacted only with one another and fled when a lack of provisions and political uprising began. Epstein was one of a few Europeans that remained.\nWhen Levaco finally catches up with", "people from different cultural backgrounds allocate their attention very differently. This means that different cultures may interpret the same social context in very different ways. Since Americans are viewed as individualistic, they should have no trouble inferring people's inner feelings from their facial expressions, whereas Japanese people may be more likely to look for contextual cues in order to better understand one's emotional state. \nEvidence of this phenomenon is found in comparisons of Eastern and Western artwork. In Western art there is a preoccupation with the face that does not exist in Eastern art. For example, in", "of the reasons why people instinctively don't look deep into another's eyes. It is an immediate way to identify someone or something flawlessly. It is notably something he has never shared with Murphy, although he has with Susan (who tricked him into the Gaze). Harry has no idea how people perceive him, although those who have Gazed him tend to have their opinion and respect for him taken up several notches after it happens, as they realize the true nature of who they are dealing with. The crime lord Marcone, for instance, evidences a remarkable amount of respect for Harry", "spirit of the locals, whether the headman, the beautiful girl, the Kangba man, or the wrinkled elder. They all embody a sense of calmness, self-sufficiency and purity. They stare into the camera with serenity – there is neither anxiety nor attempt at performance. They seem to enjoy the ritual of looking at themselves, and noticing time passing by peacefully. Looking at the people in these pictures, one has the wish to become like them, to be able to attain that pure and noble satisfaction of being. (Zhu Qi *朱其, Chinese art critic and writer)", "his eyes. They were the eyes of the man who looks into the beyond vast spaces. Instinctively one saw in them the hunter and the man of wide views. In social intercourse Selous had a presence that was apt to make other people look insignificant. He was adored by all his friends, and even perfect strangers seemed to come under his magnetism at the first introduction\" - J. G. Millais, 1919. All his life, he sported a full beard, which together with his signature hats, makes him an easily recognisable icon:\nHe wore a double Terai grey slouch hat, slightly on", "photographs my eyes come out goggled and frightened and even somewhat mad, maybe because as they put me facing the camera obscura, I do experience – if not fear, then strong anxiety.\"\n\nPeople who knew Pisemsky personally remembered him warmly, as a man whose weaknesses were outweighed by virtues, of which a keen sense of justice, good humour, honesty, and modesty were the most obvious. According to Arkady Gornfeld, \"His whole character, from the inability to understand foreign cultures to ingenuousness, humour, keenness of remarks and common sense – was that of a simple, if very clever, Russian muzhik. His main", "a variety of emotions, such as nervousness or excitement. Eyes without pupils and with reflective glints indicate a state of delirium.\nEnlargement of the eyes, where they become huge and perfectly round with tiny pupils and no iris and going beyond the reach of the face (often shown with the mouth becoming like a stretched semicircle, the point of which extends past the chin) symbolises extreme excitement. Similarly, turning eyes into two thick half-circles, conveys a cute, delighted look (see Character design section below).\nThe character's eye shapes and sizes are sometimes symbolically used to represent the character. For instance, bigger eyes", "being stared at, they tend to assume that they are, despite having too little information to make that determination. Test subjects asked to determine if an individual wearing dark sunglasses is looking at them, for example, would assume they are indeed being stared at, even though the starer's eyes were obscured and the actual position of their eyes was not known to the subject. Humans, they reason, are \"hard-wired\" to err on the side of caution since the consequences of not recognizing such a potential threat or important social cue would be more detrimental than a false positive", "heuristics\" article (1980). \"Beautiful-is-familiar\" effect Psychologist Benoît Monin reports a series of experiments in which subjects, looking at photographs of faces, have to judge whether they have seen those faces before. It is repeatedly found that attractive faces are more likely to be mistakenly labeled as familiar. Monin interprets this result in terms of attribute substitution. The heuristic attribute in this case is a \"warm glow\"; a positive feeling towards someone that might either be due to their being familiar or being attractive. This interpretation has been criticised, because not all the variance in familiarity is accounted for by the", "when I walk down the street, to have men looking at me and speculating about me. I hate to hear them say, \"That’s Tittell Brune\" and I feel their eyes boring into my back when I’m past. It makes me feel common and I loathe it. If I can’t disguise myself I’ve got to put up with it. But that kind of publicity revolts me. It really does, because I am religious - I’m half a nun. Later career Minnie Tittell Brune’s five-year sojourn in Australia ended in 1909. She decided to try her luck in London, but met with", "a group with a whole bunch of different people. So far, we’ve seen that there’s a guy with no eyes, and there’s a woman who now is covered in thorns. And as in the X-Men world, there are a handful of people who look more like them, but a lot of them turn out to be just attractive people with powers. And we thought, “Hey, let’s have some of those as well!” We were looking for a new character to come on, and Luke just really impressed us. He was a good actor, had a nice quality, and we felt", "saw anyone who looked like us that was on TV. And that was really weird for me because there's so many people of South Asian descent in America – in the world. I didn't want to be this stereotype of what Indian people are usually seen as in global pop culture. We don't just have to be Apu from The Simpsons.\" After being given all 26 pilot scripts which ABC was filming for the 2015–2016 television season, she chose Quantico. Despite having appeared in over 50 films, she was required to audition for the first time, which she found nerve-wracking.", "are a little dark.\" As an example, Gates used the fact that she reads \"Howl\" by Allen Ginsberg at a reading to the elderly program.\nEichler said, \"Apparently everyone, with the exception of a very few people who were hit on the head when they were very young, felt like they were outsiders. You either identify with her as an outsider or you sort of envy her ability to navigate her life as an outsider and stay sane.\" John J. O'Connor, a television critic for The New York Times, said \"In short, Daria is the perfect anti-Barbie Doll. Merchants of fashion", "a writer in Hollywood.\" Albinism and fiction A number of movies, books and other works have been criticized for albino bias, as they associate the uncommon features of albinistic people (pale skin, white hair, and unpigmented eyes) with danger, terror, or criminality. Less frequently they are depicted as the harmless butt of jokes and ridicule, as maladjusted and undersocialized, or as \"freaks\". They may also actually be portrayed positively, even heroically – a more recent counter-trend.\nIn the 2012 Canadian movie war witch (rebelle) by Kim Nguyen, telling the story of a runaway child soldier in West Africa and an", "children. These youngsters are formulating their attitudes and maybe they come away feeling that any woman who dares to accomplish something is the incarnation of self-centeredness and greed. And that would be very unfortunate, especially for young girls.\n Parker and Stone created the second season episode \"Spookyfish\" in response, where they took a picture of Streisand's head, placed the image into all four corners of the screen and called it \"Spooky vision\".\nLeonard Maltin was complimentary about \"Mecha-Streisand\", and told Parker and Stone his children particularly enjoyed his portrayal in the episode. Regarding his appearance, Robert Smith had claimed that nothing", "faces are painted black to humiliate them. Some groups conduct marriages of different animals like goat and dog, or dog and horse, to symbolise that the love displayed on this day is fake.\nBetween February 3 and 15, 2010, Pune police proscribed \"gathering in groups and disturbing peace, playing drums or any other music systems loudly, showing of affection in ways that tantamount to obscenity, throwing colours under influence of alcohol, disturbing peace in public places and obstructing traffic, doing vulgar acts in schools, colleges and encouraging anti-social activities\" to be under Section 144 of the CrPC (unlawful assembly) in all", "show that nearly symmetrical faces are considered highly attractive compared to unsymmetrical ones, yet more specifically, people tend to find a face unattractive if a person has an unsymmetrical nose, and effect of unsymmetrical lips do not really affect people on judging attractiveness.\nThe most conspicuous directional asymmetries are sometimes only temporary. For example, during speech, most people (76%) tend to express greater amplitude of movement on the right side of their mouth. This is most likely caused by the uneven strengths of contralateral neural connections between the left hemisphere of the brain (linguistic localization) and the right side of the", "in one eye and her strange looks mean she is occasionally bullied. After she runs away to Vancouver and is brought back by the police, Shannon begins to search for her birth parents, encountering Vaughn along the way.\nWith help from a social worker Shannon is able to contact a man she believes is her biological father, Harrison Church. After contacting him by letter, Shannon learns that she was born the day after her half-brother, Eugene, died after ingesting a mixture of cough-syrup and cocaine while Harrison and her mother, Yula, were off getting high in the woods. Yula abandoned her", "in which subjects, looking at photographs of faces, have to judge whether they have seen those faces before. It is repeatedly found that attractive faces are more likely to be mistakenly labeled as familiar. Monin interprets this result in terms of attribute substitution. The heuristic attribute in this case is a \"warm glow\"; a positive feeling towards someone that might either be due to their being familiar or being attractive. This interpretation has been criticised, because not all the variance in the familiarity data is accounted for by attractiveness. Evidence The most direct evidence, according to Kahneman, is a 1973", "around the store. It is setting an example that the woman then becomes a normal person as all media has lost interest in her now that they have found someone else with an even more \"Pretty Face\".", "and choosing whether to continue looking at it, or to look elsewhere. Where more than one person is involved, looking may lead to eye contact between those doing the looking, which raises further implications for the relationship established through that act. Looking versus seeing \"Looking\" and \"seeing\" are traditionally contrasted in a number of ways, although their usage often overlaps. Looking can be characterized as \"the action precedent to seeing\". Any kind of looking or viewing actually implies \"seeing\" certain things within the range of view, while not \"seeing\" others, because they are unimportant at the moment. Thus, things that" ]

[ "There are a lot of effects on the human body from being in space. Micro gravity affects your muscles and bones, there are weird particles that pass through your body (including your eyes and brain, which cause [strange flashes](_URL_0_)). It's hard to study the long-term effects of being in space, though, because everyone is a little different. Are your bones deteriorating because of the microgravity, or is it because of genetic predisposition for osteoporosis?\n\nThis is true of any study that attempts to look at long-term effects of something. To account for as many variables as possible the best subjects to use for those studies are twins. Because they're genetically identical, you know that whatever genetic predispositions they have will affect both. So in this case, if they *both* get weaker bones, you know that it's not *just* the microgravity. But if one gets weaker bones and the other doesn't, then you know it's something to do with being in space (or not, as the case may be). \n\nHowever, with astronauts you have another problem: you can't just take a random twin and put them in space. You need a *lot* of specialized training to be an astronaut, obviously. And you can't even just train one. The rigorous training and strictly controlled diet of astronauts are variables that could affect the outcomes of the study. This astronaut has stronger bones than his non-astronaut twin, but is that because of his diet that includes a lot of calcium, or strength training that went into being an astronaut?\n\nConveniently, NASA has one set of twin brothers that are both astronauts! They've both had very similar experiences as part of NASA. One is spending a year on the ISS, the other is staying on the ground but also getting the same diet and exercise regimen - basically as much as they can keep the same with him on the ground. They'll study the differences between the two astronauts to study long-term effects of being in space.\n\nThis is an important study because going to Mars would require longer space missions than we've done in the past. No one has stayed in space that long, really, and we haven't had good opportunities to study them and the effects of that. So they're doing this study to better understand what we need to prepare our astronauts for if we're going to successfully send a team to Mars.", "I'm reading Scott Kelly's book (*Endurance*) now, about his time in space. He's the twin who spent a lot of time in space at the ISS--recently spent a year, previously spent months at a time, including a 6-month stretch some years ago. Mark Kelly is the twin who has stayed on earth. While he's flown 4 space shuttle missions, they were each around a week long only. He's married to Gabby Giffords and brother Scott was in space when Giffords was shot. Anyway, in addition to /u/RhynoD 's great answer, I'll add that there hasn't been a lot of data yet. So far they've seen that Scott has lost bone mass and muscle strength. He got taller in space due to lack of gravity compressing him, but within a few days he went back to same height as Mark. He suffered a lot of issues re-adjusting to gravity when he came back, such as blood pooling in his legs, rashes kind of like bedsores, and some vision problems. Those are the acute differences, and after a period of adjustment they tend to go away. So now they're looking at long-term differences, and that will take time to assess. So those findings are pending over time. For example, being in space increases your risk of cancer. Both twins got prostate cancer at the same young age--mid-40s. But only time will tell if Scott's heart was permanently damaged, or if his bone loss is going to be serious as he gets older, etc." ]

[ "2018, some 10,000 pages had been released but were heavily redacted and inconclusive.\nThe Neubauer study differed from most twins studies in that it followed the twins from infancy. However, the debate about whether nature or nurture has a greater impact on human development continues. The documentary Three Identical Strangers, which told the story of three male triplets who were also part of the study and found one another at age 19, noted that although much was made of superficial similarities among the three, their personalities were significantly different because they were raised by parents with profoundly different personalities and child-rearing", "gas chromatograph to detect them. This view has been put forward by the designer of the LR experiment, Gilbert Levin, who believes the positive LR results are diagnostic for life on Mars. He and others have conducted ongoing experiments attempting to reproduce the Viking data, either with biological or non-biological materials on Earth. While no experiment has ever precisely duplicated the Mars LR test and control results, experiments with hydrogen peroxide-saturated titanium dioxide have produced similar results.\nWhile the majority of astrobiologists still conclude that the Viking biological experiments were inconclusive or negative, Gilbert Levin is not alone in", "the twins were conceived in another universe where different laws apply, they reach eighteen years of age in three days. To save their lives, Lister returns them to their universe for their father (the female Lister) to raise them. Kryten is described as being found in pieces after his space-bike crashed on an asteroid shortly after these events. Lister rebuilds Kryten (now played by Robert Llewellyn), although he is unable to recapture his former personality.\nAccording to backstory in \"Marooned\" (1989), Lister lost his virginity to Michelle Fisher at the age of twelve in one of the bunkers on the ninth", "at Michigan State University, the Washington State Twin Registry, a registry of twins produced by researchers at Washington State University, and the Minnesota Twin Registry project by researchers at the University of Minnesota related to the Minnesota Twin Family Study. The largest twin registry in the United States is the Mid-Atlantic Twin Registry (MATR) at Virginia Commonwealth University, which has more than 51,000 registered participants, with approximately 46,000 of these representing intact twin pairs.", "2015, Kelly co-wrote with Martha Freeman Astrotwins: Project Blastoff, a fictional story about twins Scott and Mark who build a space capsule in their grandpa's backyard and try to send the first kid into orbit. He dedicated this book to his real twin brother, astronaut Scott Kelly. The sequel, Astrotwins - Project Rescue, was published in 2016. Aerospace work Kelly is co-founder and strategic advisor of Tucson-based near-space exploration company World View Enterprises.\nOn March 28, 2012, SpaceX announced that Mark Kelly would be part of an independent safety advisory panel composed of leading human spaceflight safety experts. Political activism In", "The Focus Foundation Diagnosis of X & Y variations X & Y variations are common but frequently undiagnosed genetic conditions that differ from the normal sex chromosome pairings of XX for females and XY for males. Due to a chromosomal mistake that produces additional X or Y chromosome to the normal complement of 46, the resulting total of 47 chromosomes (or more) may impact a child's developing central nervous system and his or her body condition. Twenty babies born each day have an X & Y chromosomal variation, and only five will be diagnosed in their lifetime. Twenty percent of", "that she and Kroy were expecting their second child together. On August 15, 2012, they welcomed their second son, Kash Kade Biermann. It was announced on June 5, 2013, that the couple was expecting their third child together. It was then announced on August 19, 2013, that the couple was expecting a set of twins; the twins are the couples' third and fourth children - Zolciak's fifth and sixth. Zolciak announced that she gave birth to her twins on November 25, 2013. The girl is named Kaia Rose after one of Kroy's nieces, Kiah, and \"Psychic Rose\" - who Kim", "SN 2008ha Discovery SN 2008ha was co-discovered by Caroline Moore, Jack Newton and Tim Puckett, members of the Puckett Observatory World Supernova Search. The 14-year-old Moore received considerable attention for her role in the discovery because at the time, she was the youngest person to have discovered a supernova. Moore is currently majoring in Political Science at Georgetown University. She was born and raised in Warwick, NY. To make the discovery she spent almost 7 months sifting through Puckett Observatory Supernova Search (POSS) images. Incredibly, she made her discovery using a relatively small, low-powered telescope.\nIn July 2009, she discovered her", "service missions. It also launched the Ulysses probe and three TDRS satellites. Twice Discovery was chosen as the \"Return To Flight\" Orbiter, first in 1988 after the loss of Challenger in 1986, and then again for the twin \"Return To Flight\" missions in July 2005 and July 2006 after the Columbia disaster in 2003. Project Mercury astronaut John Glenn, who was 77 at the time, flew with Discovery on STS-95 in 1998, making him the oldest person to go into space.\nHad plans to launch United States Department of Defense payloads from Vandenberg Air Force Base gone ahead, Discovery would have", "Michigan Twins Project (MTP) is an ongoing, population-based study of roughly 20,000 same-sex male, same-sex female, and opposite sex twins between the ages of 3 and 25 years old. The primary purpose of this study is to investigate genetic and environmental influences on a range of physical and mental health variables, as well as to compile a database of twin families in Michigan interested in participating in future twin research. Hormones and Behavior Across the Menstrual Cycle The MSUTR study of Hormones and Behavior across the Menstrual Cycle is an ongoing study that will include a total of 590", "NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars.\nOn 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results, from the Astronaut Twin Study, where one astronaut twin spent a year in space on the International Space Station, while the other twin spent the year on Earth, which demonstrated several long-lasting changes, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other. Physiological effects Many of the environmental conditions experienced by humans during spaceflight are very different from those in which humans evolved; however, technology", "still unclear, since NASA is considering early retirement of the ISS. Possible sources of UHECRs In November 2007, researchers at the Pierre Auger Observatory announced that they had evidence that UHECRs appear to come from the active galactic nuclei (AGNs) of energetic galaxies powered by matter swirling onto a supermassive black hole. The cosmic rays were detected and traced back to the AGNs using the Véron-Cetty-Véron catalog. These results are reported in the journal Science. Nevertheless, the strength of the correlation with AGNs from this particular catalog for the Auger data recorded after 2007 has been slowly diminishing.", "boson discovery in the summer of 2012, Berglund left CERN as the experiment facility was closing for an upgrade over the next two years. She married her physicist colleague Raoul Scherwitzl and the couple started to think about raising a family. After deciding to stop using the contraceptive pill, she began to analyse her body temperature in order to reveal the days when she was most fertile. \"I wanted to give my body a break from the pill,\" she explained, \"but I couldn't find any good forms of natural birth control, so I wrote an algorithm for myself.\" With her", "COROT-1b Discovery COROT-1b was identified as the best planetary candidate from the COROT spacecrafts initial run from February 6 to April 2, 2007. Follow-up photometry with the Wise Observatorys 1.0 m telescope and at the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope eliminated many of the possible false positives for the transit signal. 9 radial velocity measurements of COROT-1 were made at Haute-Provence Observatory in March–April and October 2007 with the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph. The radial velocity data matched the COROT light curve and supported the planetary nature of COROT-1b and eliminated other possibilities such as background stars, grazing eclipsing binaries, or a triple system.\nThe", "Twin registry A twin registry is a database of information about both identical twins and fraternal twins, which is often maintained by an academic institution, such as a university, or by other research institutions. Investigative use The use of twins can improve the statistical power of a genetic study by reducing the amount of genetic and/or environmental variability. \"Identical twins\" (monozygotic (MZ) twins) share virtually all their genes with each other, and \"fraternal twins\" (dizygotic (DZ) twins), on average, share about 50% of their genes with each other (about the same amount of sharing as non-twin siblings). Both types of", "to find that they have the same date of birth, so she reaches out to her potential twin via Facebook. Plot The film opens with Futerman explaining to the audience that she wants to share the crazy story that happened to her a few days previously. It introduces her family and explains that she received a friend request on Facebook from a stranger, and when she looks at the account's profile picture she sees her own face looking back at her. She accepts the friend request, and receives a message from Bordier hinting strongly that they may be twins and", "the conjunction ended the \"primary science phase\" began.\nOn November 17, 2006 NASA announced the successful test of the MRO as an orbital communications relay. Using the NASA rover Spirit as the point of origin for the transmission, the MRO acted as a relay for transmitting data back to Earth. Timeline On September 29, 2006 (sol 402), MRO took its first high resolution image from its science orbit. This image is said to resolve items as small as 90 cm (3 feet) in diameter. On October 6, NASA released detailed pictures from the MRO of Victoria crater along with the Opportunity rover on", "year the twins are born.\nBack to present day Al-Shifa , one night, Yash talks about his girlfriend. Sikander reveals that in Beijing he fell in love with a girl named Jessica (Jacqueline Fernandez) who severed ties with him. Shamsher's childhood friend Brijmohan (Rajesh Sharma) tells him that his friend's hotel was used by politicians for their lascivious motives where all the activity was captured on a spy video camera and stored on a hard disk. The hard disk was kept at a bank's locker in Cambodia. Shamsher appoints Sikander for the recovery of the hard disk, and he promises him", "meet. That evening, they both speak to Dr. Segal over Skype who confirms it is beyond doubt that they are identical twins. The film documents their further experiences, including Bordier's visit to Futerman in California, and the twins' subsequent trip to Seoul for the International Korean Adoptee Associations Conference. All along, they have pursued their birth mother, who denies having the twins. At the end, they compose a message to this woman, to thank her for giving them life. Impact The movie first premiered on March 15, 2015 at the South by Southwest Film Festival, where the film was", "2008. That study also found that it was probably triggered by the merger of two white dwarf stars. Announcement The discovery that G1.9+0.3 had been identified as the youngest known Galactic SNR was announced on May 14, 2008 at a NASA press conference. In the days leading up to the announcement, NASA said that they were going \"to announce the discovery of an object in our Galaxy astronomers have been hunting for more than 50 years.\" Before this discovery, the youngest-known Milky Way supernova remnant was Cassiopeia A, at about 330 years.", "by the ISS camera system), he helped the Imaging Team discover the two smallest known moons of the Saturn system in 2004: Methone and Pallene.", "born in 1886–1925, those born in 1926–58, and those born in 1959–90. More recently, STR researchers have contacted and screened twins born from 1959 to 1985. Over 25,000 of these twins were later enrolled in the Study of Twin Adults: Genes and Environment (STAGE), which was the first STR-based study to use an online questionnaire.", "originally identified the first XX male, Albert de la Chapelle, and geneticist Jean Weissenbach to show that XX males carry a small piece of the Y chromosome.\nIn the following year, he reported that the gene ZFY induced the development of the testes, a finding which received a great deal of media attention since it putatively resolving a decade-long search for the sex-determining gene. In 1989, a British team of scientists led by Peter Goodfellow and Robin Lovell-Badge began to report that the testis-determining gene was not ZFY, which led Page to review his data. Page found that he had misinterpreted", "Voyager, and Viking. History Cassini–Huygens's origins date to 1982, when the European Science Foundation and the American National Academy of Sciences formed a working group to investigate future cooperative missions. Two European scientists suggested a paired Saturn Orbiter and Titan Probe as a possible joint mission. In 1983, NASA's Solar System Exploration Committee recommended the same Orbiter and Probe pair as a core NASA project. NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) performed a joint study of the potential mission from 1984 to 1985. ESA continued with its own study in 1986, while the American astronaut Sally Ride, in her", "in 1947, whilst Jordan and Creeth were both working outside the UK. However commemorations in 2010 and 2017 at the University of Nottingham posthumously acknowledged all their contributions, as did The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix (2012).\nThere has been some speculative debate as to whether, if these events had turned out differently, the Nottingham team might have gone on to make the DNA decoding discovery themselves. Family In 1924 he married Ruth Madeline Ida Russell, daughter of Sir James A. Russell. She was a fellow chemistry student whom he met in Edinburgh. They had two daughters.\nHis sister Flora Gulland married", "\"head\" area of Scorpius and includes two globular clusters, Messier 4 and Messier 80, and part of the Scorpius–Centaurus Association, which is only about 11 million years old and 120–140 parsecs (380–470 ly) distant with probably over 1,000 members.\nOn December 18, 2014, NASA announced that the K2 mission had detected its first confirmed exoplanet, a super-Earth named HIP 116454 b. Its signature was found in a set of engineering data meant to prepare the spacecraft for the full K2 mission. Radial velocity follow-up observations were needed as only a single transit of the planet was detected.\nDuring a scheduled contact on April", "share on average half their genes, just as non-twin siblings do), Segal is the only researcher known to study \"virtual\" or \"pseudo\" twins. These are two people less than nine months apart in age but with different biological parents, who are raised together from infancy. Her studies in progress show a modest degree of similarity in virtual twins for general intelligence and special mental abilities.\nSegal sees great promise in a related new area of research, epigenomics, which refers to natural chemical modifications that take place in individual genomes, marking them for increased or decreased activity.\nOver the years, Segal has", "interactions with these scientists is the overwhelming strength of this very human story\". Brown also wrote, \"By the end of this engaging book, the discovery of such a twin feels so close that you can almost taste the slightly alien water on the tip of your tongue.\"\nPublishers Weekly praised the book, stating that it \"offers readers an informal and accessible view into the work\" of the 'exoplaneteers'. Kirkus Reviews ran a positive review as well. The publication described the book as a \"solid overview of the cutting edge of astronomy and of the new breed of astronomers who are exploring", "asking her for more details of her birthplace. The two women then text back and forth and agree to speak to each other on Skype. After the two women experience their first video call, they can confirm that they do in fact bear a striking resemblance to each other, and from that point set out to prove whether they are sisters, and furthermore if they are in fact twins.\nFuterman visits twin expert Dr. Nancy Segal and the two women take DNA samples together while using Skype. A trip to London is organized and using friends as buffers, the women finally", "close friends. Back on New-Gen, Gabriel and Thea observed the twins as they grew older and matured. The decision to send them to Earth is a source of constant conflict between the couple, even prompting Thea to leave Gabriel for a brief time. Visions of the Battle As they got older, Sean began having nightmares about a man they didn't recognize, which Chris dismisses as merely bad dreams. Unbeknownst to them, the dreams were actually visions and the man was Deadalus as he transformed into the demonic Sly through the use of the microbots he found in the underworld. When" ]

[ "It helps to understand the barter system. \n\nBefore we had money, you would travel to a central trading post a few times a year to get things you couldn't make yourself. You would haul things with you to trade - maybe a stack of animal pelts, or jars of jam, or sacks of wheat flour. You would negotiate with the people at the trading post to get what you needed - six pelts for a sack of salt, two dozen jars of jam for a bolt of cotton cloth. Each person had valuable goods, and they traded that value.\n\nA problem happens when you can't easily trade for what you need. A shoemaker is a very useful guy to have around, but he can't really trade a whole pair of shoes every time he wants to buy a meal. If I was an innkeeper who needed boots, I might make him a deal for credit - we might agree one sturdy pair of boots is worth 30 meals. The Innkeeper might keep a ledger saying who has meals coming to make sure it stays fair.\n\nStill, the Innkeeper's ledger doesn't do the shoemaker much good if his roof is leaking. The shoemaker needs to trade with someone to repair the roof, which is fine if the repairman needs boots. If not, maybe the shoemaker could trade the repairman his credit for 10 meals at the Inn? If he can pass his credit to the repairman, then everybody gets what they want.\n\nThis is a basic kind of money - it's backed by the Innkeeper, who says that the credit is worth a meal. It's worth hanging onto even if you don't plan to eat at the Inn, because you can trade it to other people for goods or services. That way, you can trade with someone even if you don't have anything to trade that they want.\n\nEventually, it doesn't matter if the Innkeeper even provides the meals anymore. People use the credits as markers for trade - 3 credits for a pelt, 2 jars of jam for a credit. Nobody eats at the Inn, so the money is only backed by what people agree it's worth. As long as everyone is free to negotiate, the credit is still worth exactly what people believe it is worth.", "Lets think about this. Every day, millions of people get into metal boxes, accelerate to speeds of 60 miles an hour, and drive toward one another. The only thing that keeps everyone alive? a line of yellow paint. \n\nThe rules of a society have value, they are things that we can rely upon. Given how easily they are actually broken it's shocking that things do not go badly more often.\n\nSo to money. money has value because the government says it does. The government issues debt in exchange for money, and it is the debt of the government that backs the money in circulation. Note that this sounds super fucked up, but it's how it actually works. \n\nBut money works for day to day transactions because people have come to find that the barter system of transactions sucks donkey balls. We need a universal item of exchange that allows us to buy and sell things in a sensible manor. It does not matter what that unit of exchange is, as long as it is scarce, and not easily replicated. \n\nGold worked for a while, but we actually need way more money then we have gold. So someone had an idea why don't we pass 2 laws. The first making it illegal to copy our money. The second outlawing other kinds of money. Then we just make some paper and call it money. At first people thought this was a stupid idea. But it's the law so lets give it a try. It worked, as long as people accept it then money has value no matter what it is \"worth\"\n\nSo to answer your question. Money works because it works, if one day is stops working then it won't work anyone and we'll all be fucked. Because no one wants to be fucked then money is not likely to stop working any time soon.", "It facilitates trade.\n\nI want apples, but have oranges.\n\nYou want oranges, but want bananas.\n\nJim wants bananas and has apples.\n\nNone of us can make a deal we want by dealing one-to-one, we'd all have to be together at the same time and value the fruit identically.\n\nMoney let's us do one-to-one deals and sequentially get the stuff we want.", "Let's say I make beds for a living and you grow apples. \n\nMaybe I want to make some apple pie, but you already have beds in your house so you don't need any more. \n\nOr you want a bed but I'm allergic to apples for some reason and can't eat them. \n\nIn both cases we can't trade but if we had money then we could just buy these goods from each other." ]

[ "In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, \"Money is what money does\" (\"Money is that money does\" in the original).\nAs a medium of exchange, money facilitates trade. It is essentially a measure of value and more importantly, a store of value being a basis for credit creation. Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange). Given a diverse array of produced goods and specialized producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double coincidence of wants as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book. Money can reduce the transaction cost of exchange because of", "money is the means for the movement and circulation of commodities. Money assumes the measure of value of a commodity, i.e. the socially necessary labor-time. The repetition of this process constantly removes commodities from their starting places, taking them out of the sphere of circulation. Money circulates in the sphere and fluctuates with the sum of all the commodities that co-exist within the sphere. The price of commodities varies by three factors, namely \"the movement of prices, the quantity of commodities in circulation, and the velocity of circulation of money\". (c) Coin and the Symbol of Value Money takes the", "the point that money is instrumentally valuable because its value lies in what one obtains by means of it – in this case, the money is a means to getting an apartment and a sports car and the value of making this money dependent on the price of these commodities.\nEpicurus identifies the good life with the life of pleasure. He understands eudaimonia as a more or less continuous experience of pleasure and, also, freedom from pain and distress. But it is important to notice that Epicurus does not advocate that one pursue any and every pleasure. Rather, he recommends a", "Moneyness In finance, moneyness is the relative position of the current price (or future price) of an underlying asset (e.g., a stock) with respect to the strike price of a derivative, most commonly a call option or a put option. Moneyness is firstly a three-fold classification: if the derivative would have positive intrinsic value if it were to expire today, it is said to be in the money; if it would be worthless if expiring at the current price it is said to be out of the money, and if the current price and strike price are equal, it is", "money system.\nThe objective nature of money ultimately arises from the division of labor, in which the product is divorced from the worker's personality and work is treated as a commodity. Similarly, products are no longer tailored to the specific customer and do not reflect his personality, production tools are specialized to the point that the worker has little leeway in the way he operates the machines, and fashion changes so rapidly that nobody gets personally or socially attached to it. This state of affairs stands in contrast with the arts, which reflects the individuality of the author. Money can increase", "and money is the means to acquire it from any convenient source.\nThus the seller does not aim directly to satisfy the need of the buyer, nor does the buyer aim to enrich the seller. Rather, the buyer and the seller are the means for each other to acquire money or goods. As a corollary, production may become less and less a creative activity to satisfy human needs, but simply a means to make money or acquire access to goods and services. Richard Sennett provides a eulogy for the vanishing art of craftsmanship in capitalist society. As against that, products obviously", "a means of payment and is also used to store value, settle debts and transfer wealth. Thus, unlike the barter hypothesis of the comparative advantage theory, money is not a commodity like any other. Rather, it is of practical importance to specifically own money rather than any commodity. And money as a store of value in a world of uncertainty has a significant influence on the motives and decisions of wealth holders and producers. Using labour and capital to their full potential Ricardo and later classical economists assume that labour tends towards full employment and that capital is always fully", "is created as electronic money.\nIn most countries, the majority of money is mostly created as M1/M2 by commercial banks making loans. Contrary to some popular misconceptions, banks do not act simply as intermediaries, lending out deposits that savers place with them, and do not depend on central bank money (M0) to create new loans and deposits. Market liquidity \"Market liquidity\" describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money", "is, it can easily be exchanged for other goods and services. An individual's wealth is the total of all stores of value including both monetary and nonmonetary assets. Money as a store of value Monetary economics is the branch of economics which analyses the functions of money. Storage of value is one of the three generally accepted functions of money. The other functions are the medium of exchange, which is used as an intermediary to avoid the inconveniences of the coincidence of wants, and the unit of account, which allows the value of various goods, services, assets and", "Thomasian thought.\nSt. Thomas asserted that usury was a violation of natural moral law. All things are created for their natural end (Aristotle). Money is not an end but a means of buying goods and services. Putting money out for the generation of more money is an evil unto itself. The formal value of money is the face value. Yet usury allows this face value to fluctuate, and hence the value of money can be diminished, thereby robbing the person who has purchased the money for use. Money stands alone as a non-vendible substance which is degraded from its natural end", "the development of money (as a technology) created, as a side effect, a context for irrational accumulation of excess because it eliminated the burdensome aspects of object-wealth by making wealth abstract. In those eras when wealth was not abstract, plenitude had functioned as the organizing principle around its acquisition (i.e., wealth, measured in grains, lands, animals, to the point that one is satisfied, but not saddled with it). Money, which allows wealth to be conceived as pure quantity instead of quality, is an example of megatechnics, one which can spiral out of control. If Mumford is right in this conceptualization,", "which any single relation becomes less important and thus more impersonal. As a result, the individual experiences a sense of independence and self-sufficiency. There is another sense in which money is conducive to freedom, and it originates from the observation that the owner is truly entitled to its possessions only if he takes care of its upkeep and of making it bear fruits. Money is more flexible than land or other assets, and thus it frees the owner from those activities that are specific to real entities. Since monetary possessions no longer ties the owner to a specific type of", "by Juan de Medina and Martin de Azpilcueta in Salamanca, writing that \"[i]n equal circumstances, the more abundant money is in one place, so much less is its value to buy things or to acquire things that are not money.\"", "The Philosophy of Money The Philosophy of Money (1900) is a book on economic sociology by the German sociologist and social philosopher, Georg Simmel. Probably considered Simmel's greatest work, Simmel saw money as a structuring agent that helps us understand the totality of life. Money and value Simmel believed people created value by making objects, then separating themselves from those objects and then trying to overcome that distance. He found that objects that were too close were not considered valuable and objects that were too far away for people to obtain were also not considered valuable. What was also considered", "must be defined by the good itself. Money, for example, can be acquired by work and can also be obtained without work, and in turn both are different in many ways, but money still remains the same good. Knowledge, for example, is acquired differently according to talent and outward circumstances and therefore cannot be defined by the mode of acquisition. But nothing else can be said of eternal happiness than that it is the good that is attained by absolutely venturing everything. Any description of the gloriousness of this good is already an attempt, as it were, to make various", "how and why money has come to play such a central role in everyday life. Topics such as the neuroscience of money behavior and the archaeology of coinage are also examined from and anthropological and historical perspective. With regard to digital currencies such as Bitcoin, Seghal writes in Coined that it is unlikely they will gain traction as an alternative to the U.S. dollar given U.S. government's power to determine what is a currency.\nIn March 2015, Coined became a New York Times and Wall Street Journal best seller. The New York Times said of Coined, \"If you've been waiting for", "only reason to have money is to buy products. It would not be a mistake, in his view, to treat the economy as if it were a barter economy. To quote Say:\nNor is [an individual] less anxious to dispose of the money he may get ... But the only way of getting rid of money is in the purchase of some product or other.\nIn Keynesian terms, followers of Say's law would argue that on the aggregate level, there is only a transactions demand for money. That is, there is no precautionary, finance, or speculative demand for money. Money is held", "common, at least at the beginnings of the first agrarian societies, when humans used elaborate credit systems. Graeber proposes that money as a unit of account was invented the moment when the unquantifiable obligation \"I owe you one\" transformed into the quantifiable notion of \"I owe you one unit of something\". In this view, money emerged first as credit and only later acquired the functions of a medium of exchange and a store of value. Graeber's criticism partly relies on and follows that made by Michell A. Innes in his 1913 pamphlet \"What is money?\". Innes refutes the barter theory", "convert the money into goods via payment. According to proponents of modern money theory, fiat money is also backed by taxes. By imposing taxes, states create demand for the currency they issue. Medium of exchange When money is used to intermediate the exchange of goods and services, it is performing a function as a medium of exchange. It thereby avoids the inefficiencies of a barter system, such as the \"coincidence of wants\" problem. Money's most important usage is as a method for comparing the values of dissimilar objects. Measure of value A unit of account (in economics) is a", "saving it. When a currency loses its store of value, or more accurately when a currency is perceived to lose its future purchasing power, it fails to function as money. This causes people to use currencies from other countries as a substitute.\nAccording to the Cambridge cash-balance theory, which is represented by the Cambridge equation, money's ability to store value is more important than its function as a medium of exchange. Cambridge claims that the demand for money is derived from its ability to store value. This is contrary to Fisher economists' belief that demand arises because", " of a currency. Money has only one function in international trade, namely as a means of exchange to facilitate trade.\nIn practice, however, the velocity of circulation is not constant and the quantity of money is not neutral for the real economy. A capitalist world is not characterized by a barter economy but by a market economy. The main difference in the context of international trade is that sales and purchases no longer necessarily have to coincide. The seller is not necessarily obliged to buy immediately. Thus, money is not only a means of exchange. It is above all", "Commodity money Commodity money is money whose value comes from a commodity of which it is made. Commodity money consists of objects having value or use in themselves (intrinsic value) as well as their value in buying goods.\nThis is in contrast to representative money, which has little or no intrinsic value but represents something of value, and fiat money, which has value only because it has been established as money by government regulation.\nExamples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, salt, peppercorns, tea, large stones (such as Rai stones), decorated belts, shells, alcohol,", "western innovation of money:\nIf money were made of iron and could be converted into knives, axes and chisels there would be some sense in placing a value on it; but as it is, I see none. If a man has more yams than he wants, let him exchange some of them away for pork. [...] Certainly money is much handier and more convenient but then, as it will not spoil by being kept, people will store it up instead of sharing it out as a chief ought to do, and thus become selfish. [...] I understand now very well what", "preferred by those who wish to view money as a natural outgrowth of market activity. Others view the credit theory of money (money of account) as more plausible and may posit a key role for the state in establishing money. The Commodity theory is more widely held and much of this article is written from that point of view. Overall, the different theories of money developed by economists largely focus on functions, use, and management of money.\nOther theorists also note that the status of a particular form of money always depends on the status ascribed to it by humans and", "as a medium of exchange when it is retrieved. The value of the money must also remain stable over time. Some have argued that inflation, by reducing the value of money, diminishes the ability of the money to function as a store of value. Money supply In economics, money is any financial instrument that can fulfill the functions of money (detailed above). These financial instruments together are collectively referred to as the money supply of an economy. In other words, the money supply is the number of financial instruments within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. Since", "liabilities to be rendered in multiples of the same unit. Money is well-suited to storing value because of its purchasing power. It is also useful because of its durability.\nBecause of its function as a store of value, large quantities of money are hoarded. Money's usefulness as a store of value declines if there are significant changes in the general level of prices. So if inflation rises, purchasing power declines and a cost is placed on those holding money.\nWorkers who are paid in a currency which is experiencing high-inflation will prefer to spend their income quickly instead of", "Money tree (myth) Chinese legend has it that the money tree (搖錢樹) is a type of holy tree that can bring money and fortune to the people, and that it is a symbol of affluence, nobility and auspiciousness. It can be traced back to primitive societies when the adoration of a holy tree was prevalent. Whilst Money trees may be derived from the Sun tree myth associated with paradise, the coins link paradise with a material bounty in this world. According to the existing historical narratives, the concept of the \"money tree\" is derived at the latest from the Han", "as \"fiat money,\" money that is money not because it is backed by gold or silver, but because some government says it is money. He was Chairman of a House Ways and Means Subcommittee when the government was in danger of running out of money to pay for the war. He wrote a law that allowed the government to print money and declare it had to be accepted as legal tender.\nIn a biography of Cornelius Vanderbilt, titled The First Tycoon, T. J. Stiles wrote that Spaulding \"performed a true miracle: he conjured money out of nothing, and so contributed more", "valuable if it is good simply because of what it is. Intrinsic value is to be contrasted with instrumental value. An object, experience or state of affairs is instrumentally valuable if it serves as a means to what is intrinsically valuable. To see this, consider the following example. Suppose a person spends their days and nights in an office, working at not entirely pleasant activities for the purpose of receiving money. Someone asks them \"why do you want the money?\", and they answer: \"So, I can buy an apartment overlooking the ocean, and a red sports car.\" This answer expresses", "as a property inherent in the thing itself. It depends on the owner of the money, i.e., of the commodity in its continually exchangeable form, whether he wants to spend it as money or loan it out as capital. In interest-bearing capital, therefore, this automatic fetish, self-expanding value, money generating money, are brought out in their pure state and in this form it no longer bears the birth-marks of its origin. The social relation is consummated in the relation of a thing, of money, to itself. Instead of the actual transformation of money into capital, we see here only form" ]

[ "Bits of dust stick to the water or float through the air. The dust and water rubs against each other and every time they do, some electrons get passed from one to the other. Then the particles wander off again before the electrons get passed back. This goes on enough, and *tons* of electrons get thrown around until it builds up a very very large negative charge. The result is lightning: the charge gets explosively released. Sometimes this means from one section of cloud to another, or into the ground." ]

[ "charged particle (for example, an alpha or beta particle) interacts with the mixture, the fluid is ionized. The resulting ions act as condensation nuclei, around which a mist will form (because the mixture is on the point of condensation). Cloud seeding, a form of weather modification, is the attempt to change the amount or type of precipitation that falls from clouds, by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei, which alter the microphysical processes within the cloud. The usual intent is to increase precipitation (rain or snow), but hail and fog suppression are", "within storm clouds. In general, significant charge accumulations can only persist in regions of low electrical conductivity (very few charges free to move in the surroundings), hence the flow of neutralizing charges often results from neutral atoms and molecules in the air being torn apart to form separate positive and negative charges, which travel in opposite directions as an electric current, neutralizing the original accumulation of charge. The static charge in air typically breaks down in this way at around 10,000 volts per centimeter (10 kV/cm) depending on humidity. The discharge superheats the surrounding air causing the bright flash, and", "cloud droplet number, which in turn elevate the liquid water content of clouds and cloud area. This acts to increase cloud albedo, leading to greater reflection of incident sunlight, and a decrease in the forcing that initiated this chain of events. The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram. Note that the feedback loop can operate in the reverse direction, such that a decline in solar energy leads to reduced cloud cover and thus to an increase in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface.\nA significant feature of the chain of interactions described", "hand in hand to produce the megawatt outputs of lightning.\nAfter a cloud, for instance, has started its way to becoming a lightning generator, atmospheric water vapor acts as a substance (or insulator) that decreases the ability of the cloud to discharge its electrical energy. Over a certain amount of time, if the cloud continues to generate and store more static electricity, the barrier that was created by the atmospheric water vapor will ultimately break down from the stored electrical potential energy. This energy will be released to a local oppositely charged region, in the form of lightning. The strength of", "Wave cloud A wave cloud is a cloud form created by atmospheric internal waves. Formation The atmospheric internal waves that form wave clouds are created as stable air flows over a raised land feature such as a mountain range, and can form either directly above or in the lee of the feature. As an air mass travels through the wave, it undergoes repeated uplift and descent. If there is enough moisture in the atmosphere, clouds will form at the cooled crests of these waves. In the descending part of the wave, those clouds will evaporate due to", "Cloud physics show that if a cloud does not contain enough humidity, the water vapour contained inside the cloud will only condense at a higher level, where the temperature of the ascending parcel reaches its saturation point. This will consequently dry out the cloud from the base and eventually result in its disappearance if this dry air does not condense below the cloud top.\nConversely, if the air surrounding the cloud is nearly saturated and a thick, unstable (or conditionally unstable) layer exists above the initial cloud, convection will be able to continue. Then a tower, that will become wider and", "water vapour will eventually condense to form a cloud if the parcel rises above the lifted condensation level. As the water vapour condenses, it releases its latent heat of vaporization, thereby increasing the buoyancy of the parcel.\nThe updraft is amplified by this latent heat release. Although the process that causes this amplification happens above cloud base height, the effect is often noticeable as much as 300 m (1,000 feet) below cloud base. In fact, it is this effect below cloud base, not the effect within the cloud, that is generally referred to by pilots as cloud suck. The telltale signs", "formed at the leading edge while being eroded at the trailing edge. Showers or thunderstorms may develop in its wake. In the front of the cloud, there is strong vertical motion that transports air up through the cloud and creates the rolling appearance, while the air in the middle and rear of the cloud becomes turbulent and sinks. The cloud quickly dissipates over land where the air is drier.\nThe cloud can also be described as a solitary wave or a soliton or an undular bore, which is a wave that has a single crest and moves without", "hydrogen bonds in the cell wall structure, making the cell walls less rigid. In addition, increased proton pump activity leads to more solutes entering the plant cells on the dark side of the plant, which increases the osmotic gradient between the symplast and apoplast of these plant cells. Water then enters the cells along its osmotic gradient, leading to an increase in turgor pressure. The decrease in cell wall strength and increased turgor pressure above a yield threshold causes cells to swell, exerting the mechanical pressure that drives phototropic movement.\nA second group of genes, PIN genes, have been found to", "with electrostatic charge. The quartz fiber, having the same charge, is repelled by the surface of the electrode due to the coulomb force and bends away from the electrode. After charging, the charge remains on the electrode because it is insulated.\nWhen a particle of ionizing radiation passes through the chamber, it collides with molecules of air, knocking electrons off them and creating positively and negatively charged atoms (ions) in the air. The ions of opposite charge are attracted to the electrode and neutralize some of the charge on it. The reduced charge on the electrode reduces", "works studying the vortices. As he drives he is struck with an idea for \"blowing out\" a vortex. It is slightly technical (Smith explains it so it can be easily followed), but the general idea is that Cloud's brain works so fast that he can calculate exactly where the center of the vortex will be at a moment in time and how big an explosive is needed, then hit it with a bomb that is set at the exact strength to actually extinguish the vortex instead of blowing it apart and making more vortices.\nThis works, and it makes Cloud a", "question is how large the induced charges are. The movement of charges is caused by the force exerted on them by the electric field of the external charged object, by Coulomb's law. As the charges in the metal object continue to separate, the resulting positive and negative regions create their own electric field, which opposes the field of the external charge. This process continues until very quickly (within a fraction of a second) an equilibrium is reached in which the induced charges are exactly the right size to cancel the external electric field throughout the", "polar, resulting in a net attractive force toward a nearby free charge. The result is a misty cloud-like formation, seen by the presence of droplets falling down to the condenser. When the tracks are emitted radially outward from a source, their point of origin can easily be determined. (See Fig. 3, for example.)\nJust above the cold condenser plate there is a volume of the chamber which is sensitive to ionization tracks. The ion trail left by the radioactive particles provides an optimal trigger for condensation and cloud formation. This sensitive volume is increased in height by employing a", "Coronal cloud Effects A magnetic cloud (as it is now termed) can travel toward Earth at speeds that can exceed 7,000,000 miles (11,000,000 km) per hour. On average, it usually takes them about 13½ hours to reach Earth. The cloud hurtling through space is called a solar wind. As many as five can be ejected from the Sun during solar maximum. When they reach the Earth, the large amounts of radioactive and electric energy can temporarily disrupt or even destroy electrical grids, antennae, communications devices, electric appliances, and near anything electric. Minor damage may also be done to living organisms due", "moves through a cloud of smaller objects, the gravitational effect of the larger object pulls the smaller objects towards it. There then exists a concentration of smaller objects behind the larger body (a gravitational wake), as it has already moved past its previous position. This concentration of small objects behind the larger body exerts a collective gravitational force on the large object, slowing it down.\nOf course, the mechanism works the same for all masses of interacting bodies and for any relative velocities between them. However, while the most probable outcome for an object moving through a cloud is a loss", "the channel walls, the charge-neutrality of the liquid is violated due to the presence of the electrical double layer: a thin layer of counterions attracted by the charged surface.\nThe transport of counterions along with the pressure-driven fluid flow gives rise to a net charge transport: the streaming current. The reverse effect, generating a fluid flow by applying a potential difference, is called electroosmotic flow.", "air as well. Water vapor in the air condensed as a result of a Prandtl-Glauert singularity, making a spherical cloud that marked the location of the shock wave. Water filling the cavity formed by the bubble caused a hollow column of water, called the chimney or plume, to rise 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in the air and break through the top of the cloud. A series of ocean surface waves moved outward from the center. The first wave was about 94 ft (29 m) high at 1,000 ft (300 m) from the center. Other waves followed, and at further distances some of these were higher than", "the charged surfaces of the two phases repel each other enough to offset the attractive forces of the Hamaker Force Interactions. This creates a potential energy well at some distance, where the particles are in a local area of stability despite not being directly touching and therefore coalescing. However, since this is an area of local rather than total low potential, if any set of particles can randomly have enough thermal energy they can coalesce into an even more stable state, which is why all macroemulsions gradually coalesce over time.\nWhile it is energetically favorable for individual particles to", "apoplastic solute potentials, forming a electrical gradient across the plasma membrane. The increase in turgor pressure causes the cells to expand, enabling the chloroplasts to shift to a different area, and the collective expansion of all the cells at once causes the leaf itself to become larger and more rigid. The movement of the chloroplasts enables light that was previously unobtainable to be reached and utilized. Wall extensibility Blue light hits a plant's leaves and causes the downstream activation of proton pumps. In turn, this results in a decrease of the cell wall's pH. The decrease, in conjunction with membrane-bound", "center of a large metal object with a large net charge, as happens in Kelvin's water dropper, relies on the same physics as in the operation of a van de Graaff generator.\nThe discussion above is in terms of charged droplets falling. The inductive charging effects occur while the water stream is continuous. This is because the flow and separation of charge occurs already when the streams of water approach the rings, so that when the water passes through the rings there is already net charge on the water. When drops form, some net charge is trapped on", "formed when SOₓ and NOₓ react with water, oxygen and oxidants within the clouds. In addition to SOₓ and NOx, the buffering capacity of soils and bedrocks within the freshwater ecosystem can contribute to the acidity of the water. Each freshwater reservoir has a capacity to buffer acids. However, with excess input of acids into the reservoir, the buffering capacity will essentially “run out” and the water will eventually become more acidic. Increase in atmospheric CO₂ affects freshwater acidity very similarly to the way rising CO₂ affects ocean ecosystems. However, because of the various carbon fluxes in freshwater", "to the low level radiation that gets through the magnetosphere.\nSpecific reasons as to why these clouds are dangerous to electronic and communication equipment include the overloading of large power transformers, which can cause lengthy power outages over wide geographical areas. Long, metallic structures like oil and gas pipes, water pipes, and communications antennae can also carry excessive electric current from the air, causing them to corrode faster than normal. This can possibly lead to early, unexpected ruptures. These signals also create anomalies in the ionosphere, disrupting wireless technologies such as GPS, cellular phones, television, and radio.", "energy into the magnetosphere. Both interactions increase plasma movement through the magnetosphere (driven by increased electric fields) and an increase in electric current in the magnetosphere and ionosphere.\nThe disturbance in the interplanetary medium that drives a storm may be due to a CME or a high speed stream (co-rotating interaction region or CIR) of the solar wind originating from a region of weak magnetic field on the solar surface. The frequency of geomagnetic storms increases and decreases with the sunspot cycle. CME driven storms are more common during the solar maximum of the solar cycle, while CIR-driven storms are", "downstream of large industrial areas.\nThe first indirect effect is also known as the Twomey effect. Sulfate aerosols can act as cloud condensation nuclei and this leads to greater numbers of smaller droplets of water. Lots of smaller droplets can diffuse light more efficiently than just a few larger droplets.\nThe second indirect effect is the further knock-on effects of having more cloud condensation nuclei. It is proposed that these include the suppression of drizzle, increased cloud height, to facilitate cloud formation at low humidities and longer cloud lifetime. Sulfate may also result in changes in the particle size distribution, which can", "cloud by volume is above the latter density. Prior to collapse, these clouds maintain their mechanical equilibrium through magnetic fields, turbulence, and rotation.\nMany factors may disrupt the equilibrium of a giant molecular cloud, triggering a collapse and initiating the burst of star formation that can result in an open cluster. These include shock waves from a nearby supernova, collisions with other clouds, or gravitational interactions. Even without external triggers, regions of the cloud can reach conditions where they become unstable against collapse. The collapsing cloud region will undergo hierarchical fragmentation into ever smaller clumps, including a particularly dense form known", "becoming weaker as one moves away from a charged particle, but the surface area also increases so that the net electric field exiting this particle will stay the same. In other words the closed integral of the electric field and the dot product of the derivative of the area will equal the net charge enclosed divided by permittivity of free space.", "Charge conservation In physics, charge conservation is the principle that the total electric charge in an isolated system never changes. The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge in the universe, is always conserved. Charge conservation, considered as a physical conservation law, implies that the change in the amount of electric charge in any volume of space is exactly equal to the amount of charge flowing into the volume minus the amount of charge flowing out of the volume. In essence, charge conservation is an accounting relationship", "total volume of liquid water per volume of air is increased twofold. In other words, this excessive cloud seeding from the ship causes the clouds to retain more water. Normally, rain forms when cloud drops coagulate and reach a size at which gravity can pull them to the ground. Yet, in ship tracks, the cloud seeding makes the drops so small that they can no longer easily merge to reach the size needed to escape. Since no drizzle comes out of the seeded clouds, the liquid water just keeps building in the cloud. This makes the cloud brighter and more", "services competitively while still creating profit. Users of public cloud services may find charge-back challenging because it is difficult for IT groups to assess actual resource costs on a granular basis due to overlapping resources within an organization that may be paid for by an individual business unit, such as electrical power. For private cloud operators, charge-back is fairly straightforward, but the challenge lies in guessing how to allocate resources as closely as possible to actual resource usage to achieve the greatest operational efficiency. Exceeding budgets can be a risk.\nHybrid cloud environments, which combine public and private cloud services, sometimes", "can lead to downward motion because lifting of the air results in cooling that increases its density. All of these effects are subtly dependent on the vertical temperature and moisture structure of the atmosphere and result in major redistribution of heat that affect the Earth's climate.\nThe complexity and diversity of clouds in the troposphere is a major reason for difficulty in quantifying the effects of clouds on climate and climate change. On the one hand, white cloud tops promote cooling of Earth's surface by reflecting shortwave radiation (visible and near infrared) from the sun, diminishing the amount of solar radiation" ]

[ "I *think* what you are taking about is a test from the book \"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep\" on which the film \"Blade Runner\" was based.\n\nIf so, the test aims to distinguish humans from androids ('replicants') through their emotional response to questions requiring empathy.\n\n_URL_0_", "I've met a few turtles and they all looooooved beaches and sun. So the answer is yes.", "Let me tell you something about my mother...", "Is this a question to test if I'm a replicant, or a lesbian, Mr. BoffyJ?" ]

[ "of a turtle (or honu) can be found on The Big Island of Hawaii in the Pu'u Loa lava fields. The green sea turtle (called Honu) has always held a special meaning for Hawaiians and this petroglyph shows its importance dating to possibly when the islands first became populated. The turtle symbolizes a navigator that can find his way home time after time. This symbol mirrors the real life of the green Hawaiian turtle as it will swim hundreds of miles to lay its eggs at its own place of birth. Though there are other myths as well, some Hawaiian", "Turtle Island (North America) Turtle Island is a name for the Earth or for land in North America (in whole or in part), used by many Native Americans and First Nations people and by Indigenous rights activists. Lenape The Lenape story of the \"Great Turtle\" was first recorded by Europeans between 1678 and 1680 by Jasper Danckaerts. The story is shared by other Northeastern Woodlands tribes, notably those of the Iroquois Confederacy. Iroquois According to Iroquois oral history, \"the earth was the thought of [a ruler] of a great island which floats in space [and] is a place of", "Turtle Bay, Oahu Turtle Bay is located between Protection Point and Kuilima Point on the North Shore of the island of O'ahu in the U.S. state of Hawaii.\nThe bay is named after the large number of green sea turtles that inhabit the area and who used to lay their eggs in the sand on the beach years ago. Geography and environment The area which is one of the last undeveloped areas on Oʻahu is recognized for its rock formations, wild coastal beaches, threatened green sea turtles and endangered Hawaiian monk seal habitats, whale spottings, traditional fishing areas, small local agricultural", "Turtle in Paradise Plot Turtle in Paradise takes place during the Great Depression. Turtle is an eleven-year-old girl living with her mother and cat, Smokey, who is sent to live with her aunt and cousins in Key West, Florida because her mother's new employer refuses to let Turtle and her cat stay in her house. Turtle says goodbye without a tear and heads off to live with relatives she's never met.\nWhen Turtle first arrives, her Aunt Minnie is shocked because she hadn't received her sister's letter about Turtle coming to live with her. Turtle's cousins are Beans, (the eldest, who", "turtles of all kinds are avid baskers, spending many hours during the day in the sun. When with other turtles, they also are very communal, sharing space and using each other for predator-watching, increasing the odds of surviving an attack. Ecology The false map turtle is a strong swimmer and prefers rivers and large creeks with moderate currents, containing aquatic vegetation, as well as snags or floating logs. They are also comfortable in deep and swift water. The turtles are present in oxbow lakes and sloughs, but are absent from lakes, ponds, or small streams. Basking is important to", "from any particular green external coloration of the turtle. Its name comes from the greenish color of the turtles' fat, which is only found in a layer between their inner organs and their shell. As a species found worldwide, the green turtle has many local names. In the Hawaiian language it is called honu, and it is locally known as a symbol of good luck and longevity. Description Its appearance is that of a typical sea turtle. C. mydas has a dorsoventrally flattened body, a beaked head at the end of a short neck, and paddle-like arms well-adapted for swimming.", "reaches the surface. Additionally, the skin covering the shell allows for a high rate of gas exchange. This enables the turtles to stay submerged for a long period of time. In this position, they often wait for prey to pass and utilize their long neck to capture their prey.\nThese turtles hibernate in the months of October to March. They hibernate by burying themselves in substrate underwater. After emerging from hibernation, these turtles are often found on land basking in the sun. Given that their shell is a soft shell, they are unable to stay in the sun for extended periods", "located in Sumalata Village (about 30km from Saronde Island), have been named a nature reserve since the Dutch colonial time in 1936. Four of the only seven species of turtles can be found in the islands, the world's best turtle habitat. They include Penyu Hijau (Chelonia midas), Penyu Sisik (Eretmochelys imbricata), Penyu Tempayan (Caretta caretta) and Penyu Belimbing (Dermochelys coriacea). In 2011, the habitat was threatened by human activities such as illegal poaching and fish bombing activities; furthermore a lot of coral reefs, which represent a source of food for turtles, have been damaged.", "some months to adjust to confinement. Observations indicate that they are omnivorous, favouring commercial turtle food, aquatic plants and they have been observed hunting small fish and crustaceans. They became active in the early morning and late evening, foraging for food, and moved about during the night. They were not observed to be keen on basking in the sun, but this may have been the result of being in a captive environment.\nKnown food sources of Philippine forest turtles in the wild include figs. Threats The Philippine forest turtle is an enigmatic freshwater turtle species, it exerts great fascination for", "for sea turtle scientists and their collaborators in 2000, the evidence for the taxonomic position of the Galápagos green turtle was reviewed and a majority among the participants supported treating it as a population or subspecies of the green turtle (instead of a separate species). However, this is possibly a case of political taxonomy.\nAs such the three major international checklists that cover turtles of the world Reptile Database the checklist of Fritz and Havas (2007) and the IUCN Checklist (TTWG 2017) all consider this a junior synonym. Habitat Green sea turtles move across three habitat types, depending on their", "a gigantic turtle\" In the Seneca language, the mythical turtle is called Hah-nu-nah, while the name for an everyday turtle is ha-no-wa. Indigenous rights activism and environmentalism The name Turtle Island is used today by many Native American and First Nations cultures, and activists, especially since the 1970s when the term came into wider usage.\nThe term has also become popular among non-Native environmental activists. American author and ecologist Gary Snyder uses the term to refer to North America, writing that it synthesizes both indigenous and colonizer cultures, by translating the indigenous name into the colonizer's languages (the Spanish \"Isla Tortuga\"", "Turtle shell The turtle shell is a highly complicated shield for the ventral and dorsal parts of turtles, tortoises and terrapins (all classified as \"turtles\" by zoologists), completely enclosing all the vital organs of the turtle and in some cases even the head. It is constructed of modified bony elements such as the ribs, parts of the pelvis and other bones found in most reptiles. The bone of the shell consists of both skeletal and dermal bone, showing that the complete enclosure of the shell probably evolved by including dermal armor into the rib cage.\nThe shell of the turtle is", "Waikapuna.\nThe threatened green turtle or honu (Chelonia mydas) feeds on marine plants in shallow waters along the coastline such as Punaluʻu. Red seaweed, a favorite food of the green turtle flourishes on the coral-encrusted rocks in the shallow waters of the bay and the turtles are found basking on the black sand beach despite the presence of beachgoers. Researchers with the National Marine Fisheries have been studying the green turtle since 1982 along with groups of students. Visitors must remain 15 ft (4.6 m) from the turtles at all times.\nThe endangered Hawaiian hoary bat, ʻopeʻapeʻa, (Lasirus cinereus semotus), is known to fly", "of turtle shaped fire pits for sacred fires. In some instances, rocks are aligned near the entrance and fire of sweat lodge ceremonies that symbolize the Moon, the Sun and other things. Rock piles are still made to mark trails and important locations. A large turtle petroform of piled up boulders was recently made in the Whiteshell Park area of Manitoba. Designs and purposes In some cases, petroforms were made by non-literate cultures who have left no written record of whatever reasons led them to construct these forms. Oral history was passed along by many native", "World Turtle The World Turtle (also referred to as the Cosmic Turtle or the World-bearing Turtle) is a mytheme of a giant turtle (or tortoise) supporting or containing the world. The mytheme, which is similar to that of the World Elephant and World Serpent, occurs in Hindu mythology, Chinese mythology and the mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The \"World-Tortoise\" mytheme was discussed comparatively by Edward Burnett Tylor (1878:341). India The World Turtle in Hindu mythology is known as Akupāra (Sanskrit: अकूपार), or sometimes Chukwa. An example of a reference to the World Turtle in Hindu literature is", "Green sea turtle Taxonomy The green sea turtle is a member of the tribe Chelonini. A 1993 study clarified the status of genus Chelonia with respect to the other marine turtles. The carnivorous Eretmochelys (hawksbill), Caretta (loggerhead) and Lepidochelys (Ridley) were assigned to the tribe Carettini. Herbivorous Chelonia warranted their status as a genus, while Natator (flatback) was further removed from the other genera than previously believed.\nThe species was originally described by Linnaeus in 1758 as Testudo mydas. In 1868, Marie Firmin Bocourt named a particular species of sea turtle Chelonia agassizii. This \"species\" was referred to as the \"black", "Turtle Islands, Sierra Leone The Turtle Islands are in the Atlantic Ocean, located west of Sherbro Island in the Southern Province of Sierra Leone. Of the eight islands, seven are inhabited. Sherbro is the predominant ethnic group. This eight-island archipelagos expands in a zone of 8 miles (13 km) over shallow waters and white sand banks. Yele, Bakie, Bumpetuk, Chepo, Hoong, Mut, Nyangei and Sei are the names of the islands. Economic activities Fishing is the main economic activity. Coconut products and tourism may contribute to the income in a lesser extent. Traditions Turtle Islands is a remote destination and the", "turtles are extremely light because they lack scutes and contain many fontanelles.\nIt has been suggested by Jackson (2002) that the turtle shell can function as pH buffer. To endure through anoxic conditions, such as winter periods trapped beneath ice or within anoxic mud at the bottom of ponds, turtles utilize two general physiological mechanisms. In the case of prolonged periods of anoxia, it has been shown that the turtle shell both releases carbonate buffers and uptakes lactic acid. Respiration Respiration, for many amniotes, is achieved by the contraction and relaxation of specific muscle groups (i.e. intercostals, abdominal muscles, and/or a", "means \"home of the turtles\" in Maya. It earned this name due to the numerous turtle nesting sites along the bays located in the Akumal area and due to the permanent presence of juvenile turtles in the sea grasses just off shore. Three species can regularly be found around Akumal. Local beaches are nesting grounds for two of these species: the Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) and the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas). There are juvenile Green Turtles feeding in the bays year round and sometimes Hawksbill Turtles (Eretmochelys imbricate) around the reef.\nAlthough Akumal itself is a very small town, there are", "The World on the Turtle's Back, explains the origin of the land in which a tree of life is described. According to the myth, it is found in the heavens, where the first humans lived, until a pregnant woman fell and landed in an endless sea. Saved by a giant turtle from drowning, she formed the world on its back by planting bark taken from the tree.\nThe tree of life motif is present in the traditional Ojibway cosmology and traditions. It is sometimes described as Grandmother Cedar, or Nookomis Giizhig in Anishinaabemowin.\nIn the book Black Elk Speaks, Black Elk, an", "in the waters around the islands. Many of the earliest visitors came to the Cayman Islands to capture the turtles as a source of fresh meat during long voyages. The Green Turtle is a national symbol displayed as part of the Coat of Arms of the Cayman Islands, which also forms part of the national flag of the Cayman Islands. The country's currency uses a turtle as the watermark in its banknotes. A stylised sea turtle nicknamed \"Sir Turtle\" is the mascot of the national airline Cayman Airways and is part of the livery of its aircraft.\nA ki' pohaku (petroglyph)", "Turtle Islands National Park (Malaysia) Selingan Island Only on Selingan are there chalets for overnight visitors, and those who wish to see the turtles laying eggs must stay overnight. A curious fact of the three islands is that turtles come ashore nightly, not only during certain seasons and thus one is virtually guaranteed to see them. During the peak season (October) up to 50 turtles come ashore to lay eggs.\nHowever, park rules and regulations are strictly enforced and visitors are not allowed on the beach from sunset to sunrise so as not to disturb the turtles. A ranger will call", "turtles basking in the sun, and would rather stay on dry land than in water. It is becoming quite popular as an exotic pet due to its crocodilian appearance and cheap price in the Philippines. Etymology The specific name, grayi, is in honor of British herpetologist John Edward Gray.", "beach furniture on the beach after daylight hours and not to do anything that would adversely affect marine turtle conservation.Despite the ban, an Indian fashion show with illumination and music was held well into the night on 10 December 2011, flouting the law and outraging environmentalists and locals.\nIn 2011 the turtles can hardly be seen because of urbanisation, light pollution and noise pollution. According to a recent study of international researchers Morjim\nwildlife is doomed and the village is expected to be the next Calangute maaakA.", "cartilaginea buries itself under mud to protect itself. It has minimal interaction with humans, and does not bond with them. Therefore, the Asiatic soft-shelled turtle would not make a suitable pet and subsequently has not been domesticated. Amyda cartilaginea does not have very good eye sight. Given its habitat (canals, streams, ponds), it has fuzzy vision.", "The Painted Turtle History The Painted Turtle was founded in 1999 by Paul Newman and Page and Lou Adler. The camp was conceptualized by Adler and soon was able to get Newman to sponsor it as a part of his Hole in the Wall Gang Camps. The camp got its name from the painted turtle, a widespread species found in most of the United States (but not native to California). Adler says, \"It's an animal that has a tough exterior and a soft interior, very much like these kids that we're serving.\" The camp opened its doors in the", "Turtle Conservancy Programs The Turtle Conservancy's in-country conservation strategies include habitat protection, restoration and stewardship, turtle and tortoise reintroduction and a fieldwork grant program. Geometric Tortoise - South Africa The Geometric Tortoise (Psammobates geometricus) is a small tortoise with a domed carapace and yellow and black radiating pattern. Fully grown, it reaches only five to six inches. In South Africa, the Turtle Conservancy, along with its partner organizations, has purchased 1,000 acres of the last remaining habitat for this critically endangered tortoise, creating the Geometric Tortoise Preserve. The TC has partnered with the Cape Province wildlife agency Cape Nature and", "for their shells. Tortoiseshell, a traditional decorative ornamental material used in Japan and China, comes from the carapace scutes of the hawksbill sea turtle. Ancient Greeks and ancient Romans processed sea turtle scutes (primarily from the hawksbill sea turtle) for various articles and ornaments used by their elites, such as combs and brushes. The skin of the flippers is prized for use as shoes and assorted leather goods.\nIn various West African countries, sea turtles are harvested for traditional medicinal use. People also eat sea turtle meat and eggs.\nThe Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped the sea and its animals. They", "all turtles. However, these pressures are generally more pressing on turtles of the sea, estuary or land, or already rare turtles. The painted turtle's high reproduction rates and its ability to survive in habitats affected by humans, such as polluted wetlands and artificially made ponds, have allowed it to maintain its range. In New England, the Turtle Conservation Project notes: \"Ironically, prime habitat has been created by fertilizer runoff, creating vegetation-clogged lakes; just what Painted Turtles like.\"\nOnly at the extremities of the Pacific Northwest is the turtle's actual range eroding. Even there, in Washington, the painted", "Palm Island, Grenadines Nature The island is a haven for wildlife and during 2015, 125 land turtles were introduced to replace the small population that was washed away by Hurricane Ivan in 2004. Although not indigenous, the vegetation is akin to Union Island where the turtles were sourced and they are released from nursery cages as soon as they grow past the size where they would be prey to the native land iguanas.\nOther wildlife easily seen are house geckos (Gekkonidae), ground and tree lizards, hermit crabs, land crabs (Coenobitidae). sea turtles are reputed to come ashore to lay eggs" ]

[ "A home equity loan is a loan that is based off the difference between the value of the house and the current balance of the primary mortage.\n\nIf you paid $50,000 for a house that's worth $75,000, you can get $25,000 in equity loans. Subsequently, if your house was worth $75K when you bought it and it's now worth $135K because reasons, you can now get that much more in your equity loan.\n\nIn theory, you don't have to wait at all to get a loan. If you sign on the dotted line for the $75K house for a $50K mortgage, you could turn right around that day and get a $25K equity loan. you just have to have the equity in the house to get the loan.", "To take a home equity loan, you need to have a significant enough chunk of equity in the house that you still have enough left in the house beyond what you borrow. \n\nSay you buy a house for $100k and put down the standard 20%. You probably couldn't borrow against that because that 20% is the baseline equity lenders want on a house. If the house rose in value to $150k, then you'd be able to borrow against that gain in equity (plus whatever gains you had by paying down the mortgage). So in reality, it's usually a few years after buying that one has enough equity to borrow against.", "You can think of equity as what would end up in your pocket if you sold your house and paid back your mortgage today. \n\nSuppose you just bought your house yesterday for 200k with a 20% (40k) down payment. If you sold it now, you'd probably get the same price. Now you have 200k, but you need to pay off the rest of your mortgage (160k) and you're left with 40k in your pocket. That's your equity, though in this case it's really just money you already had before you used it to make the down payment. \n\nNow suppose you bought your house 29 years ago for 100k on a 30-year mortgage. There is only 3k left on your mortgage. If you sold your house now for 200k, you'd end up with 197k in your pocket, so your equity in that situation is 197k. Some of that equity came from the fact that you now pretty much own an expensive asset (your house) and some came from the fact that the asset appreciated in value since the time you paid for it. \n\nA home equity loan then is essentially a promise to sell your house and give the proceeds to the bank. In return for making that promise, the bank gives you money now. You don't ultimately *have* to pay the bank back by selling your home. If you won the lottery or something, that money's just as good. However, the reason the bank is willing to loan you the money is because they know that if all else fails, you can sell your house to pay them back." ]

[ "Home equity line of credit Differences from conventional loans A HELOC differs from a conventional home equity loan in that the borrower is not advanced the entire sum up front, but uses a line of credit to borrow sums that total no more than the credit limit, similar to a credit card. HELOC funds can be borrowed during the \"draw period\" (typically 5 to 25 years). Repayment is of the amount drawn plus interest. A HELOC may have a minimum monthly payment requirement (often \"interest only\"); however, the debtor may make a repayment of any amount so long as it", "Home Owners' Loan Corporation Operations The HOLC issued bonds and then used the bonds to purchase mortgage loans from lenders. The loans purchased were for homeowners who were having problems making the payments on their mortgage loans \"through no fault of their own\". The HOLC then refinanced the loans for the borrowers. Many of the lenders gained from selling the loans because the HOLC bought the loans by offering a value of bonds equal to the amount of principal owed by the borrower plus unpaid interest on the loan plus taxes that the lender paid on the", "Secured loan A secured loan is a loan in which the borrower pledges some asset (e.g. a car or property) as collateral for the loan, which then becomes a secured debt owed to the creditor who gives the loan. The debt is thus secured against the collateral, and if the borrower defaults, the creditor takes possession of the asset used as collateral and may sell it to regain some or all of the amount originally loaned to the borrower. An example is the foreclosure of a home. From the creditor's perspective, that is a category of debt in which a", "Asset-based lending Asset-based lending is any kind of lending secured by an asset. This means, if the loan is not repaid, the asset is taken. In this sense, a mortgage is an example of an asset-based loan. More commonly however, the phrase is used to describe lending to business and large corporations using assets not normally used in other loans. Typically, these loans are tied to inventory, accounts receivable, machinery and equipment. Asset-based lending in this more specific sense is possible only in certain countries whose legal systems allow borrowers to pledge such assets to lenders as collateral for loans", "Wholesale mortgage lenders A wholesale mortgage lender is a bank or other lending institution that funds and sometimes services mortgage loans, but uses independent mortgage brokers for the initial interaction with the client, including the application process. The mortgage broker originates the loan, however, the funding of the loan as well as the decision on the creditworthiness of the loan is handled by the wholesale lender.\nThe name of the wholesale lender is typically appears on the loan documents, while the broker acts as an agent for the lender and collects a fee. Broker fees are sometimes collected by adding onto", "Mortgage law Participants and variant terminology Legal systems in different countries, while having some concepts in common, employ different terminology. However, in general, a mortgage of property involves the following parties. The borrower, known as the mortgagor, gives the mortgage to the lender, known as the mortgagee. Lender/mortgagee A mortgage lender is an investor that lends money secured by a mortgage on real estate. In today's world, most lenders sell the loans they write on the secondary mortgage market. When they sell the mortgage, they earn revenue called Service Release Premium. Typically, the purpose of the loan is", "Correspondent lender A correspondent lender originates, and unlike a mortgage broker, underwrites, and funds mortgage loan using their own funds. The initial loan is usually made in the name of the correspondent lender, and then after closing, the loan is either sold to a larger primary lender or on the secondary mortgage market.\nMany smaller credit unions make home loans as correspondents, selling the loan once the mortgage is complete. Some banks act like as correspondents, making mortgages in their own name, but later selling those notes to a larger institution. Correspondent lenders may, in some cases, continue to service the", "Home Loan is a home loan for Australian expatriates working overseas, earning an income in US or Hong Kong dollars but wishing to purchase an investment property in Australia. The loan is also transferable between properties. Personal loans HSBC personal loans provide the ability to borrow money when needed for a range of situations. Applications can be completed online, with quick approval and transfer of funds, along with fixed repayments. The HSBC personal loans were rated an expert’s choice by Mozo for Overall Value. Insurance HSBC Insurance products include general home and contents or landlord insurance, car insurance, life insurance", "loans. Mortgage bankers and brokers Mortgage bankers are companies or individuals that originate mortgage loans, sell them to other investors, service the monthly payments, and may act as agents to dispense funds for taxes and insurance.\nMortgage brokers present homebuyers with loans from a variety of loan sources. Their income comes from the lender making the loan, just like with any other bank. Because they can tap a variety of lenders, they can shop on behalf of the borrower and achieve the best available terms. Despite legislation that could favor major banks, mortgage bankers and brokers keep the market competitive so", "for the borrower to purchase that same real estate. As the mortgagee, the lender has the right to sell the property to pay off the loan if the borrower fails to pay.\nThe mortgage runs with the land, so even if the borrower transfers the property to someone else, the mortgagee still has the right to sell it if the borrower fails to pay off the loan.\nSo that a buyer cannot unwittingly buy property subject to a mortgage, mortgages are registered or recorded against the title with a government office, as a public record. The borrower has the right to", "Bridge loan Real estate Bridge loans are often used for commercial real estate purchases to quickly close on a property, retrieve real estate from foreclosure, or take advantage of a short-term opportunity in order to secure long-term financing. Bridge loans on a property are typically paid back when the property is sold, refinanced with a traditional lender, the borrower's creditworthiness improves, the property is improved or completed, or there is a specific improvement or change that allows a permanent or subsequent round of mortgage financing to occur. The timing issue may arise from project phases with different cash needs", "as the nominal beneficiary or mortgagee of record. This enabled lenders and investors to transfer mortgages without recording assignments in local recorders' offices and in turn avoided having to pay recording fees.\nIdeally, assuming a loan is properly paid back on time, a MERS loan needs only two documents to be recorded: the original mortgage or deed of trust naming Mortgage Electronic Registration Systems, Inc., and a reconveyance of the mortgage or deed of trust back to the borrower (thus merging legal and equitable title). If all entities along the way are MERSCORP Holdings, Inc. members, then all intermediate transfers", "Commercial mortgage-backed security Organization Commercial real estate first mortgage debt is generally broken down into two basic categories: (1) loans to be securitized (\"CMBS loans\") and (2) portfolio loans. Portfolio loans are originated by a lender and held on its balance sheet through maturity.\nIn a CMBS transaction, many single mortgage loans of varying size, property type and location are pooled and transferred to a trust. The trust issues a series of bonds that may vary in yield, duration and payment priority. Nationally recognized rating agencies then assign credit ratings to the various bond classes ranging from investment grade (AAA/Aaa through", "required as well. Loans are made on an LTV (loan to value) of 65% to 70%, to preserve sufficient equity in the property for the private lender in the event of default. Simultaneous closings A Simultaneous closing allows a home seller to offer owner financing on a property without having to hold any mortgage. On closing day, the property title is transferred to the buyer and the newly created (owner-financed) mortgage is sold to a note investor for cash, simultaneously. Subject-to A subject-to transaction is a creative finance technique where a buyer is able to take title to property", "repay the loan in question. However, a lender cannot trigger such a clause on the basis of circumstances of which it was aware at the time of the agreement [...] Finally, it is up to the lender to prove the breach.\nTherefore, a change will be material if it significantly affects the borrower's ability to repay the loan in question. Normally this is done by comparing borrower's accounts or other financial information then and now. Asset-backed positions Propriety securities like mortgages, charges, liens, pledges and retention of title clauses are financial positions which are collateralised using proprietary assets to mitigate the", "mortgages. Certain loan provisions, including prepayment penalties on some loans, and mandatory arbitration on all residential loans, are prohibited.\nThis section also defined a \"Qualified Mortgage\" as any residential mortgage loan that the regular periodic payments for the loan does not increase the principal balance or allow the consumer to defer repayment of principal (with some exceptions), and has points and fees being less than 3% of the loan amount. The Qualified Mortgage terms are important to the extent that the loan terms plus an \"Ability to Pay\" presumption create a safe harbor situation concerning certain technical provisions related to foreclosure.", "Direct lending Direct lending is a form of corporate debt provision in which lenders other than banks make loans to companies without intermediaries such as an investment bank, a broker or a private equity firm. In direct lending, the borrowers are usually smaller or mid-sized companies, also called small and medium enterprises, rather than large, listed companies, and the lenders may be wealthy individuals or asset management firms.\nPeer-to-peer lending networks such as crowdfunding are sometimes considered part of the direct lending market and lend to very small companies. However, most asset managers involved in direct lending will consider loans only", "Mortgage Credit Certificate Uses The MCC program is designed to help first-time homebuyers offset a portion of their mortgage interest on a new mortgage as a way to help homebuyers qualify for a loan. Because it is a tax credit and not a tax deduction, mortgage lenders will often use the estimated amount of the credit on a monthly basis as additional income to help the potential borrower qualify for the loan.", "Mortgage loan Mortgage underwriting During the mortgage loan approval process, a mortgage loan underwriter verifies the financial information that the applicant has provided as to income, employment, credit history and the value of the home being purchased. An appraisal may be ordered. The underwriting process may take a few days to a few weeks. Sometimes the underwriting process takes so long that the provided financial statements need to be resubmitted so they are current. It is advisable to maintain the same employment and not to use or open new credit during the underwriting process. Any changes made in the applicant’s", "Loan covenant A loan covenant is a condition in a commercial loan or bond issue that requires the borrower to fulfill certain conditions or which forbids the borrower from undertaking certain actions, or which possibly restricts certain activities to circumstances when other conditions are met.\nTypically, violation of a covenant may result in a default on the loan being declared, penalties being applied, or the loan being called. The legal provision in the loan agreement providing for the loan to be \"called\" is the \"Acceleration Clause\": once the buyer defaults, all future payments due under the loan are \"accelerated\" and deemed", "the mortgage bond. Certain standard forms, however, have been developed over the years.\nThe mortgage bond provides identification of the parties and property, and an unconditional acknowledgement of debt. As for the contractual aspects of the principal debt or obligation, mortgage bonds usually include clauses dealing with the repayment scheme, charges and the possibility of foreclosure, and also use and enjoyment of the mortgaged property, and maintenance and procedures.\nClauses not to be included are the forfeiture clause (pactum commissorium) and the summary execution clause (parate executie). The former provides that, if the mortgagor defaults, the mortgagee may keep the property for", "Pre-qualification (lending) Basic process The borrower is typically asked for their social security number or other identifier, together with proof of their employment, income and assets, which is weighed against the monthly payments being made on their current debts. This provides a general picture of their credit worthiness. Based on this initial information, a maximum loan amount will be determined according to a standard Debt-to-income ratio (DTI). Final approval of the loan will require a credit report from a credit bureau. Mortgage In a mortgage context, pre-qualification denotes a process that has not yet been underwritten by the lending", "on the borrower's balance sheet and as an asset (specifically, a receivable) on the lender’s balance sheet.\nIn some situations, the lender can actually repledge or sell the collateral the borrower used to secure the loan from the lender. In this instance, the borrower continues to recognize the receivables as an asset on the borrower's balance sheet, and the lender only records the liability associated with the obligation to return the asset.", "new Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection. The section focuses on standardizing data collection for underwriting and imposes obligations on mortgage originators to only lend to borrowers who are likely to repay their loans. Subtitle A—Residential Mortgage Loan Organization Standards A \"Residential Mortgage Originator\" is defined as any person who either receives compensation for or represents to the public that they will take a residential loan application, assist a consumer in obtaining a loan, or negotiate terms for a loan. A residential Mortgage Originator is not a person who provides financing to an individual for the purchase of 3 or", "that a mortgage contract consists of two documents: a deed of trust (which secures the property as collateral) and the promissory note (which indents the borrower to the lender), and determined that \"in the event that the mortgage loan somehow separates interests of the note and the deed of trust... with the deed of trust lying with some independent entity... the mortgage may become unenforceable.\"\nOn April 30, 2010, a Kansas appellate court in MERS, Inc. v. Graham, 44 Kan. App. 2d 547, 2010 WL 1873567, at **4-**5, interpreted Kesler to mean that MERS in fact does not have standing to", "to be by way of legal mortgage\", the debtor remains the legal owner of the property, but the creditor gains sufficient rights over it to enable them to enforce their security, such as a right to take possession of the property or sell it.\nTo protect the lender, a mortgage by legal charge is usually recorded in a public register. Since mortgage debt is often the largest debt owed by the debtor, banks and other mortgage lenders run title searches of the real estate property to make certain that there are no mortgages already registered on the debtor's property which might", "and dent loans, or open-ended home equity lines of credit (HELOC),which homeowners use as a method to consolidate debt. Credit card receivables Securities backed by credit card receivables have been benchmark for the ABS market since they were first introduced in 1987. Credit card holders may borrow funds on a revolving basis up to an assigned credit limit. The borrowers then pay principal and interest as desired, along with the required minimum monthly payments. Because principal repayment is not scheduled, credit card debt does not have an actual maturity date and is considered a nonamortizing loan.\nABS backed", "Loan origination Decisions and credit risk The mortgage business consists of a few people: the borrower, the lender, and sometimes the mortgage broker. The people that originate the loans are usually the mortgage broker or the lender. Depending if the borrower has credit worthiness, then he/she can be qualified for a loan. The norm qualifying FICO score is not a static number. Lender guidelines and mitigating factors determine this number. Recent changes in the market and industry have made stated-income and stated-asset loans a thing of the past and full income and asset documentation is now required from the majority", "the loan, since they are giving away certain property rights to the mortgagee, lender, or mortgage grantee. More recent wording simplifies this language with \"Borrower\" and \"Lender.\"\nThe records are kept in a centralized government office, usually at the county courthouse (in states with strong county governments such as Washington State or Massachusetts, the title on the door would be something like Registrar of Deeds or County Recorder); or in the municipal offices (in small states such as Connecticut, Vermont, and Rhode Island), often the title searcher must go to each individual town or county office to research the title.\nThe", "Platform Home Loans Platform Home Loans is the intermediary mortgage lending subsidiary of The Co-operative Bank. The current incarnation of the firm was launched in February 2003 following the merger of Britannia Building Society subsidiaries Platform Home Loans and Verso. The firm became part of the Co-operative Bank group when that firm merged with Britannia in 2009.\nThe firm was originally began trading in 1989 as the centralised mortgage lender of Bear Stearns Home Loans. In 1992 it became Platform Home Loans when it was sold to Lehman Brothers and in 1997 it was acquired by U.S. sub-prime lender The Money" ]

[ "An is used for words that start with a vowel sound.\n\nExamples,\n\nAn owl, an hour, an eight, an apple, an onion.\n\nA is used for all others.", "It has nothing to do with meaning. It has to do with how the word sounds. If a word starts with a vowel sound, you use 'an', otherwise, you use 'a'.\n\nNote this is how the word sounds, not how it's spelled. 'Unicorn' starts with a y sound, so you say 'a unicorn'. The h in 'honor' is silent, so you say 'an honor'." ]

[ "letters \"ā/a\" after the root word of the verb, it has to be replaced by the letters \"e/ē\" if the statement will be politely delivered. The letter \"e\" or \"ē\" stands for \"tābî\" which means \"please\" in English, or \"po\" in Tagalog.\nExample 1: \n\n\"iyəw\" is a root word that means \"grill\". \n\n\"iyəwən\" means \"grill it\". \n\n\"iyəwən mo\" roughly means \"you, grill it\". \n\n\"iyəwā\" is the shortcut of the command \"iyəwən mo\". \n\n\"iyəwē\" is the shortened polite form for \"iyəwən mo tābî\" (grill it please).\nExample 2: \n\n\"punas\" is a root word that means \"wipe\". \n\n\"punasan\" means \"wipe it\". \n\n\"punasan mo\" roughly", "Three letter rule Exceptions While many function words have more than two letters (and, she, were, therefore, etc.), the exceptions to the rule are rather two-letter content words. Only a few of these occur commonly in most texts: the words go (which also has a functional usage in the idiom going to do something), ox and, especially in American texts, ax.\nEnglish grammar is relatively flexible about converting words of one class to another, allowing verbal uses such as to up the ante or nominal uses such as the ins and outs. The verb forms be, am, is and do can", "one. It is also used to add visual stress on words in the same way English might use italics. In Dutch, some people use \"hé\" as a greeting, like \"hey\" or \"hi\". Emilian-Romagnol In Emilian, é is used to represent [e], e.g. récc [rekː] \"rich\". In Romagnol the same letter is used to represent [eː], e.g. lédar [ˈleːdar] \"thieves\". English In English, the e-acute has some uses, mostly in words of French origin, such as née, résumé, fiancée, sauté and coupé and names such as Beyoncé, Breneé, JonBenét, and Théo. Pokémon, the media franchise owned by Japanese corporation Nintendo, uses", "from the preposition \"an\"/\"on\" in Early Middle English and suggests that it arose from the loss of the -n from \"on\" in examples like \"hee set before his eyes king Henrie the eight with all his Lordes on hunting in his forrest at Windsore\" (Thomas Nashe, \"Unfortunate Traveller,\" 1594). Double nouns Some nouns are spoken in pairs, the first noun describing the seemingly redundant second noun, as in \"hound dog\", \"Cadillac car\", \"widow woman\", \"toad frog\", \"biscuit bread\", or \"rifle gun\". Pronouns and demonstratives \"Them\" is sometimes used in place of \"those\" as a demonstrative in both nominative and oblique", "been referred to previously. This is because in English, the word the acts as what is known as a definite article, meaning that a defined object or person is being spoken of. However, in the case of definite article usage in Tokelauan language, if the speaker is speaking of an item in the same manner as the English languages uses the, they need not to have referred to it previously so long as the item is specific. The same can be said for the reference of singular being. Because of the difference in grammatical ruling, although the definite article in", "them use the rounded vowel just noted, while others use a pronunciation closer to the Italian spelling, with a low central unrounded vowel, /ɑː/. \nA reasonable surmise for why \"faw\" and \"law\" were substituted for \"fa\" and \"la\" can be offered, based on the history of the English language. Until the twentieth century, English had no words ending in /ɑː/. Words ending in /ɔː/, however, have always been abundant (paw, caw, thaw, saw, Shaw, maw, law, raw, yaw, claw, draw, craw, McGraw, etc.). It is likely that speakers of pre-20th century English adapted the foreign syllables", "and in a few words ⟨ui⟩ (as in 'fruit'). It often has the sound /w/ before a vowel in the sequences ⟨qu⟩ (as in 'quick'), ⟨gu⟩ (as in 'anguish'), and ⟨su⟩ (as in 'suave'), though it is silent in final -que (as in 'unique') and in many words with ⟨gu⟩ (as in 'guard').\nAdditionally, the letter ⟨u⟩ is used in text messaging and internet and other written slang to denote 'you', by virtue of both being pronounced /juː/.\nOne thing to note is that certain varieties of the English language (i.e. British English, Canadian English, etc.) use the letter U in words", "article was never pronounced with a y sound even when it was so written. Indefinite article The indefinite article of English takes the two forms a and an. Semantically, they can be regarded as meaning \"one\", usually without emphasis. They can be used only with singular countable nouns; for the possible use of some (or any) as an equivalent with plural and uncountable nouns, see Use of some below. Distinction between a and an The form an is used before words starting with a vowel sound, regardless of whether the word begins with a vowel letter. This avoids the glottal", "word (e.g. gu`ól, pumuluyo`). In assimilated loanwords, \"O\" is used etymologically (e.g. \"ospital\" from Spanish \"hospital\", \"oro\" from Spanish). The rules on the usage of \"E\" and \"I\" follow a similar principle. In general, \"I\" shall be used to represent /i/ but borrowed words originally having an /e/ sound shall be spelled with an \"E\" (e.g. ahente, karne).\nIn representing the glides of /u/ and /w/, and /i/ and /y/, the vowels are dropped and w and y are used (e.g. pwede instead of puwede, sya instead of siya, kwento instead of kuwento).\nIn addititon, the grave accent (`) is used for", "A is essentially a variable which can be replaced with a grammatical particle such as a modal, adverb, adjective, verb, or preposition. Patterns In Mandarin, there are 6 attested patterns of A-not-A: A-not-A, AB-not-AB, A-not-AB, AB-not-A, a-not-A, and a-not-AB of which \"A\" stands for the full form of the predicate, \"B\" stands for the complement, and \"a\" stands for the first syllable of a disyllabic predicate. A-not-A form Example (3) illustrates that A-not-A pattern, where A is the verb qu 'go', and qu bu qu is 'go not go'.\n (3) 你 ", "I English In Modern English spelling, ⟨i⟩ represents several different sounds, either the diphthong /aɪ/ (\"long\" ⟨i⟩) as in kite, the short /ɪ/ as in bill, or the ⟨ee⟩ sound /iː/ in the last syllable of machine. The diphthong /aɪ/ developed from Middle English /iː/ through a series of vowel shifts. In the Great Vowel Shift, Middle English /iː/ changed to Early Modern English /ei/, which later changed to /əi/ and finally to the Modern English diphthong /aɪ/ in General American and Received Pronunciation. Because the diphthong /aɪ/ developed from a Middle English long vowel, it is called \"long\" ⟨i⟩", "\"after\" followed by the participle: \"I am after buying a newspaper\" to mean \"I have [just] bought a newspaper\", although this construction is more common in Irish English. Some speakers use the simple past in situations where standard English would require \"have\" plus verb constructions, for example \"France? I was never there\" rather than \"I have never been there\".\nThe diminutive -ag is sometimes added to words and names, and is a direct lift from Gaelic, e.g. Johnag, Jeanag. It is still used in Caithness as well. A great variety of distinctive female names are formed using the -ina suffix", "use of \"ï\" in naïve in English.\nAlso a silent \"u\" always follows a \"q\" when followed by \"e\" or \"i\", as in queso, química, but there is no case for the combination \"qü\", with \"cu\" fulfilling this role (as in cuestión). There are no native words in Spanish with the combination \"qua\" nor \"quo\"; again, \"cu\" is used instead (cuando). When they appear, usually from Latin idioms such as statu quo, the \"u\" is always pronounced, so \"ü\" is never needed after \"q\". Prior to the introduction of the 2010 Common Orthography words such as cuórum ('quorum'), cuásar ('quasar') or", "respectively in British English. Centring is an interesting example, since, according to the OED, it is a \"word ... of 3 syllables (in careful pronunciation)\" (i.e., /ˈsɛntərɪŋ/), yet there is no vowel in the spelling corresponding to the second syllable (/ə/). The OED third edition (revised entry of June 2016) allows either two or three syllables. The three-syllable version is listed as only the American pronunciation of centering on the Oxford Dictionaries Online website. The e is dropped for other derivations, for example, central, fibrous, spectral. However, the existence of related words without e before the r is not", "pronouns used in this way have caused dispute. Some grammarians have argued and persuaded some educators that the correct answer should be \"I\" or \"It is I\" because \"is\" is a linking verb and \"I\" is a predicate nominative, and up until a few centuries ago spoken English used pronouns in the subjective case in such sentences. However, since English has lost noun inflection and now relies on word order, using the objective case me after the verb be like other verbs seems very natural to modern speakers. The phrase \"It is I\" historically came from the Middle English", "a word is used to show that the word will end in the same way as the following. Consequently, the two words would be Rinderkennzeichnungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz and Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz.\nThis is the official short title of the law; its full name is Gesetz zur Übertragung der Aufgaben für die Überwachung der Rinderkennzeichnung und Rindfleischetikettierung, corresponding to Law on delegation of duties for supervision of cattle marking and beef labeling. Most German laws have a short title consisting of a composite noun.\nWords as long as this are nowhere near as common in German. When the law was proposed in the state parliament, the members", "with pan). See Weak and strong forms in English. Etymology An is the older form (related to one, cognate to German ein; etc.). Usage The principles for use of the indefinite article are given above under § Use of articles.\nIn addition to serving as an article, a and an are also used to express a proportional relationship, such as \"a dollar a day\" or \"$150 an ounce\" or \"A sweet a day helps you work, rest and play\", although historically this use of \"a\" and \"an\" does not come from the same word as the articles. Juncture loss In a process", "can be used to mean \"to be called\", like the Dutch heten, it is less commonly used for that purpose, hence \"what is your name?\" and \"my name is John\" would be wat is jou naam? and my naam is Johan, rather than hoe heet jy? (\"how are you called?\") and ek heet Johan. By contrast, Dutch would use hoe heet je? and ik heet John.\nIn Afrikaans, heet is used to mean \"to be said\", for example, soos dit heet (\"as it is claimed\") or, as in Dutch, \"to bid\", as in ek heet jou welkom (\"I bid you welcome\"", "noun–verb distinction both graphically and phonetically (where the pronunciation is -/s/ for the noun and -/z/ for the verb). For licence/license or practice/practise, British English also keeps the noun–verb distinction graphically (although phonetically the two words in each pair are homophones with -/s/ pronunciation). On the other hand, American English uses license and practice for both nouns and verbs (with -/s/ pronunciation in both cases too).\nAmerican English has kept the Anglo-French spelling for defense and offense, which are defence and offence in British English. Likewise, there are the American pretense and British pretence; but derivatives such as defensive, offensive, and", "As well as Fortran, \"=\" is used for assignment in such languages as C, Perl, Python, awk, and their descendants. But \"=\" is used for equality and not assignment in the Pascal family, Ada, Eiffel, APL, and other languages.\nA few languages, such as BASIC and PL/I, have used the equals sign to mean both assignment and equality, distinguished by context. However, in most languages where \"=\" has one of these meanings, a different character or, more often, a sequence of characters is used for the other meaning. Following ALGOL, most languages that use \"=\" for equality use \":=\" for assignment,", "exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.\n\"A\" is used as a prefix on some words, such as asymmetry, to mean \"not\" or \"without\" (from Greek).\nIn English grammar, \"a\", and its variant \"an\", is an indefinite article.\nFinally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere.", "is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word or root-for-root translation. For example, the English phrase to lose face is a calque from the Chinese \"丟臉/丢脸\".\nA subcategory of calques is the semantic loan, that is, the extension of the meaning of a word to include new, foreign meanings.", "Nonce word A nonce word (also called an occasionalism) is a lexeme created for a single occasion to solve an immediate problem of communication. \nSome nonce words may acquire a fixed meaning inferred from context and use, possibly even becoming an established part of the language, at which point they stop being nonce words, while others are essentially meaningless and disposable and are useful for exactly that reason. For instance in child language testing, examples of such words include \"wug\" and \"blicket\". Lexicology The term is used because such a word is created \"for the nonce\" (i.e. for the", "typically ends in -(e)st (e.g., \"thou goest\"; \"thou do(e)st\"), but in some cases just -t (e.g., \"thou art\"; \"thou shalt\"), although in some dialects of Old English (mainly in the North), this verb form ended in -s, hence the Quaker habit of using what looks like the third person form of the verb with \"thee\" as the subject (paralleling the usage of \"you\").\nOriginally, thou was simply the singular counterpart to the plural pronoun ye, derived from an ancient Indo-European root. In Middle English, thou was sometimes abbreviated by putting a small \"u\" over the letter thorn: þͧ. Starting in the", "Å The letter Å (å in lower case) represents various (although often very similar) sounds in several languages. It is a separate letter in Swedish (where it is also the Swedish word for \"small river\" as well as the word \"on\" in certain phrases), Danish, Norwegian, Finnish, North Frisian, Walloon, Chamorro, Lule Sami, Skolt Sami, Southern Sami, and Greenlandic alphabets. Additionally, it is part of the alphabets used for the Alemannic and the Austro-Bavarian dialects of German.\nThough Å is derived from an A, with an overring, it is considered a separate letter. It developed as a form of semi-ligature", "edition of the Oxford English Dictionary and the use of the word in English goes back to the 14th century, appearing as a forename in Piers the Plowman. Quite early on it was used as a name for a peasant or \"a man of the lower orders\". It continued the low class connotations in phrases such as \"jack tar\" for a common seaman, \"every man jack,\" or the use of jack for the knave in cards. The diminutive form is also seen in \"Jack of all trades, master of none\", where Jack implies a poor tradesman, possibly", "Ampersand Etymology The word ampersand is a corruption of the phrase \"and per se & (and)\", meaning \"and by itself and (represented by the symbol &)\".\nTraditionally, when reciting the alphabet in English-speaking schools, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself (\"A\", \"I\", and, at one point, \"O\") was repeated with the Latin expression per se (\"by itself\"). This habit was useful in spelling where a word or syllable was repeated after spelling; e.g. \"d, o, g—dog\" would be clear but simply saying \"a—a\" would be confusing without the clarifying \"per se\" added. It was also", "definiens.\nThe definiens is not the meaning of the word defined, but is instead something that conveys the same meaning as that word.\nThere are many sub-types of definitions, often specific to a given field of knowledge or study. These include, among many others, lexical definitions, or the common dictionary definitions of words already in a language; demonstrative definitions, which define something by pointing to an example of it (\"This,\" [said while pointing to a large grey animal], \"is an Asian elephant.\"); and precising definitions, which reduce the vagueness of a word, typically in some special sense (\"'Large', among female Asian elephants,", "once they would have been \"for aught (that) I know\".)\nHowever, \"aught\" and \"ought\" are also sometimes used as names for 0, in contradiction of their strict meanings. The reason for this is a rebracketing, whereby \"a nought\" and \"a naught\" have been misheard as \"an ought\" and \"an aught\".\nSamuel Johnson thought that since \"aught\" was generally used for \"anything\" in preference to \"ought\", so also \"naught\" should be used for \"nothing\" in preference to \"nought\". However, he observed that \"custom has irreversibly prevailed in using 'naught' for 'bad' and 'nought' for 'nothing'\". Whilst this distinction existed in his time, in", "(些), making zhèxiē (这些; 這些, \"these\") and nàxiē (那些, \"those\"). Noun phrases The head noun of a noun phrase comes at the end of the phrase; this means that everything that modifies the noun comes before it. This includes attributive adjectives, determiners, quantifiers, possessives, and relative clauses.\nChinese does not have articles as such; a noun may stand alone to represent what in English would be expressed as \"the ...\" or \"a[n] ...\". However the word yī (一, \"one\"), followed by the appropriate classifier, may be used in some cases where English would have \"a\" or \"an\". It is also" ]

[ "It's usually not noticeable unless you sniff harshly, but one nostril is usually more open and free-flowing than the other. \n\nThe nostril that's closed usually swaps back and forth after several hours throughout the day. When a nostril is more closed, it's swollen, because the blood vessels inside the nose are swollen. \n\nDuring that time, your immune system attacks all the nasty stuff that came into your nose. It's harder to breathe when that happens. But your other nostril is wide open and maximum air comes in. \n\nThis combination of having one closed nostril and one open nostril is a super efficient way for your body to both clean the nasties and breathe full air at the same time. If it was all just 1 nostril, then every few hours you would have difficulty breathing. \n\nAir breathed through the nostrils are combined in the back and flow into both longs. One nostril does not lead into one lung.", "It is assumed that it has something to do with the Nasal Cycle. Having two Nostrils allows more efficiency for your Immune system. Excluding when you have colds, at least one nostril is always open for airflow. Although not as noticeable unless you have a cold, your Immune system has the ability to \"Clean\" up the Nose's air filter while still having the ability to breathe through one nostril.\n\nPerhaps it may also be related to the sense of smell, we have two of our major sensory organs such as eyes and our ears. Having two may better detect/locate smells." ]

[ "short, narrow snout that comes to a squared-off beak tip. The caniniform process of the maxilla is short and directed anteriorly so that the tusks point somewhat forward as well as down, and sits entirely in front of the eyes. The upper jaw is completely toothless apart from these two tusks. The interorbital region between the eyes is narrow, and so the large orbits are characteristically directed upwards. The nostrils are large, occupying approximately 1/3 of the snout's surface, and sit low at the front of the snout above the short and fused premaxillae. The nasal bones near the front", "the nostrils were elliptical and were directed downward and outward, unlike in all other known ankylosaurids where they faced obliquely forward or upward. Additionally, the nostrils were not visible from the front because the sinuses were expanded to the sides of the premaxilla bone, to a larger extent than seen in other ankylosaurs. Large loreal caputegulae—strap-like, side osteoderms of the snout—completely roofed the enlarged opening of the nostrils, giving a bulbous appearance. The nostrils also had an intranarial septum, which separated the nasal passage from the sinus. Each side of the snout had five sinuses, four of which expanded into", "nostril is located much nearer to the end of the snout than to the eye. The interorbital space is broader than the upper eyelid. The eardrum measures about three-fourths the diameter of the eye.\nThe fingers are barely webbed, and the toes are two-thirds webbed. The disks of fingers and toes are moderately developed; that of the third finger measures two-fifths to one-half the diameter of the eye. The subarticular tubercles are of moderate size. When the hind leg is held alongside the body, the tibiotarsal articulation reaches the eye, or between the eye and the tip of the snout. Distribution", "The snout is short and slightly flattened, with a blunt tip. The eyes are horizontally oval and protected by rudimentary nictitating membranes; behind are spiracles of moderate size. The large nostrils are mostly covered by broad, triangular flaps of skin on their anterior margins, leaving small incurrent and excurrent openings. The nasal flaps reach the mouth, obscuring a pair of broad grooves connecting the excurrent openings and the mouth. The long, angular mouth has very long furrows at the corners extending onto both the upper and lower jaws. The small teeth have a narrow central cusp flanked by 1–2 cusplets", "the species’ skull. Evolutionary significance Kenichthys is important to the study of the evolution of tetrapods due to the nature of its nostrils. Most non-tetrapod vertebrates (e.g. actinopterygians) possess two sets of nostrils, one set at either end of the nasal cavity, and both sets of which are external. These nostrils play no part in respiration, instead serving an olfactory role. However, in all crown group tetrapods and many stem tetrapods one set of nostrils is found exteriorly, and another interiorly, in the roof of the palate. This arrangement means that the nasal passage leads from the outside", "Catarrhini Description The technical distinction between the New World platyrrhines and Old World catarrhines is the shape of their noses. The platyrrhines (from Ancient Greek platu-, \"flat\", and rhin-, \"nose\") have nostrils which face sideways. The catarrhines (from Ancient Greek kata-, \"down\", and rhin-, \"nose\") have nostrils that face downwards. Catarrhines also never have prehensile tails, and have flat fingernails and toenails, a tubular ectotympanic (ear bone), and eight, not 12, premolars, giving them a dental formula of: .\nMost catarrhine species show considerable sexual dimorphism and do not form a pair bond. Most, but not all, species live in social", "noted that in modern reptiles, the presence of bulbous, enlarged, and uplifted nasal bones can be correlated with fleshy horns and knobby protuberances, and that Brachiosaurus and other sauropods with large noses could have had ornamental nasal crests.\nIt has been proposed that sauropods, including Brachiosaurus, may have had proboscises (trunks) based on the position of the bony narial orifice, to increase their upward reach. Fabien Knoll and colleagues disputed this for Diplodocus and Camarasaurus in 2006, finding that the opening for the facial nerve in the braincase was small. The facial nerve was thus not enlarged as in elephants, where", "length, and is two-thirds as wide as it is long. The snout is short and rounded. The large nostrils are preceded by small, triangular flaps of skin that do not reach the wide mouth. The medium-sized eyes are horizontally oval, equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids), and followed by moderate spiracles. There are no grooves between the nostrils and the mouth. There are furrows extending from the corners of the mouth over the lower jaw only. The small teeth have a long central cusp typically flanked by two pairs of cusplets. The five pairs of gill slits are", "the nostrils. The rostral is very large, extending posteriorly as far as the eyes. The portion of the rostral visible from above is broader than long. The nasals are semidivided, the suture proceeding from the first upper labial. One preocular is present, which is narrower than the nasal or the ocular, and in contact with the second upper labial. There are four upper labials. The eye is distinct, below the suture between the ocular and the preocular. The prefrontal is much larger than the supraoculars and the parietals, which are larger than the body scales. The diameter of the body", "standards). It also had two nares (nostril holes). While paired nares are standard in most reptile groups, almost all other choristoderes (except Lazarussuchus) typically have one single hole in the skull for the nostrils, making Coeruleodraco's retention of paired nares a plesiomorphic (\"primitive\") feature relative to most other choristoderes. In common with other choristoderes, Coeruleodraco has elongated prefrontal bones which meet each other at the top of the snout, separating a pair of small, triangular nasal bones in the process. The nasals are so reduced in size (especially compared to Philydrosaurus) that they are completely surrounded by the prefrontals and", "they entered Europe \nMiquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said the \"high and narrow nose of Eskimos\" and \"Neanderthals\" is an \"adaption to a cold and dry environment\", since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the \"recovery of heat and moisture from expired air\". Neoteny Stephen Jay Gould has noted that larger noses are less neotenous, especially the large Grecian nose. Women have smaller noses than men due to not having increased secretion of testosterone in adolescence. Smaller noses, along with other neotenous features such as large eyes and full", "while drinking. Nostril function The bony nasal openings of neosauropods like Brachiosaurus were large and placed on the top of their skulls. Traditionally, the fleshy nostrils of sauropods were thought to have been placed likewise on top of the head, roughly at the rear of the bony nostril opening, because these animals were erroneously thought to have been amphibious, using their large nasal openings as snorkels when submerged. The American paleontologist Lawrence M. Witmer rejected this reconstruction in 2001, pointing out that all living vertebrate land animals have their external fleshy nostrils placed at the front of the bony nostril.", "the nasal openings. Nostrils are oval and surrounded by a narrow raised rim. The spines are very slightly curved and alternate long (5 to 7 mm) and short (2 to 3 mm), 47 or 48 spines on either side of the snout. There is a pair of barbels located on either side of the snout. The mouth itself is slightly arched.\nThe upper jaw teeth are in 36 rows and the bottom jaw teeth are shaped similarly but in 32 rows.P. nudipinnis is within the same range as P. schroederi. The eyes are large in comparison to overall size, about two times the", "of the snout. Most aquatic stegocephalians have their lateral lines dip, unbroken, under the nostrils once they reach the tip of the snout, or alternately disconnect into separate grooves separated by the nostrils. However, colosteids evolved a unique alternative; their lateral lines droop below the nostrils so far that they contact the marginal teeth, so that the edge of the skull is responsible for subdividing the grooves, rather than the nostrils.\nThe mandibular fangs were larger than the palatal ones, though those on the palate were still large. Colosteids were unique compared to most stegocephalians in the fact that a pair", "meet evenly. Nostrils are usually small and crescent shaped. They typically have narrow but deep chests, with the front legs leaving the body fairly close together. When viewed from the front, the front legs join the chest in an \"A\" shape rather than straight across as in most other modern breeds that have wider chests. The withers are usually sharp instead of low and meaty. The croup is sloped, and the tail is characteristically set low on the body. From the rear view they are usually \"rafter hipped\" meaning the muscling of the hip tapers up so", "a small, reduced foramen between the septomaxilla and maxilla, understandable given the strength needed to pierce prey with such large canines. The external nares (nostrils) are large, and positioned more on the anterior facing plane of the snout than they are lateral facing, bringing them closer together on the front edge of the snout. Teeth Beginning with the teeth on the most mesial/rostral end of the upper jaw, first are the incisors; each premaxilla, shallowly curving, houses six. The incisors are enlarged and laterally compressed, described as having a bell-shaped cross-section. Their external surfaces, on the mesial (facing cheek)", "The upper lip has a number of heavy bristles and surrounds the nose, with numerous folds and small projections along its edge. The snout is raised upwards, while the remainder of the skull is relatively flattened. The incisor teeth are reduced in size, but have a complex shape with two or three lobes.\nThe wing membranes reach the ankles of the bat, which are also attached to a large uropatagium, with the short tail emerging near the middle of the upper surface. The wings are long and narrow, normally a feature that enables rapid flight. Because of the small size of", "a broadly rounded snout no longer than the width of the mouth. The nostrils are preceded by barely developed flaps of skin. The medium-sized, circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids). The mouth has very short, subtle furrows at the corners and contains 13-15 (typically 14) tooth rows on either side of both jaws. The upper teeth are distinctively broad, triangular, and slightly oblique with strong, coarse serrations, while the lower teeth are narrower and upright, with finer serrations. The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long.\nThe large pectoral fins measure around one-fifth as long as", "with a flattened upper portion. The nasal horncore was quadrangular in overall shape and was placed relatively far back on the snout. The naris (bony nostril opening) was different from other ceratopsids in being tall, relatively narrow from front to back, and distinctly ellipse-shaped (rather than near-circular), with a pronounced hindward inclination. The narial strut of the premaxilla (that extended from the bottom of the nasal cavity to the top) was also inclined hindward, a feature also seen in Anchiceratops and Arrhinoceratops, and the narial process that projected backwards and up from the premaxilla was a triangular prong.\nThe region around", "in water.\nAll but the most primitive caecilians have two sets of muscles for closing the jaw, compared with the single pair found in other creatures. These are more highly developed in the most efficient burrowers among the caecilians, and appear to help keep the skull and jaw rigid.\nAll caecilians possess a pair of tentacles located between their eyes and nostrils. These are probably used for a second olfactory capability, in addition to the normal sense of smell based in the nose.\nThe middle ear consists of only the stapes and the oval window, which transfer vibration to the inner ear through", "narial passages to the front of the snout. There they end in narrow openings, sometimes called \"pseudonares\", false bony nostrils. These were mistaken by Brown for the real nares or nostrils. These are actually situated inside the crest, above the eye sockets. As in Saurolophus, the expanded portion of the premaxillary in front of the pseudonaris' opening is elongate: by comparison, in Kritosaurus, the bill is short, and the pseudonares extend far forward. At the end of the Corythosaurus bill, the two pseudonares unite into one. Because of his incorrect identification, Brown assumed that the holotype's inferior process of the", "pointed. The snout resembles that of a pig. The animal gets its name from the hairs that cover its rhinarium.\nThe wombat's incisors resemble those of rodents, and its molars are widely spaced by the palate. The teeth keep growing for the entirety of the animal’s life, which is likely an adaptation to its harsh diet. Compared to the common wombat, the southern hairy-nosed wombat has a larger temporalis muscle and a smaller masseter muscle. Also, unlike the northern hairy-nosed wombat, the southern hairy-nosed wombat’s nasal bone is longer than the frontal bone. Biology and ecology Southern hairy-nosed wombats range though", "less convex from snout to naris (bony nostril). The nostrils were placed further back than in most other theropods. The premaxilla was weakly attached to the maxilla (the following bone of the upper jaw), only connecting at the middle of the palate, with no connection at the side. Hindwards and below, the premaxilla formed a wall for a gap between itself and the maxilla called the subnarial gap (also termed a \"kink\"). Such a gap is also present in coelophysoids. The subnarial gap resulted in a diastema, a gap in the tooth row (which has also been called a \"notch\").", "Hydrophis cyanocinctus Description Head moderate. Diameter of eye less than its distance from the mouth in the adult. Rostral slightly more broad than deep. Nasals shorter than the frontal, more than twice as long as the suture between the prefrontals. Prefrontals usually in contact with the second upper labial. Frontal more long than broad, as long as its distance from the rostral or the tip of the snout. One preocular and two postoculars. Two superposed anterior temporals. Seven or eight upper labials; third, fourth, and usually fifth entering the eye. Both pairs of chin-shields in contact, or posterior pair separated", "Snout Variation Snouts are found on many mammals in a variety of shapes. Some animals, including ursines and great cats, have box-like snouts, while others, like shrews, have pointed snouts. Pig snouts are flat and cylindrical. Dogs The muzzle begins at the stop, just below the eyes, and includes the dog's nose and mouth. In the domestic dog, most of the upper muzzle contains organs for detecting scents. The loose flaps of skin on the sides of the upper muzzle that hang to different lengths over the mouth are called flews. \nIt is innervated by one of the twelve", "the maxilla bone. The nasal cavities (or chambers) of Ankylosaurus were elongated and separated by a septum at the midline, which divided the inside of the snout into two mirrored halves. The septum had two openings, including the choanae (internal nostrils).\nThe maxillae expanded to the sides, giving the impression of a bulge, which may have been due to the sinuses inside. The maxillae had a ridge that may have been the attachment site for fleshy cheeks; the presence of cheeks in ornithischians is controversial, but some nodosaurid ankylosaurs had armor plates that covered the cheek region, which may have been", "of the body into the mouth. The ‘inner set’ of nostrils are known as choanae, and allow tetrapods to breathe through their nose.\nPrior to the description of Kenichthys’ nasal passages, exactly how the transition between these two forms had taken place was a source of debate. Various suggestions had been put forward including that the choana was homologous to either the posterior or anterior nostril of non-tetrapods, that it had ‘budded off’ from one of these passages, or that it was an entirely novel form, unrelated to either of the other nostrils. The debate was further complicated", "feature or autapomorphy of Batrachomimus is the hourglass-shape of its choanae, which are two holes on the underside of the skull that are openings for the nasal passages. Other distinguishing features of Batrachomimus are its lack of antorbital and mandibular fenestrae (holes in front of the eyes and at the back of the lower jaw, respectively), and a backward extension of the premaxilla bone on the snout to the level of the fifth tooth of the maxilla bone behind it. Etymology The genus name \"Batrachomimus\" means \"batrachian mimic\" in Greek, a reference to the holotype specimen originally being identified as", "postorbital processes sometimes join to form the postorbital bar. The snout is simple in appearance and not highly modified, as is seen in other bat families. The length of the snout varies among genera. The premaxilla is well-developed and usually free, meaning that it is not fused with the maxilla; instead, it articulates with the maxilla via ligaments, making it freely movable. The premaxilla always lack a palatal branch. In species with a longer snout, the skull is usually arched. In genera with shorter faces (Penthetor, Nyctimene, Dobsonia, and Myonycteris), the skull has little to no bending.\nThe number of teeth", "nostrils. The oblique nostrils are divided into large, oval incurrent and excurrent openings by triangular flaps of skin on their anterior rims. The small, horizontally oval eyes are somewhat upward-facing, and equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes. Behind each eye is a modest spiracle. The mouth forms a short, wide arch, with well-developed furrows around the corners. The teeth number 36–44 rows in the upper jaw and over 45 rows in either jaw; each tooth is well-spaced from the next and has three or five cusps, with the central cusp much longer than the others. The five pairs of gill slits" ]

[ "I stumpled across this subreddit and saw this and said, what an excellent chance for me to jump in for once.\n\nI am a network Engineer.\n\nBGP is a very, very complex routing protocol that the entire internet pretty much runs on.\n\nI don't know how familiar you are with routing protocols, but there a lot of things involved. Primarily, you have the administrative distance, that dictates which route a router will decided based on the protocol\n\nSO for an example, RIP has one of 120, OSPF of 110, and a static of 10. Internal BGP (routes within your Autonomous System number) have it of 200, and external of 20. The lower the number the lower the cost, and that router will choose that route.\n\nThen there are metrics, which are variables you can sorta play with to get the outcome of your routers routing decisions. In BGP there are many of these, and I can't even begin to go into all them, mainly because I still don't know all them.\n\nSO how is this so complicated?\n\nYou have router A B and C. They are a triangle, simple routing protocols can find routers to each other and even passive routes if active ones fail. But now let's talk the internet.\n\nNow you have to create a sure fire to advertise your routers and etc correctly so that anywhere in the internet knows how to get to you and vice versa. To get to router E, you must take path D, then C, then B. But if router C goes down, take route F, then G, and H. But if router D goes down take Route R, and then S. But if route R goes down take X, and F, etc etc, just turning that triangle into a pentagon creates a headache, no imagine the giant rat fuck nest that is the internet.\n\nThere is no router god that overlooks all this, typically you manage what you know of, and there will be some higher echelon that knows more, and on and on, but you can see where the confusion comes in. \n\nBGP is incredibly powerful, yet extremely fragile, and at times AMAZINGLY DANGEROUS. A man who knows what he's doing, and a man who doesn't know what he's doing, could, potentially take down the internet in some big ass regions of the world. \n\nHope this helps.", "The Internet is made up of lots of bunches of computers, one bunch for each company, university, ISP, etc. The computers within a bunch all know how to find each other because of the information provided by whatever interior gateway protocol (RIP, OSPF, etc) they're using.\nA \"bunch of computers\" belonging to one organization is called an Autonomous System, or AS.\n\nThe problem then becomes: how does a bunch of computers find out about other bunches? (How do ASes discover each other?)\n\nIn a nutshell, that's what BGP does. It allows ASes to announce themselves to the rest of the Internet (\"hey, guys, I'm over here\"), find out what other ASes are part of the Internet (\"looks like Verizon, Apple and MIT are at this party too\"), and find out the \"best\" route to send traffic across to get to any computer in the Internet (\"I should route all traffic to Apple and MIT through Verizon\").\n\nAn interior gateway protocol works out routes within an AS (\"what's the best path from Facebook Server 1 to Facebook Server 2?\"), while BGP works out routes between ASes (\"what's the best path from Facebook to Verizon?\").\n\nBGP's job is essential. Without it, we'd just have a bunch of local networks that didn't know about any of the other networks. Take away BGP without replacing it with a similar protocol, and your home computer doesn't have a clue how to find Facebook or Google or anything outside your ISP's network.\n\nBGP is complex because there are all sorts of details to address when choosing a \"best\" path. If I'm a government agency, maybe I only want to use routes that don't pass through enemy countries. If I'm a company, maybe I don't want to use routes that pass through competitors' networks, or maybe I want to route lots of traffic through whoever charges me the least. Etcetera.", "The BGP routing protocol enables networks to \"advertise\" routes to one another.\n\nEach set of network numbers is part of an Autonomous System, and is assigned to an AS number. BGP, being a BORDER protocol, is concerned with routing *between* Autonomous Systems.. not within them.\n\nA pair of companies, each having their own Autonomous System, may choose to route using BGP. This means they will choose to advertise some of their own networks belonging to their AS, and they *may choose* to listen to advertisements they receive from their counter party, defining gateways which can be used to reach other networks.\n\nWhile simple in an isolated test environment, people who choose to peer for the purpose of \"public routing\" will be subject to receiving enormous numbers of advertisements, and will be responsible for mantaining enormous routing tables.\n\nParties who are trusted to advertise public routes carry the responsibility of not making false advertisements. If they do, some networks might be \"null routed\" (routed to nowhere, or at least nowhere useful), and the internet can break.\n\nedit: FYI, I am a network engineer, and I maintain some public and private routable networks between stock markets and brokerages using BGP. I've tried to keep it basic and still somewhat accurate, but I'd be happy to clarify anything." ]

[ "Exterior Gateway Protocol The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a routing protocol for the Internet originally specified in 1982 by Eric C. Rosen of Bolt, Beranek and Newman, and David L. Mills.\nExterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a protocol for exchanging routing information between two neighbor gateway hosts (each with its own router) in a network of autonomous systems. EGP is commonly used between hosts on the Internet to exchange routing table information. The routing table contains a list of known routers, the addresses they can reach, and a cost metric associated with the path to each router so that", "run Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) using private AS numbers to an ISP that connects all those organizations to the internet. Even though there may be multiple autonomous systems supported by the ISP, the internet only sees the routing policy of the ISP. That ISP must have an officially registered autonomous system number (ASN).\nA unique ASN is allocated to each AS for use in BGP routing. ASNs are important because the ASN uniquely identifies each network on the Internet.\nUntil 2007, AS numbers were defined as 16-bit integers, which allowed for a maximum of 65,536 assignments. RFC 4893 introduced 32-bit AS", "Gateway (telecommunications) Network gateway A network gateway provides interoperability between networks and contains devices, such as protocol translators, impedance matchers, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators. A network gateway requires the establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures between the networks using the gateway. Network gateways, known as protocol translation gateways or mapping gateways, can perform protocol conversions to connect networks with different network protocol technologies. For example, a network gateway connects an office or home intranet to the Internet. If an office or home computer user wants to load a web page, at least two network gateways are accessed—one", "Default gateway A default gateway is the node in a computer network using the internet protocol suite that serves as the forwarding host (router) to other networks when no other route specification matches the destination IP address of a packet. Role A gateway is a network node that serves as an access point to another network, often involving not only a change of addressing, but also a different networking technology. More narrowly defined, a router merely forwards packets between networks with different network prefixes. The networking software stack of each computer contains a routing table that specifies which interface is", "between different autonomous systems, it is called External BGP (eBGP or Exterior Border Gateway Protocol). Routers on the boundary of one AS exchanging information with another AS are called border or edge routers or simply eBGP peers and are typically connected directly, while iBGP peers can be interconnected through other intermediate routers. Other deployment topologies are also possible, such as running eBGP peering inside a VPN tunnel, allowing two remote sites to exchange routing information in a secure and isolated manner. The main difference between iBGP and eBGP peering is in the way routes that were received from one peer", "the load balancing issue is to deploy BGP/LISP (Locator/Identifier Separation Protocol) gateways within an Internet exchange point to allow ingress traffic engineering across multiple links. This technique does not increase the number of routes seen on the global BGP table. Security By design, routers running BGP accept advertised routes from other BGP routers by default. This allows for automatic and decentralized routing of traffic across the Internet, but it also leaves the Internet potentially vulnerable to accidental or malicious disruption, known as BGP hijacking. Due to the extent to which BGP is embedded in the core systems of the Internet,", "Border Gateway Protocol History The current version of BGP is version 4 (BGP4), which was published as RFC 4271 in 2006, after progressing through 20 drafts from documents based on RFC 1771 version 4. RFC 4271 corrected errors, clarified ambiguities and updated the specification with common industry practices. The major enhancement was the support for Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables.\nBGP4 has been in use on the Internet since 1994.\nIPv6 BGP was first defined in RFC 1883 in 1995, and it was improved to RFC 2283 in 1998. The new", "International gateway An International Gateway is a telephone number through which calls are routed to get cheaper rates on international long distance charges, or to make calls through voice over IP (VOIP) networks internationally. They also are effective in making an international call into the US appear as if it is originating from a local number rather than the real location.\nAlthough there are numerous legitimate uses, they are also frequently used by scammers and con artists of all sorts, ranging from international fraudsters to lottery fraud as well as fake money order overpayment fraud. On some occasions", "Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol The Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP), defined in RFC 1075, is a routing protocol used to share information between routers to facilitate the transportation of IP multicast packets among networks. It formed the basis of the Internet's historic multicast backbone, Mbone. Operation The protocol is based on the Routing Information Protocol (RIP). The router generates a routing table with the multicast group of which it has knowledge with corresponding distances (i.e. number of devices/routers between the router and the destination). When a multicast packet is received by a router, it is forwarded by the", "channel through which it travels offers security.\nOnce an SSH connection has been established, the tunnel starts with SSH listening to a port on the  remote or local host. Any connections to it are forwarded to the specified  address and port originating from the  opposing (remote or local, as previously) host.\nTunneling a TCP-encapsulating payload (such as PPP) over a TCP-based connection (such as SSH's port forwarding) is known as \"TCP-over-TCP\", and doing so can induce a dramatic loss in transmission performance (a problem known as \"TCP meltdown\"), which is why virtual private network software may instead use a protocol simpler than TCP", "gateway enables interworking between SIP-based networks or ESInets, applications and entities, and legacy, TDM-based wired and wireless networks running CAS, ISDN or SS7 (C7) protocols. The GIII gateway is the successor to Aculab's long-established GroomerII gateway, and was introduced in the spring of 2018. ApplianX The ApplianX IP Gateway is a ‘plug and play’ gateway for interoperability between SIP-based networks and entities, TDM-based PBXs and the PSTN. The gateway includes SIP, QSIG and DPNSS interworking functionality, with extensive Supplementary Services support, which capability addresses the gateway needs of the PBX/IP-PBX enterprise network market in the UK (with DPNSS) and elsewhere", "10 Mb/second ports in use in small developing-country IXPs, to ganged 10 Gb/second ports in major centers like Seoul, New York, London, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, and Palo Alto. Ports with 100 Gb/second are available, for example, at the AMS-IX in Amsterdam and at the DE-CIX in Frankfurt. Traffic exchange Internet traffic exchange between two participants on an IXP is facilitated by Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) routing configurations between them. They choose to announce routes via the peering relationship – either routes to their own addresses, or routes to addresses of other ISPs that they connect to, possibly via other mechanisms. The other", "a \"border router\" (also known as a \"6to4 border router\"). A 6to4 border router is an IPv6 router supporting a 6to4 pseudo-interface. It is normally the border router between an IPv6 site and a wide-area IPv4 network, where the IPv6 site uses 2002::/16 co-related to the IPv4 address used later on. On the other hand, a \"relay router\" is a 6to4 router configured to support transit routing between 6to4 addresses and pure native IPv6 addresses.\nTo allow a 6to4 host to communicate with the native IPv6 Internet, it must have its IPv6 default gateway set to a 6to4 address which contains", "Application-level gateway In the context of computer networking, an application-level gateway (also known as ALG, application layer gateway, application gateway, application proxy, or application-level proxy) consists of a security component that augments a firewall or NAT employed in a computer network. It allows customized NAT traversal filters to be plugged into the gateway to support address and port translation for certain application layer \"control/data\" protocols such as FTP, BitTorrent, SIP, RTSP, file transfer in IM applications, etc. In order for these protocols to work through NAT or a firewall, either the application has to know about an address/port number combination", "RFC allows BGP-4 to carry a wide range of IPv4 and IPv6 \"address families\". It is also called the Multiprotocol Extensions which is Multiprotocol BGP (MP-BGP). Operation BGP neighbors, called peers, are established by manual configuration among routers to create a TCP session on port 179. A BGP speaker sends 19-byte keep-alive messages every 60 seconds to maintain the connection. Among routing protocols, BGP is unique in using TCP as its transport protocol.\nWhen BGP runs between two peers in the same autonomous system (AS), it is referred to as Internal BGP (iBGP or Interior Border Gateway Protocol). When it runs", "the border node adds its own address to the route request packet and forwards the packet to its own border nodes. If the destination is a member of the local zone, it sends a route reply on the reverse path back to the source. The source node uses the path saved in the route reply packet to send data packets to the destination.", "ports connected. It can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. It learns to associate physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames. If an unknown destination is targeted, the switch broadcasts to all ports but the source. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches. Routers A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the routing information included in the packet or datagram (Internet protocol information from layer 3). The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the routing table", "used for transmission and which router on the network is responsible for forwarding to a specific set of addresses. If none of these forwarding rules is appropriate for a given destination address, the default gateway is chosen as the router of last resort. The default gateway can be specified by the route command to configure the node's routing table and default route.\nIn a home or small office environment, the default gateway is a device, such as a DSL router or cable router, that connects the local network to the Internet. It serves as the default gateway for all network devices.\nEnterprise", "an outbound connection is established on any port from 6660 to 7000, it should allow inbound connections to that particular computer on port 113. This gives it more flexibility than static port forwarding because it is not necessary to set it up for a specific address on your network, allowing multiple clients to connect to IRC servers through the NAT-router. Security is also gained, in the sense that the inbound port is not left open when not actively in use. Disadvantages Port triggering has the disadvantage that it binds the triggered port to a single client at a time. As", "allows connections only to specific ports, such as 443 for HTTPS. Technical overview As an example of network layer over network layer, Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE), a protocol running over IP (IP protocol number 47), often serves to carry IP packets, with RFC 1918 private addresses, over the Internet using delivery packets with public IP addresses. In this case, the delivery and payload protocols are the same, but the payload addresses are incompatible with those of the delivery network.\nIt is also possible to establish a connection using the data link layer. The Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) allows the transmission", "exchange messages asynchronously via ports and bindings. To each port a unique protocol is assigned. A protocol in ROOM defines a set of outgoing and a set of incoming messages. Ports can be connected with a binding if they belong to the same protocol and are conjugate to each other. That means that one port is sending the outgoing messages of the protocol and receiving the incoming ones. This port is called the regular port. Its peer port, the conjugated port, receives the outgoing messages and sends the incoming ones of the protocol. In other words, a port is the", "Providers connecting together via an IPX peering point for traffic exchange. Both signaling (such as SIP) and media (such as RTP) is transported end-to-end in accordance with IPX specifications. A typical end-to-end path of traffic in a fixed to mobile interconnection scenario is illustrated below:\nX is a peering point where IPX Provider A and IPX Provider B exchange traffic\nIPX offers both bilateral and multilateral interconnection. Bilateral means the traditional model of two operators bilaterally writing an interconnection contract prior to setting up a connection to each other themselves. Multilateral on the other hand means that the IPX provider to some", "and/or IPv6 networks. Incoming client connections typically use SSL/TLS to provide security for the network communication and a mutual trust of communicating peers. Communication protocol is typically based on HTTP. Host Gateway forwards requests from connected apps to a collection of configured hosts. These are typically HTTP or HTTPS servers or services within an internal network. The response from a host is sent back to the respective mobile app.", "gateway in order to be allowed access to network services. Commonly this authentication is achieved via integration to RADIUS or LDAP servers or by implementing access-codes which a user would be required to enter. How does a VBN work? While manufacturers offer many different configurations for VBN gateways, a set of common features exist. Even the most basic VBN gateways provide DHCP and Proxy ARP to allow users to connect to the network with no IP address configuration required. A captive portal is used for a variety of functions including, billing or authentication and acceptance of terms and conditions. Once", "forwarding agents, third party logistics (3PL), empty container depots as well as banking and other supporting facilities. International port code CDP is legally permitted to deliver exported goods as well as receipt of imported goods to and from all over the world. This possibility is due to CDP having been registered in an international port network and already has a special and unique code which is IDJBK. This allows CDP to become an official Port of Origin and Port of Destination.", "Hot Standby Router Protocol In computer networking, the Hot Standby Router Protocol (HSRP) is a Cisco proprietary redundancy protocol for establishing a fault-tolerant default gateway. Version 1 of the protocol was described in RFC 2281 in 1998. There is no RFC for version 2 of the protocol.\nThe protocol establishes an association between gateways in order to achieve default gateway failover if the primary gateway becomes inaccessible. HSRP gateways send multicast hello messages to other gateways to notify them of their priorities (which gateway is preferred) and current status (active or standby).", "access networks, also called islands, will be a layer-two sub-network using STP connected to one or more Abridges. Protocol operation Inside every island or access network a bridge is automatically elected to behave as the Root Bridge, this one bridge will behave as a gateway, allowing the forwarding of frames from the core to an island and conversely. Just one Abridge is going to perform these gateway functions, although many could be connected. Communication among 802.1D bridges and between standard 802.1D bridges and ABridges does not require point-to-point connections.\nThe ABridge receiving an ARP frame from an island host obtains the", "Local Area Transport Local Area Transport (LAT) is a non-routable (Data Link Layer) networking technology developed by Digital Equipment Corporation to provide connection between the DECserver 90, 100, 200, 300, 500, 700 and DECserver 900 terminal servers and Digital's VAX and Alpha and MIPS host computers via Ethernet, giving communication between those hosts and serial devices such as video terminals and printers. The protocol itself was designed in such a manner as to maximize packet efficiency over Ethernet by bundling multiple characters from multiple ports into a single packet for Ethernet transport (Mann, US 4823122). Over time, other host implementations", "routers and switches that transport traffic between the servers and to the outside world which are connected according to the data center network architecture. Redundancy of the Internet connection is often provided by using two or more upstream service providers (see Multihoming).\nSome of the servers at the data center are used for running the basic Internet and intranet services needed by internal users in the organization, e.g., e-mail servers, proxy servers, and DNS servers.\nNetwork security elements are also usually deployed: firewalls, VPN gateways, intrusion detection systems, and so on. Also common are monitoring systems for the network and some of", "the proprietary Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) by Cisco. Router relationships OSPF supports complex networks with multiple routers, including backup routers, to balance traffic load on multiple links to other subnets. Neighboring routers in the same broadcast domain or at each end of a point-to-point link communicate with each other via the OSPF protocol. Routers form adjacencies when they have detected each other. This detection is initiated when a router identifies itself in a Hello protocol packet. Upon acknowledgment, this establishes a two-way state and the most basic relationship. The routers in an Ethernet or Frame Relay network select a" ]

[ "/r/flooey is partially correct. That is the reason wheels appear to move backwards on film. This effect can be leveraged with a stroboscope [for an odd illusion](_URL_0_) even in real life, by imitating the film effect and only allowing your eyes to see individual 'frames' in time.\n\nHowever, as you probably noticed (and I assume are asking about), this happens in real life as well, under continuous lighting. Excitingly, we don't really know why this happens! There are [two competing theories](_URL_1_) at the moment. One is basically that visual perception actually does act like a camera, and only processes small snapshots at a time.\n\nHowever, later experiments found that this explanation fails in several circumstances. The hypothesis proposed by those researchers is that this effect is instead to do not with snapshotting of the entire visual system, but a kind of ersatz snapshotting to do with propagation delays in the particular subsystem that does motion detection in the brain (Reichardt detectors)." ]

[ "towards the outside of the turn is actually moving rearward, with respect to the wheel's hub, faster than the rest of the contact patch, because of its greater radius from the hub. By the same reasoning, the inner portion is moving rearward more slowly. So the outer and inner portions of the contact patch slip on the pavement in opposite directions, generating a torque that tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the turn, and therefore tends to decrease the turn radius.\nThe combination of these two opposite torques creates a resulting yaw torque on the front wheel,", "upon which they were mounted turned in either direction, but disengaged when the wheel turned them faster than the shaft. When driven in a straight line, both clutches would engage, and provide power to both rear wheels. When the car went around a corner, the outside wheel turned slightly faster than the inside wheel, disengaging the sprocket for the outside wheel, and propelling the car with the inside wheel only. On slippery roads, such as in deep mud, snow, or sand, if one wheel lost traction the other wheel would continue to pull, allowing the car the continue moving until", "slower to swerve or go into a tight curve, and it also makes it slower to turn straight again.\nThe pitch angular inertia detracts from the ability of the suspension to keep front and back tire loadings constant on uneven surfaces and therefore contributes to bump steer.\nAngular inertia is an integral over the square of the distance from the center of gravity, so it favors small cars even though the lever arms (wheelbase and track) also increase with scale. (Since cars have reasonable symmetrical shapes, the off-diagonal terms of the angular inertia tensor can usually be ignored.)\nMass near the ends of", "that are capable of spinning around their central axis, such as certain lawnmowers and wheelchairs as they do not follow a circular path as they turn. In this case the vehicle is referred to as a \"zero turning radius\" vehicle.\nSome camera dollies used in the film industry have a \"round\" mode which allows them to spin around their z axis by allowing synchronized inverse rotation of their front and rear wheel sets, effectively giving them \"zero\" turning radius.", "center of a car's wheel and is designed to independently rotate by using one or more roller bearings to isolate the spinner from the wheel, enabling it to turn while the wheel is at rest.\nLegislative bills were proposed in several states to ban spinner type wheels and hubcaps that simulate movement even when a vehicle is stopped because they could be disconcerting to other motorists and present a safety hazard.\nSpinners were popular during the early-2000s within the hip-hop community of the United States. Since the mid-2000s, they are gradually fading out of vogue in popular culture. Music The spinner-type automobile", "cars (as well as the weight distribution) may intensify or dampen the spinning motion of the cars, adding to the unpredictable nature known as chaotic motion.\nPhysicists Bret M. Huggard and Richard L. Kautz came up with a mathematical equation that approximates the motion of the Tilt-A-Whirl. Incidents and Accidents On September 22, 2018, A Tilt-A-Whirl operated by Thomas Amusements in St. John's, Newfoundland malfunctioned when two of the cars crashed into each other causing the top of one of the cars to fall off and on to the platform. No serious injuries resulted but some of the passengers suffered minor", "banked outercurves (for physical analysis, see banked turn). This causes instability to cornering vehicles. While almost all outercurves have insufficient banking, some few outercurves have too much banking. In slippery condition, such as in rain or on ice, such over-banked curves cause most problem to vehicles driven at too slow speed. Then the driver may need to turn the steering wheel to the opposite direction, compared to the road curvature.\nBoth new and old roads often have insufficient drainage gradient at the entrance and exit of sharp outercurves, causing water pooling in rain and forming local surprising ice spots in cold", "Driving in a car, and looking forward, each of the wheels has an angular momentum vector pointing to the left. If the world is reflected in a mirror which switches the left and right side of the car, the \"reflection\" of this angular momentum \"vector\" (viewed as an ordinary vector) points to the right, but the actual angular momentum vector of the wheel (which is still turning forward in the reflection) still points to the left, corresponding to the extra sign flip in the reflection of a pseudovector.\nThe distinction between polar vectors and pseudovectors becomes important in understanding the effect", "the outside of the turning curve has to roll further and rotate faster than the wheel on the inside. The differential permits this to happen while both wheels are being driven by the engine. If the sum of the speeds of the wheels is constant, the speed of the engine does not change.\nIn a south-pointing chariot, according to the hypothesis, Shaft B was connected to one road wheel and Shaft C was connected through a direction-reversing gear to the other road wheel. This made Shaft A rotate at a speed that was proportional to the difference between the rotation speeds", "to create the wide round surface of the vehicle. The single rear wheel allows the vehicle to taper at the back. Examples include the Aptera 2 Series and Myers Motors NmG. Two rear Having one wheel in front and two in the rear for power reduces the cost of the steering mechanism but greatly decreases lateral stability when cornering while braking.\nWhen the single wheel is in the front (the \"delta\" form, as in a child's pedal tricycle), the vehicle is inherently unstable in a braking turn, as the combined tipping forces at the center of mass from turning and braking", "to the wheel hub and axle, pushing the car laterally. When all four wheels are acted upon in this way, the vehicle can experience rapid forces occurring from side to side and corner to corner (similar to encountering wind gusts, only from all four directions instead of just one).\nA mismatch between tire design and vehicle weight, or vehicle suspension design, or simply wheel alignment can all contribute to how severe the effect is. Tire tread pattern can also cause, with straight grooved tires more susceptible to groove wander than diagonal or zig zag threads.", "axis of rotation (generally the steering wheels) will be more likely to maintain the spin, especially under braking. This is an inherent instability in the design, making it easier to induce and more difficult to recover from a slide than in a less rear-weight-biased vehicle.\nUnder hard acceleration, the decreased weight over the front wheels means less traction, sometimes producing a tendency for rear-engined cars to understeer out of a corner.\nIn these respects, an RR can be considered to be an exaggeration of MR - harder braking, faster and earlier acceleration, and increased oversteer.\nIn off road and low-traction situations, the RR", "of having cars that drive off one edge wrapping around the other side, new cars are added on the left and top edges with probability and removed from the right and bottom edges respectively. In this case, the number of cars in the system can change over time, and local jams can cause the lattice to appear very different from the usual model, such as having coexistence of jams and free-flowing areas; containing large empty spaces; or containing mostly cars of one type.", "drifts to the right, hits dirt or rumble strips on the right shoulder of the road, and the driver becomes alert and overreacts, jerking the wheel left to bring the vehicle back onto the road. This motion causes the left front tire to strike the raised edge of the pavement at a sharp angle, often causing a rollover or a swerve into oncoming traffic. This form of one-car crash is \"classic\" because it occurs very often. Raised edges of pavement (or \"edge-drops\") were once common, but are now recognized as a hazard; it is now standard practice to level the", "does the same in reverse, keeping the car level front to rear. When both springs are compressed on one side when travelling around a bend, or front and rear wheels hit bumps simultaneously, the equal and opposite forces applied to the front and rear spring assemblies reduce the interconnection. It reduces pitching, which is a particular problem of soft car suspension.\nThe swinging arms are mounted with large bearings to \"cross tubes\" that run side to side across the chassis; combined with the effects of all-independent soft springing and excellent damping, keeps the road wheels in contact with the road surface", "precession axis and vehicle roll axis are mutually perpendicular.\nForcing the gimbal to rotate causes the wheel to precess resulting in gyroscopic torques about the roll axis, so that the mechanism has the potential to right the vehicle when tilted from the vertical. The wheel shows a tendency to align its spin axis with the axis of rotation (the gimbal axis), and it is this action which rotates the entire vehicle about its roll axis.\nIdeally, the mechanism applying control torques to the gimbal ought to be passive (an arrangement of springs, dampers and levers), but the fundamental nature of the problem", "with the inlets underneath the hull and the outlets at the rear. There are also additional assistant water-jet inlets on both sides of the hull over the last road wheels. The rear outlets have lids that can be fully or partially closed, redirecting the water stream to the forward-directed outlets at the sides of the hull, thus enabling the vehicle to turn or go in reverse. To turn to the left for example, the left water-jet is covered, to turn to the right, the right water-jet is covered. To make a 180° turn, one water-jet sucks in water while the", "the car to slide around, which can result in the car spinning out if the driver is not careful. The adjustment of front and rear aerodynamic downforce, spring rates, track bar geometry, brake proportioning, the wedge (also known as cross-weight), changing the camber angle, and changing the air pressure in the tires can all change the distribution of forces among the tires during cornering to correct for handling problems. Recently, coil bind setups have become popular among teams.\nThese characteristics are also affected by tire stagger (tires of different circumference at different positions on the car, the right rear having the", "turns each (4 full turns relative to each other), resulting in the left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.\nThe rotation of the ring gear is always the average of the rotations of the side sun gears. This is why if the driven roadwheels are lifted clear of the ground with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (say, leaving the transmission in gear preventing the ring gear from turning inside the differential), manually rotating one driven roadwheel causes the opposite roadwheel to rotate in the opposite direction by the same amount.\nWhen the vehicle", "rotates too quickly or the outer wheel rotates too slowly, which results in difficult and unpredictable handling, damage to tires and roads, and strain on (or possible failure of) the drivetrain.\nIn rear-wheel drive automobiles the central drive shaft (or prop shaft) engages the differential through a hypoid gear (ring and pinion). The ring gear is mounted on the carrier of the planetary chain that forms the differential. This hypoid gear is a bevel gear that changes the direction of the drive rotation. Functional description The following description of a differential applies to a traditional rear-wheel-drive car or truck with an", "to rotate into the corner. Towards the corner exit, the driver may countersteer to control the oversteer. When properly executed this technique neatly lines the car up for the exit while maintaining momentum. Contemporary usage Since the 1990s, most cars produced have been front-wheel drive which are prone to understeer. This makes a vehicle stable at high speed but requires larger steering inputs near the limits of adhesion, especially on low-grip surfaces. Skilled drivers are able to use a maneuver similar to the Scandinavian flick, though with less steering input and control the possible slide by using opposite lock.\nThe ability", "although the reason why this should be so is not clear. His solution was to vary the control loop parameters with turn rate, to maintain similar response in turns of either direction.\nOffset loads similarly cause the vehicle to lean until the centre of gravity lies above the support point. Side winds cause the vehicle to tilt into them, to resist them with a component of weight. These contact forces are likely to cause more discomfort than cornering forces, because they will result in net side forces being experienced on board.\nThe contact side forces result in a gimbal deflection bias in", "a problem in large vehicles such as buses. Long rear overhang would require the driver to pay attention to nearby vehicles when turning at 90 degrees. Since the rear overhang is outside the wheelbase, it may hit a vehicle in the adjacent lane, especially when turning 90 degrees right (in a right-hand drive country).\nAlso, some specialized vehicles (such as the AM General HMMWV and the related Hummer H1) are designed with no frontal overhang, allowing it to possess incredible abilities such as climbing vertical walls. This does, however, place these vehicles' front wheels as the furthest forward point of the", "the various differentials in the car, in addition to the frictional losses of the powertrain.\nThe variable handling characteristics of a four-wheel-drive car mean that when travelling round a corner at high speeds the car may enter the corner and understeer and then half-way through the corner suddenly start to oversteer.", "keep the wheel on the automobile. They were screwed on and \"knocked on tightly\" using hammers and tools, hence the name \"knock-offs\". Most setups will feature right-hand threads on the left side of the vehicle, and left-hand threads (rotate clockwise to remove) on the vehicle's right side so the screw-on spinner would stay tightened as the auto was in forward motion. The knock-off spinners were used until the development of the lug nut method attaching the wheel.\nAutomotive designer Harley Earl expressed a brash philosophy behind his 1950s automobiles that included \"glittering spinner hubcaps.\" During the 1950s and 1960s automobile manufacturers", "the transition from straight-ahead to cornering. During corner entry the front tires, in addition to generating part of the lateral force required to accelerate the car's centre of mass into the turn, also generate a torque about the car's vertical axis that starts the car rotating into the turn. However, the lateral force being generated by the rear tires is acting in the opposite torsional sense, trying to rotate the car out of the turn. For this reason, a car with \"50/50\" weight distribution will understeer on initial corner entry. To avoid this problem, sports and racing", "Spinner (wheel) The spinner on automobile wheels historically refers to knock-off hubs or center caps. They may be the actual, or intended to simulate, the design used on antique vehicles or vintage sports cars. A \"spinner wheel\" in contemporary usage is a type of hubcap or inner wheel ornament, that spins independently inside of a wheel itself when the vehicle is in motion, and continues to spin once the vehicle has come to a stop. Original use The spinner cap was introduced into the commercial vehicle and passenger automobile market in the 1930s. The spinner or \"knock-off\" was designed to", "the steering wheel by a lever, in such a way that they are located behind the axis of rotation of the steering column. The torque applied to the steering wheel causes a lateral friction force by the wheels on the ground, a force parallel to the axle and perpendicular to the direction the wheels are rolling. If a component of this force points to the back of the car, the reaction force of the ground on the car (by Newton's \"action/reaction\" law) points partly forward and accelerates the car. This is the force that drives the car forward and it", "When a car corners, it must rotate about its vertical axis as well as translate its center of mass in an arc. However, in a tight-radius (lower speed) corner the angular velocity of the car is high, while in a longer-radius (higher speed) corner the angular velocity is much lower. Therefore, the front tires have a more difficult time overcoming the car's moment of inertia during corner entry at low speed, and much less difficulty as the cornering speed increases. So the natural tendency of any car is to understeer on entry to low-speed corners and oversteer on entry to", "Two wheels fixed to the same axle turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves. This either forces one to slip, if possible, to balance the apparent distance covered, or creates uncomfortable and mechanically stressful wheel hop. To prevent this, the wheels are allowed to turn at different speeds using a mechanical or hydraulic differential. This allows one driveshaft to independently drive two output shafts, axles that go from the differential to the wheel, at different speeds.\nThe differential does this by distributing angular force (in the form of torque) evenly, while distributing angular velocity (turning speed) such" ]

[ "The first arriving units will most often be at the fire before it gets large, so they can relay to the investigators where the fire was and how big it was when they arrived on scene. \nFires will also leave lots of clues as to how fast and hot it burned but also the direction that it came from. There are origin indicators like needle freeze (pine needles that freeze and point in the opposite direction of where the fire came from), charring on trees can tell you a lot depending on how intense the fire was when it burned the tree. Grass can fall back towards the origin in a low intensity fire. There could be no soot on a large rock on the opposite side of where the fire came from. Those are just a few examples. \nAs to finding how the fire started they have to look at the origin of the fire which is why you look for that before you start looking for how. Once at the origin, depending on how the fire was started it could be hard easy or impossible to determine. A hot start, where someone just holds a lighter or similar flaming material to the fuel and then takes the lighter and flees is hard to prove. But often times fires don't durn so hot when they first start, depending on many factors, and there could be evidence left behind as to an ignition source. Most accidental fires you can find out who did it either because they confessed or they weren't trying to get away with it so there are witnesses and more evidence. Also most arsonists don't just start ONE fire, they start many. And once there is a known arsonist working an area reports become more general so you can charge him with more fires knowing that you have some that are definitely him and some probably aren't but can't rule him out for it. \nAnd for big, expensive, deadly or suspected arsonist fires there will be multiple expert investigators. \n\nSource: I'm a fireman that took a couple week long classes on origin and cause determination. Wild land fires aren't really my thing but I'm just relaying what was taught to me. \nEdit: spelling and a parenthesis", "As a random side point I lit fire to my bathroom on accident with a candle. The glass holder got hot and broke, the countertop started burning, and a towel had gotten caught before I realized it. It happened super fast and I panicked while throwing water and wet towels on things. My dad, who is a fire investigator, came home the next morning and 5 seconds in the door asked me what burned (he hadn't seen it just smelled). I tried to tell him but obviously my story didn't match up to the burnt remains. I wasn't lying, I just genuinely couldn't remember cause I was so panicked. Anyway, he was able to give an exact play by play of how it started, what it caught next, etc. \nTl:dr; fire investigators know their crap. \nEdit:typo", "My father is actually a detective who specializes in Fire Investigation. We actually live close to Gatlinburg(within an hour). He helped investigate another fire relativity close(time wise) to the Gat. Fire.\n\nThey solve these cases using a forensics analysis and training acquired through Arson schools. They look for burn spots and patterns that match certain accelerants, path of a fire, and so on. \n\nWitnesses are incredibly helpful as well. For instance there were many hikers up on the mountain that day(chimney tops) and many of them were eager to prove their innocence. They can identify others they passed and verify what they were doing during their hike. A polygraph can be used as well. \n\nThese particular teens played with matches apparently, and as some are citing above got caught in a picture unknowingly. They also apparently posted a Facebook video with a song about \"a mountain on fire\". which was suspicious and got deleted quickly. They also confessed to it as well. \n\nEdit: Apparently the Facebook video is not related and just occurred coincidentally at the same time as the fire. See below.\n\nEdit 2: Thanks guys for all the \"Arson Investigation Failures\" links referencing the 80's and before. Very relevant /s. It's not like all that new science just got thrown out the window. That said, nothing in this world is exact so get used to it.\n\nEdit 3(last): You guys are really focusing on the polygraph..... ok here we go. Like a a hammer doesn't build an entire house by itself, so does a polygraph test not build a full case. It's just a side technique at least around here. That said your random \"hundred\" comments on \"pseudo-science\"( must have looked that up on the Internet) won't change anything on reddit. Go to your local PD and ask about it's use. Go to town meetings. CHANGE IT if you don't like it!! Quit whining on Reddit and the internet.", "[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nThis article states that another hiker unwittingly got a picture that led to the identification of the two teens. What I'd heard (but don't really have the motivation to go find the specific source of), it that the hiker saw the teens tossing matches, and took the picture of them. Either way, a picture led them to identifying the accused.", "Arson Investigators are very highly trained, and can use detailed chemical and forensic analysis to determine within a good margin of error, exactly where some fires started.\n\nBased on the leftover debris and material near the point of ignition, a good investigator can determine exactly WHAT caused a fire, and even if an accelerant like Gas or Oil was used depending on the type of charring and remains left behind by the flames after they have passed and the ashes that remain.", "There was this huge fire in my home town that burned down over 30 homes in a matter of hours. Investegators found alluminum cans and other trash at the initial site. Seeing as it wasn't in a built up campsite, they could conclude that it was a man made fire in a shoddy fire pit. In this particular case, there was a public instagram photo posted by a group of high schoolers at the exact location of the fire...", "My brother and some of his friends caught half of a mountain on a local island on fire. They sailed over, had a campfire, thought they'd put it out when they left, and a few hours later the whole place was producing a pillar of flame and smoke that you could see for miles.\n\nThey called in to admit that it was probably them. Think they had to do some community service, but the police/fire thanked them for coming forward and admitting it.", "A lot of people have touched on witnesses and cell data but fire investigation is a common practice at all forest fires.\n\nAs a Firefighter Crew Leader my crew will often fight the fire without me because I'm off investigating. Signs such as the burn and smoke pattern on trees and stumps will direct you to the origin location, which can be very precise down to a 1 foot square area. Once at the origin location we are trained to look for sources of ignition, matchbooks, debris from flares, tracks from ATVs, etc. then you can determine the exact time the fire started by using a fire behaviour prediction book and you have a time and place. To find a person responsible after that is often luck but if we do find you, you are responsible for the cost of the fire and we are not cheap.", "In Australia there is a relatively high occurrence of volunteer firefighters who start the fires themselves (by relatively high I mean not uncommon). \nTo find the who they will often monitor calls made to report fires. In a few cases there will be a trend of someone reporting a fire soon after ignition. This trend might see the Person reporting the fire then being on the scene immediately. \nIf you want to read about the forensic investigators down these parts, read this, \n_URL_1_", "We just had a group of kids here in Montana get caught. These kids were caught after they posted pictures on FaceBook. They did not properly put out their fire. Long story short the fire spread and cost $11 million to suppress \n \nHeres a link for you: _URL_2_ \n Sorry the local paper has a few pop ups.", "_URL_3_\n\nThese people admitted that they started it in an interview. I don't think they really meant to. \n\nThere was also video of them walking near the road after the fire started. Someone recording in a a car joked \"that's probably who started the fire.\" I could tell they were being sarcastic because of how many illegal homeless campers live in the woods in that area. But it turned out to be true. \n\nSo, the county put up a fire ban for most of the summer in an effort to combat homeless people. Which was lame, because I like camping and camping without fire isn't as fun.", "Here's an article about how the arsonist responsible for several fires in NC was caught. There was evidence, but mostly the guy was just dumber than a box of hair.\n\n_URL_4_", "Criminology here, and its not always about what actually survives, its the way something was destroyed. The way the fire burned, the epicenter, you can figure out what type of accelerant was used and where.\n\nAfter that, some things survive. Tiretracks often can survive a fire, abit of plastic from the jugs used etc. Those can be kind of hard as they are so vastly mass produced, but if you look at local stores and its a recent one purchased, you can narrow down who all bought that product recently.\n\nWitnesses are HUGE in these kinds of cases, DNA often gets destroyed... But sometimes cigarette butts can survive if those were what started it. ATV's leave very distinct tire treads, they as to normal vehicles, but ATV's especially leave deep and defined prints. Plaster can pick up a lot of wear patterns on those tires, as with normal cars, trucks, etc. Shoe prints can survive a fire, and it is fairly easy to find the epicenter of a fire.\n\nAccelerants burn hotter and faster, so the marks they leave are pretty well defined. It narrows down your search area.", "\"Is this the fire department? Oh, hi, yeah, um, I just saw some kids light a fire and walk away, totes wasn't me though.\"\n\n\"Ok, thank you for calling this in, and may I have your name and a good number to reach you at so we can send you a reward?\"\n\nThat's how my neighbor was caught.", "For this Particular incident, the teens were caught on camera by a photographer that was on the trail throwing lit matches into the woods surrounding the trail, as well as smoke surrounding them from where they started the fire. Those \"kids\" are going to be gone for a long time", "Some teen got charged where I live because she recorded a snapchat of her lighting fireworks causing a massive fire", "I was an intern at Great Smoky Mountains National Park this summer, and my internship was in structural fire. The local authorities of Gatlinburg and the National Park Service have been posting tip lines to ask about people that hiked during the approximated time frame that the fire is thought to have been started during.", "It's my impression that the teens charged in Gatlinburg just happened to be caught in a photograph that someone took (not intentionally of the teens, I believe). In that photo they were seen walking out of the woods with smoke (a lot of smoke) behind them. They were caught because they were wearing the same clothes.\n\nIt blows my mind too. I think in the case it's just dumb luck that someone was there and intentionally or unintentionally too a picture of them.", "They are juveniles so more than likely they bragged about it to their friends, which led the investigators to them. From there it's pretty easy to put the rest of the pieces together.\n\nThis is how most cases are solved - people tell the authorities because the suspect couldn't keep their mouth shut.", "My grandpa did \"arson watch\" in LA as a volunteer. Literally drive through canyons looking for odd parked cars in strange places and take down their info. If a fire starts, you know who to ask", "Assuming they are guilty*\n\nI would not give the teens prison they know now beyond all doubt not to mess with fire 17 people are dead and they have to be feeling terrible. \n\nSo $500 million damage they are now expert consultants on fire tragedy so at $500 per hour each they can pay it off with .5 million hours of community service or rest of there free time in there life or 28.52 years each. They can visit each and every school saying dont mess with fire. Showing pictures of the people they killed.\n\np.s. I am just speculating what could be done besides 60 years in prison.", "This might sound \"conspiratorial\" or whatever, but many public parks and trails have hidden cameras. I found a few in a trail by my home. They are hooked up to solar panels that are located high up in the trees. They place the cameras at entrances and exits of the trails so they know every person went in and out.", "In the case of a wildfire it usually a combination of witness accounts of people in the area and confessions. People who start wildfires aren't the smartest people. \n\nThere is very little forensic evidence used in these situations.", "The photo is more than certainly real because that is the only substantial evidence that the authorities have against the boys, the two were traveling alone on the Chimney Tops trail (seriously the name, no pun intended) without any parents and thought they were alone so they decided to play with some matches. In no way do I believe that they meant for the fire to get as big as it did, but you simply can't ignore the fact that 14 people perished along with hundreds upon hundreds of structures that were destroyed/damaged, but fate be as it may there was a concerned photographer on the trail as well to catch them red handed. In my opinion I believe these kids deserve their punishment. however I also believe that the younger boy shouldn't be charged as an adult like the 17 y/o, because I'm sure the older one influenced the younger ones actions a little.", "My husband has video from a plane he was on flying over the smokey mountains on November 4th. The video shows a fire. It looked like a good size. I know the fires were not reported as starting that early but we thought it was pretty weird.", "I live just a couple of hours from Gatlinburg, their was small amount of smoke in the air for a while, could smell it definitely. The videos that people had of them coming down the Gatlinburg mountains were terrifying.", "Most crimes are solved because the suspect admits they are guilty. They find people who admit to being in the area and question them until they admit it.", "Every phone has two operating systems. One that connects to cellular networks, and one that interfaces with the consumer. Airplane mode may only disable features in the consumer facing operating system, such as Android or iOS, but not in the OS used between the phone and the carrier network. A phone may be giving out a ‘ping’ and you’d never know it. It doesn’t even need to be sending out GPS coordinates — communicating at all with a cell tower could expose you. By comparing the signal strength of your cell phone on multiple cell towers, someone looking for you can approximate your location with triangulation. This requires access to data from your mobile network, which should keep it out of reach for criminals, but carriers can be compelled to provide that data to law-enforcement agencies.\n\nStingrays are also known as cell-site simulators, or IMSI catchers. They mimic cell phone towers and send out signals that can trick your cell phone into replying with your location and data that can be used to identify you. And they’re surprisingly widely used.\nThe American Civil Liberties Union has a map and list of federal agencies known to use cell-site simulators, which includes the FBI, the DEA, the Secret Service, the NSA, the U.S. Army, Navy, Marshals Service, Marine Corps, National Guard, and many more. For obvious reasons, it’s not an exhaustive list.", "Wildfires are actually one of the easier types to trace back to a source. The winds and terrain will basically blow the fire a certain way and you can trace it back to the general area of where it started. After that they rely on witness reports or any other evidence much like any other arson. \n\n\n[This explains](_URL_5_) The behavior and characteristics fairly well.", "In this particular case, from what I've heard, the two suspects were talking about it at their school and people started getting suspicious. \nIt's been all anyone's talked about here in Tennessee lately. It's really sad, I occasionally spend time in that area and it's got some beautiful hikes that are just gone now.", "Ok, fire forensics & stuff aside which is amazing & interesting: it was (in this day & age) most likely found by the boys phone locations at the time & their retreat once they realized the fire was out of control." ]

[ "Cave Creek Complex Wildfire The Cave Creek Complex Wildfire was the third largest forest fire in the state of Arizona to date, after the Rodeo-Chediski fire and Wallow Fire. History The fire started on June 21, 2005 by a lightning strike and scorched 243,950 acres (987.2 km²).\nWithin an hour, the fire had already burned from 2,000 to 10,000 acres (8.1 to 40.5 km²).\nWhen news agencies were covering the story, a FOX news affiliate captured video of the historic Cave Creek Mistress mine destroyed by the fire as soon as the fire touched it. The mine was a total loss.\nAlso in this fire,", "to feed the fire. The fire probably ignited the wood floor first, then spread to the wood wall paneling. By the time the fire was discovered, it was out of control.", "efforts are made to do what is required to extinguish the fire, while not destroying clues to the fires' origin. A fire investigation was once compromised by a fire fighter turning off the knobs on a gas stove in the interests of safety after a house fire was knocked down. In the following investigation the homeowner's daughter was accused by her father of leaving the stove on after she left the house but there was then no way to accurately determine the position of the burner knobs on the stove. Though there were no criminal issues involved in this fire,", "Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives are currently investigating the incident. Some question whether the arson was an ELF action or an act of insurance fraud. The developer of one of the houses destroyed in the fire has since pleaded guilty to multiple counts of first-degree theft associated with his construction projects.", "The victim has not been identified, and the cause of death has not yet been determined. Cause and lawsuit No official cause for the fire has been determined, however multiple theories exist. What is known is that the fire started on the 7th hole of the La Costa Resort and Spa's golf course. Speculation points to cigarette or cigar being thrown into the dry grass along the course. A report from the Carlsbad Fire Department has also speculated that the blaze may have been ignited by a spark from golf club striking a rock.\nA lawsuit filed in October 2014, alleges", "spreading of a backyard fire in Spring Branch, Houston, Texas, a packaging warehouse burned down during a four-alarm fire which included exploding canisters of hazardous material. Nearly 200 firefighters were dispatched to the site over several hours. As of May 2016, the initial cause of the fire remains unknown.", "the local roadhouse, the Bang Bang Bar. Putting her hand to the log and then the stunned Laura's forehead, Margaret intones: \"When this kind of fire starts, it is very hard to put out. The tender boughs of innocence burn first, and the wind rises, and then all goodness is in jeopardy.\"\nOn the night Laura is murdered, Margaret later claims \"my log\" witnessed \"two men, two girls\" both approaching Jacques Renault's cabin—which is located a distance away from her own cabin home in the woods. And then, not long after, she alleges the log heard the screams of a girl.\nThe", "been wrongfully convicted) filed a motion earlier in 2013 for a new trial, which would have been difficult, as key witnesses are now deceased, and key evidence has since been destroyed. Also, modern arson investigators are unable to determine a cause for the fire, even using modern investigative methods.\nTaylor, who said he was at the hotel to score free drinks at a holiday party held by an aircraft company that night, knocked on room doors to alert guests to the fire and later helped put the injured on stretchers.\nA fire investigator hired by the Arizona presented a profile suggesting that", "was quickly extinguished.\n1906. Arsonists were suspected in a blaze that broke out in a new two-story addition at the rear of Standard Woodenware at 230-234 Los Angeles Street on February 18, 1906. The firebox alarm was pulled by a passing police officer, but help was slow to arrive because most of the nearby engine companies were fighting another fire at Fifth and Main streets. Two men, reportedly night watchmen, were sleeping inside. and were discovered only after firemen began tearing off a grating at the rear of the building. Nearby businesses that were briefly endangered were the Club Stables, with", "Fire lookout tower A fire lookout tower, fire tower or lookout tower, provides housing and protection for a person known as a \"fire lookout\" whose duty it is to search for wildfires in the wilderness. The fire lookout tower is a small building, usually located on the summit of a mountain or other high vantage point, in order to maximize the viewing distance and range, known as view shed. From this vantage point the fire lookout can see smoke that may develop, determine the location by using a device known as an Osborne Fire Finder, and call fire", "blaze. On 27 February the fire was declared contained, after burning through 35,875 ha (88,650 acres) and destroying 3 sheds, 130 kilometres of fencing, 65 hectares (161 acres) of hardwood forest and 30 tonnes of hay and causing the deaths of 60 head of livestock.\nOn 18 February, a fire ignited in grass along Donnybrook Rd., Donnybrook, and quickly spread to impact upon the Hume Freeway, disrupting traffic. Several hundred firefighters in approximately 80 appliances and supported by 6 firefighting aircraft were required to bring the fire under control by the following morning. During the fire, 2,040 ha (5,000 acres) of scrub, grassland", "time to alert neighbours but the building was destroyed in the fire, but firemen managed to prevent it from spreading to nearby houses. The blaze is believed to have begun shortly after 4 am.\nAccording to Bodkin, There was little the fire brigade could do. It was gone out of control and was blazing. The building is gutted from top to bottom. I went to the McWalters’ house on one side and the Dalys on the other and made sure they were up and did not come to any harm, but the fire brigade managed to stop the fire spreading. It’s", "fire. The police treated the blaze as suspicious, and the investigation was closed a month later after a Scotland Yard spokesman announced that the police had \"exhausted all lines of inquiry\".", "to catch fire. The fire may continue into the 22nd century. The fire was contained in 1973, but was not extinguished. Had the fire not been contained, it would have eventually spread under the entirety of the Wyoming Valley. The fire burns between 200 feet (61 m) and 300 feet (91 m) underground at a temperature of approximately 1,000 °F (538 °C).\nThe creek flooded in September 1850. It was the most severe flood of the creek up to that time. In January 1996, 400 buildings along Solomon Creek flooded by it due to melting snow. This was one of numerous floods on that area", "metal window grills, adding that those who survived managed to escape by jumping directly to the ground while others through the building water pipelines. The fire was finally contained by the fire department at around 6:40 am. Investigations and arrests Investigations were then conducted by police and firefighters to find the cause of fire. Initially, the firefighters thought it may be due to short circuit but after a full investigation and through CCTVs outside the building, several suspects were identified to have infiltrated the area at around 3:10 am. Through other CCTVs footage retrieved from five nearest petrol stations, the", "explains that the fires appear to be the work of an arsonist (\"one of our advertising booklets was mailed back to us anonymously\") who draws an \"X\" across each business which he or she sets ablaze. The next is indicated as \"ACME FUR COMPANY\" and the cut-out letters \"WHEN?\". One of the board members (unbilled Edward Van Sloan) exclaims, \"Arson! Arson! Every time you investigators get up a tree, you cry firebug\". To which the apple-chewing Digby responds, \"Better get Tom Fletcher back, boys\". As the members discuss details, Grayson describes it as \"the biggest campaign of crime ever aimed", "up the two at the height of approximately 50 feet (15 meters).\nThe photo was taken with a motorized camera and also shows falling potted plants. Other photos of the series show Bryant and Jones waiting for a turntable ladder and the moment of the fire escape's collapse with both victims on it. Originally published in the Boston Herald American, the photo circulated in over a hundred newspapers and led to the adoption of new fire escape legislation in the United States. The incident The tillerman of the first fire engine to arrive at the scene, Robert O'Neill, asked 19-year-old Bryant", "Fire investigation Investigating fires In common with many forensic disciplines, one of the early tasks of fire investigation is often to determine whether or not a crime has been committed. The difficulty of determining whether arson has occurred arises because fire often destroys the key evidence of its origin. Many fires are caused by defective equipment, such as shorting of faulty electrical circuits. Car fires can be caused by faulty fuel lines, and spontaneous combustion is possible where organic wastes are stored.\nA fire investigator looks at the fire remains, and obtains information to reconstruct the sequence of events leading up", "they saw it) of the events of 1798. Historical evidence The prelude to the burning of Wildgoose Lodge was an attempted robbery that occurred there in April 1816. A group of men burst into the house, which was occupied by Edward Lynch and his son-in-law Rooney. They were looking for money and arms, which Lynch denied he had, and broke a loom. A fight started, during which Lynch and Rooney escaped to the loft, and the intruders departed. The following day Edward Lynch decided to report the crime, although according to a report from a parish", "building, 23 fatalities were reported due to smoke inhalation. Investigation An investigation made by the Chicago Police Department and fire department. The survivors claimed that the fire was started in a plywood wardrobe closet in Room 306 which was unoccupied at the time. Although the actual cause of the fire was unknown, the Police Bureau of Investigation arrested a housekeeper who was charged with multiple counts of arson. It is unclear, however, how the authorities determined that the fire was an act of arson, and the arsonist's motives for starting the fire were never noted.\nThe investigation also indicated that the", "set the fire. The employees were then questioned and their backgrounds checked; however nothing suspicious was found to implicate any employee in the fire. That left the motive as either revenge for some personal offense, or an amateur thrill arsonist. Because of where the fire started, it was felt that the person starting it must have some knowledge of the layout of Old Tucson. Employment records were checked and one individual was identified as having recently attempted to get a job at Old Tucson, but was turned down. This person became the primary suspect. The subject lived in the nearby", "It is not believed to have touched the ground, but was pushed into a nearby eucalyptus tree by the strong prevailing wind.\nBurning gumleaves fell to the ground and ignited grass, from which the fire grew extremely rapidly in the hot, dry and windy conditions. Over 230 firefighters, with 43 appliances and two water bombing aircraft, worked to contain the fire which burnt 770 ha (1,900 acres). The fire destroyed one house, two haysheds, three tractors, the Coleraine Avenue of Honour, and 200 km (120 mi) of fences, as well as injuring livestock, but firefighters were able to save six other homes, including that", "Protection District, Colorado State Forest Service, USFS and other local agencies. A SEAT (Single Engine Air Tanker) and Helicopter were ordered immediately. The ignition point and foot of the fire was accessible only via 4wd road that would support apparatus no larger than Type 6x NWCG Engine Standards. The fire was named High Park as this is the local name for the area it burned.\nDue to extreme burning conditions, poor access and rapid fire-spread, it became rapidly clear the fire would impact multiple residential areas and evacuations were called for an increasing area through the day. Areas", "If this door had been opened all victims would probably have escaped. It was established that the blaze was so intense due to the highly flammable solvents and paints used in the furniture workshop. The cause of death was given as smoke inhalation. The fire never fully reached the top floor but the hot gases and smoke soon filled the whole building. Despite an investigation by the Police and Fire Brigade, no actual cause for the fire could be given and the Coroner recorded an open verdict. Aftermath Following the fire, there was an outcry, and questions were asked in", "arson. On 10 June 2009, Victoria Police announced that they were 'completely satisfied' that the fire had been deliberately lit.\nOn 2 February 2010, police announced that the taskforce investigating the arson had arrested two youths in relation to the Bendigo fires. The youths, aged 14 and 15, were each charged with arson causing death, deliberately lighting a bushfire, lighting of a fire on a day of total fire ban and lighting of a fire in a country area during extreme weather conditions. They were also charged with multiple counts of using telecommunications systems to menace, harass and offend as well", "later, similarly failed to produce any new information. \"[We know] nothing ... more than we knew about the murder when we started\" Middlesex County District Attorney John Droney told the Times. \"There is no suspect\".\nCanvassing the building did, however, produce a few leads. A child in one other apartment in the building recalled hearing unusual noises on the fire escape that night. Another neighbor of Britton's told police that he had seen a man whom he described as about 6 feet (180 cm) tall and 170 pounds (77 kg) running away from the building at 1:30 a.m. Effect of media coverage Because of", "The Firechasers Plot While investigating the cause of a series of lethal fires in London, U.S. insurance man Quentin Barnaby (Chad Everett) falls in love with beautiful journalist Toby Collins (Anjanette Comer). Working alongside and pooling information with Toby and her photographer, Jim Maxwell (Keith Barron), Barnaby hopes they share a common goal, that of \"firechasing\" the identity of the arsonist responsible. Critical reception TV Guide called it \"so-so entertainment\"; while the Radio Times wrote, \"director Sidney Hayers keeps up the pace as unlikely insurance investigator Everett hunts an arsonist throughout a London peopled with well-known British character actors.\"", "fire had been set on the stairs to the upstairs bar between the street door and the \"solid fire door\" at the second-floor entrance. The \"canvas awning over the street door was untouched.\" From the night of the fire the New Orleans Police Department, the State Fire Marshall's Office and the Fire Prevention Bureau treated the blaze as an arson and repeatedly spoke of it in that light. The police department's chief of detectives, Major Henry Morris, said there was hints of firebombing, but no evidence to prove it. No lighter or trace of gasoline was found. It", "been started by sparking from felled power lines along the Princes Highway, which carried restricted speeds for a short time due to the heavy smoke in the area. Investigations Investigations began almost immediately following the fires to determine a wide variety of things including identification of victims, cause of ignition sources, and assessments of authority responses. A Royal Commission into the Black Saturday bushfires was conducted, a process that was intended to determine the true nature of the background causes, preparation of responsible agencies, circumstances on the day, chronology, and impacts of the events in question. Forensic Chief Commissioner of", "was never able finish the story of what had happened in the woods when he was a kid, he became driven to finish all the other stories he could find. The investigation leads them to discover a serial killer who has been operating for at least thirty years with an unknown number of victims, all people who won't be missed. The investigation leads them to the identity of the girl Castle saw murdered and a showdown between Castle and the killer after he breaks into the man's barn in search of evidence. Castle is forced to fatally shoot the killer" ]

[ "Usually it leaves them scrambling. I know when John Ritter died they actually had to write that death into \"8 Simple Rules\".", "It depends on the situation, how much the actor has already shot, if it's an ongoing series etc. Ledger hadn't shot many scenes of Dr. Parnassus if I remember right so they put in what he had done then got other actors to do the other bits as a tribute.\n\nWhen John Ritter died he had already taped 3 episodes of the next season of the show he was on, *8 Simple Rules*. They were shown, then on the 4th the writers had his character die and the show became about the remaining characters dealing with his death.", "Every one I can think if they wrote it into the script.\n\nOnly Fools and Horses (British sitcom) had a whole scene at grandad's funeral. It was funny but sad. He was replaced by an Uncle character.\n\nDidn't Finn in Glee have his death written into the scrip?. I actually haven't seen it but I think that is the case.", "When Brandon Lee died on the set of The Crow, they used the footage he had already shot and used body doubles and CGI to fill the remainder of the movie.\n\nAaliyah died during the filming of The Matrix Reloaded, her part was recast and the scenes she had done were shot again using the new actress.", "Oliver Reed died during filming for Gladiator and they had to use cgi to recreate him for his last scenes I believe. At an estimated cost of around $3 million." ]

[ "Traces of Death Film content In the first two films of the series, Damon Fox was the narrator. Darrin Ramage, who would later become the founder of Brain Damage Films, would become the host for the third, fourth and fifth volumes. Unlike Faces of Death, the footage throughout the entire films are real and are not staged or reenacted. Starting with Traces of Death 2, scenes were accompanied by background music from death metal and grindcore bands. Also contained in the series, especially in the first one, is footage of step-by-step autopsy procedures, which are shown from a coroner's point", "in the warehouse leaving ruins and bodies in its wake. Finally, he prepares for death as he rests his head on the shoulder of an actress who had previously played Ellen's mother, seemingly the only person in the warehouse still alive. As the scene fades to gray, Caden says that now he has an idea of how to do the play when the director's voice in his ear gives him his final cue: \"Die.\" Production The film began when Sony Pictures Classics approached Kaufman and Spike Jonze about making a horror film. The two began working on a film dealing", "the film was shot.\" The Dead One was filmed on location in New Orleans, Louisiana by the independent Mardi Gras Films, which produced only one other movie, Face of Fire (1959), made in association with AB Svensk Filmidustri. Little is known about the actors and production crew of The Dead One, other than that a number of them worked on one or more of the 60 films Mahon had directed by 1970.\nThe Dead One was shot in Eastmancolor and Ultrascope, a \"form of Cinemascope from Germany\" with an aspect ratio of 1.85:1. It is significantly one of the first two", "Kill off The killing off of a character is a device in fiction, whereby a character dies, but the story continues. The term, frequently applied to television, film and chronological series, often denotes an untimely or unexpected death motivated by factors beyond the storyline.\nIn productions featuring actors, the unwillingness or inability of an actor to continue with the production for financial or other reasons (including illness, death, or producers' unwillingness to retain an actor) may lead to that character being \"killed off\" or removed from the storyline in another way. Television Because of the episodic format of television shows, audience", "actual actors. The death scenes, the memorial, the forest scene and the scenes in Paris were all filmed in Victoria. Additional scenes were filmed in Toronto and San Francisco. For the airport, the crew used Vancouver International Airport as a stand-in for John F. Kennedy International Airport, the airport mentioned in the film. Effects The plan behind the scenes was to create an intriguing visual signature. To serve the subtleties of the script and to help personify death, production designer John Willet developed the concept of \"skewing\" the sets. \"What I've tried to do with the sets themselves, with their", "of Collaboration. TCM Remembers Most of the actors appearing in most TCM films are deceased. In December 1994, TCM debuted \"TCM Remembers\", a tribute to recently deceased notable film personalities (including actors, producers, composers, directors, writers and cinematographers) that occasionally airs during promotional breaks between films. The segments appear in two forms: individual tributes and a longer end-of-year compilation. Following the recent death of an especially famous classic film personality (usually an actor, producer, filmmaker or director), the segment will feature a montage of select shots of the deceased's work.\nEvery December, a longer, more inclusive \"TCM Remembers\" interstitial is produced", "Death on the Run (1954 film) Synopsis Two struggling actors attempt to make the headlines by pretending one of them has been murdered. However, events soon get out of hand.", "of the Living Dead have been made by authors such as Roberta E. Pearson and Philip Simpson in their book, Critical Dictionary of Film and Television Theory, as well as J. Hoberman and Jonathan Rosenbaum in the book, Midnight Movies. Costumes for the two characters in this scene are nearly identical to those of the two main characters from the 1972 film What's Up, Doc?\nThe song is an awkward musical marriage proposal by Brad to Janet, after both have attended the wedding of two high school friends, just before setting off to visit their high school science teacher. The music", "which historical figures pitch their life stories to a panel of Hollywood producers played by League of Gentlemen actors Mark Gatiss, Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith, used the format of a former commercial campaign for Orange's cinema reminders to turn mobiles off.\nThe show also created several popular recurring characters and concepts, notably \"Stupid Deaths\", in which a skeletal, platinum-blond Grim Reaper amuses himself while processing souls for admittance to the afterlife by forcing candidates from throughout history to relate the embarrassing details of their demise. HHTV News' Bob Hale and his eccentric-but-erudite in-studio reports provide a broader picture on historical", "Film Fatales Film Fatales is a non-profit which advocates for parity in the entertainment industry and supports a community of women feature film directors who meet regularly to mentor each other, collaborate on projects and share resources. History The group was founded in 2013 by Leah Meyerhoff in New York City. \nPrior to the 2018 Tribeca Film Festival, Film Fatales announced two events, including a luncheon with WGA East and The Writer’s Lab along with several other organizations. It was also revealed that 10 of its members would have their films featured at the festival. Membership Since its founding, Film", "Dead in Hollywood Origins \"Dead in Hollywood\" was originally entitled \"Horray for Horrorwood\", and was written by Wednesday 13 while he was in his last band Frankenstein Drag Queens from Planet 13 and was recorded and put on their third album Songs from the Recently Deceased.\nThe people and characters they tribute in the song are as follow:\n\n1) Frankenstein\n\n2) Dracula\n\n3) Vincent Price as Dr. Phibes\n\n4) Fritz\n\n5) Ed Wood \n\n6) Norman Bates (from Psycho)\n\n7) Leatherface (from The Texas Chain Saw Massacre)\n\n8) Tall Man (from Phantasm) Music video The music video for \"Dead in Hollywood\", directed by P. R. Brown, is very horror-oriented.", "that they weren't informed in advance of this development, and neither were their agencies; everyone, including the drama crew, only found out when they received the script before the scenes were to be filmed. This was reportedly writer Im Sung-han's decision; the actors had previously expressed their concerns to her about the storytelling's direction. The Korean press used the term \"cast kill\" to refer to the tendency of Im's past dramas (such as Dear Heaven, Assorted Gems, New Tales of Gisaeng) to abruptly kill off characters. In terms of production logistics, the fired actors still received the agreed-upon fixed salary", "the Dawn of the Dead films. Premise The show roasts or \"riffs\" bad public domain movies in a style purposely similar to the format established by MST3K, while adding its own original story and characters.\nThe series follows a soldier and his robot friends who find themselves trapped in an abandoned movie theater during the \"zompocalypse.\" Also in residence is the mad inventor (and later a far more villainous special agent) who owns and controls the theater and, in turn, forces them to watch bad movies in exchange for shelter from the swarming zombies outside.\nThe soldier and his robot friends provide", "that honors all of the noted film personalities who died during the past year, interspersed with scenes from settings such as an abandoned drive-in (2012) or a theatre which is closing down and is being dismantled (2013). Since 2001, the soundtracks for these clipreels have been introspective melodies by indie artists and/or singer-songwriters such as Badly Drawn Boy (2007) or Steve Earle (2009). Accolades TCM received a 2008 Peabody Award for its dedication to film preservation and \"a continuing, powerful commitment to a central concept—the place of film in social and cultural experience\".\nTCM received a 2013 Peabody Award for its", "actors who have died. When actors pass away during a movie production, a digital clone of the actor can be synthesized using past footage, photos, and voice recordings to mimic the real person in order to continue the movie production.\nModern artificial intelligence, has allowed for the creation of deepfakes. This involves manipulation of a video to the point where the person depicted in the video is saying or performing actions he or she may not have consented to. In April 2018, BuzzFeed released a deepfake video of Jordan Peele, which was manipulated to depict former President, Barack Obama, making statements", "nature of who or what (if anything) caused the deaths is not resolved in the end, and the audience is left to decide on the film's narrative.", "especially a re-enactment of the execution on the original location. However, permission was eventually granted, and filming took place. (The movie was primarily photographed in and around Berlin, with some African and other scenes filmed in California.) Director Bryan Singer led the film crew in a minute of silence before filming began, in honour of those who were killed on the site in 1944. The film was also criticised for factual inaccuracies, e.g. by Stauffenberg's son Berthold.", "In a practice reminiscent of the mystery movie series of the 1930s and 1940s, the show rarely used guest stars in the roles of victims, killers and suspects, but instead used the same ensemble of supporting actors each week. An actor who had been \"killed off\" in one show might portray the murderer in the next. Actress Kari Matchett was a member of this repertory group while also having a recurring role in the series as Archie Goodwin's girlfriend Lily Rowan; other frequent members of the troupe included Nicky Guadagni, Debra Monk, George Plimpton, Ron Rifkin, Francie Swift, and James", "The Man Who Liked Funerals Synopsis In order to help a youth club which is under threat of closure, a man begins attending funerals where he blackmails the relatives of the recently deceased, threatening to publish incriminating stories about them. However, his plans encounter problems when he tries to blackmail the family of a prominent villain. Critical reception It was one of 15 films selected by Steve Chibnall and Brian McFarlane in The British 'B' Film, their survey of British B films, as among the most meritorious of the B films made in Britain between World War II and 1970.", "Dead Along the Way Production The film tells the story of two wedding videographers who find themselves unexpectedly dealing with a dead body, overly-enthusiastic Gardaí, fertility treatment,a vengeful gangster and an imminent wedding. The film was shot in Laois and Dublin. The film is a co-production between ORion Productions and Burnt Ice Pictures. Plot Wacker and Tony – a pair of down-on-their-luck videographers – are about to video a wedding, and they think their lives can’t get any worse. Wacker’s wife has chucked him out, he has been beaten up over money she borrowed for fertility treatment, and a drink-fueled", "This scene was later cut out of the film, and he is, instead, killed off-screen in a hot tub.\nAn alternate ending of the film was shot in Toronto. In this scene, her character Patti O'Connor delivers a monologue on a theater stage surrounded by her dead victims. This alternate ending was not used in the final cut of the film. According to Michael MacLaverty, film editor for \"Curtains, the alternate theater ending was ultimately discarded because Alana Simpson, then wife of producer Peter Simpson, felt it was \"too improbable.\" \"[Alana] couldn’t really accept the fact that all these corpses were", "Die Alive Die Alive is a Canadian feature film directed by JF Leduc. It was shot on DV in 2000 and released on DVD in 2001.\nDie Alive is a comedy that tells the story of a no-budget film crew attempting to shoot a horror film in an abandoned hospital that turns out to be really haunted.\nAccording to director JF Leduc, it was originally intended to shoot the \"movie-in-the-movie\" that the characters are shooting over a three-week period. Just 24 hours before the \"get go\", it was announced that they could no longer get the hospital for the three weeks they", "used for filming and have appeared in several productions including the feature film Paperhouse, and the television series EastEnders and Waking the Dead.", "dead. As the film rolls over a sea of trees, a sharp intake of breath is heard, suggesting Jules survived the second fall. Production In the early stages of the film's development, the main characters were a husband and wife (rather than a same-sex couple).\nFilming took place in Muskoka, Ontario.\nAllen composed the film's score, earning her first such credit. Release What Keeps You Alive had its world premiere at the SXSW Film Festival on March 10, 2018. Since then, the film has also screened at Inside Out, the Sydney Film Festival, Cinepocalypse, and Popcorn Frights, as well as other festivals.\nIFC", "with actual persons, living\n\nor dead, is intended or should be inferred.\" Box Office The film was a massive hit in Japan.\nAccording to Warner Bros.' accounts, the film was the studio's most expensive and most popular film of 1936, earning $1,176,000 domestically and $1,560,000 foreign. Awards Jack Sullivan won the Academy Award for Best Assistant Director for his work on the film, and the film was also nominated for the Academy Award for Sound (Nathan Levinson) and the Academy Award for Original Music Score.", "Dead Ringer (1964), Camelot (1967) and The Producers (1967). She later denigrated the last film, saying she could not imagine why she had done it except for the money.\nHer other work for television included guest roles in Dennis the Menace, The Twlight Zone, Thriller, Dr. Kildare, The Man from U.N.C.L.E., The Name of the Game, Bewitched, Batman, Love, American Style, Cannon, Police Story, The FBI, and the last episode of Perry Mason, titled \"The Case of the Final Fade-Out\", in which she plays an aging actress who ends up as a second defendant.\nWinwood's final film appearance, at age 92", "The Executioner (1975 film) Plot An executioner and his family try to survive from the dead. Remake The newer film I Will Survive is based on the film, although there is a difference when a main character rapes the daughter of noble man whom he had executed and saves her from jail.", "Big Shot's Funeral Plot World-renowned American film director Rob Tyler (played by Donald Sutherland) is shooting a remake of The Last Emperor in the Forbidden City, Beijing. The director's assistant Lucy, a Chinese American (Rosamund Kwan), hires a Beijing cameraman named YoYo (Ge You) to shoot a \"making of\" documentary. The director discovers he has ailing health and is booted by the film's producer from the shoot. After witnessing a Chinese funeral for the elderly, Tyler tells YoYo he wants to have a similar \"comedy funeral\". Soon afterwards the American director falls into a coma. YoYo is officially", "Dead\" until Land of the Dead, each film is laden with social commentary on topics ranging from racism to consumerism. The films are not produced as direct follow-ups from one another and their only continuation is the theme of the epidemic of the living dead. This situation advances with each film, showing the world in a worsening state, but each film is independent of its predecessor. This is exemplified by the fact that each movie is set within the era it is filmed, with Land of the Dead being set in modern times with current (as of 2005) technology", "assets because they were based on Earthly vegetation.\" The filmmakers put together kits with artwork and actual replicas of the stones used in the film to send to the actors, rather than just an offer letter. Once the cast had signed on, the filmmakers had to travel to where the actors were with all their equipment rather than have the actors come to them to record their voices. Anne Bancroft, the voice of villainess Sedessa, died in 2005, before production finished. On the film's end credits, the film is dedicated to her. Aside from the death of Bancroft, the film" ]

[ "The volume control on your laptop or speakers essentially controls the loudest volume you can get - anything that tries to be louder can be distorted. But anything quieter than that is possible.\n\nSo what might be happening in the movie is that the radio might start at a quarter of the maximum volume level. When they show him turning the dial, they also increase the sound of the radio to half, or three quarters, or full. So it is getting louder, although it can only get up to a certain point. It wouldn't be possible to get your earbuds to be as loud as a rock concert, for example." ]

[ "is called upon to handle the most significant part of the audible sound spectrum, the region where the most fundamentals emitted by musical instruments and, most importantly, the human voice, lie. This region contains most sounds which are the most familiar to the human ear, and where discrepancies from faithful reproduction are most easily observed. It is therefore paramount that a mid-range driver of good quality be capable of low-distortion reproduction.\nMost television sets and small radios have only a single mid-range driver, or two for stereo sound. Since, in the case of television the most important aspect is the talking,", "in the dynamics of recorded sound has to do with a desire for noise reduction. This desire is representative of a mode of recording referred to by scholar James Lastra as \"telephonic:\" a mode in which sound is regarded as having hierarchically important qualities, with clarity and intelligibility being the most important aspects. This contrasts with phonographic recording, which generates a \"point of audition\" from which a sense of space can be derived, sacrificing quality for uniqueness and fidelity. This technique is often used in movies to demonstrate how a character hears something (such as muffled voices through a closed", "crash into a wall).\nTV viewers can be affected as well. If a home theater receiver with external speakers is used, then the display lag causes the audio to be heard earlier than the picture is seen. \"Early\" audio is more jarring than \"late\" audio. Many home-theater receivers have a manual audio-delay adjustment which can be set to compensate for display latency. Game mode Many televisions, scalers and other consumer-display devices now offer what is often called a \"game mode\" in which the extensive preprocessing responsible for additional lag is specifically sacrificed to decrease, but not eliminate, latency. While typically intended", "original study describing this phenomenon was conducted by Howard and Templeton, (1966) after which several studies have replicated and built upon the conclusions they reached. In conditions in which the visual cue is unambiguous, visual capture reliably occurs. Thus to test the influence of sound on perceived location, the visual stimulus must be progressively degraded. Furthermore, given that auditory stimuli are more attuned to temporal changes, recent studies have tested the ability of temporal characteristics to influence the spatial location of visual stimuli. Some types of EVP – electronic voice phenomenon, mainly the ones using sound bubbles are considered a", "level of sound presented to a human listener. Psychoacoustic analysis reveals that sound pressure level is a less than ideal predictor of human reception of noise, so efforts have been made since the 1960s to apply loudness metrics instead, which can incorporate other factors such as spectral and temporal auditory masking and level-dependent frequency weighting to more accurately track human reception. Integration of individual sounds into an auditory or dose estimate has traditionally followed an extension of Stevens's power law which applies simple power or energy summation such that a sound lasting twice as long is considered of equal impact", "computer fans. Although the threshold of hearing is typically around 0 dB SPL, this is in fact very quiet indeed, and appliances are more likely to have noise levels of 30 to 40 dB SPL. Audio reproduction and broadcasting equipment Human sensitivity to noise in the region of 6 kHz became particularly apparent in the late 1960s with the introduction of compact cassette recorders and Dolby-B noise reduction. A-weighted noise measurements were found to give misleading results because they did not give sufficient prominence to the 6 kHz region where the noise reduction was having greatest effect, and sometimes one piece of equipment would", "or carried separately (SCPC) on a single transponder. Advances in noise reduction due to improved microwave technology and semiconductor materials have also had an effect. However, one consequence of the higher frequencies used for DBS services is rain fade where viewers lose signal during a heavy downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade. Television sets A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television sets became", "commercials are heavily compressed (typically to a dynamic range of no more than 3 dB) to achieve near-maximum perceived loudness while staying within permissible limits. This causes a problem that TV viewers often notice: when a station switches from minimally compressed program material to a heavily compressed commercial, the volume sometimes seems to increase dramatically. Peak loudness might be the same—meeting the letter of the law—but high compression puts much more of the audio in the commercial at close to the maximum allowable, making the commercial seem much louder. Over-usage Record companies, mixing engineers and mastering engineers have been gradually increasing", "to which the ear is less sensitive at lower sound pressure levels. Normalization Loudness normalization is a specific type of audio normalization that equalizes perceived level such that, for instance, commercials do not sound louder than television programs. Loudness normalization schemes exist for a number of audio applications. Measurement Historically Sone (loudness N) and Phon (loudness level L) units have been used to measure loudness.\nA-weighting follows human sensitivity to sound and describes relative perceived loudness for at quiet to moderate speech levels, around 40 phons.\nRelative loudness monitoring in production is measured in accordance with ITU-R BS.1770 in units of LKFS.\nWork", "that they were tired of listening to, while leaving the image present so that the viewer would know when to turn the sound back on.", "on the negative effects of sound on human beings, as in exposure to environmental noise. Noise has been shown to correlate with health-related problems like stress, reduced sleep and cardiovascular disease. More recently however, it has also been shown that some sounds, like sounds of nature and music, can have positive effects on health. While the negative effects of sound has been widely acknowledged by organizations like EU (END 2002/49) and WHO (Burden of noise disease), the positive effects have as yet received less attention. The positive effects of nature sounds can be acknowledged in everyday planning of urban and", "the show. However, due to BBC radio budget limitations, this was not used in the completed series. Nicholas Briggs had also originally created a very deep, realistic soundscape, similar to those he had created for the Big Finish Productions Doctor Who audioplays, but was advised that \"it's likely the listener will have distractions and will not listen to it more than once; therefore, the soundscape must be totally accessible from any point in the episode\", toning down the sound effects to match the series' comic nature. Recording The Moat Studios in London recorded Nebulous in stereo, with each half-hour episode", "sound as its amplitude increases in proportion to how much a sound differs in frequency from a preceding one. Neuromagnetic research has linked it further to perception by finding that the auditory cortex has a tonotopic organization to N100. However, it also shows a link to a person's arousal and selective attention. N100 is decreased when a person controls the creation of auditory stimuli, such as their own voice. Elicitation The N100 is often known as the \"auditory N100\" because it is elicited by perception of auditory stimuli. Specifically, it has been found to be sensitive to things such", "the best condition possible to enhance the listening experience. Media content owners have come to recognize the importance of having clean sound on their products to enhance the commercial value of their media assets.\nThe byproduct of these restoration efforts is that many audio sources are brought into the digital world and preserved for future use. An unfortunate fact is that most of the sound recordings and motion picture soundtracks created over the past century have been lost due to improper storage and neglect. \nEnhancements are often done to motion picture soundtracks. For example taking a mono or", "the initial sound (or notes in the case of music) activates a cohort of possible matches in memory, which is narrowed as the sound (or melody) progresses.\nMusic serves the function of making a product more memorable to viewers, as it is known to \"linger in the listener's mind.\" When used in an advertisement, the content of the ad lingers along with the music. Easily recognizable music is put in television ads to produce a “significant positive relationship with recall and comprehension” for the viewer. On top of this, “recall of information is improved when cued with a well-known song.”", "hardly changed. What in fact was sounding is what we had played the day before and recorded, and now was started up on several tape recorders. When the audience finally left the house, we were already 30 kilometers further away at a restaurant. Some people were still in the house and, as we were told, said to one another: \"Oh, heck, they got clean away\" [Auditorium laughs.] (Stockhausen 2009, 248)", "to 10 dB louder than sound emanating from the stage. The first arrival of sound from the source on stage determines perceived localization whereas the slightly later sound from delayed loudspeakers simply increases the perceived sound level without negatively affecting localization. In this configuration, the listener will localize all sound from the direction of the direct sound, but they will benefit from the higher sound level, which has been enhanced by the loudspeakers. Ambience extraction The precedence effect can be employed to increase the perception of ambience during the playback of stereo recordings. If two speakers are placed to the left", "the ability for the human ear to hear clearly after prolonged exposure to loud sounds) reduces the ability of the sound engineer to hear the individual components of the mix (i.e. separate instruments and voices on the stage) accurately.", "around 2002, proposes that some listeners with sensorineural hearing loss may exhibit a normal rate of loudness growth, but instead have an elevated loudness at their threshold. That is, the softest sound that is audible to these listeners is louder than the softest sound audible to normal listeners. Compensation The \"loudness\" control associated with a loudness compensation feature on some consumer stereos alters the frequency response curve to correspond roughly with the equal loudness characteristic of the ear. Loudness compensation is intended to make the recorded music sound more natural when played at a lower levels by boosting low frequencies,", "sporting events, car racing, woodworking, pubs, people's activities on the street, etc.\nSound propagation outdoors is subject to meteorological effects (e.g. wind, temperature) that affect the distance, speed, and direction with which environmental noise travels from a source to a listener. Environmental noise and health effects Noise and quality of life are correlated. The increase of environmental noise, especially for those living near railways and airports, has created conflict. Getting adequate and quality sleep is difficult for those who live in areas of high noise exposure. When the body is at rest, noise stimuli is continually being presented in the", "signals of Quad LPs popular in the 1970s were at 30 kHz to be out of the range of human hearing. The average human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from 20 Hz to a maximum of around 20,000 Hz. The upper and lower frequency limits of human hearing vary per person. High frequency sensitivity decreases as a person ages, a process called presbycusis. By contrast, hearing damage from loud noise exposure typically makes it more difficult to hear lower frequencies, such as three kHz through six kHz. Production For the first several decades of disc record manufacturing, sound was recorded directly on", "among our private senses, but among themselves, when they interact among themselves. Radio changed the form of the news story as much as it altered the film image in the talkies. TV caused drastic changes in radio programming, and in the form of the thing or documentary novel. (53)\nIt has also resulted in the translation of human consciousness \"more and more into the form of information\":\nBy putting our physical bodies inside our extended nervous systems, by means of electric media, we set up a dynamic by which all previous technologies that are mere extensions… of our bodies… will be translated", "Emphasis (telecommunications) Typically, prior to some process, such as transmission over cable, or recording to phonograph record or tape, the input frequency range most susceptible to noise is boosted. This is referred to as \"pre-emphasis\" – before the process the signal will undergo. Later, when the signal is received, or retrieved from recording, the reverse transformation is applied (\"de-emphasis\") so that the output accurately reproduces the original input. Any noise added by transmission or record/playback, to the frequency range previously boosted, is now attenuated in the de-emphasis stage.\nThe high-frequency signal components are emphasized to produce a more equal modulation index for", "volume can be gradually increased to increase privacy. Manufacturers of sleeping aids and power-napping devices recommend that the volume level be set slightly louder than normal music listening level, but always in a comfortable listening range.\nSound and noise have their own measurement and color coding techniques, which allows specialized users to identify noise and sound according to their respective needs and utilization. These specialized needs are dependent on certain professions and needs, e.g. a psychiatrist who needs certain sounds for therapies and treatments on a mental level, and patients who have conditions such as insomnia, anxiety, and, tinnitus (these", "environment, but also the fact that both the ear and the brain are involved in a person’s listening experience.\nThe inner ear, for example, does significant signal processing in converting sound waveforms into neural stimuli, so certain differences between waveforms may be imperceptible. Data compression techniques, such as MP3, make use of this fact. In addition, the ear has a nonlinear response to sounds of different intensity levels; this nonlinear response is called loudness. Telephone networks and audio noise reduction systems make use of this fact by nonlinearly compressing data samples before transmission, and then expanding them for playback.", "to purify the sound, to not have anything there not played by us. We reasoned that if we made small changes at the input end, we could effect large changes in the output.\" According to producer Stephen Street, \"Blur had decided that commercial pressures and writing hit singles wasn't going to be the main consideration any more. The mood in the studio was very different to when I'd first worked with them.\" \"In the studio, once we got past those first few days, where I felt everyone was treading on eggshells, there was a great atmosphere. I think it was", "in the brain) is present, the perception of loudness is altered. Sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired, but sounds at high levels often are perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. This phenomenon can be explained by two theories, called loudness recruitment and softness imperception.\nLoudness recruitment posits that loudness grows more rapidly for certain listeners than normal listeners with changes in level. This theory has been accepted as the classical explanation.\nSoftness imperception, a term coined by Mary Florentine", "rural environments, as well as in specific health treatment situations, like nature-based sound therapy and nature-based rehabilitation.\nSoundscapes from a computerized acoustic device with a camera may also offer synthetic vision to the blind, utilizing human echolocation, as is the goal of the seeing with sound project. Soundscapes and noise pollution Papers on noise pollution are increasingly taking a holistic, soundscape approach to noise control. Whereas acoustics tends to rely on lab measurements and individual acoustic characteristics of cars and so on, soundscape takes a top-down approach. Drawing on John Cage's ideas of the whole world as composition, soundscape researchers investigate", "era can be attributed, in part, to technological limitations; recording equipment was not easily portable. 1940s An important moment in the establishment of radio documentary as a widely used and discussed format is the expansion of portable audio recording devices. In 1945, sound archivist and radio producer, Tony Schwartz began to use portable audio recording equipment to collect the sounds of his neighborhood in New York City to share on his WNYC radio show; his features ran for 30 years and grew to include the sounds of daily life recorded by and mailed to him from people around the world.", "suffer from sound annoyance. Other factors that correlate with sound annoyance are increased absence form work, sleep disturbance, and interference with performing cognitive tasks like paying attention at school.\nFor a more detailed article about health effects: health effects from noise. Measurement Historically, nuisance sound has been measured using A-weighted sound pressure level metrics such as LA,Smax which indicates the maximum sound pressure level with one-second time integration, LDN, a 24-hour average of daytime and weighted nighttime sound level, or other long term time-averages. Measurement is made using a sound level meter with appropriate statistical averaging and corrections to predict the" ]

[ "Not an expert in the topic but I have some knowledge\n\nDebt isn't necessarily a bad thing as it represents a flow of money. This is why the average lifestyle in America is comfortably more lavish than those of in China. This is made possible because Americans are in better position to take out large loans and pay them back in the future.\n\nIf all the debt were to be wiped out then that would mean banks would lose a very high percentage of income.\n\nHeres where my knowledge stops as my train of thought has been limited to what I know.", "In the United States, a bit more than half of the debt is held by the public, meaning individuals, banks or businesses & corporations or to government programs (such as Social Security).\n\nBut in regards to your question that if hypothetically if the world's debt was owed from country to country and wiped out, there would be major inflation because of the influx of money now available on the world's market.\n\nMore money available might sound like a good thing but it actually undermines the value of it. Almost every government uses fiat money, which means that there's no real value (backed by gold). We believe there's value to it because we put faith in the government that issues it as legal tender." ]

[ "its debts are rescheduled until a later date. If the country is also determined to suffer from debt sustainability problems, where it lacks the long-term resources to meet its debt obligations and the amount of debt adversely affects its future ability to pay, the country is eligible for debt cancellation. Policies for heavily indebted poor countries The great difficulties of some developing countries to break the cycle of debt led creditor countries of the Paris Club to adopt more ambitious policies.\nIn October 1988, creditors decided to implement a new treatment for the debt of the poorest countries. This new treatment", "Debt of developing countries Debt abolition There is much debate about whether the richer countries should be asked for money which has to be repaid. The Jubilee Debt Campaign gives six reasons why the third world debts should be cancelled. Firstly, several governments want to spend more money on poverty reduction but they lose that money in paying off their debts. Economist Jeff Rubin agrees with this stance on the basis that the money could have been used for basic human needs and says it is Odious Debt. Secondly, the lenders knew that they gave to dictators or oppressive regimes", "War debt payments by World War I Allies to the U.S. had been suspended in 1931—only Finland paid in full—and American public opinion demanded repayments resume as a condition of U.S. postwar aid. Germany had suspended its reparations payments due under the 1919 Versailles Treaty and payable to Britain, France and others, as well as loans due to the United States. Chancellor Konrad Adenauer decided that permanent good will required their resumption. The 1953 Agreement on German External Debts, which resumed German's war reparations, is a notable example of international debt relief. Less Developed Country Debt Debt relief for heavily", "Mexico would no longer be able to service its debt. Mexico stated that it could not meet its payment due-dates, and announced unilaterally a moratorium of 90 days; it also requested a renegotiation of payment periods and new loans in order to fulfill its prior obligations.\nIn the wake of Mexico's sovereign default, most commercial banks reduced significantly or halted new lending to Latin America. As much of Latin America's loans were short-term, a crisis ensued when their refinancing was refused. Billions of dollars of loans that previously would have been refinanced, were now due immediately.\nThe banks had", "as more problematic than defaulting.\nA politically unstable state is anything but risk-free as it may—being sovereign—cease its payments. Examples of this phenomenon include Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries, which nullified its government debt seven times during a century, and revolutionary Russia of 1917 which refused to accept the responsibility for Imperial Russia's foreign debt. Another political risk is caused by external threats. It is mostly uncommon for invaders to accept responsibility for the national debt of the annexed state or that of an organization it considered as rebels. For example, all borrowings by the Confederate States of America", "when a country is collapsing due to resource depletion as the elites attempt to hoard the diminishing wealth or expand debts to maintain stability, which will tend to enrich creditors and financiers.\nOther nations may become plutocratic through kleptocracy or rent-seeking.", "and political consecration of the debt through treaties.\nPresent key debates focus on how is the debt going to be paid back. First, some academia have pushed for financial debt cancellation rather than being paid for ecological damages and then paying back the country's national financial debt. However, financial debts were not even agree by people (in developing countries especially) in the first place, calling it the unfair \"Volcker debt\". Accepting this option could hold the risk of giving legitimize credits to these financial debts. A second solution proposed is the Basic Income Guarantee (BIG) or the universal basic income. It", "they could not depreciate the currency to dampen the impact of negative shocks and restore balance in current account, which ultimately contributed to the European sovereign-debt crisis. Another reason for not having several currency crises following the banking collapses was probably the \"liability dollarization\" practiced by some countries, since in this case a currency devaluation would imply a considerable increase in the Sovereign debt/GDP ratio, as the debt of such a country would be denominated in US dollars (or another foreign currency) and its assets would be denominated in local currency.", "national debt are not made, the US would be in default, potentially causing catastrophic economic consequences for the US and the wider world as well. (Effects outside the US would be likely because the United States is a major trading partner with many countries. Other major world powers who hold its debt could demand repayment.)\nAccording to the Treasury, \"failing to increase the debt limit would . . . cause the government to default on its legal obligations – an unprecedented event in American history\". These legal obligations include paying Social Security and Medicare benefits, military salaries, interest on the debt,", "marks would not be too high a estimate for the damage sustained so far. At present our national debt is 250 milliards, in 3 months our debts will be as high as our total assets..\nYou, Field-Marshal know that all theories which maintain that this means nothing and that a pernicious economy based on debt can go on unpunished are sheer nonsense. No, the German people is faced with the decision either to declare itself bankrupt; then we have all lost everything and industry has no capital. As this is an impossible situation because it would mean revolution on the largest", "borrow in their own domestic currency. In other words, a poor country is forced to borrow funds denominated in foreign exchange (e.g. the U.S. dollar, the euro, or the yen). Based on their measure of original sin the authors show that original sin was present in most of the developing economies and independent from histories of high inflation and currency depreciation. This is seen as problematic because if the borrowing country's domestic currency depreciates, the loan will become more difficult to pay back, since their currency is now worth less relative to the loan.\nLater research has mainly focused on the", "of Versailles, which were then cancelled in 1932 with Germany only having paid a part of the sum. This still left Germany with debts it had incurred in order to finance the reparations, and these were revised by the Agreement on German External Debts in 1953. After another pause pending the reunification of Germany, the last installment of these debt repayments was paid on 3 October 2010. World War II Germany During World War II, Nazi Germany extracted payments from occupied countries and compelled loans. In addition, countries were obliged to provide resources, and forced labour.\nAfter World War II, according", "for a further debt cancellation from civil society groups. In light of the tragedy and new borrowing that lifted Haiti's debts back to $1.25 billion, groups such as the Jubilee Debt Campaign called for this debt to be dropped. Furthermore, during the aftermath emergency money was offered to the Haitian government from the IMF in the form of loans. Civil society groups protested the offer of loans and not grants for such an already heavily indebted country trying to cope with such destruction. Some have argued, however, that because Haiti's annual debt service payments are so low ($9 million a", "a criminal act. Some countries limit the use of imprisonment of people who are in debt as a method of forcing their repayment. Denying existence Some debtors pretend to be deceased to avoid paying. For example, if called, the debtor may say s/he is another person and claim the debtor does not live there or has died. Court summons avoidance Some debt is collected by court order. The debtor is summoned to court and must be served by a summons, usually at the hands of a sheriff. Many attempt to avoid contact with the sheriff and pretend they never received", "not pay back the U.S. The solution at Versailles for the French, British, and Americans seemed to entail ultimately charging Germany for the debts. If the demands on Germany were unrealistic, then it was unrealistic for France to pay back Britain, and for Britain to pay back the US. Thus, many \"assets\" on bank balance sheets internationally were actually unrecoverable loans, which culminated in the 1931 banking crisis. Intransigent insistence by creditor nations for the repayment of Allied war debts and reparations, combined with an inclination to isolationism, led to a breakdown of the international financial system", "a scheduled payment, or has violated a covenant in the debt contract. Default may occur if the debtor is either unwilling or unable to pay its debt. This can occur with all debt obligations including bonds, mortgages, loans, and promissory notes.\nIf the debt owed becomes beyond the possibility of repayment, the debtor faces insolvency or bankruptcy; in the United Kingdom and some states of the United States until the mid-19th century, debtors could be imprisoned in debtor's prisons, while in some countries such as Greece debtors are still imprisoned. Debtor in Bankruptcy and Individual Voluntary Arrangements An Individual Voluntary Arrangement", "to obtain the foreign currency to pay the interest or redeem the bonds. In 1997 and 1998, during the Asian financial crisis, this became a serious problem when many countries were unable to keep their exchange rate fixed due to speculative attacks. Risk Although a national government may choose to default for political reasons, lending to a national government in the country's own sovereign currency is generally considered \"risk free\" and is done at a so-called \"risk-free interest rate\". This is because the debt and interest can be repaid by raising tax receipts (either by economic growth or raising tax", "regime of extortionate or unpayable debt on weak Third World governments that do not have the capacity to pay the interest on these loans without severely affecting the well-being or even the viability of the local population. The attempt by weak Third World governments to service external debt with the sale of valuable hard and soft commodities on world markets is seen by some to be destructive of local cultures, destroying local communities and their environment. Government Control vs Central Bank independence To regulate credit creation, some countries have created a currency board, or granted independence to their central", "acquired a burden of foreign debt that made the country effectively bankrupt even before the collapse of its currency. As the crisis spread, most of Southeast Asia and Japan saw slumping currencies, devalued stock markets and other asset prices, and a precipitous rise in private debt.\nIndonesia, South Korea, and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis. Hong Kong, Laos, Malaysia and the Philippines were also hurt by the slump. Brunei, mainland China, Singapore, Taiwan, and Vietnam were less affected, although all suffered from a loss of demand and confidence throughout the region. Japan was also affected, though less", "97% of Mexico’s debt holders.\nThere was a significant amount of pressure from both the United States and Europe for Mexico to repay its debts and to deal with issues around Article 27 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States. Different priorities There was a tension between the repayment of debt and the Mexican government’s potential control over Mexican natural resources, which could be used to pay down the debt. The State Department wanted the bankers to get their money and for assets not to be seized, but the bankers tried to keep the two issues separate.\nArticle 27 of", "impossible for the country to finance its debt since early 2010.\nThe above revisions were largely connected with the fact that in the years before the crisis Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, and numerous other banks had developed financial products which enabled the governments of Greece, Italy, and many other European countries to hide their borrowing. Dozens of similar agreements were concluded across Europe whereby banks supplied cash in advance in exchange for future payments by the governments involved; in turn, the liabilities of the involved countries were \"kept off the books\". These conditions had enabled Greece as well as other European", "sovereign debt from crisis-ridden countries. Some of this would have to be written off in the case of a euro collapse, which would entail corresponding losses for the Bundesbank.\nOn 27 January 2014, the Bundesbank called for a capital levy on citizens of a nation before that nation applies for relief under the European Financial Stability Facility. The levy \"corresponds to the principle of national responsibility, according to which tax payers are responsible for their government's obligations before solidarity of other states is required\". This followed an IMF report from October 2013 which proposed a similar wealth tax.", "were left unpaid after the American Civil War. On the other hand, in the modern era, the transition from dictatorship and illegitimate governments to democracy does not automatically free the country of the debt contracted by the former government. Today's highly developed global credit markets would be less likely to lend to a country that negated its previous debt, or might require punishing levels of interest rates that would be unacceptable to the borrower.\nU.S. Treasury bonds denominated in U.S. dollars are often considered \"risk free\" in the U.S. This disregards the risk to foreign purchasers of depreciation in the dollar", "debt on the basis that it would motivate countries to default on their debts, or to deliberately borrow more than they can afford, and that it would not prevent a recurrence of the problem. Economists refer to this as a moral hazard. It would also be difficult to determine which debt is odious. Moreover, investors could stop lending to developing countries entirely. Debt as a mechanism in economic crisis An example of debt playing a role in economic crisis was the Argentine economic crisis. During the 1980s, Argentina, like many Latin American economies, experienced hyperinflation. As a part of the", "remain after bankruptcy for individuals. People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering). On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled. Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong. Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period", "jurisdiction, and thus may be able to default without legal consequences. One example is Greece, which defaulted on an IMF loan in 2015. In such cases, the defaulting country and the creditor are more likely to renegotiate the interest rate, length of the loan, or the principal payments.\nIn the 1998 Russian financial crisis, Russia defaulted on its internal debt (GKOs), but did not default on its external Eurobonds. As part of the Argentine economic crisis in 2002, Argentina defaulted on $1 billion of debt owed to the World Bank. Orderly default In times of acute insolvency crises, it can be", "of 150 million francs to reimburse France for the loss of its slaves and land. The debt was later reduced to 90 million francs but it was not until 1947 that Haiti had paid off what many have regarded as an immoral and illegal debt. To pay this, Haiti had to borrow money from and pay interest to French banks.\n\"We're talking about 200 hundred years of this cycle of debt that Haiti has gone through, which of course has devastating consequences on the capacity of the state within the country,\" Haiti historian Laurent Dubois has said.\nThe country's poverty made", "country. However even three years on many G8 countries were backsliding on their aid quantity commitments.\nThe debt deal was not ‘full’ cancellation of debts at all but only cancellation of the debts for 40 potential countries (classed as the poorest countries), and even then only after completing the ‘Highly Indebted Poor Country’ (HIPC) initiative – that means changing their economic policies at the behest of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank - meaning more of the same economic conditionalities which were highlighted as problems by the Make Poverty History campaign. For example, Tanzania was forced to privatise water (to", "50% reduction in the debt they held, lowering the total state debt to $9 million.\nAlthough the debt decrease lessened the strain on the state, the debt payment was still far more than the state could afford. On January 13, 1845, the General Assembly passed a resolution issuing an official apology to the state's creditors and the state and federal governments of the United States for the repudiation of large parts of their debt. The resolution stated \"We regard the slightest breach of plighted faith, public or private, as an evidence of a want of that moral principle upon which all", "the risk altogether. The reason is obvious: core governments find it politically impossible to put up more money. So it is unfathomable that they did not demand more from private creditors. The debt restructuring leaves Greece and its helpers with €100bn of debt that could have been written down entirely and left funds to address future \"accidents\" without resorting to a third rescue. If there is another showdown with Greece it will have been caused by this.\nGerman minister of finance Wolfgang Schäuble and Eurogroup president Jean-Claude Juncker shared the scepticism and did not rule out a third bailout. According to" ]

[ "Part of the issue is that like many things in life the difference between something being nice, acceptable, and annoying has to do with how often something happens. If you don't see another car on the road for an hour it can be a relief to see one, a few cars are okay, and a lot of cars results in road range. In the video she got roughly one comment every 5 minutes. If my day was interrupted every 5 minutes by someone wanting my attention I'd find it difficult to get anything done or even be able to think.\n\nAnother aspect is that the comments are mostly seeking attention. Some of them were requests (\"Can I have your number?\") some were comments which are said loudly enough to try and provoke a reaction (\"Nice ass\") and some were instructions (\"Smile\"). When I'm approaching a person, I look at body language, make eye contact, and then talk. Shouting at someone, trying to get their attention when they are busy, or making demands of them all feel unnecessarily aggressive, yet that's precisely what most of these \"compliments\" are. They aren't compliments, they are demands for attention.\n\nThere are other examples I could use -- such as comparing this to harassment by paparazzi, unsolicited phone calls, or stalking. However in some ways it's simpler: US supreme court justice Louis Brandeis argued that there is a human \"right to be let alone\", and this video suggests that with the frequent persistent demands, this right simply doesn't exist for women in many places.", "Part of it has to do with all those comments create a constant push to \"perform\" - to be something for someone other than herself, to stop doing what she is doing (going to her destination, minding her own business) to become involved in an exchange with the person shouting the \"compliments\". It's a demand to be accommodating. \n\n\n\nAnother reason it's considered harassment is the basic impoliteness of it. Unless someone slows down and stops, it should be a reasonable assumption that they have somewhere to get to and aren't out on the street to have a conversation. It seems incredibly *impolite*, at the very least, to try to strike up a conversation with someone who is pretty clearly not interested in starting a conversation with you, and then to demand that the person respond (\"Aw come on, I'm just complimenting you\" in response to a lack of response) seems pretty harassing to me. \n\nFrom a personal point of view - if I'm out on the street, it's because I've got places to get to and errands to run. Being shouted at by strangers that are larger and more aggressive than me is annoying. Being hit on by strangers that are larger and more aggressive than me is annoying and feels invasive. Being shouted at, hit on, and approached by strangers that are larger and more aggressive than me is annoying, invasive and threatening. Having all of that happen on a regular basis creates an atmosphere of feeling unsafe and harassed. \n\nPerhaps it would make more sense to first understand that many women grow up in a world that does not make them feel safe. We get pushed around but are taught not to act out. We are taught not to ever express any personal power - shamed for not being skinny enough, shamed for being too assertive, discouraged from doing things that might give use muscles (or, you know, strength), told over and over and over again that our bodies are not for ourselves but are for everyone else. Within that context, all of the above becomes a much bigger problem.", "Assuming you're a straight guy, just imagine a big dude walks up to you out of nowhere says \"you're real pretty\". You're probably gonna have to explain to him, hey, I'm not into guys. I'm straight. Now let's say he doesn't care about that. He informs you that you are still pretty, even if you are straight, plus you never know maybe you just haven't met the right guy yet. Etc. My guess is, you will not be too comfortable in this situation. Depending on what kind of person you are, you might even deck the guy because that's how uncomfortable and unwanted his \"compliment\" is. Maybe you wouldn't call that harassment, but I'm not sure what other word you could apply there." ]

[ "traveling in different countries witness forms of street harassment that are seemingly less severe such as wolf-whistling and following and they consider those actions as ego-boosters rather than an inconvenience. In Syrian culture, some women are told that they are guilty of their experienced street harassment because they ask for it in first place by “looking good for men”. Whether street harassment is read as flattering or offensive, it is an arbitrary action that dehumanizes people.\nMany theorists see female's positive reaction to street harassment as a form of gender discrimination and how male hierarchy is being forced upon females. Mild", "street harassment is likely to be seen harmless and welcoming to some women; thus some theorists evaluate these women as the “victims of false consciousness” who lack self-value and feminism within them. Representation in media The mainstream media, including any printed, televised, social media or other online information sources, commonly represent sexual and street harassment using overly simplified narratives and delegitimizing language. There exists a tendency in media portrayals of the issue that harassment occurs as a reflection of individual aberration, usually highlighting aspects of misconduct by one party against another. While humanities and feminist scholarship identify any degree of", "able to meet them, so they [harass women] to put them in their place. They feel like the world owes them\". The study found that many men street harass simply because it is fun for them; it is a way to release their stress, “When the men in the survey were asked why they sexually harassed women in public, the vast majority, up to 90 percent in some places, said they did it for fun and excitement”.\nIn some cases, men may enjoy the thrill of doing something illegal or taboo, and some may experience sexual gratification from groping, flirting, or", "and the fear of rape.  Some scholars deem that comments and conduct of a harasser reduce women to sexual objects and force this perception upon his target.  Harassment may also teach women to be ashamed of their bodies and to associate their bodies with fear and humiliation through reflections of self-blame. A study published in 2010 reported that the experience of street harassment is directly related to a greater preoccupation with physical appearance and body shame, and is indirectly related to heightened fears of rape. Women who self-blame are likely to experience distressing symptoms in the form of body shame,", "pretending to enjoy the attention was one way to avoid provoking an escalation which could lead to a physical attack. The U.S. survey found 31% of women responded by going out with other people instead of alone, and 4% of all victims made a major life change to avoid harassment, like moving or quitting a job.\nFemale recipients of street harassment react differently to both innocent and uncivil attitudes they receive from men. However, in the context of cultural difference many women's response to street “remarks” are seen as favorable compliments. Author Elizabeth Arveda Kissling's research reveals that many female tourists", "3) saying \"thank you\" to a harasser provokes further harassment, 4) comments often pertain to what cannot be seen on the woman's body, and 5) the harasser's comments, though disguised as compliments, are objectifying and derogatory.\nIn 2012, the blog Stop Street Harassment became a non-profit that is \"dedicated to documenting and ending gender-based street harassment worldwide\" by hosting events and keeping people informed about the action they can take to end street harassment. Prevalence There is a high prevalence for street harassment to become sexual violence. Worldwide, statistics show that 80% of women endure at least frequent street harassment, 45%", "This abuse was mainly aimed at how they did not fit typical gender roles while in public. Effects of street harassment Physical responses, physical safety, emotional reactions, and psychological symptoms are the effects of street harassment. Physical effects can also be discussed in terms of the physical safety of a woman. Recipients of harassment describe physical symptoms as muscle tension, having trouble breathing, dizziness, and nausea.  Street harassment evokes from its targets emotional responses that range from moderate annoyance to intense fear. Two themes repeatedly appear in women's responses to inquiries about the experience of harassment: the intrusion upon privacy", "body surveillance, and self-objectification.  Not only does this result harm a woman's self-esteem, but it may also interfere with her ability to be comfortable with her sexuality.\nStreet harassment severely restricts the physical and geographical mobility of women. It not only diminishes a woman's feelings of safety and comfort in public places, but also restricts her freedom of movement, depriving her of liberty and security in the public sphere. Women assess their surroundings, restrict choices of clothing, wear head-phones, choose to exercise inside, and avoid certain neighborhoods or routes as proactive measures to reduce the chance of being harassed.  In recent", "studies, street harassment was linked to indirect consequences that decrease the quality of women's lives. The decrease in quality of life is contributed to avoidant behaviors.\nA study in 2011 was aimed at recording the health effects of street harassment on women and girls. It was found that they were mentally stressed after experiencing street harassment. Poor mental health has been found to be linked to street harassment caused by paranoia that certain spaces are not safe. The main way the women and girls put a stop to this was reducing the amount of time they spent on the street. However,", "London Anti-Street Harassment campaign The London Anti-Street Harassment campaign (or LASH campaign) is a campaign against the sexual harassment of women on the streets of London.\nFounded in 2010 by a 25-year-old named Vicky Simister, the campaign aims to reduce street harassment by calling for a public debate about the issue. It calls for the education of the perpetrators and encourages women to stand up for themselves.\nThe main tool of the campaign is its website where it asks people to take action by adding their name to the campaign.\nPoliticians such as Labour MP for Hackney North and Stoke Newington, Diane Abbott,", "victims are the prescriptive signs of gender-based insults, hate speech, credible threats, unusual intensity, scope, longevity of attacks, and reaction to women speaking out, all which are similar features of street harassment. Activism Public activism against street harassment has grown since the late 2000s. A group called Stop Street Harassment began as a blog in 2008 and became incorporated as a non-profit organization in 2012. The organization provides tips for dealing with street harassment in safe and assertive ways, as well as provide opportunities to \"take community action\". In 2010, Stop Street Harassment started the annual \"International Anti-Street Harassment Week\".", "story of their experiences with street harassment, experiences that were surprising to the men in the group because they had never dealt with harassment of that kind. They collectively decided to do something about the issue of street harassment, an issue that affects women, girls, and LGBTQ individuals every day.\nHollaback! has held many events around the world designed to raise awareness about street harassment, including film screenings, lectures, demonstrations, and book talks.\nOn October 28, 2010, the New York City Council held the first hearing ever on street harassment. Council Member Julissa Ferreras, who chairs the Women's Issues Committee, called", "story and in the process they will have embarrassed and humiliated themselves.\nIn France, a person who makes a sexual harassment complaint at work is reprimanded or fired 40% of the time, while the accused person is typically not investigated or punished. In the United States, a 2016 report from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission states that although 25–85% of women say they experience sexual harassment at work, few ever report the incidents, most commonly due to fear of reprisal. There is evidence that in Japan, as few as 4% of rape victims report the crime, and the charges are dropped", "mobbing or relational aggression.\nWomen are not necessarily sympathetic to female complainants who have been sexually harassed. If the harasser was male, internalized sexism (or jealousy over the sexual attention towards the victim) may encourage some women to react with as much hostility towards the complainant as some male colleagues. Fear of being targeted for harassment or retaliation themselves may also cause some women to respond with hostility. For example, when Lois Jenson filed her lawsuit against Eveleth Taconite Co., the women shunned her both at work and in the community—many of these women later joined her suit. Women may even", "cases of what women would call sexual harassment, men do not consider the act as not unwelcome or threatening, and that the consequences are not as damaging for men as they are for women. Others Different documents (for example the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action) have stated that women of ethnic and cultural minorities are more likely to become victims of sexual violence. Other factors that are likely to effect the probability of getting sexually offended are social status, possible drug usage, belonging to a sexual or gender minority or being disabled as well as if the person is", "become a non-profit organization that aims to end all forms of sexual violence, including street harassment.\nIn 1970, the \"Wall Street Ogle-In\" took place. Led by Karla Jay, women marched on Wall Street with signs addressing street harassment. As a role reversal, the women catcalled the men they passed in hopes of raising awareness of the unpleasant nature of the street harassment women experience daily.\nIn 1994, Deirdre Davis wrote an academic article that helped clarify what street harassment is by explaining its five characteristics: 1) it takes place in a public space, 2) it most commonly occurs between men and women,", "contributes to anti-sexual harassment campaigns. In an interview with Rolling Stone Magazine, Kheera sympathized with the idea that street art has a strong voice, claiming \"You write on a wall in the street to speak to people. In my opinion, a wall is more powerful than any media channel, for example, because you can't ignore it…By making graffiti in the streets [you] make people aware of what's happening.\" Women on Walls WOW, began by Mia Grondahl and Angie Balata, focuses specifically on women's rights statistics and women's empowerment. They work with political, economical, social, and cultural topics. It began", "in relation to controversial offline behavior, if it is widely made known. The nature of this backlash can range widely from counter-arguments and public mockery, through insults and hate speech, to, in extreme cases, rape and death threats. The online disinhibition effect describes the tendency of many individuals to behave more stridently or offensively online than they would in person. A significant number of feminist women have been the target of various forms of harassment in response to posts they have made on social media, and Twitter in particular has been criticised in the past for not doing enough to", "that they had experienced these negative interactions by age 24. As a result of this street harassment, some people in the LGBTQ+ community experience large impacts on their lives. 5% of the group surveyed said that they had moved to different neighborhoods in response to interactions they had experienced, and 3% reported a change in job in response to being harassed in the area of their job.\nIn a national survey in the United States done by the Human Rights Campaign, women were found to be more likely to experience street harassment, and 60% of women reported being harassed at some", "from their turning 18. This law came about after many people were outraged at a man attacking a woman (Marie Laguerre) due to her response to his harassment of her.\nAcross the United States, laws regarding street harassment are under the jurisdiction of individual states. In Illinois there are laws that relate to street harassment. Despite being a potential precursor to physical assault and even murder, offensive speech and hate speech are protected under the First Amendment. Although a perpetrator is legally allowed to shout obscenities, other acts such as public indecency and sexual assault are blatant violations of the law.", "way, such as by being followed, flashed, or groped. The perpetrators are lone men in 70% of cases for female victims and 48% of cases for male victims; 20% of men who were harassed were the victims of a lone woman. For men, the most common harassment was homophobic or transphobic slurs, followed by unwanted following, then catcalling and comments on body parts. For women, the most common harassment was catcalling, followed by comments on body parts, unwanted touching or brushing up against, and then sexual slurs like \"bitch\" or \"slut\".\nFor women, most harassment is performed by a", "women to be \"Action Heroes\" by not being idle in public. They are referred to as Blank Noise Guys. Blank Noise works towards an attitudinal shift towards 'eve-teasing' and involves the public to take collective responsibility of the issue.\nThough Blank Noise was founded in Bangalore, it has spread to other cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Calcutta, Chandigarh, Hyderabad, and Lucknow. It tackles the notion of shame and blame through campaigns such as \"I never ask for it\" (ask to be sexually harassed when on the streets). A major notion that it seeks to dispel is that women get harassed", "in circumstances in which a reasonable person, having regard to all the circumstances, would have anticipated the possibility that the person harassed would be offended, humiliated or intimidated.\" Denmark Sexual harassment is defined as, when any verbal, non-verbal or physical action is used to change a victim's sexual status against the will of the victim and resulting in the victim feeling inferior or hurting the victim's dignity. Man and woman are looked upon as equal, and any action trying to change the balance in status with the differences in sex as a tool, is also sexual harassment. In the workplace,", "Work behavior Sexual harassment in the workplace Sexual harassment occurs when one individual (whether it's a male or female) takes a sexual interest in the other person while at work and try to exploit them. The act of objectifying the target could lead to the feeling of insecurities, and pressures to leave the company. A researched showed that out of 134,200 people in a studied, 65% of men and 93% of women were harassed sexually in the place of work and that efficiency of work was affected due to job turnover and people calling out sick. The study also", "in the workplace. Backlash stress now deters many male workers from befriending female colleagues, or providing them with any assistance, such as holding doors open. As a result, women are being handicapped by a lack of the necessary networking and mentorship. Evolution of law in different jurisdictions It may include a range of actions from mild transgressions to sexual abuse or sexual assault. Sexual harassment is a form of illegal employment discrimination in many countries, and is a form of abuse (sexual and psychological abuses) and bullying.\nThe Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women classifies violence against women into", "project hostility onto the victim in order to bond with their male coworkers and build trust.\nRetaliation has occurred when a sexual harassment victim suffers a negative action as a result of the harassment. For example, a complainant be given poor evaluations or low grades, have their projects sabotaged, be denied work or academic opportunities, have their work hours cut back, and other actions against them which undermine their productivity, or their ability to advance at work or school, being fired after reporting sexual harassment or leading to unemployment as they may be suspended, asked to resign, or be fired from", "this negatively impacted their ability to hold down a job or go to where they could receive healthcare. Stranger harassment reduces feelings of safety while walking alone at night, using public transportation, walking alone in a parking garage, and while home alone at night.\nA 2000 article, based on Canada's Violence Against Women Survey, showed that past exposure to harassment from strangers is an important factor in women's perceptions of their safety in public. Harassment from a stranger, as opposed to an acquaintance, is more likely to induce fear of sexual victimization. Motivation According to a study of street harassment in", "publicized incidents of harassment such as the Gamergate controversy in 2014, have contributed to industry professionals and media increasingly paying attention to issues related to sexism in video gaming. Form Harassment can involve sexist insults or comments, death or rape threats, demanding sexual favors in exchange for virtual or real money, or criticism of the presence of women and their interests. In some cases, female players are also stalked, whether online or offline.\nWomen are sometimes marginalized as \"intruders\", as it is assumed they do not play video games that aren't associated with female players such as the Sims, music video", "to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women defines sexual harassment of women to include:\nsuch unwelcome sexually determined behavior as physical contact and advances, sexually colored remarks, showing pornography and sexual demands, whether by words or actions. Such conduct can be humiliating and may constitute a health and safety problem; it is discriminatory when the woman has reasonable ground to believe that her objection would disadvantage her in connection with her employment, including recruitment or promotion, or when it creates a hostile working environment.\nWhile such conduct can be harassment of women by men, many laws", "sexual harassment as a manifestation of gendered oppression and discrimination in society, seldom do mainstream media sources report that harassment derives from systemic gender inequality or introduce dialogue in the context of broader issues.\nAnother way that mainstream media shapes the public opinion of harassment is by incorporating conservative messages to their audiences, specifically through the use of invalidating rhetoric. As with other forms of oppression against women, the language presented by media sources commonly undermines the validity of street harassment complaints. The particular overuse of the words, \"alleged,\" \"supposed,\" \"expected,\" immediately create a sense of uncertainty toward claims of harassment" ]

[ "Soy burgers = soy protein. (dont eat too much soy: hormone mimickers). Texture is naturally kinda 'meaty'. \n\nMyco burgers = mycelium. That's what mushrooms are grown from. They can't call em mushroom burgers, because mushrooms are the fruit the mycelium would produce. The mycelium is just a really fast reproducing cell that grows readily on MANY MANY substrates, usually best at a certain temp and humidity. -We will literally NEVER run out of a cheap protein source because of this invention (lofted mycelium growing- hot air blows up cloud of mycelium, which colonize lofted in host matter, usually in a hot steam environment.. It literally colonizes in a matter of minutes. - voila: mass food - more protein than steak per gram and no fat). \n\nFinding a good mycelium was they key for this to be useful. So, basically, after a lot of trials, they finally found a mycelium which had a texture very similar to a hamburger. (Monsanto funded most of this). \n\nI used to be interested in solving the worlds food problems, until I found out the problem isn't lack of food but rather infrastructure and bureaucracy. \n\nFake shrimp and such is referred to as surimi- basically ground up other fish and stuff.. I've seen some made from vegetable pastes and flavored. Usually not so good.. \n\n;)" ]

[ "\"real stuff\" was added to it, to deceive consumers.\nEjiao is either prepared as dry gelatin or mixed with powdered oyster shell or pollen to form glue balls. It tastes sweet.\nJesuits noted that while the \"real\" ejiao has no disagreeable taste or smell, the fake product could be distinguished by its unpleasant smell and taste, even when it was made from pig skins (which, supposedly, provided the best approximation of the real thing).\nIn the 21st century, ejiao manufacturers experience problems with the supply of genuine donkey hides, as fewer people raise these animals these days. The decreasing supply combined with", "Mystery meat Mystery meat is a disparaging term for meat products, typically ground or otherwise processed, such as burger patties, chicken nuggets, Spam, Salisbury steaks, sausages, or hot dogs, that have an unidentifiable source. Most often the term is used in reference to food served in institutional cafeterias, such as prison food or an American public school lunch.\nThe term is also sometimes applied to meat products where the species from which the meat has come from is known, but the cuts of meat used are unknown. This is often the case where the cuts of meat used include offal", "trained craftsmen make realistic fake food, often painting them by hand to create a realistic look and feel.\nWhen fake food is made using a mold, the mold is created by dipping real food into silicone. A liquid plastic, typically polyvinyl chloride, is chosen in a color that matches the food, before being poured into the mold and heated in an oven until it solidifies. (When a food sample is not available or would disintegrate or melt in the mold during casting, a clay model of the food must instead be sculpted.) After setting for ten to thirty minutes, any excess", "Faux bois Faux bois (from the French for false wood) refers to the artistic imitation of wood or wood grains in various media. The craft has roots in the Renaissance with trompe-l'œil. It was probably first crafted with concrete using an iron armature by garden craftsmen in France called \"rocailleurs\" using common iron materials: rods, barrel bands, and chicken wire. \nEarly examples of the craft survive at Parc des Buttes-Chaumont opened for an exposition in Paris in 1867. In 1873, the inventor of ferrocement, Joseph Monier expanded his patents to include bridges. He designed the first bridge of reinforced concrete,", "ingredients are non edible items such as Slinky toys, shredded US currency, View-Master reels, etc, which are chosen because of their resemblance in some way to the ingredients they represent.\nAs in Fresh Guacamole and Western Spaghetti the hands featured in the film are PES's. The role of the butcher in the film is also played by PES, the first time the director has made a cameo appearance in one of his own films. The film was sponsored by Nikon (and was shot on the Nikon D810 camera) and the remainder of the funding was raised through Kickstarter. PES", "has been raised to an art form. Japanese plastic food models by the Maizuru Company were exhibited at London's Victoria and Albert Museum in 1980. Regular competitions are held in making fake food dishes out of plastic and other materials. Other uses Fake and replica foods are used in many ways, such as props for backgrounds in movies, television shows, theatrical plays, television commercials, print ads, and trade shows. Fake foods are also used to display lifelike replicas of real foods for restaurants, grocery chains, museums, banquet halls, casino buffets, cruise ships, and in many other instances in which real", "is made with ingredients such as elm extract, organic sunflower oil, coconut oil and hemp seed oil. In past it was made from animal fat. It isn't toxic to humans.", "is perfect. This is meat to me... It's really something to bite on and I think the look is quite similar.\nRützler added that even in a blind trial she would have taken the product for meat rather than a soya copy.\nTissue for the London demonstration was cultivated in May 2013, using about 20,000 thin strips of cultured muscle tissue. Funding of around €250,000 came from an anonymous donor later revealed to be Sergey Brin. Post remarked that \"there's no reason why it can't be cheaper...If we can reduce the global herd a millionfold, then I'm happy\". Industry development", "Figurine A figurine (a diminutive form of the word figure) or statuette is a small statue that represents a human, deity or animal, or in practice a pair or small group of them. Figurines have been made in many media, with clay, metal, wood, glass, and today plastic or resin the most significant. Ceramic figurines not made of porcelain are called terracottas in historical contexts.\nFigures with movable parts, allowing limbs to be posed, are more likely to be called dolls, mannequins, or action figures; or robots or automata, if they can move on their own. Figurines and miniatures are sometimes", "by standing in the gap between the two.\nBecause of this, Torreano describes his work as \"real fake art.\" Torreano argues that humans have a role in fabricating and refining gems, just as the artist fabricates a sculpture. Because of this, Torreano's works can be considered more valuable than real gems because there are fewer of them and they are created by an individual artist, \"making art value the highest value.\"", "are beads that are made to look like a more expensive original material, especially in the case of fake pearls and simulated rocks, minerals and gemstones. Precious metals and ivory are also imitated.\nTagua nuts from South America are used as an ivory substitute since the natural ivory trade has been restricted worldwide.", "shell dough is then individually rolled to a thin circular shape, similar to a dumpling wrapping.\nThe main ingredients of the filling are meat which is usually pork. The meat is either ground or sliced thinly. Some vendors use ground and sliced meat to give the bun a bite to it, but ground meat is usually used since it produces more juice when cooked. The meat is usually marinated with a heaping of white or black pepper powder, soy sauce, sugar and cooking wine. Some vendors also add five-spice powder or curry powder to the meat marinade.\nThe marinated meat is spread", "also can be flat or shirred. Generally, smoke and water can not pass through the casing, so plastic is used for non-smoked products where high yields are expected. The inner surface can be laminated or co-extruded with a polymer with an affinity for meat protein causing the meat to stick to the film, resulting in some loss when the casing is peeled, but higher overall yield due to better moisture control.\nPlastic casings are generally made from polymers such as polyamide, polypropylene, or polyethylene. Polyamide (Nylon) plastic casings are the most commonly used in production of cooked sausages and hams such", "Beef ball Production Nearly all meatballs (made from pork, beef, fish, etc.) made in Asia differ significantly in texture to their counterparts with European origins. Instead of mincing and forming meats, meat used for making meatballs is pounded until the meat is more or less pulverized. This is also often the case for fillings in steamed dishes. This process is what lends a smooth texture to the meatballs. Pounding, unlike mincing, uncoils and stretches previously wound and tangled protein strands in meat and allows them to cure to a gel with heat in a similar manner as surimi. Hong Kong", "a sauce, it is always served over something and never eaten alone. Mole poblano is most traditionally served with turkey, but it and many others are also served with chicken, pork, or other meats (such as lamb).\nA number of mole powders and pastes can be prepared ahead of time and sold, such as mole poblano, mole negro, and mole colorado. Many markets in Mexico sell mole pastes and powders in packages or by the kilogram. These mole mixes are heavy with a strong odor, so much so that security agents at the Mexico City airport once admitted that mole can", "Tinware Tinware is any item made of prefabricated tinplate. Usually tinware refers to kitchenware made of tinplate, often crafted by tinsmiths. Many cans used for canned food are tinware as well. Something that is tinned after being shaped and fabricated is not considered tinware. Properties Tinware is strong, easily shaped, solder able, and is non-toxic. In addition, it has a good appearance which can be further enhanced by lacquering it. Of extreme importance is its property of corrosion resistance, especially against attack by food products. These properties are due to the properties of tinplate, as tinware is made of tinplate.", "foods cannot be displayed. For instance, the American company Fake Foods began when fast food restaurant Wendy's needed artificial kale for their salad bar display.\nIn the 2010s, models of foods and dishes were also used for nutrition education and consumer research.\nIn North America, fake food is often used for retail displays. Furniture retailers use it in showrooms (such as a bowl of fake apples) to give their furniture settings a lived-in look. Manufacturing process Modern manufacturing technologies and high quality plastic materials provide realistic-looking fake food replicas, and approximately 95% of all fake food is still handcrafted. Artisans and highly", "The meat is fine-textured and of good flavour.", "Fake fur Fake fur, also called faux fur, is known as pile fabric, which is engineered to have the appearance and warmth of animal fur.\nIt was first introduced on the market in 1929. These early attempts at imitation fur were made using hair from the alpaca, a South American mammal. In the 1940s, the quality of fake furs was vastly improved by advances in textile manufacture technology. However, the true modern fake furs were not developed until the mid 1950s, with the introduction of acrylic polymers as replacements for alpaca hair.\nHowever, its increasing popularity has been credited to its promotion", "chinchillas, hermit crabs, reptiles, shrimp, and snails. These are not intended for human consumption. \nIt can also be used in the process of pewter casting, as a mould. Jewelry making Because cuttlebone is able to withstand high temperatures and is easily carved, it serves as mold-making material for small metal castings for the creation of jewelry and small sculptural objects.\nJewelers prepare cuttlebone for use as a mold by cutting it in half and rubbing the two sides together until they fit flush against one another. Then the casting can be done by carving a design into the cuttlebone, adding the", "delicate aspic. The inedible aspic is never for consumption. It is usually for decoration. Aspic is often used to glaze food pieces in food competitions to make the food glisten and make it more appealing to the eye. Foods dipped in aspic have a lacquered finish for a fancy presentation. Aspic can be cut into various shapes and be used as a garnish for deli meats or pâtés. Pork jelly Pork jelly is an aspic made from low-grade cuts of pig meat, such as trotters, containing a significant proportion of connective tissue. Pork jelly is a popular appetizer and, nowadays,", "vinyl buildup is trimmed off, and the replica is painted either by hand or airbrush. If the food comprises several parts, such as a hamburger or sushi roll, the item is assembled from separate vinyl pieces.\nWhile some large-scale fake food manufacturing companies exist, others are small shops with a single proprietor. Fake food items can be found and purchased in Kappabashi-dori, the food supply street in Tokyo and also at Doguyasuji located in Namba, Osaka. Factories can be found in Gujō, Gifu. Iwasaki Be-I is the biggest plastic food manufacturer in Japan, founded by Takizo Iwasaki in 1932. Maiduru is", "\"artificially marbled—simulated fat covered\", or \"product may appear to be of a higher quality than the actual grade“.\nSome unscrupulous purveyors have taken advantage of the improved appearance in an attempt to pass it off as the higher-quality naturally marbled meat, especially in environments such as restaurants, where the meat's packaging and labelling are not visible to customers. Manufacturing process A variety of injectants may be used to create artificial marbling. The injectant may be pure fat (such as tallow) heated to a high temperature to melt it while sufficiently cool so as not to cook the meat when injected, fat", "well-known product from Lingnan. With a history of 2000 years, it traditionally uses ivory as raw material to make sculptures, with the Canton-style renowned for being particularly delicate and detailed without being brittle. The Cantonese people have also successfully produced the legendary craft product - Ivory ball.\nAfter the 1980s, however, international ivory trade has been banned. This results in the Cantonese people now trying to find substitute materials - materials that look and feel like but are actually not ivory - in their attempt to pass on this ancient art. Canton jade carving Canton jade carving (廣州玉雕; Gwong² zau¹ juk⁶", "tetas, or \"udders\") from the carapace, which is discarded. The flesh is usually sold in strips, but may be canned. It is exported to numerous countries, including, as of 2007, Sweden (32.5% of exports) and Japan (24.2%). Cuisine The meat, which has a strong flavor, can be eaten raw or cooked. Its taste has been described as like that of iodine or \"something like a sea urchin though less delicate in flavor\" and a \"slightly bitter, soapy taste\". It is usually cut into small pieces, and flavored with chopped onion, cilantro, and lemon. Minced and boiled, it serves as an", "or mixed with raw meat.", "Aspic Aspic (/ˈæspɪk/) is a dish in which ingredients are set into a gelatin made from a meat stock or consommé. Aspic can also be referred as aspic gelée or aspic jelly. Non-savory, sweet dishes, often made with commercial gelatin mixes without stock or consommé, are usually called jello salads in the United States, or gelatin salads elsewhere. History Historically, meat aspics were made before fruit- and vegetable-flavored aspics or jellies (UK) and gelatins (North America). By the Middle Ages at the latest, cooks had discovered that a thickened meat broth could be made into a jelly. A detailed recipe", "Animal sourced materials include both animal manures and residues from the slaughter of animals. Manures are derived from milk-producing dairy animals, egg-producing poultry, and animals raised for meat and hide production. When any animal is butchered, only about 40% to 60% of the live animal is converted to market product, with the remaining 40% to 60% classed as by-products. These by-products of animal slaughter, mostly inedible -- blood, bone, feathers, hides, hoofs, horns, -- can be refined into agricultural fertilizers including bloodmeal, bone meal fish meal, and feather meal.\nChicken litter, which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an", "Ground meat Dishes Ground meat is used in a wide variety of dishes, by itself, or mixed with other ingredients. It may be formed into meatballs which are then fried, baked, steamed, or braised. They may be cooked on a skewer to produce dishes such as kabab koobideh, adana kebabı and ćevapi. It may be formed into patties which are then grilled or fried (hamburger), breaded and fried (menchi-katsu, Pozharsky cutlet), or braised (Salisbury steak). It may be formed into meatloaves or pâtés and baked. It may also be used as a filling or stuffing for meat pies and böreks,", "Meat-shaped Stone History The stone was carved during the Qing dynasty from banded jasper. The layers of the stone accumulated naturally over the years, with various shades of hues. The craftsman who carved the stone stained the skin, which resulted in a realistic looking piece of stone with multiple layers appearing like layers of fat and meat." ]

[ "Human eyes are way better at detecting moving objects than resting ones. Plus, a change in perspective may present the object in a better contrast/less obscured by other objects.", "I literally hadn't eaten toast or anything that required a toaster since moving into my home just under 2yrs ago. Recently SO and I were craving toast with butter. We both looked through the entire kitchen, same day, different days, and multiple times. Finally unable to find it he got a new toaster. A month later I was taking my blender out to make a smoothie as I do 5-7 times a week and BAM! The toaster is there, in the same cupboard, dead centre, and not blocked by anything. I literally have looked at it 500-600 times since putting it there and actively looked for it but couldn't find it." ]

[ "objects on their left or right sides (homonymous hemianopsia), or may have difficulty seeing objects on their outer visual fields (bitemporal hemianopsia) if the optic chiasm is involved. Vision may be tested by examining the visual field, or by examining the retina with an ophthalmoscope, using a process known as funduscopy. Visual field testing may be used to pin-point structural lesions in the optic nerve, or further along the visual pathways. Eye movement (III, IV, VI) The oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI) coordinate eye movement.\nDamage to nerves III, IV, or VI may affect the movement", "that also underpin high acuity functions of the fovea.\nThe fovea is employed for accurate vision in the direction where it is pointed. It comprises less than 1% of retinal size but takes up over 50% of the visual cortex in the brain. The fovea sees only the central two degrees of the visual field, (approximately twice the width of your thumbnail at arm's length). If an object is large and thus covers a large angle, the eyes must constantly shift their gaze to subsequently bring different portions of the image into the fovea (as in reading).\nSince the fovea does", "objects) is done by cone cells.\nCiliary muscles around the lens allow the eye's focus to be adjusted. This process is known as accommodation. The near point and far point define the nearest and farthest distances from the eye at which an object can be brought into sharp focus. For a person with normal vision, the far point is located at infinity. The near point's location depends on how much the muscles can increase the curvature of the lens, and how inflexible the lens has become with age. Optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians usually consider an appropriate near point to be closer", "the images from the right and left eyes, input may be insufficient to correctly reposition the eyes. Other causes of a visual difference between right and left eyes, such as asymmetrical cataracts, refractive error, or other eye disease, can also cause or worsen strabismus.\nAccommodative esotropia is a form of strabismus caused by refractive error in one or both eyes. Due to the near triad, when a person engages accommodation to focus on a near object, an increase in the signal sent by cranial nerve III to the medial rectus muscles results, drawing the eyes inward; this is called", "Instrument myopia Characteristics Ordinarily, when someone looks at an object at, say, one meter from the eyes, the eyes make reflex adjustments so the object appears single and clear. That is, the eyes converge on the object, to bring its image in each eye onto the central part of each retina, the fovea. This ensures that the person sees one object instead of two, and is referred to as singleness of vision or binocular fusion. The focussing of each eye, its accommodation, is adjusted so the retinal image of the object is as sharp as possible. This is done via", "you can't focus, but your eye can move up and down, left and right. The notion that external muscles affect focusing is totally wrong.\" Science author John Grant writes that many animals, such as fishes, accommodate by elongation of the eyeball, \"it's just that humans aren't one of those animals.\"\nLaboratory tests have shown that the human eyeball is far too rigid to spontaneously change shape to a degree that would be necessary to accomplish what Bates described. Exceedingly small changes in axial length of the eyeball (18.6–19.2 μm) are caused by the action of the ciliary muscle during accommodation. However,", "Have the person look at your finger tip. Move the finger around; this is to break the reflex that normally holds a covered eye in the correct vergence position. Hold your finger steady and then uncover the person's eye. Look at the uncovered eye. You may see it flick quickly from being wall-eyed or cross-eyed to its correct position. If the uncovered eye moved from out to in, the person has esophoria. If it moved from in to out, the person has exophoria. If the eye did not move at all, the person has orthophoria. Most people have some amount", "seen by rays further to the right appear further to the right, and things seen by rays further to the left appear further to the left;\n\n7. That things seen under more angles are seen more clearly.\nThe geometric treatment of the subject follows the same methodology as the Elements. Content According to Euclid, the eye sees objects that are within its visual cone. The visual cone is made up of straight lines, or visual rays, extending outward from the eye. These visual rays are discrete, but we perceive a continuous image because our eyes, and thus our visual rays, move very", "(by viewing white light through a dichroic filter), the point of foveal focus will have a central red spot surrounded by a few red fringes. This is called the Maxwell's spot after James Clerk Maxwell who discovered it. Bifoveal fixation In binocular vision, the two eyes converge to enable bifoveal fixation, which is necessary for achieving high stereoacuity.\nIn contrast, in a condition known as anomalous retinal correspondence, the brain associates the fovea of one eye with an extrafoveal area of the other eye.", "to turn out when looking at close objects as well as those in the distance. If left untreated, the eye may turn out continually, causing a loss of binocular vision.\nIn young children with any form of strabismus, the brain may learn to ignore the misaligned eye's image and see only the image from the best-seeing eye. This is called amblyopia, or lazy eye, and results in a loss of binocular vision, impairing depth perception. In adults who develop strabismus, double vision sometimes occurs because the brain has already been trained to receive images from both eyes and cannot ignore the", "eyes move together and almost involuntarily. This is a key factor in the study of strabismus, namely, the inability of the eyes to be directed to one point.\nThere are two main kinds of movement: conjugate movement (the eyes move in the same direction) and disjunctive (opposite directions). The former is typical when shifting gaze right or left, the latter is convergence of the two eyes on a near object. Disjunction can be performed voluntarily, but is usually triggered by the nearness of the target object. A \"see-saw\" movement, namely, one eye looking up and the other down, is possible, but", "(inward) or exotropia (outward). In such a case while the fovea of one eye is directed at the object of regard, the fovea of the other is directed elsewhere, and the image of the object of regard falls on an extrafoveal area of the retina.\nThe brain calculates the visual direction of an object based upon the position of its image relative to the fovea. Images falling on the fovea are seen as being directly ahead, while those falling on retina outside the fovea may be seen as above, below, right, or left of straight ahead depending upon the area of", "as well. The relative position of eye and head, even with constant gaze direction, influences neuronal activity in higher visual areas. Practice A great deal of research has gone into studies of the mechanisms and dynamics of eye rotation, but the goal of eye- tracking is most often to estimate gaze direction. Users may be interested in what features of an image draw the eye, for example. It is important to realize that the eye-tracker does not provide absolute gaze direction, but rather can measure only changes in gaze direction. In order to know precisely what a subject is looking", "of its direction being determined by the unaided eye.", "the stick arrives at one's eye in a crooked pattern, but this appearance is not necessarily a sense-datum in the mind. Similar things can be said about the coin which appears circular from one vantage point and oval-shaped from another. Pressing on your eyeball with a finger creates double vision but assuming the existence of two sense-data is unnecessary: the direct realist can say that they have two eyes, each giving them a different view of the world. Usually the eyes are focused in the same direction; but sometimes they are not.\nHowever, this response is presumably based on previously observed", "Gazing-intensive search work When following the letters on the spine of a book with our eyes, our gaze moves in a vertical direction. One famous interpretative model holds that this movement stimulates the defecation urge.[ウェブページ：“本屋で便意を催す理由”][ウェブページ：“本屋に行くとお腹が痛くなる理由”] According to those who have experienced the phenomenon, it is to do with the importance of the \"angle of one's gaze when looking for something.\"[ウェブページ：“今夜も生でさだまさし”] There is also the view that walking around a bookstore looking at printed text causes dizziness, which brings about a change in physical condition.[ウェブページ：“本屋に行くとお腹が痛くなる理由”]\nIn his book Why Do We Need To Go Whenever We're In A Bookstore?", "want to find out more about.\nIn cognitive psychology studies, the mostly concerned movements are saccades. During these movements no information can be acquired, because the vision is suppressed. This makes it very interesting especially for judgment and decision making tasks. Objects of regard Eye fixation data could be used to test predictions: For example that magic tricks work because of misdirecting the eye gaze and failing to actually see what happens even if it happens right in front of ones eyes. One can also compare eye fixations between two groups: between experts and novices or a healthy and clinical population.\nBy", "information specifying stereopsis, and the nature of the brain processes responsible for registering that information. The distance between the two eyes on an adult is almost always 6.5 cm and that is the same distance in shift of an image when viewing with only one eye. Retinal disparity is the separation between objects as seen by the left eye and the right eye and helps to provide depth perception. Retinal disparity provides relative depth between two objects, but not exact or absolute depth. The closer objects are to each other, the retinal disparity will be small. If the objects are farther", "and point out that familiar objects, including letters on an eye chart, can be recognized even when they appear less than clear. Movement He thought that the manner of eye movement affected the sight. He suggested \"shifting\", or moving the eyes back and forth to get an illusion of objects \"swinging\" in the opposite direction. He believed that the smaller the area over which the \"swing\" was experienced, the greater was the benefit to sight. He also indicated that it was usually helpful to close the eyes and imagine something \"swinging\". By alternating actual and mental shifting over an image,", "no synchronicity of the information obtained by each eye, so an individual would not be able to willingly move their eyes around a scene while still maintaining depth perception and scene or object stability.\nSeveral centers in the brainstem are involved. Horizontal conjugate gaze is controlled by the nuclei of the Ocular Nerve, CN III, and the Abducens nerve, CN VI, the paramedian pontine reticular formation, and the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi-medial vestibular nucleus. Vertical conjugate gaze is controlled by the nuclei of CN III and the Trochlear nerve, CN IV, the rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus (riMLF), and the", "of vision, the eyes need to be pointed accurately. The position of each eye in its orbit is controlled by six extraocular muscles. Slight differences in the length or insertion position or strength of the same muscles in the two eyes can lead to a tendency for one eye to drift to a different position in its orbit from the other, especially when one is tired. This is known as phoria. One way to reveal it is with the cover-uncover test. To do this test, look at a cooperative person's eyes. Cover one eye of that person with a card.", "also useful for detecting the difference in positions of objects on the retina of each eye, an important tool in binocular depth perception.\nCells in the M pathway have the ability to detect high temporal frequencies and can thus detect quick changes in the position of an object. This is the basis for detecting motion. The information sent to the Intraparietal Sulcus (IPS) of the posterior parietal cortex allows the M pathway to direct attention and guide saccadic eye movements to follow important moving objects in the visual field. In addition to following objects with the eyes, the IPS sends information", "an area because it was measured by Panum only in the horizontal plane). Outside of Panum's fusional area (volume), double vision occurs. Eye dominance When each eye has its own image of objects, it becomes impossible to align images outside of Panum's fusional area with an image inside the area. This happens when one has to point to a distant object with one's finger. When one looks at one's fingertip, it is single but there are two images of the distant object. When one looks at the distant object it is single but there are two images of one's fingertip.", "processing visual information, due to a stroke. As a result of his stroke, he experienced vertigo when he tried to track a moving object with his eyes. The vertigo was caused by his brain interpreting the world as moving. In normal people, the world is not perceived as in moving when tracking an object despite the fact that the image of the world is moved across the retina as the eye moves. The reason for this is that the brain predicts the movement of the world across the retina as a consequence of moving the eyes. R.W., however, was unable", "myopia is promoted when the viewing is with one eye, when the field of view is small, and when the luminance is low, concluding that these are consistent with accommodation's going towards a person's dark focus, which is about one meter from the eyes.\nWesner and Miller also said it is possible that a person's knowledge that the viewed object is very close (on the microscope stage) contributes to instrument myopia. They said that instrument myopia is minimised by using a binocular microscope that forces the person's vergence angle to be small. History It is unknown by whom instrument myopia was", "eyesight, and no neurological conditions which prevent the perception of depth then one is capable of learning to see the images within autostereograms. \"Like learning to ride a bicycle or to swim, some pick it up immediately, while others have a harder time.\"\nMost stereo image are designed for divergent (wall-eyed) viewing. One way to help the brain concentrate on divergence instead of focusing is to hold the picture in front of the face, with the nose touching the picture. With intense lighting, the eye can constrict the pupil, yet allow enough light to reach the retina. The more the eye", "toward each other, usually in an effort to maintain single binocular vision when viewing an object. This is the only eye movement that is not conjugate, but instead adducts the eye. Convergence is one of three processes an eye does to properly focus an image on the retina. In each eye, the visual axis will point towards the object of interest in order to focus it on the fovea. This action is mediated by the medial rectus muscle, which is innervated by Cranial nerve III. It is a type of vergence eye movement and is done by extrinsic muscles. Diplopia,", "while focusing on objects at different distances; the zonular fibres perform this function in mammals. In fish and amphibians, the lens is fixed in shape, and focusing is instead achieved by moving the lens forwards or backwards within the eye.\nIn cartilaginous fish, the zonular fibres are replaced by a membrane, including a small muscle at the underside of the lens. This muscle pulls the lens forward from its relaxed position when focusing on nearby objects. In teleosts, by contrast, a muscle projects from a vascular structure in the floor of the eye, called the falciform process, and serves to pull", "the eye, but as if seen from the egocenter.\nHering proposed a simple demonstration of his law. When one fixates a point straight ahead on a window, one might see, through transparency, a different object in each eye aligned with the fixation point. For example in the right eye a house is seen behind the fixation point through the window. The house will appear to be located on the left. In the left eye a tree is seen behind the fixation through the window, appearing to be located on the right. When both eyes look at the fixation point, the house", "binocular colour rivalry remained uncharted territory for long. Similarly, Towne argues that one can see in three dimensions with only one eye. This is because one can sense the tension in the eye-muscles as one focuses close. However, it is not true shape-perception as defined by Wheatstone.\nTowne's adjustive Stereoscope is no more than a direct-viewing aid with a septum and pinhole oculars. However, it does help anybody who is attempting direct-viewing because the septum cuts out distraction whilst the pinholes extend the depth-of-field.\nOver the course of his career, Towne made just over a thousand moulages for Guy's hospital," ]

[ "Actually your entire body produces the oil, but since your face is usually dryer (being in the sun for example) those glands work harder, not to mention think of how much you touch your face throughout the day, transferring more oil. Sometimes, certain foods etc will kick the sebaceous glands into overdrive, that's how acne happens. And acne can indeed happen anywhere - ever seen back acne?" ]

[ "oil because of its high content of monounsaturated fat (mainly oleic acid) and polyphenols.)", "glands on the upper and lower eyelids that open up at the edges) produce less oil. Because oil prevents the tear film from evaporating, this change may cause dry eyes. Fat changes The distribution of adipose (fat) tissue changes slowly over months and years. HRT causes the body to accumulate new fat in a typically feminine pattern, including in the hips, thighs, buttocks, pubis, upper arms, and breasts. (Fat on the hips, thighs, and buttocks has a higher concentration of omega-3 fatty acids and is meant to be used for lactation.) The body begins to burn old adipose tissue in", "has given a detailed molecular profile of oil bodies. It now seems that proteins out-number lipids on the surface of oil bodies, and that one protein in particular, called oleosin, dominates. The lipid and protein fractions of oil bodies are remarkable because they maintain a coherent monolayer over a wide temperature and hydration range. Gallery Microscopic views of liverwort cells, showing a variety of oil body shapes and arrangements.", "appearance. The gases produced also cause natural liquids and liquefying tissues to become frothy. As the pressure of the gases within the body increases, fluids are forced to escape from natural orifices, such as the nose, mouth, and anus, and enter the surrounding environment. The buildup of pressure combined with the loss of integrity of the skin may also cause the body to rupture.\nIntestinal anaerobic bacteria transform haemoglobin into sulfhemoglobin and other colored pigments. The associated gases which accumulate within the body at this time aid in the transport of sulfhemoglobin throughout the body via the", "oils have previously been used in the traditional medicine of some Amazonian tribes for their anti-inflammatory properties and some peer-reviewed data also support this theory. \nInvestigation of trans-cinnamaldehyde showed that it significantly reduced the production of NO by macrophages (cells of the immune system), which is something that normally occurs during inflammation. The same study of methyl cinnamate did not show this effect.\nIt has also been shown that this oil can reduce the chance of blood clot formation by preventing platelet aggregation in the blood.", "oils do not contain a waxy by-product and also are not as crude oil dependent as Group I oils. This has resulted in an overall decrease in the diversity of North American feedstocks suitable for the manufacture of petroleum waxes.\nIGI and its competitors have compensated by attempting to diversify its supply base, including the use of completely refined wax feed stocks from international sources such as China. Typically, these supply challenges have been discussed by the National Petroleum Refiners Association.", "Baby oil Baby oil is a skin-care product for infants.\nThe skin of an infant, especially a premature one, is sensitive, thin and fragile. Its neutral pH on the surface significantly reduces the protection against excessive bacterial growth. The epidermis and dermis are thinner than those of adults and the epidermal barrier is not yet fully developed. Consequences can for example be dry skin, infections, peeling, blister formation and poor thermoregulation. The application of different oils to the skin of the newborn is routinely practiced in many countries. In general, these oils are used for cleansing, to maintain the skin's moisture", "begin excreting less oil after menopause thus is very hard to keep the skin moist. The layer of subcutaneous fat also decreases thus reducing the insulation and padding capability of the skin.This can make the individual be at risk of having an injury and also finds it very hard to maintain body temperature. The sweat glands also cut down on the amount of sweat they produce thus making the individual's body harder to cool. Intake too much sugar The intake of too much sugar can lead to negative impacts to the body which include the damage of collagen. The excess", "the lower quantities of oil being produced. Many apocrine glands – a type of sweat gland – become inactive, and body odor decreases. Remaining body odor becomes less metallic, sharp, or acrid, and more sweet and musky.\nAs subcutaneous fat accumulates, dimpling, or cellulite, becomes more apparent on the thighs and buttocks. Stretch marks (striae distensae) may appear on the skin in these areas. Susceptibility to sunburn increases, possibly because the skin is thinner and less pigmented. Hair changes Antiandrogens affect existing facial hair only slightly; patients may see slower growth and some reduction in density and coverage. Those who are", "within the body, leading to incorrect hormone responses in the body as well as disrupt normal enzyme functioning. Oil and gas extraction has been known to contribute to EDCs in the environment, largely due to the high risk of ground and surface water contamination that comes with these extractions. In addition to water contamination, oil and gas extraction also lead to higher levels of air pollution, creating another route of exposure for these endocrine disruptors. This problem often goes under-reported, and therefore, the true magnitude of the impact is underestimated. In 2016, a study was conducted to assess the need", "body of information is its purpose, when taken orally, as a gland purifier and cleanser, especially affecting the thyroid, thymus, adrenals, and other ductless glands, and stimulating \"the circulation through lungs, heart, liver and kidneys.\" (3535-1) This reaction upon the glands would create “perfect coordination between the glandular forces of the body” (1933-1) and \"build strength to the whole anatomical condition of the body.\" (1475-1) Another reading stated that \"most glands function as machinery would under oil. The iodine being the oil for the gland, see?\" (294-130). (the numbers that follow each quote from the readings refer to the reading", "and dermatosis.\nIt has also recently been discovered that this oil is extremely good as a healing agent, therefore increasing the oil's value.", "cause higher levels of fat to be stored in a female body than in a male body. They also affect body fat distribution, causing fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women, but generally not around their waists, which will remain about the same size as they were before puberty. The hormones produced by the thyroid gland regulate the rate of metabolism, controlling how quickly the body uses energy, and controls how sensitive the body should be to other hormones. Body fat distribution may change from time to time, depending on food habits, activity levels and", "by living things, while oil refers to an overall mixture of chemicals. Organic oils may also contain chemicals other than lipids, including proteins, waxes (class of compounds with oil-like properties that are solid at common temperatures) and alkaloids.\nLipids can be classified by the way that they are made by an organism, their chemical structure and their limited solubility in water compared to oils. They have a high carbon and hydrogen content and are considerably lacking in oxygen compared to other organic compounds and minerals; they tend to be relatively nonpolar molecules, but may include both polar and nonpolar regions as", "being criticized. Natural cosmetic companies claim that the use of mineral oil results in skin occlusion. Conventional cosmetic manufacturers and even dermatogists and cosmetic chemists argue against that and studies weren't able to show any statisitical difference between paraffin oil and vegetable oils in terms of skin penetration and skin occlusion. On the contrary, petrolatum-based preparations have been shown to be effective to the skin barrier function, even in premature infants. Usage Baby oils are largely used as skin care products and their principle use remains as skin moisturizers. In particular, baby oils find application in the treatment of various", "much as 50% of wax esters. These wax esters, which are monounsaturated, are very similar to sperm oil.\nMarine organisms like dinoflagellates, pelagic invertebrates, and fishes store low-density wax esters in their swim bladders or other tissues to provide buoyancy.\nWax esters per se are a normal part of the diet of humans as a lipid component of certain foods, including unrefined whole grain cereals, seeds, and nuts. Wax esters are also consumed in considerable amounts by certain populations that regularly eat fish roe or certain fish species. That said, wax esters are not typically consumed in appreciable quantities in diets", "Olbas Oil Olbas Oil is a remedy, of Swiss origin, for congestion in the chest and nose, some hayfever relief (in certain cases) and also for muscle ache via massage. It is made from a mixture of several different essential oils and has been marketed since before 1916. The name is a contraction of Oleum Basileum, \"oil from Basel\". Risk of eye injury Olbas Oil's packaging is similar to that of eye drops, with the result that people occasionally administer it onto their eyes in error, causing injury.\nThe introduction of Olbas Oil into a child's eye contrary to the product's", "subcutaneous fat that gives skin a pleasant appearance and texture. TGF-β does this by blocking the conversion of dermal fibroblasts into fat cells; with fewer fat cells underneath to provide support, the skin becomes saggy and wrinkled. Subcutaneous fat also produces cathelicidin, which is a peptide that fights bacterial infections.", "Toxic oil syndrome Cause The cause was traced to the consumption of colza oil that had been intended for industrial rather than food use. To discourage human consumption, the oil was denatured by the addition of aniline to make it smell and taste bad. It was then imported as cheap industrial oil by the company RAPSA at San Sebastián, handled by RAELCA, and illegally refined by ITH in Seville to remove the aniline, resulting in a palatable product that could then be illegally sold. It was sold as \"olive oil\" by street vendors at weekly street markets, and was used", "is less than that of lactation but can still cause adverse effects. Fatty acids from the mother’s plasma are transported either through diffusion or active transport through the placenta to be used in important processes such as brain development. Sources of fatty acids are mainly derived from blubber in seals, porpoises, and whales.\nLipophilic chemicals such as PCBs previously stored within the mother’s fatty tissue can be transferred to the fetus via the circulatory fluid. Some lipophilic chemicals can be metabolized by the fetus using mostly CYP enzymes, but others are quickly incorporated into developing fetal adipose tissue. The storage ", "bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (the subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.\nMicroorganisms like Staphylococcus epidermidis colonize the skin surface. The density of skin flora depends on region of the skin. The disinfected skin surface gets recolonized from bacteria residing in the deeper areas of the hair follicle, gut and urogenital openings. Fish The epidermis of fish and of most amphibians consists entirely of live cells,", "cheeks with implants or with fat harvested from other parts of the body is common. Risks of implants include infection, and the implant moving and becoming asymmetrical; fat can eventually be absorbed. Lips Subtle changes to the shape and structure of lips can have a strong influence on feminization. The distance between the base of the nose and the top of the upper lip tends to be longer in males than in females and the upper lip is longer; when a female mouth is open and relaxed, the upper incisors are often exposed by a few millimeters.\nAn incision is usually", "skin has a lack of fat and fibrosis. These in turn result in the tight skin on the face and limbs. One direct feature of the lipodystrophy is that the skin is fragile and there is not the protection normally provided by fat under the skin. Management of lipodystrophy As fat cannot be stored under the skin it is important to have a healthy diet without excess fat. Often due to failure to thrive or lack of subcutaneous fat there may have been encouragement to add supplements or fat to the diet however this will not result in any increase", "oil itself may also be used on skin, hair, or cuticles.\nLike olestra, jojoba oil is edible but non-caloric and non-digestible, meaning the oil will pass out of the intestines unchanged and can mimic steatorrhea - a health condition characterized by the inability to digest or absorb normal dietary fats. Thus, this indigestible oil is present in the stool but does not indicate an intestinal disease. If consumption of Jojoba oil is discontinued in a healthy person, the indigestible oil in the stool will disappear. Jojoba oil also contains approximately 12.1% of the fatty acid erucic acid that would appear", "ever reported in one patient. However, petroleum jelly is used extensively by otolaryngologists—ear, nose, and throat surgeons—for nasal moisture and epistaxis treatment, and to combat nasal crusting. Large studies have found petroleum jelly applied to the nose for short durations to have no significant side effects.\nHistorically, it was also consumed for internal use and even promoted as \"Vaseline confection\". Skin and hair care Most petroleum jelly today is used as an ingredient in skin lotions and cosmetics, providing various types of skin care and protection by minimizing friction or reducing moisture loss, or by functioning as a grooming aid, e.", "color.\nIn corpses, the firm cast of adipocere allows some estimation of body shape and facial features, and injuries are often well-preserved. Formation Adipocere is formed by the anaerobic bacterial hydrolysis of fat in tissue. The transformation of fats into adipocere occurs best in an environment that has high levels of moisture and an absence of oxygen, such as in wet ground or mud at the bottom of a lake or a sealed casket, and it can occur with both embalmed and untreated bodies. Adipocere formation begins within a month of death, and, in the absence of air, it can persist", "change the shape. Some bodybuilders, particularly at the professional level, inject their muscles with such mixtures to mimic the appearance of developed muscle where it may otherwise be disproportionate or lacking. This is known as \"fluffing\". Synthol is 85% oil, 7.5% lidocaine, and 7.5% alcohol. It is not restricted, and many brands are available on the Internet. The use of injected oil to enhance muscle appearance is common among bodybuilders, despite the fact that synthol can cause pulmonary embolisms, nerve damage, infections, sclerosing lipogranuloma, stroke, and the formation of oil-filled granulomas, cysts or ulcers in the muscle. Rare cases might", "Oil is \"acutely lethal\" to fish - that is, it kills fish quickly, at a concentration of 4000 parts per million (ppm) (0.4%). The toxicity of petroleum related products threaten human health. Many compounds found in oil are highly toxic and can cause cancer (carcinogenic) as well as other diseases. Studies in Taiwan link proximity to oil refineries to premature births. Crude oil and petroleum distillates cause birth defects.\nBenzene is present in both crude oil and gasoline and is known to cause leukaemia in humans. The compound is also known to lower the white blood cell count in humans,", "evaporation of the sweat. Sunlight, water and air play an important role in keeping the skin healthy. Oily skin Oily skin is caused by over-active sebaceous glands, that produce a substance called sebum, a naturally healthy skin lubricant. A high glycemic-index diet and dairy products (except for cheese) consumption increase IGF-1 generation which in turn increases sebum production. Overwashing the skin does not cause sebum overproduction but may cause dryness.\nWhen the skin produces excessive sebum, it becomes heavy and thick in texture. Oily skin is typified by shininess, blemishes and pimples. The oily-skin type is not necessarily bad,", "toxic oil ingredients because of their increased bioavailability, with reduction in toxicity occurring on emulsification or absorption to colloids which restrict availability to organisms." ]

[ "Yeah, a lot of cars have dash cams which record the last 5 minutes, continually recording and saving whilst deleting anything older than 5 minutes old. When an accident occurs, the camera can either automatically detect something has gone wrong and continue recording beyond the 5 minute limit, or can be manually told to do so. This makes it a lot easier if the accident gets into court and it isn't immediately obvious whose \"fault\" the accident was." ]

[ "Sony. The 8.1-megapixel camera features 16x digital zoom, image stabilization, auto-focus, geo-tagging, smile detection, and face detection. It can also record video, with an LED for use in poor light conditions. It has a 3-axis accelerometer and built in GPS. Its CPU is 1 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon QSD8250 with its GPU is Adreno 200 (AMD Z430).\nThe hardware is limited in its multi-touch functionality. It can only track multiple touches where their X and Y coordinates are different. The firmware to enable this functionality was first released in Japan. Networks The Xperia X10 uses the 850/900/1800/1900 frequency bands for GSM. Both versions", "Android One devices. Video recording in 1080p is supported at up to 30fps; 720p recording is supported at up to 60fps. The rear camera sensor is a Samsung S5K3M2 chip with Isocell pixels, which provide better image quality when compared to BSI pixels. The device supports GPS and GLONASS satellite positioning. Two colour variants, sandstone black and white, are produced; however, availability varies by country. At its time of release, the Swift was the cheapest Cyanogen OS device available in Western Europe. Although not initially available, as of late 2016 replacement batteries are now sold by the manufacturer on their", "people walking past security cameras or driving past license plate readers, it is not restricted to suspected criminals or terrorists. Additionally, individuals may be tracked across the country through nation-wide sensor systems. Data collected from the DAS is retained for varying amounts of time depending on the type of data, some records being retained for a minimum of five years.\nIn 2014, speed cameras were introduced into 20 school zones within the five boroughs. Since July 2019, 750 school zones have speed cameras operating between 6 A.M. and 10 P.M.\nThe images in the DAS are used for facial recognition . The", "minutes to less than 30 seconds.\nIn 2013, grocery store Ralph’s installed Irisys’ infrared cameras and body heat detectors to measure foot traffic in nearly all its supermarkets.\nIn 2013, Hawaii-based Foodland Super Market installed Irisys’ thermal people counting and check-out management sensors for use in detecting shoppers throughout its stores to help optimize its staffing. Security and smart buildings Smart Buildings: What are Smart Buildings?\nIrisys infrared detectors are also widely used in buildings to provide virtual control points with barrier-less entry, such as for bank branch staff doors; and to monitor one-way doors and corridors to ensure passengers do not move", "game controller applications. Technology The ZCam's time-of-flight camera system features a near-infrared (NIR) pulse illumination component, as well as an image sensor with a fast gating mechanism. Based on the known speed of light, ZCam coordinates the timing of NIR pulse wave emissions from the illuminator with the gating of the image sensor, so that the signal reflected from within a desired depth range is captured exclusively. The amount of pulse signal collected for each pixel corresponds to where within the depth range the pulse was reflected from, and can thus be used to calculate the distance to a corresponding", "BSI image sensor (1/3.2\" sized, much smaller than the previous Nokia 808 Pureview) with a f/2.0 Carl Zeiss Tessar lens, short-pulse high-power dual-LED flash and 1080p HD video capture. Pixel size is 1.4 μm. The front camera encloses a 1.3-megapixel sensor capable of capturing HD video at 720p. Controversy On September 6, 2012, Nokia apologised for an advertisement showing a video supposedly shot from somebody holding a Lumia 920 on a bike, but which was actually shot by somebody holding a camera in a van (as it can be seen in the reflections on a window). However, a later review indicated", "4, albeit with a f/1.9 aperture, object tracking autofocus, real-time HDR, and using the infrared of the heart rate sensor for calibrating white balance. Samsung claimed that the camera upgrades would allow it to have better low-light performance.\nFor the first time in a Samsung Mobile flagship device, the Galaxy S6's camera software recorded slow-motion videos (720p@120fps) using the real-time method with audio.\nA bundled slow-motion video editor allowed viewing custom parts of the recorded footage at adjustable speeds and exporting it for sharing.\nThe front-facing camera was also upgraded to 5 megapixels with a similar aperture. The fingerprint scanner in the home", "Nokia 808 PureView PureView Pro camera PureView Pro is an imaging technology used in the Nokia 808 PureView device. It is the combination of a large 1/1.2 in, very high-resolution 41 MP image sensor with high-performance Carl Zeiss optics. The large sensor enables pixel oversampling, which means the combination of many sensor pixels into one image pixel. PureView imaging technology delivers high image quality, lossless zoom and improved low light performance (see below). It dispenses with the usual scaling/interpolation model of digital zoom commonly used in other smartphones, as well as optical zoom used in most digital cameras, where a series of", "Kodak EasyShare Kodak EasyShare C-Series The C-series is Kodak's current line of lower-priced, point and shoot, entry-level digital cameras. Kodak EasyShare Z-Series The Z-series is the current high-zoom and performance-oriented range of consumer digital cameras, replacing the original DX series. Typically, Z-Series cameras have higher optical zooms than any other series. The highest optical zoom camera offered by Kodak is the Z990 with a 30X Optical Zoom. Kodak EasyShare P-Series The P-Series was Kodak's \"Performance\" series intended to bring DSLR-like features to a consumer model. The series is now discontinued, superseded by higher-end Z-Series models. These were the only consumer", "camera sensor size beyond \"3 MP\", though the total pixel count does amount to approximately 3.15 Mpix. The camera supports geotagging and video recording; video is recorded in an H.264 format at VGA resolution (640×480 pixels @ 30 fps).\nFurther device features include A-GPS for navigation, Bluetooth, USB data transfer and charging via microUSB, and an FM radio with RDS support. The FM radio app has slots for twelve channel presets. Software upgrade path Samsung announced on September 24, 2012 that Galaxy Mini 2 was to be updated in the future with Android 4.1 \"Jelly Bean\", but later abandoned development of Jelly Bean", "Nokia Lumia 1020 PureView Pro camera PureView Pro is an imaging technology used in the Nokia 1020 device. It is the combination of a 1/1.5\" large, high-resolution 41 MP image sensor with high performance Carl Zeiss optics. The large sensor enables pixel oversampling, which means the combination of many sensor pixels into one image pixel. PureView imaging technology delivers high image quality, lossless zoom, and improved low light performance (see below). It dispenses with the usual scaling/interpolation model of digital zoom used in virtually all smartphones. In both video and stills, this technique provides greater zoom levels as the output picture", "MP selfie camera with f/2.0 aperture and 0.9 µm pixel size, which has HDR software and analytic capabilities coupled with 2μm large pixel (4-in-1 Super Pixel) technology. Selfie software includes AI Beautify 4.0 and precise bokeh effects. Video can be recorded at 1080p@30fps. There is also an infrared light sensor and infrared camera for facial recognition.\nPictures can be taken in JPEG or RAW format (RAW in DNG format is available on ″Open Camera″ application). Pictures do have a watermark when taken on this phone. Memory The Pocophone F1 comes with internal storage options of 256GB/8GB RAM (China version) or 64/128 GB", "telephoto lens with 2× optical zoom and 10× digital zoom; OIS and EIS image stabilization; and HTC's UltraSpeed Autofocus 2 phase-detection and laser autofocus. The camera achieved a DxOMark score of 103, placing it second highest amongst smartphone cameras after the Huawei P20 Pro at the time of its launch. Video can be shot at up to 4K resolution (3840×2160) at up to 60 fps in h.265 format, or slow motion at 240 fps at 1080p (1920×1080). When zooming, HTC's Sonic Zoom technology focuses the device's four microphones on the area zoomed in on. The front-facing", "data rates. The demand is expected to drive the adoption of video compression standards and to place significant pressure on physical communication networks in the near future.\nAs of 2018, few cameras had the capability to shoot video in 8K, with NHK being one of the only companies to have created a small broadcasting camera with an 8K image sensor. By 2018 Red Digital Cinema camera company had delivered three 8K cameras in both a Full Frame sensor and Super 35 sensor. Until major content sources are available, 8K is speculated to become a mainstream consumer display resolution around 2023 as", "adaptive fast charging, and a claimed video playback time of up to 16 hours. The device has integrated far-field microphones that allow Google Assistant to be controlled from far distances.\nCompared to the Galaxy Tab S3, the Tab S4 has a larger 10.5-inch 2560x1600 display with a 16:10 aspect ratio and slimmer bezels, allowing its footprint to be similar to its predecessor. As a result, the Tab S4 no longer features a fingerprint sensor or navigation and home buttons, and uses a facial and iris scanner instead. The front-facing selfie-camera has been upgraded to 8 megapixels and can record in 1080p", "Kodak EasyShare C330 Input The camera has a 3x optical zoom, and a 5x digital zoom beyond the optical zoom. The camera is able to record QVGA videos in 24 frame/s. It has auto, scene, portrait, sport, landscape, close-up, and video modes. Videos may be played on-camera, but with sound only. It has a viewfinder. Image storage The camera has 16 MB of internal memory. Memory capacity can be expanded with 16MB, 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB up to a maximum of 1 GB SD or MMC cards. It includes an AV/USB port for viewing photos on a", "resolution with a 245 pixel per inch (PPI, a measure of pixel density).\nThe Galaxy Express 2 has a 5-megapixel camera which can take 2,592x1,944 resolution photos and record videos in (720p) resolution. Samsung improved the camera's software over that of its predecessor to include zero shutter lag, and Burst Mode and Best Shot, which work together to quickly take numerous photos before the best-judged frame is selected. The phone can also take pictures while recording videos. The rear-facing camera is complemented by a 0.3-megapixel front-facing camera. The phone has LED flash and autofocus.\nIn addition to the 4.5-inch (110 mm) touchscreen, the", "fps and 1080p video recording at 30 fps and 60 fps (Smooth Motion) and also it has 120 fps slow-motion video recording in 720p resolution. The secondary (front-facing) camera is a 3.7 MP camera with an f1.9 aperture that can record 2560×1440 QHD videos and capture wide-angle pictures. Sales Samsung Galaxy Note 4 was released around the start of October 2014 and was available in most major markets by the middle of October. The first regions to receive the device were South Korea and China where it gained huge popularity. In the first month only, the Galaxy Note 4 reportedly", "at the first shot autofocus, both in 18.4MP full resolution. The claim is among digital cameras with interchangeable lenses (including (its) DSLR).\nMost high-end camera phones and some mid-range phones, and a few low end ones, provide burst shooting. For example, the Samsung Galaxy SIII Mini can capture 20 photos continuously at 3.3 fps by tapping and holding the shutter button. Other examples include: Samsung Galaxy Note 3 at 4-5 fps, Apple iPhone 5S at 10 fps, or up to 30 fps with special software, and the ASUS Padfone Mini at 16fps.", "a night vision edition of the Yi Camera with a 940 nm infrared sensor. YI Action Camera Xiaomi began selling the YI action camera for CNY 399, which was created by YI Technology. It comes with a 16 MP Sony IMX206CQC sensor which can record videos at 1080p60 and 720p120. It is waterproof up to 40 m with the waterproof case.\nSince it became very popular even outside China through its low price and same physical dimensions like products from Hero, there exists some user-made tweaks for features include shooting in RAW, customizable ISO and white balance. Compared to the popular GoPro", "photos. Its large pixel size of 1.55 micron assists photography in low light conditions. It is capable of recording video at 4K resolution, as well as slow-motion 720p video capture at 240 fps. The front facing camera has a Sony Exmor IMX179 8.08 megapixel sensor with a f/2.4 aperture lens. The IMX179 was previously used in the rear camera of the Nexus 5.\nThe back of the phone includes a round fingerprint recognition sensor branded Nexus Imprint below the camera. It is based on the low power FPC1025 sensor developed by Fingerprint Cards AB that can read dry or", "1080p/30fps and high-speed 1080p/60fps and a 120fps recording in 720p options. The front selfie camera has a 13 megapixel sensor (1/3.06\") with 22 mm, f/2.0 lens and 90 degree wide angle lens, same as the Xperia XZ but now features SteadyShot with Intelligent Active Mode (5-axis stabilization) like on the XZs.\nThe Xperia XZ Premium has Sony's Triple Image Sensing technology first introduced in the Xperia XZ as standard. It is composed of the Image sensing (CMOS sensor with PDAF), Distance sensing (Laser AF sensor) and Color sensing (RGBC-IR sensor) systems, featuring a hybrid autofocus that utilizes Phase Detection (PDAF) to lock", "808 (and the N8 and N82 before them), the Nokia Lumia 1020 has a Xenon flash. Nokia Pro Camera software The Lumia 1020 ships with Nokia's new Pro Camera application, allowing a greater degree of control over the camera settings than the standard Windows Phone in-built camera and can be set as the default imaging application when launched with the camera button. Providing \"swipe-able\" dials in a concentric ring display, settings such as exposure level, white balance, shutter speed and film ISO can be adjusted \"on the fly\" to enable changes to be visualised before a shot is taken. Nokia", "Nikon Coolpix P80 Features Its image sensor is a CCD with 10.1 megapixels. It has a 2.7-inch (69 mm) thin-film transistor LCD screen with 230,000 pixels. The P80 comes with an 18x optical zoom Nikkor fixed lens that is not interchangeable, and with vibration reduction (VR) optical image stabilization. Its image processor provides face-priority autofocus, in-camera red-eye fix, D-lighting, backlight and panorama assist.\nThe camera can record video in AVI-format and audio in WAV-format.\nIts interface is a USB port that can be used to connect the camera directly to a printer that supports PictBridge.\nVideo output can be selected between NTSC and PAL.\nA", "a rapid 12 fps burst speed for up to 60 frames in full resolution. Unlike most DSLR cameras, the phase-detect focus unit is operational during live-view and video (which is Full HD at 60p/50p and 24p/25p). The resolution of the camera is 24 megapixels. Sony's A-mount cameras feature in-body image stabilisation and the α77 II is the first of such to also stabilise the viewfinder when taking still images. ISO ranges from 50 to 25600. APS-C sized CMOS sensor.\nAVCHD and MPEG-4 recording of full HD at 1920 x 1080 (1080i60 / 1080i50 @ 24M (Mode \"FX\"), 1080i60 / 1080i50 @", "entry level to mid-level priced contemporary DSLRs.\nHD video mode also uses this purpose-designed contrast-detect AF system, making the GH1 the only DSLR styled camera at the time available to offer continuous autofocusing while shooting video.\nNewly introduced for Panasonic MFT cameras was \"Face Recognition\", a facial recognition technology. The GH1 implementation of Face Recognition was an improvement of the concept first introduced in 2007 on the high end Panasonic Lumix DMC-L10 Four Thirds (not Micro Four Thirds) DSLR camera. The GH1 allows the user to memorize two different faces for easier prioritization. For example, if a child's face", "less than the 1/2.3\" used in most Bridge cameras. At one time only Nokia 808 PureView used a 1/1.2\" sensor, almost three times the size of a 1/2.3\" sensor. Bigger sensors have the advantage of better image quality, but with improvements in sensor technology, smaller sensors can achieve the feats of earlier larger sensors. These improvements in sensor technology allow smartphone manufacturers to use image sensors as small as 1/4\" without sacrificing too much image quality compared to budget point & shoot cameras. Active area of the sensor For calculating camera angle of view one should use", "memory for processing. This enables the camera to record super slow-motion videos at 960 fps, at a steady 720p resolution. Recording at super slow motion is limited to 0.18 seconds per buffer though, due to limitations.\nThe Xperia XZ2 borrows the Motion Eye Camera from the Xperia XZ Premium and Xperia XZ1. It comprises a 19 MP 1/2.3” Exmor RS for mobile sensor with a 1.22 μm pixel pitch, f/2.0 aperture and 25 mm wide G Lens. It also features 4K HDR video recording, a world's first for Sony, which supports SteadyShot video stabilization alongside the standard 1080p/30 fps, a high-speed 1080p/60 fps and a 120 fps recording", "with the earliest locations including eight rail crossings in Scotland where there was greatest demand for enforcement of traffic signals due to fatalities. China Red light camera usage is extensive in mainland China. As of 2007, approximately 700 intersections in Shenzhen were monitored for red light violations, speeding, or both.\nIn 2014 Singapore started to use German Jenoptik red light cameras, with a 11 megapixels resolutions. 240 streets have red light cameras in Singapore.\nChina also has red light camera with facial recognition.\nRed light offender, either pedestrian or motorbikers, are captured by a 7 megapixel camera.\nWithin 20 minutes, a facial recognition system", "or a well-lit scene or surrounding for a more noise-less and much brighter video capture. Motion Eye™ The Xperia XZs is the first of the two new models to launch the now officially called Motion Eye™ camera. It has a 19 MP 1/2.3” Exmor RS for mobile sensor with a 1.22 μm pixel pitch, f/2.0 aperture and 25mm wide G Lens. It also features 4K video recording, which supports SteadyShot video stabilization alongside the standard 1080p/30fps and high-speed 1080p/60fps and a 120fps recording in 720p options. The front selfie camera has a 13 megapixel sensor (1/3.06\") with 22 mm, f/2.0 lens" ]

[ "As long as it doesn't touch the roof of your mouth, you won't get brain freeze." ]

[ "procedures use a process called vitrification which creates a glass-like state rather than freezing as the body is brought to low temperatures. This process reduces the risk of ice crystals damaging the cell-structure, which would be especially detrimental to cell structures in the brain, as their minute adjustment evokes the individual's mind. Mind-to-computer uploading One idea that has been advanced involves uploading an individual's habits and memories via direct mind-computer interface. The individual's memory may be loaded to a computer or to a new organic body. Extropian futurists like Moravec and Kurzweil have proposed that, thanks to exponentially growing computing", "were tested against a control group. They first investigated changes from conditioned fear, and results showed that lesions to the hippocampus did not alter freezing behavior and marginally affected avoidance. Next, they tested single conditioning sessions, and it was found that freezing behavior remained unchanged while avoidance was disrupted. Finally, they tested conditioning with a larger stimulus (footshock intensity). It was found that avoidance was unaltered while freezing behavior decreased. Not only did these investigations show that the hippocampus is involved with freezing behavior, but avoidance and freezing behavior do not seem to have similar ways of being quantified when", "movement, facial tension such as lip biting and furrowing their brows, and a lack of any spoken words. Freezing is ultimately a withdrawal from a situation that one cannot escape physically, hence providing no action (in this case a speech) may reflect an effort to eliminate the possibility of negative evaluation. These behaviors that are included in the freeze factor \"reflected participants\" actual internalized shame, consistent with previous research. Freezing is a behavioral response to threat in mammals and it may be that those who scored higher on this factor were experiencing more intense shame during the speech. They convey", "it comes to fear conditioning. Hormones It has been shown that parts of the brain are involved in freezing behavior and that neurotransmitters and similar chemicals influence freezing behavior, as well. In a related manner, hormones, progestogens and estrogen, also play a role in freezing behavior. First, the authors tested the rats in marble burying and conditioned fear when they were in behavioral estrous or diestrous. Female rats in behavioral estrous have elevated levels of these steroid hormones and also elicit more approach and less freezing behavior than diestrous rats. Results demonstrate that rats in this behavioral estrous show less", "Brain-freeze pain may last from a few seconds to a few minutes. Research suggests that the same vascular mechanism and nerve implicated in \"brain freeze\" cause the aura (sensory disturbance) and pulsatile (throbbing pain) phases of migraines.\nIt is possible to suffer from a cold-stimulus headache in both hot and cold weather, because the effect relies upon the temperature of the food being consumed rather than that of the environment. Other causes that may mimic the sensation of cold-stimulus headache include that produced when high speed drilling is performed through the inner table of the skull in people undergoing such a", "the brain is cooled, electrical activity decreases in discontinuous steps. In the human brain, a type of reduced activity called burst suppression occurs at a mean temperature of 24 °C, and electrocerebral silence occurs at a mean temperature of 18 °C. The achievement of measured electrocerebral silence has been called \"a safe and reliable guide\" for determining cooling required for individual patients, and verification of electrocerebral silence is required prior to stopping blood circulation to begin a DHCA procedure.\nSecondary to conservation of local energy resources by metabolic slowing and brain inactivation, hypothermia also protects the brain from injury by other mechanisms during", "quickly, based on available evidence. This occurs through the mechanism of cognitive closure. The need for cognitive closure is an epistemic motivation that advances knowledge formation and has widely ramifying consequences for individual, interpersonal, and group phenomena. Seizing and Freezing An elevated need for closure prompts the tendency to \"seize\" on initial evidence and then \"freeze\" on the judgments it suggests. Time pressure has been found to increase participants' tendency to seize on \"anchors\" provided before a task, while fear of invalidity reduced this behavior. The unimodel of social judgement The unimodel investigates the process of new knowledge formation from", "Cold-stimulus headache Terminology The term ice-cream headache has been in use since at least January 31, 1937, contained in a journal entry by Rebecca Timbres published in the 1939 book We Didn't Ask Utopia: A Quaker Family in Soviet Russia. The first published use of the term brain freeze, in the sense of a cold-stimulus headache, was in 1991. 7-Eleven has trademarked the term. Cause and frequency A cold-stimulus headache is the direct result of the rapid cooling and rewarming of the capillaries in the sinuses leading to periods of vasoconstriction and vasodilation. A similar but painless blood vessel response", "until the brain is inactivated by the cold, and electrocerebral silence (flatline EEG) is attained. The blood pump is then switched off, and the interval of circulatory arrest begins. At this time more blood is drained to reduce residual blood pressure if surgery on a cerebral aneurysm is to be performed to help create a bloodless surgical field.\nAfter surgery is completed during the period of cold circulatory arrest, these steps are reversed. The brain and heart naturally resume activity as warming proceeds. The first activity of the warming heart is sometimes ventricular fibrillation requiring cardioversion to re-establish a normal beating", "power generates.\n— Palfreman The Case of the Frozen Addicts (Book) The Case of the Frozen Addicts, co-written by Palfreman and J. William Langston, documents the medical investigation Langston undertook as a neurologist in a California hospital when, in 1982, he encountered several patients who suffered paralysis and an inability to speak. These symptoms caused the patients to appear \"frozen\". Langston eventually discovered that each of the patients had been exposed to a \"designer drug\", contaminated with MPTP which, he hypothesized, destroyed cells in the part of the brain called the substantia nigra and impaired the production of dopamine. This, in turn,", "shortness of breath, increased heart rate, sweating, or choking sensation. However, since it is difficult to measure these sympathetic responses to fear stimuli, studies are typically confined to simple crouching times. A response to stimuli typically is said to be a \"fight or flight\", but is more completely described as \"fight, flight, or freeze.\" In addition, freezing is observed to occur before or after a fight or flight response. Physiology Studies suggest that specific areas of the brain are known to either elicit (or inhibit in the case of lesions) freezing behavior in subjects. The regions include the basolateral amygdala", "initiating actions.\nAnother error in the supervisory attentional system can lead to more devastating implications. When humans are faced with a threatening situation there is often limited time to generate the fight-or-flight response ideally suited to increase survival. Cognitive paralysis is when an individual fails to respond or 'freezes' during an emergency because of either a temporal or cognitive deficiency. The inhibition of the SAS is the proposed temporal constraint during an emergency. If an appropriate pre-learned schema is retrievable, then a survival response will be initiated. However, if no existing schemata can respond, the result", "Christopher Polge. During 1963, Peter Mazur, at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the U.S., demonstrated that lethal intracellular freezing could be avoided if cooling was slow enough to permit sufficient water to leave the cell during progressive freezing of the extracellular fluid. That rate differs between cells of differing size and water permeability: a typical cooling rate around 1 °C/minute is appropriate for many mammalian cells after treatment with cryoprotectants such as glycerol or dimethyl sulphoxide, but the rate is not a universal optimum.\nThe first human body to be frozen with the hope of future revival was James Bedford's, a", "temperature drops abruptly. Freeze tolerance versus freeze avoidance Species containing AFPs may be classified as\nFreeze avoidant: These species are able to prevent their body fluids from freezing altogether. Generally, the AFP function may be overcome at extremely cold temperatures, leading to rapid ice growth and death.\nFreeze tolerant: These species are able to survive body fluid freezing. Some freeze tolerant species are thought to use AFPs as cryoprotectants to prevent the damage of freezing, but not freezing altogether. The exact mechanism is still unknown. However, it is thought AFPs may inhibit recrystallization and stabilize cell membranes to", "(AFGL), entering into a diapause, producing a multimolar concentration glycerundol, and purging the gut in order to remove potential ice nucleators. Absence of freezing indicates that their AFPs can inhibit ice nucleators to vary in low temperatures and may inhibit homogenous nucleation resulting in vitrification. Another study reported that if temperatures were held constant, then C. clavipes individuals with the highest water content had the highest probability of freezing, and individuals with the lowest water content had the lowest probability of freezing. \nAFPs decrease the temperature at which an ice crystal grows, defined as the hysteretic freezing point, by an", "totally frozen affects begin to emerge, and a much richer human personality to evolve, then convictions about the psychogenic nature of the disturbance become stronger still.\"; On Treatability, p. 412. The rates of recovery claimed for the Orthogenic School are set out in Follow-up Data, with a recovery good enough to be considered a 'cure' of 43%., ps. 414–415.\nSubsequently, medical research has provided greater understanding of the biological basis of autism and other illnesses. Scientists such as Bernard Rimland challenged Bettelheim's view of autism by arguing that autism is a neurodevelopmental issue. As late as 2009, the \"refrigerator mother\" theory retained", "the term after the Stockholm police asked him for assistance with analyzing the victims' reactions to the 1973 bank robbery and their status as hostages. As the idea of brainwashing was not a new concept, Bejerot, speaking on \"a news cast after the captives' release\" instinctively reduced the hostages' reactions to a result of being brainwashed by their captors. He called it Norrmalmstorgssyndromet, meaning \"the Norrmalmstorg syndrome\"; it later became known outside of Sweden as the Stockholm syndrome. It was originally defined by psychiatrist Frank Ochberg to aid the management of hostage situations.\n\nOlsson later said in an interview:\nIt was the", "Permanent brain damage is uncommon but have been seen in some who suffer from hypoglycemia. The activation of the system is assisted by norepinephrine, acetylcholine, and epinephrine. Hypoglycemia unawareness can occur because the symapthoadrenal system response is reduced, in turn, the symptoms are reduced. Since the symptoms go unnoticed, this may lead to a dangerous cycle of hypoglycemia and an increased risk of severe hypoglycemia, which can have serious consequences.\nInsulin is essential in triggering the sympathoadrenal system (the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine) to respond to hypoglycemia, which then raises glucagon levels. The insulin present in the brain acts on", "made it an article of medical faith for decades that babies should not be allowed to get cold.\nConsequently, during the next two decades studies of neonatal hypothermia in Europe and the USA were sporadic and often unsuccessful. An interest in cooling for brain protection was beginning to emerge, but contemporary neuroscience provided few useful concepts to guide this research and little progress was made. Although across the Iron Curtain in the Soviet Union cooling was being applied empirically following birth asphyxia, the language barrier, cold war politics and the Russians' failure to carry out randomised controlled trials contributed to", "occur as long as brain structure remains intact and the information is theoretically readable has received some mainstream medical discussion in the context of the ethical concept of brain death and organ donation.\nCryonics uses temperatures below −130 °C, called cryopreservation, in an attempt to preserve enough brain information to permit future revival of the cryopreserved person. Cryopreservation may be accomplished by freezing, freezing with cryoprotectant to reduce ice damage, or by vitrification to avoid ice damage. Even using the best methods, cryopreservation of whole bodies or brains is very damaging and irreversible with current technology.\nCryonics requires unknown future technology to repair", "the nervous system fails, and transmission of adverse sensory information is prevented. The potassium then triggers cardiac arrest within 40–90 seconds, in both warm and cold environments.\nWhile intravenous KCl is not humane for vertebrates, the researchers in this study assume that in lobsters \"disruption of the CNS, its ability to process and transmit sensory input, and loss of any awareness would be almost immediate\" because the injection directly targets the lobster's \"brain.\" KCl injection produced immediate extension of claws and legs due to deactivation of motor neurons, and the researchers assume that sensory neurons degraded in a similar fashion.\nThe lethal", "it. In the mid-1950s, he experimented with the cryopreservation of rodents, determining that hamsters could be frozen with 60% of the water in the brain crystallized into ice with no adverse effects; other organs were shown to be susceptible to damage. This work led other scientists to attempt the short-term freezing of rats by 1955, which were fully active 4 to 7 days after being revived.\nCryopreservation was applied to humans beginning in 1954 with three pregnancies resulting from the insemination of previously frozen sperm. Fowl sperm was cryopreserved in 1957 by a team of scientists in the UK directed by", "progressing from freezing in early stimulations to convulsions in later ones. The lengthening of duration and intensification of behavioral accompaniment eventually reaches a plateau after repeated stimulation. Even if animals are left unstimulated for as long as 12 weeks, the effect remains; the response to stimulation remains higher than it had been before.\nIt has been reported that repeated seizure stimulation can result in spontaneous seizures, but studies have had conflicting findings on this question. In humans, some seizure disorders come to an end by themselves even after large numbers of seizures. However, in both human epilepsy and in", "of the pupils; the initiation of the central grey via communication from the amygdala results in the organism's becoming frozen in its tracks; communication between the activated amygdala and the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus releases hormones associated with stress.\nLiterature has linked the FPS response to interplay between the central nucleus of the amgydala and both the central grey and nucleus reticular pontis caudalis. Insult (e.g., traumatic brain injury) to these brain areas inhibits any display of FPS response in humans. In addition, a distinction has been made concerning neural activity of the reflexive FPS response, and that which occurs", "could cause lags in the screen updates. In such cases, even some small head motions could trigger the motion sickness by the defense mechanism that mentioned above: The inner ear transmits to the brain that it senses motion, but the eyes tell the brain that everything is still. As a result of the incongruity, the brain concludes that the individual is hallucinating and further concludes that the hallucination is due to poison ingestion. The brain responds by inducing vomiting, to clear the supposed toxin. Motion seen but not felt In these cases, motion is detected by the visual system and", "cause of the disease, which could lead to prevention, and also major progress on finding ways to slow and halt disease progression. I think that's a realistic possibility in my lifetime, my career. I wouldn't have said that five or 10 years ago. A cure, I will not say.\" The Case of the Frozen Addicts The Case of the Frozen Addicts. was written by Langston and Jon Palfreman in 1995. A later edition was published in 2014. The book details the work done by Langston, his colleagues and associates around the world to isolate the neurotoxic contaminant which caused the", "of a stimulus. The ventral and medial areas of the prefrontal cortex (VM-PFC) are implicated during these tasks. Cold cognition is thought to be associated with executive functions elicited by abstract, deconceptualized tasks, such as card sorting. The area of the brain that is utilized for these tasks is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DL-PFC). It is between the ages of 3 years and 5 years that the most significant change in task completion is seen. Age-related trends have been observed in tasks used to measure hot cognition, as well as cold cognition. However, the age at which children reach adult-like", "low-level activity and another conscious state consisting of snowballing self-amplification and reverberation (p. 184). Subliminal stimuli fail to become conscious because by the time the higher layers try to amplify the signal, the original input stimulation has vanished (p. 193).\nDehaene suggests that noise fluctuations in neural activity can be amplified and give rise to randomness in our streams of thought (p. 190). Ch. 6: The Ultimate Test Dehaene discusses coma, vegetative states, minimally conscious states, and locked-in syndrome.\nRecent findings have shown that a few patients without any ability to move (not even to move their eyes) still show intact consciousness", "of effectiveness in group brainstorming.\nBlocking: \nBecause only one participant may give an idea at any one time, other participants might forget the idea they were going to contribute or not share it because they see it as no longer important or relevant. Further, if we view brainstorming as a cognitive process in which \"a participant generates ideas (generation process) and stores them in short-term memory (memorization process) and then eventually extracts some of them from its short-term memory to express them (output process)\", then blocking is an even more critical challenge because it may also inhibit a person's", "Ole Martin Moen has written that it only receives a \"miniscule\" amount of attention from academia.\nWhile some neuroscientists contend that all the subtleties of a human mind are contained in its anatomical structure, few neuroscientists will comment directly upon the topic of cryonics due to its speculative nature. Individuals who intend to be frozen are often \"looked at as a bunch of kooks\". Cryobiologist Kenneth B. Storey said in 2004 that cryonics is impossible and will never be possible, as cryonics proponents are proposing to \"over-turn the laws of physics, chemistry, and molecular science\".\nWilliam T. Jarvis has written that \"Cryonics" ]

[ "The acids in tomatoes, peppers, and onions take time to break down carbohydrates (beans) and proteins (meat). So overnight the beans and meat absorb more of the delicious spicy flavor.", "The water in the chili is a *solvent,* dissolving various tasty molecules from within the other ingredients, mixing them around, and making them available to your taste buds. This process takes time." ]

[ "are preferred by scientists as they eliminate the potential ambiguity arising from use of the words \"hot\" and \"spicy\", which can also refer to temperature and the presence of spices, respectively.\nFor instance, a pumpkin pie can be both hot (out of the oven) and spicy (due to the common inclusion of spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, mace, and cloves), but it is not pungent. (A food critic may nevertheless use the word \"piquant\" to describe such a pie, especially if it is exceptionally well-seasoned.) Conversely, pure capsaicin is pungent, yet it is not naturally accompanied by a hot temperature", "while the hot red ones are available in the fall. It has different culinary usages depending on its maturity.\nImmature green Fresno chilis are more versatile and can be added to many types of dishes. They add mild heat and flavor to sauces, chutneys, dips, relishes, casseroles, soups, stews and savory dishes. Green Fresnos can also be pickled and eaten whole. They make an excellent garnish for Mexican and Southwestern American cuisine.\nMature red Fresno peppers provide less flavor and more heat. They are often added to salsas, relishes, ceviches, and marinades. They make good toppings for tacos, tostadas, burgers, sausages and", "describing the chili as \"sensational stuff: thick, peppery, full-flavored and positively addictive\". In January 2009, food magazine Bon Appétit named Ben's one of the country's ten \"Best Chili Spots\", asserting, \"No reasonable discussion of great chili joints can take place without mention of this U Street institution.\" In a 2016 Washington Post restaurant review, Ben's received one star and the food was described as \"awful.\"", "like paprika, or hot sauce to give it a spicy taste. This is especially common in fast food restaurants and chains such as KFC. The dish is traditionally served with mashed potato, gravy, macaroni and cheese, coleslaw and biscuits.\nThe dish is renowned for being greasy, especially when coming from fast food outlets. It has even been reported that some of those who enjoy eating the food limit themselves to eating it only a certain number of times a year, to keep their fat intake reasonably low. Out of the various parts of the animal used in fried chicken, the wings", "has largely been surpassed by canned chili, but can still be found in some stores. Seasoning mix Home cooks may also purchase seasoning mixes for chili, including packets of dry ingredients such as chili powder, masa flour, salt, and cayenne pepper, to flavor meat and other ingredients.", "mild to hot. The Scoville scale measures the pungency of chili peppers, as defined by the amount of capsaicin they contain.\nPungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to", "peppers referred to as amu miris (Green chilli), kochchi miris, and maalu miris (capsicum) and in Tamil Milakaai, among others. It is generally accepted for tourists to request that the food is cooked with a lower chili content to cater for the more sensitive Western palette. Food cooked for public occasions typically uses less chili than food cooked at homes, where the food is cooked with the chili content preferable to the occupants. Tea culture Tea is served whenever a guest arrives, it is served at festivals and gatherings. New Year The Sinhalese and Tamil New Year (\"Aluth Avurudhu\" in", "chili peppers come in a wide variety of species and cultivars, some domesticated and many of them wild. These included a great range of heat intensity depending on the amount of capsaicin present, with some being mild and others being very piquant. The chilis were often dried and ground for storage and use in cooking, some roasted beforehand to impart different tastes. Flavors varied significantly from one type to another, including sweet, fruity, earthy, smoky, and fiery hot.\nNative species of plants used as seasonings produced flavors similar to Old World spices that often proved to be more easily accessible in", "\"15 Beloved Regional Dishes.\" In 2000, Camp Washington Chili won a James Beard Foundation America's Classics Award. In 2013, Smithsonian named Cincinnati chili one of \"20 Most Iconic Foods in America,\" calling out Camp Washington Chili as their destination of choice. John McIntyre, writing in The Baltimore Sun, called it \"the most perfect of fast foods,\" and, referring to the misnomer, opined that \"if the Greeks who invented it nearly a century ago had called it something other than chili, the [chili] essentialists would be able to enjoy it.\" In 2015, Thrillist named it \"the one food you must eat", "Lobio History It is said to have originated in Georgia. The dish most likely predates any division of the lands into countries. As with many Georgian dishes, lobio is spicy, but not necessarily hot. One of the traditional recipes for lobio does not call for hot peppers (as other recipes do) but relies solely on ground black pepper for its spice. Preparation and ingredients While there are many ways of making lobio, the most common of which is a cold dish called lobio nigozit, typically made with dark red kidney beans which are cooked and then mashed with garlic, onions,", "the expectation of chili con carne, which it \"bears no resemblance to.\" Cincinnati chili is a Mediterranean-spiced meat sauce for spaghetti or hot dogs and is very seldom eaten by the bowl as is typical with chili con carne. It is common for Cincinnatians to describe it starting with, \"Well, it's not really chili...\" Cincinnati Enquirer food editor Chuck Martin and Cincinnati Magazine dining editor Donna Covrett agree, \"It is not chili.\" Cincinnati chili is always seasoned with cinnamon, allspice, cloves, cumin, nutmeg, and chili powder. Many home recipes call for a small amount of dark unsweetened chocolate, but according", "chili were developed in the United Kingdom and are available as sauces which have been claimed to be the hottest natural chili sauces (without added pepper extract) available in the world (The Naga Viper and Infinity were considered the hottest two chili peppers in the world until the Naga Viper was unseated by the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion in late 2011.) Portugal Piri piri is the popular chili sauce; the term \"piri piri\" came to English through the Portuguese language through contact with Portuguese Mozambique. Pacific Islands The Pacific Islands are influenced by Asian and European cuisines. Hot chili sauce is", "hot and dry conditions in the summer, and even experts may not be able to distinguish relative hotness on the same plant.\nFor cooking, a hole is poked in the pepper beforehand to keep expanding hot air from bursting the pepper. It may be skewered then broiled (grilled), or pan-fried in oil, stewed in a soy sauce– and dashi-based liquid, or simply eaten raw in a salad or as a condiment. It is thin-skinned and will blister and char easily compared with thicker-skinned varieties of peppers.", "hot dogs. They are large enough to stuff with cheeses, potatoes, seafood and meat. Specific recipes include versions of Romesco and rojo cream sauces. Nutritional and medical information Fresno chili peppers are an excellent source of vitamin C and B vitamins, containing significant amounts of iron, thiamin, niacin, magnesium and riboflavin. They are low in calories, fat, and sodium and help to reduce cholesterol. Many of these nutrients reach their highest concentrations in red ripe fruit. The heat element is from capsaicin, a chemical compound that provides a natural anti-inflammatory and pain relief and promotes a feeling of being full.", "Peppersoup Peppersoup is a soup from the English-speaking parts of West Africa that is prepared using various meats, chili peppers and nutmeg as primary ingredients. It is a spicy soup that has a light, watery texture. It is considered to be a delicacy by some people in Western Africa, and some West Africans believe that the soup has medicinal qualities. Overview Peppersoup is a common soup in West African cuisine that is prepared using various meats, chili peppers and nutmeg as primary ingredients. Peppersoup is very spicy and goes well with a cold bottle of beer or soft drink. While", "the spice during breakfast can increase energy expenditure by 23% immediately after meal ingestion. Capsaicin, also known as hot pepper, is a primary ingredient in chilli peppers and red hot peppers. Hot peppers have been reported to induce thermogenesis at the cellular level.\nAs well, capsaicin induces satiety as a result of oral and gastro-intestinal contribution. Lower energy and fat intake were observed under short-term conditions; however, the effect of the spice was reduced over prolonged exposure. Increased satiety was observed when oral contribution of capsaicin was measured in addition to the gastro-intestinal exposure, indicating the sensory effect of hot peppers", "is due in large part to the development of the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest, an annual holiday tradition that has been held on July 4 virtually every year since the 1970s at Coney Island. In 2001, Takeru Kobayashi ate 50 hot dogs – smashing the previous record (25.5). The event generates enormous media attention and has been aired on ESPN for the past eight years, contributing to the growth of the competitive eating phenomenon. Kobayashi won the competition every year from 2001 until 2006, but was dethroned in 2007 by Joey Chestnut. In 2008, Chestnut and Kobayashi tied at", "adding tomato sauce to his chili in the ratio of one 15-ounce can per three pounds of meat. He also believed that chili should never be eaten freshly cooked, but refrigerated overnight to seal in the flavor. Matt Weinstock, a Los Angeles newspaper columnist, once remarked that Fowler's chili \"was reputed to open eighteen sinus cavities unknown to the medical profession.\" Variations Besides the \"classic chili\", there is also Texas chili, Cincinnati chili, and the Mexican dish, chili colorado ('chili colored red'). Then there is a vegetarian version, chili verde (colored green), and white chili (using white ingredients). Vegetarian chili Vegetarian", "the optional cucumber pickle relish is such a part of the local fabric, that it is one of the favorite comestibles of New York City and both the pork and the beef versions are beloved. Hot dogs are a typical street food sold year round in all by the most inclement weather from thousands of pushcarts. As with all other stadiums in Major League Baseball they are an essential for New York Yankees and the New York Mets games though it is the local style of preparation that predominates without exception. Hot dogs are also the focus of a televised", "into pieces. The dashi (soup base) is made from niboshi, which are often left in the soup in home-cooked meals. Vegetables differ by season; negi, onions, and potatoes are commonly included during the summer, while taro, carrots, and Chinese cabbage make up the winter ingredients, along with various types of mushrooms such as shiitake and shimeji. Pork or chicken can be included by preference. In terms of nutrition value, hōtō provides large amounts of starch from the noodles and potatoes, and vitamins and fiber from the soup and vegetables.\nMost hōtō noodles are wider and flatter compared to regular udon noodles.", "flavors make it difficult to know which recipe is more close to the original recipe or which is more true to how luosifen noodles are to taste. Many restaurants might use tomatoes, leafy greens, diced chicken, chile oil, and even chestnuts to give the dish a bit of a flavor as well as balancing with the richness of the meats that are used in the dish. Other restaurants will add more peppers or chili to give the dish a spicy flavor. Some would even use sesame oil, red chili, jalapeños, tofu, cumin, and other spices to bring out the pungent", "hot peppers (Scoville rating 200,000 – 300,000) add a unique flavor as well as heat. The chilli is also supposed to help preserve food, as well as adding flavour to relatively bland tropical staples like root vegetables.\nThe seeds of Guinea pepper (Aframomum melegueta; also called grains of paradise or melagueta pepper), a plant indigenous to West Africa, are also widely used. This native spice tastes and looks somewhat like a peppercorn, but has cardamom and coriander seed flavor notes. The grains of paradise was once a prized commodity reaching Europe through North African middlemen, during the Middle Ages.\nSumbala or soumbala", "Chili Bowl is not specifically mentioned, in the first episode of the HBO show “The Deuce,” during a scene set in a New York City diner, Lori, (actress Emily Meade) asks: “What was that sausage thing?” C.C. (Gary Carr) replies: “That’s a half-smoke, girl.” Reviews In 2004, the James Beard Foundation named Ben's one of the \"down-home eateries that have carved out a special place on the American culinary landscape\". Michael Stern, a writer specializing in U.S. regional foods, penned a 2008 review raving \"The half-smoke is sensational!\" and \"Ben's serves one of the best sweet potato pies anywhere\", and", "will lower the spiciness; while habanero peppers will increase it. Another method is to mix the stuffing with finely chopped native labuyo peppers, which are much hotter than siling haba, with a Scoville scale rating of 80,000 to 100,000 SHU. Some of the seeds of the siling haba can also be retained to make it hotter, though too much can make it taste bitter.\nThe stuffing can similarly be adjusted to taste. Some variants of dinamita may further encase or stuff the pepper with tocino, ham, or bacon, for example, before rolling it into the lumpia wrapper. Others may exclude the", "carrots, and chayote squash are sometimes used to add flavor, mellow the heat of the chilis, and thicken the sauce's consistency. Artisan hot sauces are manufactured by smaller producers and private labels in the United States. Their products are produced in smaller quantities in a variety of flavors. Many sauces have a theme to catch consumers attention. A very mild chili sauce is produced by Heinz and other manufacturers, and is frequently found in cookbooks in the U.S. This style chili sauce is based on tomatoes, green and/or red bell peppers, and spices; and contains little chili pepper. This", "to problems with quality control, the brand experienced problems when it shipped products that were underprocessed, resulting in several cases of botulism and subsequent widespread recall, and the cessation of production at their food processing plant. Canned chili sauce Beginning in June 2007, eight people contracted botulism due to the consumption of \"Hot Dog Chili Sauce\" and other products manufactured by the Castleberry's Food Company plant in Augusta, Georgia, which were under-processed, resulting in the production of botulinum toxin within the cans. At that time, the Castleberry's plant was owned and operated by Bumble Bee. The United States' Centers for", "in Ohio.\"\nEater called it \"America's most controversial plate of pasta.\" It is common for those unfamiliar with it, confused by the misnomer and expecting chili con carne, to \"scorn it\" as a poor example of chili. A 2013 piece published by the sports and culture website Deadspin went so far as to call it \"horrifying diarrhea sludge.\" In popular culture Blues musician Lonnie Mack, who was born and raised just outside of Cincinnati, released a guitar instrumental called Camp Washington Chili on his 1986 album Second Sight. Country music duo Big & Rich sang about flying through Cincinnati and grabbing", "Hot Ones Format The format involves Evans and his guest(s) eating ten chicken wings, each prepared with a progressively hotter hot sauce. Its tagline, stated by Evans at the beginning of each episode, is \"The show with hot questions, and even hotter wings.\" The first sauce in the series is usually something relatively mild such as Sriracha, which has a rating of 2,200 Scoville units. The final sauce (as of season 4), Hot Ones' own The Last Dab (The Last Dab Reduxx starting in season 6), has a Scoville rating of 2,000,000+. After each wing, Evans asks his guest", "or a variation thereof, including Atlanta, New York City, Philadelphia, Chicago, Los Angeles, Birmingham, Louisville, Ann Arbor, Columbus, and Salt Lake City. The appeal of hot chicken has spread beyond the United States, with restaurants in Seoul, South Korea, and Melbourne, Australia, also serving this style of chicken.\nIn January 2016, fast food chain KFC began selling \"Nashville Hot Chicken\" and \"Nashville Hot Tenders\" in its U.S. restaurants. This follows a trial run in the Pittsburgh area that it stated was \"the most successful product testing in the company's recent history.\" Following this, KFC released \"Nashville Hot Chicken\" in its UK", "This is in stark contrast to other nations associated with the chili pepper, like Mexico or Thailand, which use the hot variety much more frequently and typically also serve it as a garnish. In Hungary, the sweet (mild) paprika is much more common and is featured prominently in most dishes. The use of a thick sour cream called tejföl as a topping is another common feature in many dishes.\nIn addition to various kinds of paprika and onions (raw, sweated, seared, browned or caramelized), other common flavor components include: dill, bay leaf, black peppercorn, caraway, coriander, cinnamon, garlic, horseradish, lemon juice" ]

[ "Ha, had the speakers on when I played that audio clip and the cat **freaked** out. Apparently that knock knock fools animals into thinking someone's at the front door too.\n\nYour brain determines the location of a sound's source by a few different factors. Namely, distortion differences between each ear, and delay in which ear hears the sound first. Technology has gotten good enough that with proper equipment it can re-create those effects and trick your brain. We usually use the term \"binaural\" as in \"Two ear\" to describe the effect.\n\nOne of the most famous examples of binaurual audio is the \"Virtual haircut\" clip _URL_1_ where they demo a technology designed to create the effect. Lots of ASMR artists and other people do it too, one popular device these days is [a 3Dio twin mic setup such as this](_URL_0_). With two microphones and extremely accurate recreation of the human ear shape (it affects how sound bounces about), you can recreate a whole room's soundscape effectively." ]

[ "enough to completely offset the effect of a distracting concurrent activity. Theory To cancel the lower-frequency portions of the noise, noise-cancelling headphones use active noise control. They incorporate a microphone that measures ambient sound, generate a waveform that is the exact negative of the ambient sound, and mix it with any audio signal the listener desires.\nMost noise-cancelling headsets in the consumer market generate the noise-cancelling waveform in real-time with analogue technology. In contrast, other active noise and vibration control products use soft real-time digital processing.\nTo prevent higher-frequency noise from reaching the ear, most noise-cancelling headphones depend on soundproofing. Higher-frequency sound", "clicking sound as well as the KRACK WPA2 Wi-Fi security issue, however, it did not fix the buzzing sounds heard during calls on some devices. Google has promised a fix in a future update.\nThe Pixel 2 XL has a volume flaw that reduces the sound level of audio clips sent through messaging apps such as Google Allo, Instagram, and Telegram among others. Google is aware of the problem and is looking into it.\nSome of the USB-C to 3.5 mm adapters for the headphones do not work. In some cases, rebooting the phone can fix the issue temporarily. Google is offering replacements", "should be muted. If you want to hear the sound while being recorded, care should be taken to avoid feedback, either by lowering speaker volume or repositioning the microphone.\nRecord streaming sound' (i.e. sound from an internet-radio station): To record sound that is played on PC there is a special virtual recording source called stereo mix or mono mix. All sounds on your PC are “duplicated” to this recording source by the audio driver or by the sound card hardware.\nJust select stereo mix source in your favorite recording tool and record what you hear. Not all the sound cards have stereo", "It is reported that front/back confusions which are common in static listening tests disappear when listeners are allowed to slightly turn their heads to help them in localization. However, if the sound scene is presented through headphones without compensation for head motion, the scene does not change with the user’s motion, and dynamic cues are absent.\nHead-related transfer functions contain all the descriptors of localization cues such as ITD and IID as well as monaural cues. Every HRTF uniquely represents the transfer of sound from a specific position in 3D space to the ears of a listener. The", "to be displayed on the owner's account. Glass break detector Glass break detectors are usually installed near glass doors or a window front of a store. This equipment uses a microphone to detect when a pane of glass is broken or shattered. By monitoring the sound and vibrations the alarm only reacts to sounds above a certain threshold to avoid false alarms. High-decibel alarms High-decibel alarms ensure that a break in will not go unnoticed. These alarm systems are loud enough to where neighbors are ensured to hear it. They are also implemented with the intention to frighten an unwanted", "suppressed while the speaker's voice is enhanced.\nThe processed sound is delivered in stereo to the wearer. This audio allows users to have face-to-face conversations in high noise environments up to 95 dB without removing their hearing protection, as well as providing 360 degree situational awareness (Directional - 3D sound), which allows the wearer to determine in which direction the voice or other audio (Noise) is coming from. Models are available with different communication options including two-way radio connection via cable and/or a Bluetooth capability so users can talk on the phone and/or two-way radio wirelessly without removing their hearing protection. Some", "implementation. Such effect is commonly referred to as \"machinegun\" or Max Headroom stuttering effect. This happens if the operating system hangs during audio playback. An error handling routine (e.g. blue screen of death) may eventually stop the audio controller.", "has is by turning the Gamate on without a game in - the \"bad\" one displays vertical lines while the \"good\" one displays a slightly corrupted checkerboard pattern. Sound The Gamate's mono internal speaker is of poor quality, giving off sound that is quite distorted, particularly at low volumes. However, if a user plugs into the headphone jack, the sound is revealed to be programmed in stereo, and of a relatively high quality. Shell The G1001 Gamate is dark grey in color and has a \"x\" D-pad and small speaker vents. The G1002 Gamate are dark grey in color", "which means that the user cannot change it. In some cases, the factory preset crossover point on an HTIB subwoofer may cause it to sound too \"boomy\" in a room. Features A typical HTIB generally consists of a central receiver unit which usually contains a DVD player (some systems separate the DVD player into a separate unit), a multi-channel power amplifier and a series of speakers for surround sound use, generally including a subwoofer. Some HTIB systems also have a radio tuner or an Internet-based streaming audio platform (e.g. Spotify). The least expensive systems usually have a passive subwoofer, which", "Noise print A noise print is part of a technique used in noise reduction. A noise print is commonly used in audio mastering to help reduce the effects of unwanted noise from a piece of audio. In this case, the noise print would be a recording of the ambient noise in the room, which is then used in spectral subtraction to set multiple expanders, effectively gating out those frequencies whilst the signal level in that band is lower than that in the noise print. Many plugins for studio software can be used to apply noise reduction in this way.\nNoise reduction", "cause the tubes to vibrate, producing a characteristic undesirable horizontal banding in the image.\nThe effect can also be observed when operating a vinyl record player in the same room as the loudspeakers. Depending on the construction of the player the sound may acoustically couple into the record player's dust cover or other mechanical parts and cause a feedback loop into the magnetic cartridge. Other uses The term is sometimes misused to describe sounds transmitted to the ear physically by mechanical vibrations or knocks on the wires of a headphone or in-ear monitor, when no disturbance of any electrical signal occurs.", "might be \"played\", resulting in screeching which, at worst, might damage speakers. This is caused by the player not recognizing the \"data\" flag bit for the track that distinguishes it from an audio track; these players were designed for audio CDs only, with no provisions to handle CD-ROMs with both data and audio tracks. As a result, it attempts to play back the data file as an audio recording, converting the encoded data into incongruous noise that can exceed the limitations of commercial speakers. Newer audio CD players do check for data tracks and (at least) mute the track if", "audio signal and uses electromagnetic actuator technology to convert bass sound waves into vibrations that can represent such actions as a punch or kick. The vest plugs into the audio output of a stereo, TV, or VCR and the audio signal is reproduced through a speaker embedded in the vest. \nIn 1995, Thomas Massie developed the PHANToM (Personal HAptic iNTerface Mechanism) system. It used thimble-like receptacles at the end of computerized arms into which a person's fingers could be inserted, allowing them to \"feel\" an object on a computer screen.\nIn 1995, Norwegian Geir Jensen described a wristwatch haptic device", "by sending the audio into the DAW through the audio interface. The sound of the music in the DAW is played back through the audio interface in playback. The pop filter is used to reduce the loud signal of word plosions such as when pronouncing words starting with 'p' or 'b' sounds. Headphones and monitors are used to listen to the playback and for mixing. A MIDI controller works as the instrument for producers, to use instead of programming individual notes into sequences in the DAW. While it is common to record in a bedroom studio, Sampling is also widely", "sound, and then making it a bit more unrecognisable. It’s about using different things and subverting them in the process.", "audio, they lock the doors to stop anyone from looking through.", "noise sources.\nCASA attempts to recreate sound source separation in the same manner as human hearing, but in machines. Using the principles of CASA, Audience’s earSmart processors act like a human cochlea and group different sounds, based on a diverse list of cues such as pitch, onset/offset time, spatial location and harmonicity. These simultaneous sounds are evaluated and grouped by source. In doing this, the microphones of a mobile device, together with Audience's proprietary \"Fast Cochlea Transform\" technology, can identify and group sounds which are classified as noise, remove or at least reduce them, and leave the remaining clear", "clanged on pots and pans and discovered: Hey, I can make noise!\" Refinery29 journalist Colleen Nika stated that the charm of Patatap was that it \"takes a familiar conundrum — being supremely bored in front of your computer — and saves you from backsliding into the rabbit hole of wonky cat gifs and \"Which Lindsay Lohan Are You?\" quizzes. Instead, it encourages you to open your browser, get free-associative, and create something.\" She also called it superior to other digital audio workstations: \"Unlike with actual music software, there's no UI logistics or performance pressure to grapple with — it's a", "on background noise so that, in theory, the user should not have to adjust the volume when walking between quiet and noisy environments. Signal processing attempts to amplify the caller's voice and reject background noise, allowing the caller to be heard more clearly; however, in practice call quality is poor for models without A2DP. The Bluetooth Headset was criticized for having poor call quality, a lack of features and a high price tag. Bluetooth Headset Series 2 The \"Bluetooth Headset Series 2\" was sold from 2011 until 2015. Compared with its predecessor, the Series 2 included A2DP and a revised", "named one of BusinessWeek's \"Fifty Best Tech Startups\" in June 2009. Awards earned by Livescribe include the Codie award, the Editor's Choice Award of MacLife, and the Silicon Valley Business Journal's Emerging Tech Award.\nSome users have noted that ambient noise can be a problem. The built-in microphone on the pen can pick up small amounts of noise from writing on paper, and adjacent ambient noise is often louder than a far away speaker. However, the included headphones have embedded microphones that reduce this ambient noise. (Headphones for the Echo must be purchased separately).\nThe smartpen's portable size and audio recording capabilities", "can cause a partial loss of low frequency information, making the resulting sound somewhat \"tinny.\" This negative effect can be heard on any stereo speaker system, but makes headphone listening particularly un-natural sounding. This is because the lead vocalist or performer's audio waveform would be attempting to partially cancel itself inside the listener's head, confusing the brain's audio positioning sense.\nDue to complicated interaction of phase and frequency it is difficult to predict exactly how the reduction from two channels to one will affect the sound of a particular instrument. Therefore mono sound from a true mono mix is", "in the Digital Audio Workstation. If there is an error in the code, a message explaining the error will appear in the console, located under the code editor. The digital audio workstation A digital audio workstation (DAW) is a tool used by a majority of music producers which helps manipulate audio samples (or audio files), add effects, and accomplish other tasks in the composition process. EarSketch's DAW is located in the top center section, above the code editor. It contains tracks: each line is a track, and corresponds to an instrument. With code commands, the user will add sound samples", "Shadow noise Correction There are methods to correct shadow noise. Professional digital editing software like Photoshop have the capability to eliminate some amount of noise, while other software, such as Band Aide or Noise Ninja are specifically designed around the process of eliminating shadow noise in a photo.", "two line level stereo outputs to feed into the audio DJ mixer line channels. It also has two phono stereo outputs for pass-through of the actual phono audio signal. This is useful for DJs who wish to play both digital audio tracks AND traditional vinyl; allowing them to switch between the two sources without disconnecting or re-connecting audio jacks in the middle of a DJ set.\nThe ScratchAmp does not store any audio on its own, it is simply a purpose built external Soundcard. It communicates with a PC—usually a laptop—over the firewire or USB connection. The laptop uses Final", "files into the player's internal memory, it automatically updates the media library after disconnecting the device from the computer. It sometimes occurs that due to some specific audio files, the updating process hangs up, leading to brick the device. It is then no longer recognized by the computer and can no longer start up. Samsung released several firmware updates to fix this bug but never managed to find all root causes. As a result, the issue may occur even with the latest firmware v3.07. A preventive solution is to install a modded firmware or Rockbox (see below). Otherwise the user", "midway up the cord. In 2008, anti-counterfeiting identifiers (such as a hologram on the back of the circuit board) were added.\nAn \"MIE\" mobile headset version was released in 2009. The MIE includes a microphone and remote control, located on the cord. IE2 / MIE2 The IE2 in-ear headphones were sold from 2010 until 2016. Unlike many other in-ear headphones, they are not inserted deep into the ear canal, rather the fit is similar to an earbud. Therefore, noise isolation is less effective than Canalphones The audio quality of the IE2 was judged to be outperformed by other models in its", "is dragged to the top of the screen. Dragging windows to the left or right edges of the screen allows users to snap software windows to either side of the screen, such that the windows take up half the screen. When a user moves windows that were snapped or maximized using Snap, the system restores their previous state. Snap functions can also be triggered with keyboard shortcuts. Shake hides all inactive windows when the active window's title bar is dragged back and forth rapidly (metaphorically shaken).\nWindows 7 includes 13 additional sound schemes, titled Afternoon, Calligraphy, Characters, Cityscape, Delta, Festival, Garden,", "smoothes blocks with configurable (signaled) strength roughly along the direction of the dominant edge to eliminate ringing artifacts.\nThere is also the loop restoration filter (loop_restoration) based on the Wiener filter and self-guided restoration filters to remove blur artifacts due to block processing.\nFilm grain synthesis (film_grain) improves coding of noisy signals using a parametric video coding approach.\nDue to the randomness inherent to film grain noise, this signal component is traditionally either very expensive to code or prone to get damaged or lost, possibly leaving serious coding artefacts as residue. This tool circumvents these problems using analysis and synthesis, replacing parts of", "common than headphone listening.\nIt is possible to change the spatial effects of stereo sound on headphones, to better approximate the presentation of speaker reproduction, by using frequency-dependent cross-feed between the channels.\nHeadsets can have ergonomic benefits over traditional telephone handsets. They allow call center agents to maintain better posture without needing to hand-hold a handset or tilt their head sideways to cradle it. Dangers and risks Using headphones at a sufficiently high volume level may cause temporary or permanent hearing impairment or deafness. The headphone volume often has to compete with the background noise, especially in loud places such as subway", "tape hiss so analog style noise reduction systems are not necessary. However, an interesting twist is that dither systems actually add noise to a signal to improve its quality. Software programs Most general purpose voice editing software will have one or more noise reduction functions (Audacity, WavePad, etc.). Special purpose noise reduction software programs include Gnome Wave Cleaner, Sony Creative Noise Reduction, SoliCall Pro, Voxengo Redunoise and X-OOM Music Clean. In images Images taken with both digital cameras and conventional film cameras will pick up noise from a variety of sources. Further use of these images will often require" ]

[ "Easier, yes, in the sense that the assembly requires less pricise equipment. Not necessarily cheaper, though, because of the material costs.", "Pricing is determined by a few factors, including cost of materials, cost of R & D, economy of scale (meaning that the more of something you make, the cheaper each individual item becomes), and how much people are willing to spend on the item.\n\nIn the case of a TV, the pixel density isn't really the big cost.. the cost of a larger piece of glass to cover the front, more plastic in the back, and more expensive shipping for bigger/heavier items all contribute to the cost of a bigger TV.\n\nThe reason higher-density displays are more expensive is because the manufacturers have to put a lot of money into R & D to figure out how to make those displays, and they usually need new equipment to start building them.\n\nSo bigger TVs do cost more to make, just in materials alone. Then, if you look at a 65\" TV, they probably produce less of those than they do of 50\" TVs, so each 65\" TV is more expensive to manufacture because the manufacturer doesn't get the same economy of scale as they do with the 50\" TV. For example, you might need one piece of equipment that costs $1 million for each size of TV you're producing. So if you spread that cost out over the 1 million 50\" TVs you make, that's $1 per TV. But if you make $100,000 65\" TVs, that one piece of equipment costs you $10 per TV.\n\nSo, big TVs cost more. Then look at marketing. Most people are willing to spend $100 more on a 5\" jump in screen size, so Sony and Samsung can sell bigger TVs for a little bit more, regardless of how much it actually costs them to produce." ]

[ "anything I can think of\". BYTE stated \"If you need a solid, well-supported, well-documented business system at a reasonable price, you should give [the Osborne 1] a great deal of consideration\". The reviewer calculated that after subtracting $1530 for the retail price of the bundled software the price of the computer was \"only $265 ... in a way you are getting a software package with a computer thrown in for (almost) free\". He praised the quality of the documentation, and agreed with Pournelle that the screen's size did not cause difficulty. James Fallows agreed that the screen, although \"the size", "Premium\", \"DSi Living\", and \"DSi Deka\" (Japanese for \"large\"). Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto insisted on \"DSi Deka\". The handheld has an improved viewing angle over its predecessor, which allows onlookers to see the screen's contents more easily. This feature was absent from the large DS Lite model due to cost issues at the time, which also limited LCD screen size. The cost of LCD screens is determined by how many pieces are cut from a single large glass sheet. To keep these costs within a certain threshold, Nintendo set a screen size limit of approximately 3.8 inches (97 mm), which was", "around US$400, but required customers to solder components into circuit boards; peripherals required to interact with the system in alphanumeric form instead of blinking lights would add another $2,000, and the resultant system was only of use to hobbyists.\nAt their introduction in 1981, the US$1,795 price of the Osborne 1 and its competitor Kaypro was considered an attractive price point; these systems had text-only displays and only floppy disks for storage. By 1982, Michael Dell observed that a personal computer system selling at retail for about $3,000 US was made of components that cost the dealer about $600; typical gross", "accomplished the pricing adjustments are applied in sequence to arrive at a final price at which a particular product can be sold to a particular purchasing organization. According to the patent specification, previous comparable systems required a mainframe computer, but this invention makes it possible to use a portable computer. The patent asserts:\nThe invention overcomes the prior art's difficulty in storing, maintaining, and retrieving the large amounts of data required to apply pricing adjustments to determine prices for various products. Because of the invention's method and apparatus, prices for a large number of products can be determined by a laptop", "Apple Studio Display 15-inch flat panel (1998–2003) The first Apple display using LCD technology was known as the Apple Studio Display (15-inch flat panel). It was introduced at the 1998 Seybold Seminars Expo alongside the Power Macintosh G3/300 DT and had an initial retail price of $1,999 USD. MacWorld Magazine's Seybold conference coverage said the pricing \"would have been considered aggressive a few months ago, but given recently plummeting prices for LCD monitors, Apple's display should be in the middle of the pack.\"\nIt has DA-15 connector for connecting the display to a computer, and 2 ADB ports, an S-Video", "base-price at release is $999 and comes with i3 360 m . it can be customized up to the intel core i7 740Qm . It is equipped with a 2011 1 GB NVIDIA GeForce GT 420M Graphics (for Core-i5 processors) and GT 425M (for Core-i7 processors).it can also be customized with up to 8 GB of DDR3 memory. The computer can either have a 500 GB 7200 RPM SATA hard drive, or a 256 GB solid state drive. This laptop has a sleek anodized aluminium LCD back cover. It also had World's first camera with Hi-Definition Video Streaming with Skype (2.0MP, H.264 Camera), JBL 2.0", "were made available for orders on Lenovo’s Web site on March 25, 2009. However, the actual launch occurred in May 2009. Engadget reported that different reviewers agreed on the fact that the desktop offered good value for its price. Two features indicated to be especially good value were the TV tuner and the remote that could be used as a controller and a VoIP handset.\nIn its review of the A600 desktop, PCMag indicated that the desktop was better than large screen notebooks, offering a 16:9 21.5 inch widescreen, with a maximum resolution of 1920x1080. The chassis thickness varied between 1 inch and", "boards. Customers who are not aware of it are likely to purchase one of the more profitable items listed on the menu. Duplicate manufacture Manufacturing two versions of the same product at different prices. In the hi-tech world it is common for companies to produce a high-specification product, sold at a premium price, and then sell the same product more cheaply with some of the functions disabled. IBM did this with a printer in the 1990s, where an economy version for a home user was the top-of-the-range model with a microchip in it to slow it down.\nAll versions of Microsoft", "originally meant for use in a game console, and which retailed for the same price as their respective names. In 1981, IBM introduced the IBM 5150 PC with a $1,565 base price (equivalent to $4,313 in 2018), while Sinclair Research introduced its low-end ZX81 microcomputer for £70 (equivalent to £264 in 2018). By 1982, new desktop computer designs were commonly providing better color graphics and sound than game consoles and personal computer sales were booming. The TI 99/4A and the Atari 400 were both at $349 (equivalent to $906 in 2018), the Tandy Color Computer sold at $379 (equivalent", "screen. I just can't recommend it for the price.\"", "$8,900 in 1986.\nThe original NeXT Computer was introduced in 1988 as a 3M machine by Steve Jobs, who first heard this term at Brown University. Its so-called \"MegaPixel\" display had just over 930,000 pixels (with 2 bits per pixel). However, floating point performance, powered with the Motorola 68882 FPU was only about .25 megaflops.\nModern desktop computers exceed the 3M memory and speed requirements by many thousands of times, however screen pixels are only 2 or 3 times larger (but full color so each pixel uses at least 24 times as many bits).", "a combination of screen scraping retailers' websites and files supplied by the retailers themselves. These prices are matched against a backend database. This is done both by using a fuzzy logic automatching system and manually by admin staff. Business model PriceRunner is similar to other price comparison services in that it is financed by advertisers, who pay on a pay per click model. It also uses web banners provided by sister company, advertising network ValueClick Media.", "cost $1795, and (2) it's portable!\" The bundled word processing, spreadsheet, and other software alone was worth $1,500; as InfoWorld stated in an April 1981 front-page article on the new computer after listing the included software, \"In case you think the price printed above was a mistake, we'll repeat it: $1795\".\nOsborne claimed that the new computer had a \"significant price/performance advantage\", but he emphasized the price, stating that its performance was \"merely adequate\": \"It is not the fastest microcomputer, it doesn't have huge amounts of disk storage space, and it is not especially expandable.\" Beyond the price, advertisements emphasized the", "still cost anywhere from $15,000 to $100,000 and over throughout the early to mid-1990s. Place in the market Since the turn of the millennium, the definition of \"workstation\" has blurred to some extent. Many of the components used in lower-end \"workstations\" are now the same as those used in the consumer market, and the price differential between the lower-end workstation and consumer PCs can be narrower than it once was (and in certain cases in the high-end consumer market, such as the \"enthusiast\" game market, it can be difficult to tell what qualifies as a \"desktop PC\" and a \"workstation\").", "Ultra-low-cost personal computer An ultra-low-cost personal computer (ULCPC) is an inexpensive personal computer such as a netbook or a nettop. It is most often used by Microsoft to define a class of computers which are eligible for special licensing and discounts. For example, the availability of Windows XP has been extended and discounts are offered for ULCPCs. Microsoft have recently been relaxing the definition to include larger displays (up to 14.1\") and touchscreens.", "¥298,000 MSRP was equal to about $1,200 (at $1 = ¥250 ), and $1,200 in 1980 had the approximate buying power of $3,000 in 2007 .\nAn early consumer implementation of picture-in-picture was the Multivision set-top box; it was not a commercial success. Later PiP became available as a feature of advanced television receivers.\nThe first widespread consumer implementation of picture-in-picture was produced by Philips in 1983 in their high-end television sets. A separate video or RF input was available on the back of the set and displayed in black and white in one of the four corners of the screen. Televisions", "034220).\nThey are one of the main licensed manufacturers of the more color-accurate IPS panels used by Dell, NEC, ASUS, Apple (including iMacs, iPads, iPhones, iPod touches) and others, which were developed by Hitachi. LCD price fixing In December 2010, the EU fined LG Display €215 million for its part in an LCD price fixing scheme. Other companies were fined for a combined total of €648.9 million, including Chimei Innolux, AU Optronics, Chunghwa Picture Tubes Ltd., and HannStar Display Corp.. LG Display has said it is considering appealing the fine.\nThis followed the 2008 case in the US, when LG Display Co.,", "affordable than the B500. The review also indicated that the desktop’s unique selling point was its 18.5 inch Touchscreen display.\nThe desktop was made available with the Intel Atom D510 processor, 2GB of RAM, and could be configured for up to 500GB storage capacity. The desktop offered options for both integrated and discrete graphics. The integrated graphics option on offer was Intel GMA 3150, while the discrete graphics option was the NVIDIA Ion graphics card with 256MB of video RAM. Additional features on the desktop included a DVD multiburner, an integrated Web camera, integrated stereo speakers, LAN, and WiFi. 2009 The Lenovo", "10-foot user interface In computing, 10-foot user interface (\"10-foot UI\"), also known as a 3-meter user interface (especially for international marketing), is a graphical user interface designed for televisions. Compared to desktop computer and smartphone user interfaces, it uses text and other interface elements which are much larger in order to accommodate a typical television viewing distance of 10 feet (3 meters). Additionally, the limitations of a television's remote control necessitate extra user experience considerations to minimize user effort. Design The term \"10-foot\" or \"3-meter\" is used to differentiate this user interface style from those used on desktop computers,", "prices (also known as \"top-of-book\") for each market participant in a given security. In other words, at a given time there may be several market makers participating in trade matching for a specific stock. Level 2 data will display the highest bid and lowest ask for each individual market maker. \nLevel 2 information is of interest to traders and brokers because it indicates the buying and selling pressure behind individual securities.\nSimilar in format to live streaming share prices, a typical Level 2 screen is split in two vertical halves and will show orders on both the bid", "the Netscape 2.0 browser, or anything comparable to Java and VRML support. The rendering of text on a TV screen makes reading difficult, since at the time the composite video output was the more commonly available connection to television sets. The US$599 price was too high, especially during late 1996 when the Bandai Pippin was originally released. Unfulfilled roadmap Apple intended to grow the Pippin platform alongside the rest of the Macintosh line. In an Apple developer publication, Apple's CEO Gil Amelio announced the Pippin 1997 Reference Platform, and suggested that the platform would include the latest Macintosh technologies, including", "new range of televisions including Vizio's M line with 65-inch screens; ultra-wide televisions with 50-, 58-, and 71-inch screen sizes; two all-in-one desktop computers (24-inch and 27-inch); three notebooks (one 14-inch and two 15-inch); and a 10-inch tablet at the 2012 International Consumer Electronics Show.\nVizio \"Smart TV\" sets track viewers' habits and share them with advertisers, a practice that cable TV companies are prohibited from doing but that Vizio says is legal for TV manufacturers. On February 6, 2017, the Federal Trade Commission announced a settlement with Vizio to pay $2.2 million to settle charges by the U.S. Federal Trade", "it is while you read this). The solution is to use additional hardware and computer memory to store the image between each update, a section of memory known as a framebuffer.\nIn the 1960s, memory based on core was extremely expensive, generally priced in dollars or cents per bit. If one wanted to store a screen of text at 80 columns by 25 lines and using 7-bit ASCII, one would require 80 x 25 x 7 bits = 14,000 bits, making the price of the terminal prohibitive. The cost would be even more if the terminal needed to display graphics. For", "Cost per impression Purpose Cost per impression, along with pay-per-click (PPC) and cost per order, is used to assess the cost-effectiveness and profitability of online advertising. CPI is the closest online advertising strategy to those offered in other media such as television, radio or print, which sell advertising based on estimated viewership, listenership or readership. CPI provides a comparable measure to contrast internet advertising with other media. Impression versus pageview An impression is the display of an ad to a user while viewing a web page. A single web page may contain multiple ads. In such cases, a single", "price option (known as Our Lowest Price) in a product category in Asda stores. Occasionally this difference is only a few pence, however in others it is a marked difference. For example, a box of Smart Price Biological Washing Powder costs £1.00 while the equivalent Asda brand washing powder costs £2.00 and well known name brand alternatives normally cost from £2.50 upwards.\nThe Smart Price label was originally a food only brand, however over the years it has expanded to cover almost every product range in the store, including clothing and furnishings with the George Smart Price brand. Like early generic", "laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points: (active or passive) monochrome, passive color, or active matrix color (TFT). As volume and manufacturing capability have improved, the monochrome and passive color technologies were dropped from most product lines.\nTFT-LCD is a variant of LCD which is now the dominant technology used for computer monitors.\nThe first standalone LCDs appeared in the mid-1990s selling for high prices. As prices declined over a period of years they became more popular, and by 1997 were competing with CRT monitors. Among the first desktop LCD computer monitors was the Eizo", "market, consisting of 663 products under 79 brand names of digital cameras. They find that, despite numerous recommendations in the literature for skimming or penetration pricing, market pricing dominates in practice. In particular, the authors find five patterns: skimming (20% frequency), penetration (20% frequency), and three variants of market-pricing patterns (60% frequency), where new products are launched at market prices. Skimming pricing launches the new product 16% above the market price and subsequently lowers the price relative to the market price. Penetration pricing launches the new product 18% below the market price and subsequently increases the price relative to the", "'graphical' implementation brought several advantages by being a graphical application not tied to a Windows 'console', including a broader selection of fonts, native dialogs for Open, Save and Print (the text-mode prompts remain available via configuration option) and window resizing.\nQedit and TSE supported various screen modes (different numbers of columns and rows, e.g., 80 × 25) based on the underlying video display options; with the graphical version windows could be sized to any number of rows and columns. This occurred around the same time larger displays were becoming increasingly common. SemWare Application Language The SemWare Application Language (SAL) uses a", "management accounts for scheduling meetings. An updated system announced in November 2017 featured a 4K camera and a machine learning feature that automatically identifies and frames participants.\nIn March 2014, Asus established a new price at the low-end of the Chromebox market with a compact, 1.32 pound model that retailed at $179 and featured a Celeron CPU and four USB 3.0 ports. Yahoo Tech columnist David Pogue called the Asus device among the smallest, \"least-expensive desktop computers ever sold\", likening it to a Smart car. \"You won’t be hauling lumber from Home Depot in it, but it’s a terrific deal—and most", "cost $2,895, but could be upgraded to a 19-inch display for an additional $700, or a 19-inch flat-screen electroluminescent display for an additional $11,100. All of the displays were 1024x864 resolution. They shipped with 1 MB of RAM, but could be upgraded to 4 MB for $600 per megabyte. The VT1000 was replaced by the VT1200 in the fall of 1991. This was essentially the same machine with a code upgrade.\nThe VT1300 was packaged into a much larger case, about the size of a contemporary full-sized IBM PC although somewhat shorter vertically. It was released at $7,495 with 9 MB of RAM and" ]

[ "Yes. Capsaicin (the chemical responsible for the spiciness of peppers), interacts with neurons, not taste receptor (although taste receptors are similar to very specialized neurons) so they would still feel the heat" ]

[ "eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste. Coolness Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, anethol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived", "Peruvian, Hungarian, Indian, Korean, Indonesian, Lao, Malaysian, Mexican, New Mexican, Singaporean, Southwest Chinese (including Szechuan cuisine), Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.\nThis particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the", "spiciness or hotness) Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food's activating nerves that express TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptors. Some such plant-derived compounds that provide this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers, piperine from black pepper, gingerol from ginger root and allyl isothiocyanate from horseradish. The piquant (\"hot\" or \"spicy\") sensation provided by such foods and spices plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world—especially in equatorial and sub-tropical climates, such as Ethiopian,", "mild to hot. The Scoville scale measures the pungency of chili peppers, as defined by the amount of capsaicin they contain.\nPungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to", "nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by thermoreceptors; and \"coolness\" (such as of menthol) and \"hotness\" (pungency), through chemesthesis.\nAs taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\nAmong humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production. Humans can also have distortion of tastes through dysgeusia. Not all mammals share the same", "with normal taste reception. The pungent feeling caused by allyl isothiocyanate, capsaicin, piperine, and allicin is caused by activation of the heat thermo- and chemosensitive TRP ion channels including TRPV1 and TRPA1 nociceptors.\nThe pungency of chilies may be an adaptive response to microbial pathogens.", "the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by thermoreceptors; and \"coolness\" (such as of menthol) and \"hotness\" (pungency), through chemesthesis.\nAs taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\nAmong humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production. Humans can also have distortion", "hot peppers (Scoville rating 200,000 – 300,000) add a unique flavor as well as heat. The chilli is also supposed to help preserve food, as well as adding flavour to relatively bland tropical staples like root vegetables.\nThe seeds of Guinea pepper (Aframomum melegueta; also called grains of paradise or melagueta pepper), a plant indigenous to West Africa, are also widely used. This native spice tastes and looks somewhat like a peppercorn, but has cardamom and coriander seed flavor notes. The grains of paradise was once a prized commodity reaching Europe through North African middlemen, during the Middle Ages.\nSumbala or soumbala", "back of the throat, up the nose, then eventually moves to the roof of the mouth and finally the tongue where the pain is intense, at which point there can be gustatory sweating and tears from the eyes. Some tasters note the strong, fruity Fatalii flavour, which is quite distinct, as being almost identical to the yellow version. Others find it milder.\nHot chili aficionados who have tasted all four colour varieties report the heat increasing from the white, which has pronounced citrus lime and lemon flavours, through yellow, then red, then to the hottest and sweetest being the chocolate or", "from the food it follows. Medicines and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste, as they can contain certain artificial flavor compounds, such as aspartame (artificial sweetener). Acquired taste An acquired taste often refers to an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including bitterness, a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance. Clinical significance Patients with Addison's disease, pituitary insufficiency, or cystic fibrosis sometimes have a hyper-sensitivity to the five primary tastes.", "a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because some people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\nIt is common for people to experience pleasurable and even euphoric effects from ingesting capsaicin. Folklore among self-described \"chiliheads\" attributes this to pain-stimulated release of endorphins, a different mechanism from the local receptor overload that makes capsaicin effective as a topical analgesic. Research and", "Taste Taste, gustatory perception, or gustation (Adjectival form: gustatory) is one of the five traditional senses that belongs to the gustatory system.\nTaste is the sensation produced or stimulated when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavors of food and/or other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi) and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible", "phenomenon. Numbness Both Chinese and Batak Toba cooking include the idea of 麻 (má or mati rasa), a tingling numbness caused by spices such as Sichuan pepper. The cuisines of Sichuan province in China and of the Indonesian province of North Sumatra often combine this with chili pepper to produce a 麻辣 málà, \"numbing-and-hot\", or \"mati rasa\" flavor. These sensations although not taste fall into a category of Chemesthesis. Astringency Some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or puckering sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. Examples include tea, red wine,", "to cooling are found in moderate density in the skin but also occur in relatively high spatial density in the cornea, tongue, bladder, and facial skin. The speculation is that lingual cold receptors deliver information that modulates the sense of taste; i.e. some foods taste good when cold, while others do not. Mechanism of transduction This area of research has recently received considerable attention with the identification and cloning of the Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) family of proteins. The transduction of temperature in cold receptors is mediated in part by the TRPM8 channel. This channel passes a mixed inward", "these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals such as birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant. Because of this, people throughout history have used garlic to keep away insects such as mosquitoes and slugs.\nA large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the \"hot\" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermo-transient receptor potential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.", "pungent agents.\nThe pungent sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world, such as Korean, Persian, Turkish, Tunisian, Ethiopian, Hungarian, Indian, Burmese, Filipino (particularly Bicolano), Indonesian, Laotian, Singaporean, Malaysian, Bangladeshi, Mexican, Peruvian, Caribbean, Pakistani, Somali, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Sri Lankan, Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines. Mechanism Pungency is sensed via chemesthesis, the sensitivity of the skin and mucous membranes to chemical substances. Substances such as piperine and capsaicin can cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve stimulation together", "symptoms; the peppery taste is lost with cooking. In powdered form, it loses its peppery taste quickly. Some guidebooks classify C. piperatus as inedible. Fruit bodies can be used for mushroom dyeing; depending on the mordant used, yellow, orange, or greenish-brown dyes can be made. Chemistry Sclerocitrin, a pigment compound originally isolated from the common earthball (Scleroderma citrinum), is the major contributor to the yellow colour of the mycelium and the stipe base of C. piperatus fruit bodies. Other compounds that have been isolated from this species include norbadione A, chalciporone, xerocomic acid, variegatic acid, variegatorubin, and another yellow pigment, chalcitrin. Chalciporone is", "that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to differentiate among different tastes through detecting interaction with different molecules or ions. Sweet, umami, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metal or hydrogen ions enter taste buds, respectively.\nThe basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth—other factors include smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle", "the fruit layer (which also contains the spicy piperine). Other flavors also commonly develop in this process, some of which are described as off-flavors when in excess: Primarily 3-methylindole (pig manure-like), 4-methylphenol (horse manure), 3-methylphenol (phenolic), and butanoic acid (cheese). The aroma of pepper is attributed to rotundone (3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl)azulene-1(2H)-one), a sesquiterpene originally discovered in the tubers of Cyperus rotundus, which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/l in water and in wine: rotundone is also present in marjoram, oregano, rosemary, basil, thyme, and geranium, as well as in some Shiraz wines.\nPepper loses flavor and aroma through evaporation, so", "History In the West, Aristotle postulated in c. 350 BCE that the two most basic tastes were sweet and bitter. He was one of the first to develop a list of basic tastes.\nAyurveda, an ancient Indian healing science, has its own tradition of basic tastes, comprising sweet, salty, sour, pungent, bitter & astringent.\nThe Ancient Chinese regarded spiciness as a basic taste. Research The receptors for the basic tastes of bitter, sweet and savory have been identified. They are G protein-coupled receptors. The cells that detect sourness have been identified as a subpopulation that express the protein PKD2L1. The responses are", "such as a stress response from eating such a hot pepper, may explain the headaches. Cultivation For growing, the pepper has been described as \"a good all-rounder to try at home\" by UK ethnobotanist James Wong, who said that they require temperatures of at least 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) and suggested growing in 30–40 cm (12–16 in) pots to restrict growth and produce fruit sooner. When fully ripe, two peppers occupy the palm of the hand.", "are preferred by scientists as they eliminate the potential ambiguity arising from use of the words \"hot\" and \"spicy\", which can also refer to temperature and the presence of spices, respectively.\nFor instance, a pumpkin pie can be both hot (out of the oven) and spicy (due to the common inclusion of spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, mace, and cloves), but it is not pungent. (A food critic may nevertheless use the word \"piquant\" to describe such a pie, especially if it is exceptionally well-seasoned.) Conversely, pure capsaicin is pungent, yet it is not naturally accompanied by a hot temperature", "or pink at the edges. There are six stamens, three fused carpels and three styles. The fruit is a dark brown oval, flattened nut. Active ingredients Water-pepper has several active ingredients. Two bicyclic sesquiterpenoids are present, polygodial (tadeonal, an unsaturated dialdehyde with a drimane backbone) and waburganal, which has been found responsible for the pungent taste (hence its edibility). The plant also contains rutin, a source of the bitter taste impression.\nThe plant contains an essential oil (0.5%) which consists of monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids: α-pinene, β-pinene, 1,4-cineol, fenchone, α-humulene, β-caryophyllene, trans-β-bergamotene. Carboxylic acids (cinnamic, valeric and caproic acid) and their esters", "experience. Heat can accentuate some flavors and decrease others by varying the density and fase equilibrium of a substance. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season. Starchiness A 2016 study suggested that humans can taste starch (specifically, a glucose oligomer)", "blood type, eye color, the direction of the whorl of hair at the back of the head, the presence of hair on the second joint of fingers and toes, and the dominant form of migraine discovered by William Allan. Snyder discovered a seventh in 1931, and developed the first genetic test for a trait.\nFor most people, phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) tastes really bitter, but to a significant fraction of the population, the taste is entirely undetectable. Snyder was interested in confirming whether the ability to taste PTC is a Mendelian trait and sought to understand the biological and genetic nature of this", "independently of other tastes such as sweetness. However, no specific chemical receptor has yet been found for this taste. Nerve supply and neural connections The glossopharyngeal nerve innervates a third of the tongue including the circumvallate papillae. The facial nerve innervates the other two thirds of the tongue and the cheek via the chorda tympani.\nThe pterygopalatine ganglia are ganglia (one on each side) of the soft palate. The greater petrosal, lesser palatine and zygomatic nerves all synapse here. The greater petrosal, carries soft palate taste signals to the facial nerve. The lesser palatine sends signals to the nasal cavity;", "Astringent (taste) Astringent is a taste that puckers the mouth, numbs the tongue, and constricts the throat. This taste is caused by astringents such as tannins. \nThe astringent taste is in unripened bananas, unripe persimmons and acorns dominantly, which prevents them from being eaten. It is also present in pomegranates, cranberries, crabapples, quinces as one among others, and in vegetables and beans as a secondary taste. It is also present in red meat, burnt and smoked food, and amla. Astringent foods are dry, cool, and heavy. \nSquirrels, wild boars, insects can eat astringent food as their tongues are able to", "and Asia, including Israel.\nThe taste of M. scorodonius is often described as nasty or unpleasant, but it is sometimes considered edible and the caps are used to add a garlic flavour to dishes.", "of small bumps called papillae, which are visible to the naked eye. Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds. The exception to this is the filiform papillae that do not contain taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue. Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells.\nThe sensation of taste includes five established basic tastes: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness, and umami. Scientific experiments have proven", "herbs like ginger, coriander, and thyme sparingly but knowingly. Chilli peppers however are immensely loved in West Africa, both in fresh or dried and powdered form, particularly in the more hot-and-humid lands of the region. Introduced to Africa probably sometime soon after Christopher Columbus sailed to America by European sailors, it is said that the sweating induced by the spicy heat of chilli helps to air-conditions your skin. More than in other regions of Africa, West Africans utilize Scotch bonnet chile peppers with a liberal hand in many of their sauces and stews. The bite and fire of these extremely" ]

[ "The notion that voltage and capacity are the same thing is where you've gone wrong. A battery will supply a certain amount of energy (usually measured in milliamp-hours^* ) over it's lifetime. But it will maintain roughly that 1.5V starting voltage for ~90% of that life. Only as it begins to die will the voltage drop. So while it seems to you that the voltage tells you how much capacity is left in the battery, that's not really the case. And what you're defining as \"dead\", let's remember, is just that the voltage has dropped below a useful level for the device you're trying to power.\n\n* - Strictly speaking milliamp-hours aren't units of energy, but it's assumed that current is run over the standard voltage of the battery which in your case is 1.5V. By convention, all battery capacities are measured in this way.", "No, it's not a huge waste. The voltage does not decline linearly with battery capacity; once it starts going down fast, the battery is nearly dead. Also, even if a battery is not totally dead, it may no longer be able to supply the power required to operate a particular device. Some people suggest removing \"dead\" batteries from things that draw a lot of power like flashlights and using them in things that don't use a lot of power like tv remote controls, where they may continue to function for a while -- but who has time for that? Get rechargeable batteries if you care that much.\n\n[edit] Also, a multimeter is not a great tester of batteries. Multimeters only measure open circuit voltage. To measure a battery you should put it under some load.", "The common disposable Alkaline Batteries have a SHARP discharge curve at the end. Most electronics can only function within a vary narrow tolerance so once they hit the start of the drop they are done for fancy gadgets... You may however be able to still use them to the end in a flashlight.\n_URL_0_\n\nUse rechargeable batteries if you are really concerned about waste", "Your multimeter measures voltage, not energy. Think of the voltage as how much you can lift on a good day. A fresh battery can \"lift\" all day long. A tired battery cannot lift very long, but could probably do one lift for show." ]

[ "been able to function on a nine-volt battery. Although, it has been argued by researchers that using nine-volt batteries are not effective enough for the WAK because it does not power the device long enough and indirectly it makes the WAK less affordable when having to constantly change the batteries. Due to this, other energy sources are being explored, for example, researchers are seeing if fuel cells, wireless transmission of energy from an active source, or harvesting energy from the environment would be better ways to power the WAK for longer periods of time. Several questions have been answered about", "is easily achievable from quite small batteries, so a reasonably high power-to-weight figure is achieved, comparable to internal combustion motors, though of lesser duration. In this, however, they have been largely superseded by lithium polymer (Lipo) and lithium iron phosphate (LiFe) batteries, which can provide even higher energy densities. Voltage Ni–Cd cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 volts (V). This is lower than the 1.5 V of alkaline and zinc–carbon primary cells, and consequently they are not appropriate as a replacement in all applications. However, the 1.5 V of a primary alkaline cell refers to its initial, rather than average,", "stored energy can be up to about 800 watt hour n (Wh), but mostly about 400 Wh (2013). In ideal conditions, after a thousand charges NiCd batteries have 85% of their original capacity and are therefore considered worn. With NiMH batteries about 400 to 800 cycles are possible. The charging time depending on the type of battery is around 2 to 9 hours. The durability of the battery is dependent on other factors. As lead-acid batteries discharge they provide less power, so that full motor power is no longer achieved. The very light, more expensive lithium ion batteries are now", "the main battery multiplied by the required current. For example, take a 10-cell NiMh accumulator with a normal voltage of 12 volts. With a peak current of 5 A, the BEC will have losses of (12 V − 5 V) × 5 A = 35 W. With a linear regulator, these 35 W will be converted to heat and so require a large heat sink. This is an efficiency of (5 V / 12 V) = 41.7%. However, a switching mode regulator with a buck step-down supply can achieve over 90% efficiency. In all cases, it is a good idea to mount some large capacitors to buffer the", "power of 451 kW, its C-rate is 4.51 (per hour).\nAll charging and discharging of batteries generates internal heat, and the amount of heat generated is roughly proportional to the current involved (a battery's current state of charge, condition / history, etc are also factors). As some batteries reach their full charge, cooling may also be observed. Battery cells which have been built to allow higher C-rates than usual must make provision for increased heating. But high C-ratings are attractive to end users because such batteries can be charged more quickly, and produce higher current output in use. High C-rates", "viable.\"\nA 2009 Carnegie Mellon University study found that a PHEV-40 will be less cost effective than a HEV or a PHEV-7 in all of the scenarios considered, due to the cost and weight of the battery. Jon Lauckner, a Vice President at General Motors, responded that the study did not consider the inconvenience of a 7 miles (11 km) electric range and that the study's cost estimate of US$1,000 per kWh for the Volt's battery pack was \"many hundreds of dollars per kilowatt hour higher\" than what it costs to make today.\"\nIn early 2010, it was reported that General Motors would", "rear cargo floor and weighs 80 kg (180 lb). As a comparison, the nickel-metal hydride battery of the third generation Prius, which has a capacity of only 1.3 kWh, weighs 42 kg (93 lb). A full charge using an external AC outlet takes approximately 2.5 to 3.0 hours from a standard North American 120 V 15 A household outlet, or 1.5 hours using a standard European 230 V household outlet. The battery requires approximately 3.2 kWh of electricity plus 1.1 l; 0.25 imp gal (0.3 US gal) of gasoline to provide 40 km (25 miles) of range. A fully charged battery state of charge reads 85% and the all-electric mode disengages at", "of the year, or the energy produced by a distributed power source. One kilowatt hour per year equals about 114.08 milliwatts applied constantly during one year.\nThe energy content of a battery is usually expressed indirectly by its capacity in ampere-hours; to convert ampere-hour (A⋅h) to watt hours (W⋅h), the ampere-hour value must be multiplied by the voltage of the power source. This value is approximate, since the battery voltage is not constant during its discharge, and because higher discharge rates reduce the total amount of energy that the battery can provide. In the case of devices that output", "The reason behind this is that the low voltage allows easy operation from storage batteries and indeed, in some parts of the world (and previously in many more locations, before the widespread adoption of electricity), batteries are the primary power source, as mains power may be unavailable at that location.\nIn urban built-up areas, the trend is now to power signal equipment directly from mains power, with batteries only as backup.", "at this voltage, some manufacturers such as Varta made 8.4 volt batteries with seven cells for more critical applications. Charging Ni–Cd batteries can be charged at several different rates, depending on how the cell was manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp-hour capacity the battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge speed, more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to account for energy loss during charging, with faster charges being more efficient. For example, an \"overnight\" charge, might consist of", "about one watt. The battery charger (model EL-81) supplies power to the calculator's charging input at voltages of 8.7 and 9.6 volts; the combined input power rating is about 3.2 watts.\nThe EL-8's battery pack is much smaller than that of the QT-8B, and this was critical in reducing the EL-8's size and weight. However, these smaller batteries have much less capacity, and in order to maintain reasonable battery life, power usage had to be drastically cut. This was done by various improvements in the electronics, especially in the display. The QT-8B's display tubes are driven by discrete transistors; to reduce", "that can trickle charge the auxiliary 12-volt lead-acid battery. Potential overload of the electrical grid The existing electrical grid, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles", "0.9 volts, Ni–Cd cells and alkaline cells are typically interchangeable for most applications.\nIn addition to single cells, batteries exist that contain up to 300 cells (nominally 360 volts, actual voltage under no load between 380 and 420 volts). This many cells are mostly used in automotive and heavy-duty industrial applications. For portable applications, the number of cells is normally below 18 cells (24 V). Industrial-sized flooded batteries are available with capacities ranging from 12.5 Ah up to several hundred Ah. Memory effect Ni–Cd batteries may suffer from a \"memory effect\" if they are discharged and recharged to the same state of charge", "instead of at its right end. A separate lamp serves as a power indicator.\nPower is supplied by an integrated rechargeable battery pack or by an external battery charger, which also serves as an AC adapter to allow the calculator to operate from AC power. The battery pack (model EL-84) contains six nickel-cadmium AA batteries connected in series, giving a total voltage of 7.2 volts and, with the original batteries, a total capacity of 450 milliampere-hours. (Present-day nickel-cadmium AA batteries have much greater capacity.) Battery life with the original batteries is about three hours, which gives an average power usage of", "was the fastest-charging/discharging, fully discharging in 10–20 seconds.\nAs of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It can store 129 MWh. A battery in Hebei Province, China which can store 36 MWh of electricity was built in 2013 at a cost of $500 million. Another large battery, composed of Ni–Cd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football pitch—and weighed 1,300 tonnes. It was manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in the event of a blackout. The battery can provide 40 MW of power for up to", "needed. As prices are rapidly declining, PV systems increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store a surplus to be later used at night. Batteries used for grid-storage stabilize the electrical grid by leveling out peak loads usually for several minutes, and in rare cases for hours. In the future, less expensive batteries could play an important role on the electrical grid, as they can charge during periods when generation exceeds demand and feed their stored energy into the grid when demand is higher than generation.\nAlthough not permitted under the US National Electric Code, it is technically possible to have a “plug", "highest voltage used now is 540 (±270) volts, but distributing megawatt-scale power will require higher voltage to reduce current for smaller, lighter electric cables. One megawatt over 150 ft (46 m) need 900 kg at 540 V but would be reduced to 200 kg at 2,000 V DC. A near-term hybrid would need 1,000–3,000-volt and a fully turboelectric large aircraft 5,000–10,000-volt, like ship power systems but arcing occurs at much lower voltages at low pressures than at sea level. Inverters While a battery power source would use a direct current distribution, a gas turbine power source would also allow alternating current which would need", "a different voltage than the battery, it is the battery voltage (typically 3.7 V for Li-ion) that must be used to calculate rather than the device output (for example, usually 5.0 V for USB portable chargers). This results in a 500 mA USB device running for about 3.7 hours on a 2500 mAh battery, not five hours.\nThe Board of Trade unit (BOTU) is an obsolete UK synonym for kilowatt hour. The term derives from the name of the Board of Trade which regulated the electricity industry until 1942 when the Ministry of Power took over.\nThe British thermal unit or BTU (not to be", "and Jobey Pritzker, Bright Capital and Advanced Technology Ventures, among others.\nIn 2011, an individual battery stack was promoted to store 1.5 kWh, a shipping container-sized unit 180 kWh. The battery cannot overheat. The company expected its products to last many charge/discharge cycles, twice as long as a lead-acid battery. Costs were claimed to be about the same as with lead-acid.\nIn October 2014 they announced a new generation with a single stack reaching 2.4 kWh and a multi-stack module holding 25.5 kWh.\nIn 2015, the company announced it would supply batteries for a Hawaii microgrid to serve as backup for a", "and twelve volts respectively, though some were known to have been powered by mains.", "to power an LED light, needing 1.7 volts, only three cells need to be used. As time goes on the amount of energy that the battery can provide decreases. A five cell penny battery can last up to 6 1/2 hours providing minimal voltage. The stack of cells is also known as a voltaic pile.", "a home AC power source. A quick charge to 80 per cent of the batteries' capacity is possible in just 15 minutes.\nThe G4e uses a lithium-ion battery developed exclusively by Subaru which employs vanadium technology to allow the battery to store two to three times more lithium ions than conventional lithium-ion batteries. The car's battery pack provides 346 volts.", "voltage, 1.5 volts each, type D, a cylindrical shape and is expected to last approximately 100 hours. A battery weighs 150 g. The most common cells employed are common alkaline primary batteries but rechargeable batteries can also be used. The common alkaline batteries have the disadvantage of a good chance of leakage of corrosive fluids when the unit is placed into storage for long periods, so it is advisable to remove the batteries for storage. \nThe units were shipped with a packet containing a silica gel to absorb any moisture inside the container and maintain the electronic components of the", "alkaline batteries will not operate properly below an endpoint voltage based on 1.5V when fresh; NiCd and NiMH both have nominal cell voltages of 1.2 V, and will reach this endpoint before they deliver all the charge they are capable of.\nNewer cells which are more powerful and with a life of up to 800 cycles can be an alternative to Li-ion batteries for electric vehicles. Due to the higher cell voltage, fewer cells are required for a given pack voltage than for NiCd and NiMH. They also have low internal impedance (typically 5 milliohms), which allows for high battery discharge rates,", "such as volume expansion and power density. Limitations of current battery technology A battery’s ability to store charge is dependent on its energy density and power density. It is important that charge can remain stored and that a maximum amount of charge can be stored within a battery. Cycling and volume expansion are also important considerations as well. While many other types of batteries exist, current battery technology is based on lithium-ion intercalation technology for its high power and energy densities, long cycle life and no memory effects. These characteristics have led lithium-ion batteries to be preferred over other battery", "than cycles. Capacity of NiMH batteries is close to that of alkaline batteries. Unlike all alkaline batteries (rechargeable or otherwise), internal resistance is low. This makes them well suited for high current capacity applications. Self-discharge rates are comparable, at least up to six months.\nRechargeable alkaline batteries produce a voltage of about 1.5V, compared with NiCd and NiMH batteries which produce about 1.2V. For some applications, this can make a significant difference. In cases where resistance is not significantly dependent on voltage or current, since power varies as the square of voltage, rechargeable alkaline batteries provide about 50% more", "charging at a maximum 4.35V voltage is an increase of about 10% in energy density when compared to charging a traditional 3.7V cell of the same size and weight to 4.2 V. Li-ion cells marked as \"high-voltage\" compatible, if charged up to 4.35V, have a comparable cycle life to standard 3.7 V cells. A standard 3.7V cell should never be charged to above 4.2V as doing so can result in damage or fire.", "higher specific energy Li-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries are expected to become less expensive as economies of scale take effect.\nBecause batteries are sensitive to temperature changes, the Volt has a thermal management system to monitor and maintain the battery cell temperature for optimum performance and durability. The Volt's battery pack provides reliable operation, when plugged in, at cell temperatures as low as −13 °F (−25 °C) and as high as 122 °F (50 °C). The Volt features a battery pack that can be both warmed or cooled. In cold weather, the car electrically heats the battery coolant during charging or operation to provide full power", "1×C (full discharge in 1 hour), it does not differ significantly from the nominal capacity. NiMH batteries nominally operate at 1.2 V per cell, somewhat lower than conventional 1.5 V cells, but can operate many devices designed for that voltage. Electric vehicles NiMH batteries were frequently used in prior-generation electric and hybrid-electric vehicles; as of 2019 have been superseded almost entirely with lithium batteries in all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, but they remain in use in some hybrid vehicles. Prior all-electric plug-in vehicles included the General Motors EV1, first-generation Toyota RAV4 EV, Honda EV Plus, Ford Ranger EV and Vectrix scooter. Every", "used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can safely deliver on a circuit. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity over a 4-hour, 8 hour or longer discharge time. Types intended for special purposes, such as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for discharge periods much less than one hour. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in only one hour. Fast-charging, large and light batteries As of 2012, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO\n₄) battery technology" ]

[ "Imagine you're filling water balloons.\n\nOne of them has a hole that lets out the water about as fast as you are filling it. You could stand there all day and be fine. That's how Kilauea erupts.\n\nThe other one is huge. It is also intact. Eventually, it will burst and soak you. That would be a Yellowstone eruption.\n\n\nObligatory edit:\nThanks /u/arcmokuro for my first gilding. I didn't expect the classic water balloon analogy to blow up like this.", "The Yellowstone super volcano is the world's largest caldera. The last eruption tossed 1,000 cubic kilometers of debris into the air.\n\nOver its life time, the Kilauea volcano has tossed less than 100 cubic meters of debris into the air in its largest of explosions.\n\nThe Yellowstone volcano is put in the highest category of volcanoes, ranked by their explosive potential. Only 40 such explosions are known to have occurred on Earth in the past 132 million years.\n\nExplosions like the most intense of those from the Kilauea volcano happen on average every 18 months.", "Sometimes it's hard to poop, and you have to push hard, and BOOM it comes out all at once. That's Yellowstone. Sometimes pooping is easy, and it comes out in a nice smooth flow. That's Hawaii.", "The volcano system in Hawaii is constantly able to relieve its pressure. Also, the stuff that is in those volcanoes matter. Explosive violent volcanoes have a lot of gases, and the magma is very thick . Hawaii's has thin basalt and not much in the way of gas under pressure(or at least explosive gas. The Sulfur dioxide is toxic, but not explosive)\n\nIt's also smaller than Yellowstone.", "Volcanoes have an explosivity rating called the Volcanoes Explosivity Index or VEI. It ranks volcanoes on a scale of 0-8 for explosive power. Kilauea is a 0 on the index and Yellowstone is an 8. \n _URL_0_", "Size and scale. The Yellowstone Caldera is what's known as a \"supervolcano.\" They have the potential to radically alter the Earth with just one violent, explosive eruption. The volcano is Hawaii isn't explosive. In fact, Kilauea has had a constant flow of magma and has since 1983.", "Hawaii is a normal volcano. It can cause a lot of local damage but will have very little global influence. Yellowstone is a Supervolcano. It is many many times larger than the volcanoes in Hawaii and when it erupts it will have global influence. A Supervolcano eruption has the ability to send the planet into the equivalent of nuclear winter and can even start an Ice age due to the volume of material it pumps into the atmosphere.", "Yellowstone is like a guy who hasn't had a release in years. Kilauea is like a chronic masterbator. Except that Kilauea is a female...sorry Pele.", "> “In the 1960s, while studying the volcanic history of Yellowstone National Park, Bob Christiansen of the United States Geological Survey became puzzled about something: … he couldn’t find the park’s volcano. …\n\n > “By coincidence just at this time NASA decided to test some new high-altitude cameras by taking photographs of Yellowstone, copies of which some thoughtful official passed on to the park authorities on the assumption that they might make a nice blow-up for one of the visitors’ centers. As soon as Christiansen saw the photos he realized why he had failed to spot the [volcano]: virtually the whole park – 2.2 million acres – was [a volcano]. The explosion had left a crater more than forty miles across – much too huge to be perceived from anywhere at ground level. At some time in the past Yellowstone must have blown up with a violence far beyond the scale of anything known to humans.\n\n > “Yellowstone, it turns out, is a supervolcano. It sits on top of an enormous hot spot, a reservoir of molten rock that rises from at least 125 miles down in the Earth. The heat from the hot spot is what powers all of Yellowstone’s vents, geysers, hot springs, and popping mud pots. … Imagine a pile of TNT about the size of Rhode Island and reaching eight miles into the sky, to about the height of the highest cirrus clouds, and you have some idea of what visitors to Yellowstone are shuffling around on top of. …\n\n > “Since its first known eruption 16.5 million years ago, [the Yellowstone volcano] has blown up about a hundred times, but the most recent three eruptions are the ones that get written about. The last eruption was a thousand times greater than that of Mount St. Helens; the one before that was 280 times bigger, and the one before was … at least twenty-five hundred times greater than St. Helens. …\n\n > “The Yellowstone eruption of two million years ago put out enough ash to bury New York State to a depth of sixty-seven feet or California to a depth of twenty. … All of this was hypothetically interesting until 1973, when … geologists did a survey and discovered that a large area of the park had developed an ominous bulge. … The geologists realized that only one thing could cause this – a restless magma chamber. Yellowstone wasn’t the site of an ancient supervolcano; it was the site of an active one. It was also at about this time that they were able to work out that the cycle of Yellowstone’s eruptions averaged one massive blow every 600,000 years. The last one, interestingly enough, was 630,000 years ago. Yellowstone, it appears, is due.”\n\na quote from [A Short History of Nearly Everything by Bill Bryson](_URL_1_)\n\nif you like science but don't like to be overwhelmed, this book is for you.", "A major Yellowstone eruption would be very bad, for sure. Especially in the USA. However, it won't destroy the earth, or even human life. The thing has had three enormous eruptions in the past 2.1 million years, and several smaller ones as well. While they clearly caused local, even regional devastation, they didn't even cause notable mass extinctions.", "so uh I don't want to give any one any ideas, but all these comments on the scale of Yellowstone got me thinking.... What if some one dropped a bomb on yellow stone? what would it take to set it off? Or in other words... How fragile is Yellowstone?", "Can we not do extremely carefully planned explosions to release pressure from Yellowstone?", "I've played Horizon Zero Dawn. Obviously we've already stared project \"Firebreak\" and the public is just unaware of it. Yellowstone will be good for another 3664 years", "There are 3 types of volcanos. Hawaii is a type that is similar to the ones in science fairs. Slow and gooey. Yellowstone is like the cork on a champagne bottle. When it blows it will create a large crater and shoot a lot of ash into the atmosphere. The crater it will create is about 60 miles wide. If you look at Google maps and look southwest of yellowstone you can see a valley that is about sixty miles wide. This is the hotspot moving east as the north american plate is moving west. The valley has been created by past eruptions.", "Basically the area of the Yellowstone caldera is 10 times that of the volcano on Hawaii and Yellowstone has been building up in strength for thousands of years whereas Hawaii regularly lets off steam, so when Yellowstone blows it is going to go BIG!!!\n\nHowever it won't destroy the Earth, it won't even destroy all life on Earth, it will cause a large number of deaths and the extinction of a number of animals, but life will go on.", "Hawaii volcano small and not do much damage yellowstone volcano go boom and north America go boom as well", "Imagine boiling water. It bubbles but doesn't splatter because water isn't viscous (sticky like honey).\n\nNow imagine boiling thick spaghetti sauce. It's so viscous that when a bubble pops spaghetti sauce goes everywhere.\n\nHawaii is like boiling a little bit of water. Yellowstone is like boiling a metric fuckton of spaghetti sauce. Imagine the splatter if it decides to splatter.\n\nIf you want more information look up the difference between lava types IE mafic vs. felsic and the difference between hot-spot volcanoes over oceanic crust vs. continental crust.", "Hawaii is 2500 miles from San Francisco and it's all water. The volcano is unlikely to produce any mega tsunami that would devastate the entire pacific rim.\n\nYellowstone erupting will destroy a large chunk of several states and fuck up the climate of the entire planet.\n\nOne is a major disaster, the other is an extinction level event.", "Hawaii is a hot spot. Not nearly enough pressure is going to be made to cause catastrophic damage. Yellowstone is a Caldera, a supervolcano. Basically a giant pot of magma that's kinda just hanging out waiting for judgement _URL_2_ covers states I believe, underground.", "Kilauea is a volcano, but a relatively tame one. It flows a lot but slowly and non-explosively. Now look at Mt. St. Helen's, which erupted in explosive fashion. It shot ash 15 miles into the air and deposited it across a dozen states. It's bad, but not civilization ending.\n\nNow Yellowstone is a super volcano. This is a class of volcano defined by having eruptions of the highest levels of explosivity. If Yellowstone erupted it would cover most of the U.S. in ash, and would shoot so much ash into the atmosphere that it would drastically affect the climate. The world would have a very difficult time if that happened.", "I think the book by Bill Bryson : 'A short history of nearly everything' sums up yellowstone nicely. From memory yellowstone is a super caldera system that erupts to roughly 600,000 years. All evidences after each eruption points to really bad conditions for life to get on by.\n\nThere's a link below for more info:\n\n_URL_3_\n\nPS By scientists projections we are are already overdue an eruption from yellowstone by 20k years.\n\nSleep tight", "Can we not release some of that pressure by building a vent or something that slowly lets some of the magma out? Like puncture a tyre before it bursts due to excessive pressure", "Because there is a massive volcano under yellowstone that dwarfs thr ones on Hawaii. If it would erupt it would screw over the entire world with the dust and smoke from the eruption", "Can confirm. Born and raised in HI and no one is worried because it's a shield volcano. hell, I been to the big island 3 times and I've seen it erupting all 3 times. Let's off pressure almost daily so no worries.", "Finally, my freshman year geology class is being put to use. So basically the volcano in Hawaii has a different type of magma than the Yellowstone volcano. The Hawaiian volcano has really run and thin magma while the Yellowstone one has super thick magma. The thicker the magma the more pressure can build up. The magma in the Hawaiian volcano is thin enough that the pressure can't build up enough to make an explosion or spew much debris fast enough or over enough area to be a real threat. Debris and the blast wave from volcanoes are much much much more dangerous than the lava flows. The magma in the Yellowstone volcano is thick enough that a ton of pressure can be built up, which, when released, causes a massive explolsion, spews a bunch of debris, and creates a huge blast wave.", "Yellowstone: Eating everything on the menu at Taco Bell, taking a $100 bet on how long you can hold in the inevitable, massive fart.\nHawaii: A slow, oozing zit.", "Okay so using water balloons as an example. Hawaiian volcanos are like a little 4\" water balloon that when it hits you it busts, you get a little wet, but you will dry off and recover. \n\n\nYellowstone in equivalence is your entire state's water supply ready to drop right on your head.", "Crap that magma has to travel through on it's way to the surface changes the chemical composition of it. Mantle rock is made up of stuff that's really liquid when it's melted. These are called Komatiite lavas. We don't have these kinds of lavas make it to the surface of the earth anymore. Ocean rock is a bit more viscous, but it's still very liquid. These are called basaltic/gabbroic lavas. This is the kind of lava we have in Hawaii. \n\nBeyond that you have intermediate and felsic lavas. These are formed when magmas move through continental rock and leech large silicon minerals from the surrounding rock. These gum up the magmas and make them very viscous. Because of the viscosity, these types of volcanic eruptions build up pressure and explode like Mount Saint Hellens or Eyjafjallajokull instead of spray liquid lava like Kilauea. \n\nYellowstone is a huge magma chamber that has been sitting, and leeching large chain silicates from the surrounding rocks for a very long time. If the pressure builds up enough to blow the whole caldera it's going to be comparable to a large meteorite strike.", "For comparison:\n\n* Last erruption of the Kilauea vulcano produced 0.0000001 cubic kilometers of debris.\n* Eyjafjallajökull in its last erruption that crippled air travel across europe produced 0.25 cubic kilometers of ash\n* Yellowstone in its last erruption produced 1000 cubic kilometers\n\nKilauea is smaller compared to Eyjafjallajökull than Eyjafjallajökull is compared to Yellowstone.\n\nIf you take about 4800 large computer screens and say that all the pixels on all those screens together represent the last Yellowstone erruption. Then about one full screen represents that Eyjafjallajökull erruption and one pixel one one screen represents the Kilauea erruption.", "Yellowstone is a super volcano, or caldera Hawaii has just average every day volcano, pkus it relieves pressure regularly.\n\nThats like comparing a pistol to a nuke, yes they are both weapons but not exactly comparable.\n\nWhen Yellowstone goes it will destoy life as we know it, the same as virtually every other caldera blast in earths history. It wont kill all humans in the initial blast, but the total blacking of the sun, and the ash and debris in the air could do away with a good portion of all species.", "Scrolled down pretty far and didn't see this: Whether or not it destroys the Earth (humanity), Yellowstone is in the middle of the continental US. Obviously, even if Kilauea was the same scale as Yellowstone (it's not), similar, large eruptions at both would affect massively more people when it's in the middle of the US vs. a remote island.", "Hawaii = that small pimple on your forehead that never seems to go away, always leaking its gross pus and scabbing up then repeat. \n\nYellowstone is a basketball sized cyst on your back that is made out of scar tissue and doesn't pop, ever. But when it does, it's gonna be nasty.", "The Yellowstone Caldera is a massive volcano that is capable of erupting on a scale that would chage global climate for decades if not centuries. \n\nThe Kilauea Volcano is a regular volcano that people choose to live on.", "Hawaii is in the ocean. Yellowstone is in the middle of the USA. \n\nYellowstone is also a SUPER Volcano with way way more destructive power than any of Hawaii's volcanos.", "I see many people referencing the balloon anology but it isnt quite right and doesn't describe this type of volcanism the same as maybe Mound st . Helens. There are several major factors that differ in comparing another highly destructive volcano to yellowstone. The first is that other examples such as mt st . Helens are driven by plate convergence and subduction. Things like water are trapped with the subducting plate which reduces the melting point of those rocks, which then melt and rise forming the volcanic structures you see. Such structures as those can be describes with the balloon analogy as all of the material and pressure are focused to a single point and a pin, the top of the mountain breaking will lead to big events. In the case of yellowstone however, the driving mechanism is similar to that of hawaii being that it is in the middle of a plate with no subduction. Instead it is likely the result of a mantle plume/hot spot which causes hot material from the mantle to rise and once it reaches the near surface, spread over a large area forming flood basalts. Flood basalts are often what is described in the thousands of kilometers of radius range and what people often mistake as the giant peak of a volcano. It is more like of you put oil into the bottom of a jar filled with water, it would rise in a single thin column and then spread across the whole surface when it hits the top. In this way it is different from the balloon analogy as pressure does not build up constantly, dues to its large area heat is constantly being lost like a heat sync in a computer, and instead of a pin priking it, it is like laying a balloon over a bed of pins which instead of popping it will be able to support much more force applied on top. Yellowstone won't just explode, if it does it will likely only be near the center, the results wont be nearly as bad as people expect, and you shouldn't worry about it too much. \n\nTLDR: Yellowstone isn't like other volcanos or a balloon and it won't explode. It is actually more similar to Hawaii than everyone else here seems to suggest.\n\nSource: Am a geology major and had to do a presentation on mantle plumes after a lot of research.", "Hawaii's volcano(s) is in one spot and is nothing more than an island builder... (it's actually 5 volcanoes, 2 of which are dormant) and it takes thousands of years. The islands move northwest from tectonic plate movement, but the volcano *tube* stays in the same spot.\n\nSide note: The big island is the newest island... which is why it's still active. [There's actually a new island being formed right now](_URL_4_)\n\nHawaii is only a hot spot where some magma flows up in a crack between two plates in the Pacific Ocean. There is little pressure so there really isn't much to explode.\n\nYellowstone, on the other hand, is what is termed a *supervolcano.* It is also a hotspot, but it's bigger, hence, *super.* The only real difference in the two are that there is a pressure building at Yellowstone and it's really big. The idea is that where there to be an eruption, there would be massive amounts of debris and dust thrown into the air in addition to the intense earthquakes. The concern is that this would bring about an ice age of sorts due to the extra debris in the atmosphere.\n\nI wouldn't worry, though, as the human species will have expired long before this volcano is likely to erupt. The last eruptions were 630,000 ya, 1.3 Mya, and 2.1 Mya.", "People think that the Yellowstone supervolcano will \"explode\" (have a massive eruption) because it has had three massive eruptions in the past. \n\n* One was 2.1 million years ago.\n* The second occurred 800,000 years later, 1.3 million years ago. \n* The third happened 636,000 years later, 664,000 years ago.\n\nAs such, given previous intervals, certainly enough time has passed where such an eruption could happen, although the odds of it happening are pretty low.\n\nThe scary factor comes from material published by scientists which have revealed that such an eruption is capable of burying states like Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Colorado in three feet of volcanic ash and blanketing the MidWest. The ash cloud from the eruption would spread for thousands of miles across the United States and would damage buildings, smother crops, and shut down power plants. It would be a very bad deal.\n\nAs such, it scares the crap out of people.", "Geology student here.\n\nBasically, two reasons:\n\n1) size; Yellowstone is MASSIVE. If you look at the area of the flood basalts that represent the hot spot's migration since birth, they are several magnitudes larger than the area of basalts created by the hot spot responsible for the Hawaiian islands.\n\n2) composition; The hot spot beneath yellowstone is causing basaltic composition magmas (like those in Hawaii) to intrude into continental crust, which is really the key difference here. As these magmas intrude the crust, they undergo a process called partial crystallization or \"fractionation,\" in which the higher temperature components of the melt seize and settle to the bottom. What's left is granitic composition magma. Granitic magmas erupt MUCH more violently than basaltic magmas because they have a higher viscosity due to enrichment in SiO2.\n\nThink more like Mt. St. Helens, but a hell of a lot bigger.", "Hawaiin volcanoes are to blowing up a normal little water balloon and then letting the air out of the opening, as yellowstone is to blowing up a \"hot water bottle\" (search youtube) until it bursts.\nA little kid can blow up a water balloon. It takes someone with very strong lungs to blow up a hot water bottle and make it burst, if they arent careful the pressure build up could backfire and make their lungs explode.\n\nIt takes longer to blow up a hot water bottle, but when it goes... it really goes.", "I'm actually learning about this. Hawaii's volcano has low silica content so it has fluid magma and lava. This means the duct magma comes from doesn't get clogged up often. Yellowstone is different. It has thick lava and magma, and the duct is very well clogged up. Yellowstone is completely blocked off so there is no escape for pressure and gas in the magma chamber below, and the monster has been growing under the volcano for many years. Hawaii, it releases pressure often so no large explosion. Yellowstone, devastating explosion.", "The Hawaii hotspot has been erupting constantly for about 81 million years - the chain of islands and eroded islands associated with it go all the way to the Aleutian islands \n\n_URL_5_\n\nThe hotspot isn't generally explosive, they just throw out nice thick basaltic lavas, decade after decade. And when they do explode, there aren't many people around and the ash blows out to sea.\n\nYellowstone, has in the past, thrown out a lot of ash and in places from the last large eruption, it's 600 feet deep", "If you shake up a bottle of coke and open it a little bit at a time, you don't get fizzy coke bubbles all over yourself.\nIf you shake it up and open it really fast then it goes everywhere and end up covered in yuck.\nYellowstone is also a bigger bottle of coke than the one in hawaii, and in real life the coke in a volcano is way yuckier than real Coca-Cola.", "As I understand it, Hawaii is a slow leak. Not much in the way of pressure buildup because it’s constantly erupting. Even if that eruption is relatively small. But Yellowstone doesn’t erupt. Hasn’t for thousands of years. And all that pressure is building up. Also Yellowstone has a history of blowing up every few hundred thousand years so scientists think it’s going to inevitably do so again.", "There aren’t many super volcanoes that we know of in the world. Yellowstone is by far the largest though, and if/when it goes, it has the possibility to make humanity extinct. That’s why people worry about it. Imagine the continental divide being gone, most of North America destroyed as we know it, and not seeing the sun for years, therefore no growth. Nuclear winter conditions etc.", "One of them [lets out a small stream of lava in the middle of the Pacific, enough to create a chain of small islands over millions of years.](_URL_6_)\n\nThe other [is in the middle of the continental United states and has regularly caused instant death an area the size of most states, and huge amounts of ash to cover a large chunk of the continent.](_URL_7_)", "Scale. Think of 4th of July. Hawaii is setting off Piccolo Pete fireworks all the time, all night. Pretty much only a risk if someone isnt paying attention and stumbles into it. Yellowstone has been cramming a dumpster full of gunpower muttering \"this gonna be gooood\".", "Umm, maybe it's isolation from the rest of the world? Thousands of miles, the only thing we have to worry about is a bunch a brand new land we have to figure out what to do with. Other than Hawaii being blown up :(", "Yellowstone is a super massive volcano. It would be a mountain but the last time it eruptedmillions of years ago it blew itself up so now it's just a depression in the earth. Hawaii is just a regular volcano that goes off pretty often.", "Two completely different scales. Hawaii was established on a volcanic ring of islands, this isn't their first rodeo, although the damage is alarming. Yellowstone is likely to kill literally everyone if it erupts entirely.", "Hawaii's small eruptions of 200 feet into the air are nothing compared to the possible 20 mile tall pillar of magma that could come from yellowstone if it erupted.", "Hawaii volcanos are shield volcanos sitting over a hotspot. The magma/lava tends to flow and ooze out. Yellowstone sits ontop a supervolcano, where the whole area can blow off", "See here for a map of the ash fall of a previous Yellowstone outburst _URL_8_ and compare this to the size of Hawaii. Yellowstone outburst are very big.", "Same reason people are less worried about a pack of fireworks than they are about a hydrogen bomb.", "Would an eruption of Yellowstone have the power to alter Earth's rotation within our solar system?", "It's simply size. Hawaiian volcanoes are less than a millionth the size of Yellowstone iirc.", "Okay my question is how likely is Yellowstone to erupt... Next 10, 20 years?", "How far would someone theoretically be able to hear the eruption from Yellowstone?", "Because the Yellowstone caldero\\-supervolcano would obliterate half of the United States, maybe???", "Ok, second ELI5: how can we relieve Yellowstone's pressure buikdup?", "What? Hold on, what do you not understand?" ]

[ "and volcanic activity that is the source of 90% of the world's earthquakes. The American Northwest sees the highest concentration of active volcanoes in the United States, in Washington, Oregon and northern California along the Cascade Mountains. There are several active volcanoes located in the islands of Hawaii, including Kilauea in ongoing eruption since 1983, but they do not typically adversely affect the inhabitants of the islands. There has not been a major life-threatening eruption on the Hawaiian islands since the 17th century. Volcanic eruptions can occasionally be devastating, such as in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in", "responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future. However, these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system. Earthquakes Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year, virtually all of which are undetectable to people. There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times, including the 7.2‑magnitude Hebgen Lake earthquake which occurred just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959. This quake triggered a huge landslide, which caused a partial dam collapse on Hebgen Lake; immediately", "by catastrophic debris avalanches on the submerged flanks of ocean island volcanoes.\nThe Kīlauea erupted in May 2018, opening 22 fissure vents on its East Rift Zone. The Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens are situated within this territory. The destruction affected at least 36 buildings and this coupled with the lava flows and the sulfur dioxide fumes, necessitated the evacuation of more than 2,000 local inhabitants from the neighborhoods. Flora and fauna Because the islands of Hawaii are distant from other land habitats, life is thought to have arrived there by wind, waves (i.e. by ocean currents) and wings (i.e. birds,", "2018 Hawaii earthquake Tectonic setting Hawaii island is affected by a large number of minor earthquakes related to the movement of magma beneath its active volcanoes. Additionally there are less frequent tectonic earthquakes that are caused either by faulting within the volcanoes or by slip along the basal detachment surface at the top of the oceanic crust associated with the gradual collapse of the island's flanks as it continues to be enlarged. Near Kilauea volcano, the largest structure formed by the collapse of the southeastern flank of the island is the Hilina slump. This slump moves seaward at an average", "outside Hawaii Island occurred at Haleakalā on Maui before the late 18th century, possibly hundreds of years earlier. In 1790, Kīlauea exploded; it was the deadliest eruption known to have occurred in the modern era in what is now the United States. Up to 5,405 warriors and their families marching on Kīlauea were killed by the eruption. Volcanic activity and subsequent erosion have created impressive geological features. Hawaii Island has the second-highest point among the world's islands.\nOn the flanks of the volcanoes, slope instability has generated damaging earthquakes and related tsunamis, particularly in 1868 and 1975. Steep cliffs have been created", "the breakup of Maui Nui, initially a seven-volcano island, which was transformed into five islands as a result of subsidence. High rainfall due to the trade wind effect impacts on the severity of erosion on many of the major volcanoes. Coastline collapses, a notable part of the history of many of the Hawaiian volcanoes, are often devastating and destroy large parts of the volcanoes. Submarine preshield stage When a volcano is created near the Hawaiian hotspot, it begins its growth in the submarine preshield stage, characterized by infrequent, typically low volume eruptions. The volcano is steep-sided, and it usually has", "Honuapo, and Keauhou Landing were severely damaged. The tsunami reportedly rolled over the tops of the coconut trees up to 60 ft (18 m) high and it reached inland a distance of a quarter of a mile (400 meters) in some places. Volcanoes Over its 85 million year history, the Hawaii hotspot has created at least 129 volcanoes, more than 123 of which are extinct volcanoes, seamounts, and atolls, four of which are active volcanoes, and two of which are dormant volcanoes. They can be organized into three general categories: the Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises most of the U.S. state of Hawaii", "event, the Toba eruption, occurred in Indonesia about 71,500 years ago. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, the event may have reduced human populations to only a few tens of thousands of individuals. Yellowstone Caldera is another such supervolcano, having undergone 142 or more caldera-forming eruptions in the past 17 million years.\nA massive volcano eruption would eject extraordinary volumes of volcanic dust, toxic and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere with serious effects on global climate (towards extreme global cooling: volcanic winter if short-term, and ice age if long-term) or global warming (if greenhouse gases were to prevail).\nWhen the supervolcano", "don't produce tsunamis that move across the ocean. In all likelihood, it wouldn't even impact the other Hawaiian islands.\nAnother volcanologist, Janine Krippner, added:\nPeople are worried about the catastrophic crashing of the volcano into the ocean. There's no evidence that this will happen. It is slowly—really slowly—moving toward the ocean, but it's been happening for a very long time.\nDespite this, evidence suggests that catastrophic collapses do occur on Hawaiian volcanoes and generate massive, yet local tsunamis. Cape Verde Islands Steep cliffs on the Cape Verde Islands have been caused by catastrophic debris avalanches. These have been common on the submerged flanks", "absolutes. Hawaii only holds 0.2 percent of the United States land but has a 72.1 percent extinction rate, and more than half of the natural communities in the islands are endangered by developments. An example of this is natural ponds being destroyed during construction of large buildings which were previously home to migrating birds. The ponds are no longer there, which throws off the natural flow of the ecosystem. Another staggering statistic says that nearly 60 percent of the plant and animal species in Hawaii are endangered. This includes the loss of habitats for animals and the diverse flora that", "not take costly preventative measures without clear warnings of imminent danger. Because the volcano's last substantial eruption occurred more than 140 years earlier, it was also hard for many to accept the danger the volcano presented; locals even called it the \"Sleeping Lion\". Hazard maps showing Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption, but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and civil defense agencies for scaremongering. Local authorities failed to alert people to the seriousness of the situation, with Armero's mayor and a priest both reassuring the populace after an", "connection with the 2018 lower Puna eruption the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory published some facts leading to the conclusion, that a catastrophic collapse would be incredibly remote. A number of cinder cones, satellite shields, lava tubes, and other eruptive structures also dot the volcano, evidence of its recent activity. Kīlauea has some interactions with Mauna Loa, its larger neighbor and only other recently active volcano on the island; interspersed lava flows and ash deposits belonging to its neighbor have been found on its flanks, and some of Mauna Loa's flows are, in turn, blanketed in Kīlauea tephra. In particular, the saddle", "been less than 10% of that in the U.S. states of California and Oregon and about 20% of that within the U.S. state of Washington. As a result, the risk of eruptions throughout this part of the Cascade Arc is minor. Individual volcanoes and volcanic fields remain quiet for a long period of time and certain vents may never erupt again. However, considerable volcanic activity has taken place in the geologically recent past, most notably the explosive eruption that occurred at the Mount Meager massif 2,350 years ago.\nJack Souther, a leading authority on geothermal resources and volcanism in the Canadian Cordillera", "of volcanic activity. This included increased chemical changes, gases and temperature. The warning was used to let visitors know the potential of an explosion was higher than usual and could happen at any time. This could also be a follow-up to the previous year's 2007 eruption.\nA GeoNet New Zealand Bulletin was released on 21 July 2008 stating that \"the current phase of volcano unrest appears to be over, however Ruapehu remains an active volcano. Future eruptions may occur without warning.\" However the level has remained at 1, where it has been since 1997. Warnings in the 2010s On 5", "features; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally. This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past. Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption, since they may have developed long ago, and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts. On March 10, 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped", "subsequent 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurred on 4 May. Volcanic fog Vog (volcanic fog) can envelop the island of Hawaii when Kilauea Volcano is active. Since the termination of volcanic activity in September 2018, the vog has largely disappeared on the west side of the island. The gas plumes of the Kīlauea Volcano create a blanket of vog which the dominant trade winds mostly deflect toward the Kona coast on the west side of the island of Hawaiʻi. Vog contains chemicals that can damage the environment and the health of plants, humans, and other animals. Most of the aerosols are acidic", "one point in time, it is, however; no longer active. Although the volcano is now dormant, if it were to erupt, the explosion would be extremely violent. Just like Mount Fuji and St. Helens, stratovolcanoes tend to be very big because they have a conduit system inside them that channels magma from deep within the Earth to the surface. These type of volcanoes also have clusters of vents, with lava breaking through walls, or issuing from fissures on the sides of the mountain which allows them to grow big & very tall. Stratovolcanoes make up some of the world’s most", "large caldera and can produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes continental, scale. Such volcanoes are able to severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the atmosphere. They are the most dangerous type of volcano. Examples include Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupo in New Zealand; Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia; and Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Because of the enormous area they may cover, supervolcanoes are hard to identify centuries after an eruption. Similarly, large", "this disaster to be one of the worst environmental disasters in the history of the US.\nA large number of animal deaths have resulted from the release of the oil. A Center study estimates that over 82,000 birds; about 6,000 sea turtles; and nearly 26,000 marine mammals were killed from either the initial explosion or the oil spill.", "Pacific Northwest. If this theory is substantially correct, then another hazard must be added to those risks associated with major megathrust earthquakes.\nBefore the 17th century eruption, the Tseax Cone had erupted in 1325. Potential for a future eruption Today, the volcano lies dormant within Nisga'a Memorial Lava Beds Provincial Park. Gases currently being emitted by the volcano are evidence that the volcano is still active and potentially dangerous. Signs of unrest such as seismic activity and increased gas output will almost certainly precede any future eruptive activity from the Tseax Cone.\nIf the Tseax Cone were to erupt, its effects would", "cattle ranches. The eruption caused natural dams to form along the Rio Magdalena river, inducing lahars, which destroyed key infrastructure. The total damage caused by the 1982 eruption is believed to amount to $55 million (equivalent to $132 million in present-day US dollars). Lack of preparation With more than 600 years since the last major eruption of El Chichón, few people were aware of the volcanic risk. Most presumed it to be a dormant volcano or extinct. Throughout 1980 and 1981 earthquakes were felt in the surrounding regions, and geologists hazard mapped the region highlighting risks, no increases were seen", "quantity of our scarce liquid fuels.\" Future activity The last eruption of Mauna Kea was about 4,600 years ago (about 2600 BC); because of this inactivity, Mauna Kea is assigned a United States Geological Survey hazard listing of 7 for its summit and 8 for its lower flanks, out of the lowest possible hazard rating of 9 (which is given to the extinct volcano Kohala). Since 8000 BC lava flows have covered 20% of the volcano's summit and virtually none of its flanks.\nDespite its dormancy, Mauna Kea is expected to erupt again, although there would be enough warning to evacuate. The", "the two months of volcanic activity preceding the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, giving interviews to reporters and expressing his opinion that the danger was exaggerated. \"I don't have any idea whether it will blow,\" he said, \"but I don't believe it to the point that I'm going to pack up.\" Truman displayed little concern about the volcano and his situation: \"If the mountain goes, I'm going with it. This area is heavily timbered, Spirit Lake is in between me and the mountain, and the mountain is a mile away, the mountain ain't gonna hurt me.\" Law enforcement officials", "about 30 miles (48 km) west.\nThe area is part of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, but often is closed during periods of high volcanic activity, due to the potential for poisonous gas blown southwest by the tradewinds from Halemaʻumaʻu. The 1790 eruption One of most devastating explosions in Hawaiian history occurred in 1790. The eruption released volcanic ash, which formed spheres of tephra known as accretionary lapilli due to the effect of electrostatic forces and moisture. Chief Keōua Kuahuʻula was traveling then around Kīlauea to Kaʻū, after battling the dominant chief Kamehameha I. At least 80 Hawaiian warriors suffocated when volcanic ash", "and therefore the great risk caused by volcanic activity in the regions is not always readily apparent.\nWhen Cascade volcanoes do erupt, pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and landslides can devastate areas more than 10 miles (16 km) away; and huge mudflows of volcanic ash and debris, called lahars, can inundate valleys more than 50 miles (80 km) downstream. Falling ash from explosive eruptions can disrupt human activities hundreds of miles downwind, and drifting clouds of fine ash can cause severe damage to jet aircraft even thousands of miles away.\nAll of the known historical eruptions have occurred in Washington, Oregon and in Northern California.", "the underground water table, similar to the explosions that occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu in 1924. These concerns prompted the closure of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. On May 17, at approximately 4:15 a.m., an explosive eruption occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu, creating a plume of ash 30,000 feet into the air. This marked the beginning of a series of vigorous explosions that have produced significant ash plumes from Halemaʻumaʻu. These explosions, accompanied by large earthquakes and inward slumping and collapse within and around Halemaʻumaʻu, continued until early August. Future threats In 2018, the United States Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment gave Kīlauea an overall", "and the Weather\" states: \"The dust raised in severe volcanic eruptions, such as that at Krakatoa in 1883, is known to cause a noticeable reduction in the sunlight reaching the earth ... The amount of [soil or other surface] debris remaining in the atmosphere after the explosion of even the largest nuclear weapons is probably not more than about 1 percent or so of that raised by the Krakatoa eruption. Further, solar radiation records reveal that none of the nuclear explosions to date has resulted in any detectable change in the direct sunlight recorded on the ground.\" The US Weather", "hope that one day it will happen in Hainan, one day, in China.\" This experience led Yeh to believe that sea turtles and people could live in harmony and that there was still hope in China because of the successful sea turtle conservation efforts in Hawaii. According to the global authority on nature conservation, International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the sea turtles of the Hawaiian Islands were also once under the threat of near extinction, but are now thriving and their conservation status reclassified as \"Least Concern\" according to the IUCN Red List. Thus,", "help the situation; instead, everybody would rather figure out who is to blame. At a conference at the Governor's office with top Colorado scientists and government officials, they all declare that the disaster is the result of global warming. At first, it is determined the full effects will take place on \"the day after tomorrow\". However, some scientists suddenly burst in and state that it has been proven that the disaster will take place \"two days before the day after tomorrow\".\nThe declaration of the scientists causes mass hysteria, and everybody runs from \"global warming\". Most of the South Park people", "(1,600 ft). This would finally enable landings on the island. Water discoloration was still evident immediately offshore in August, indicating that volcanic activity, while in significant decline, was still present. On 14 February 2017, the Japan Meteorological Agency cancelled all alerts for the island, declaring that there was no indication of subsequent eruptions.\nOn October 2016, a team of scientists visited Nishinoshima to conduct research on the island. Apart from documenting the island's ecology and geology, monitoring equipment was also installed for future volcanic activity.\nThe eruption has provided an explanation for the northern Pacific Blob which has puzzled scientists . It is" ]

[ "When you cut down highly developed forests to replace them with cultivated land you're seriously lowering the amount of CO2 that can be absorbed.\n\nA big tree that is several decades old will take in WAY more CO2 than several seedlings that are planted to replace it. Additionally, all of the undergrowth that is in forests absorbs CO2 but that is all removed for farming.\n\nFurther, a lot of the time what's done is called \"slash and burn\" which means that the forests are chopped down and the debris is cleared away via a controlled fire, once again adding CO2 (and other harmful chemicals) to the atmosphere.\n\nAlso, removing well established plants will significantly increase soil erosion and while that may not directly contribute to global warming, it certainly is detrimental to the environment.", "Ever see an avocado farm?\n\n_URL_1_\n\nOrdered, tight, clean.\n\nCompare that to rainforest:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nYou literally can't see the ground, there's so much vegetation.\n\nDoesn't matter how big the farm you plant is, its oxygen production levels will always be way worse than the rainforest that you destroyed to make it." ]

[ "the Eden Reforestation Projects, Hommes et Terre, and various local partners, to plant trees in 16 countries throughout the world. Ecosia says that they focus on planting trees where they are most needed: \"biodiversity hotspots\" which are areas with large numbers of unique species, and regions with poor communities that cannot handle large scale tree-planting on their own. There are multiple environmental benefits of trees: they absorb carbon dioxide and thus slow global warming; they prevent desertification and keep soil fertile; and they provide safe habitats for forest-dwelling animals. Additionally, Ecosia claims that they support local communities by creating steady", "place, some exotic/non-native plants may fare better than the displaced, native inhabitants, in the process increasing the biodiversity and biological biomass. Sustainable planting may also involve crop rotation provided that they are used effectively. At the very least, constant crop rotation (see: cover crops) will prevent soil erosion, by protecting topsoil from wind and draining water. Effective crop rotation allows enough time for pest pressure on crops to be significantly reduced, and for soil nutrients to be replenished. This, in turn, reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Specifically in terms of industrial agriculture, increasing the genetic diversity of", "Sustainable planting Sustainable planting is an approach to planting design and landscaping-gardening that balances the need for resource conservation with the needs of farmers pursuing their livelihood. The demand on resources, specifically land/crops, is constantly increasing due to the long human lifespan. It is a form of sustainable agriculture and, “it considers long-term as well as short-term economics because sustainability is readily defined as forever, that is, agricultural environments that are designed to promote endless regeneration”.\nThe idea of sustainable planting can be dated back millennia, when the ancient Greeks and Chinese practised organic farming, the oldest method of farming.", "crop growth and pesticides to control insects, plant biodiversity is reduced as is the supply of organic matter to replenish soil nutrients and prevent run-off. This leads to a reduction in soil fertility and productivity. More sustainable agricultural practices would take into account and estimate the resilience of the land and monitor and balance the input and output of organic matter. Deforestation The term deforestation has a meaning that covers crossing the threshold of forest's resilience and losing its ability to return its originally stable state. To recover itself, a forest ecosystem needs suitable interactions among climate conditions and bio-actions,", "forests, afforestation is a process used to plant trees and use them as resources instead of naturally existing forests. Afforestation occurs when the planting of trees is introduced to an area that previously had no trees. This creates habitat for wildlife, recreational areas, and commercial use while not causing harm to natural forests. Reforestation Reforestation is another method to sustain forests by improving existing forested areas. Reforestation is a method of planting trees in an existing forested area. This method is used in reaction to deforestation. When forests are removed without reestablishment they can be reforested by planting trees in", "its long life cycle, which would not allow the species to adapt to rapid changes in environment, and therefore not survive long enough to disperse its seeds. Also this species has a \"seed dormancy\" (prevention of germination until optimal environmental conditions are present), that can only be broken in typical spring conditions. Furthermore, deforestation can be extremely destructive to the plants, as they rely on the canopy provided from the trees. Conservation practices to manage these issues include leaving surrounding trees within 4 square metres (43 sq ft), stimulating growth by cutting a small opening in the canopy, and draining overly flooded", "ecosystem of the location. Because it advocates deforestation then the creation of entirely new forests. Notably, compensatory afforestation does not inhibit human activities on forests but rather creates room for them and calls for the planting of new ones. This has adverse impacts on the flora and fauna since natural forests present more benefits in terms of diversity compared to the artificial ones. Further, due to corruption, a report released in 2018 showed that CAMPA violates the Forest Conservation Act by allowing forests to be cleared and later grown by the same investors in the same location . This promotes", "several negative implications on the atmosphere and the quality of the land in and surrounding the forest. Causes One of the main causes of deforestation is clearing forests for agricultural reasons. As the population of developing areas, especially near rainforests, increases, the need for land for farming becomes more and more important. For most people, a forest has no value when its resources are not being used, so the incentives to deforest these areas outweigh the incentives to preserve the forests. For this reason, the economic value of the forests is very important for the developing countries. Environmental impact Because", "significant is that not just the trees were integrated into local horticulture, but the practice of grafting to increase the health and yield of the plants.", "and old growth forest deforestation. By clearing land in these forests, farmers decrease the biodiversity and interactions between the many different organisms that naturally live in the area. Many wildlife habitats are destroyed and the plant species diversity is drastically reduced. Nutrients begin to leach out of the soil due to poor irrigation and inadequate soil protection, which can increase the erosion of the soil. The more intense the farming practices are, the more damaging they are to the ecosystem. Cocoa farming becomes a destructive circle as farmers wear out the soils and cut further into the", "deforestation processes of removing trees as it changes the soil productivity through compaction or removal. The soil holds more than just the nutrients and plants in the forests, it consists of inorganic material, organic matter, air, water and many micro and macro organisms. The act of deforestation requires the forest sector to build roads, which decrease the productive land base, to be able to access the trees which went down from 4.6% of the area harvest in mid-1990's to 3.5% in 2008. New stricter enforcement of laws regarding soil disturbance has dramatically reduced the degree of soil disturbances to the", "Trees require a very small physical area for planting, but when mature, they provide a much larger coverage area. This both absorbs solar energy for photosynthesis (improving air quality and mitigating global warming), reducing the amount of energy being trapped and held within artificial surfaces, but also casts much-needed shade on the city and its inhabitants. Shade itself does not lower the ambient air temperature, but it greatly reduces the perceived temperature and comfort of those seeking its refuge. A popular method of reducing UHI is simply increasing the albedo (light reflectiveness) of urban surfaces that cannot", "ways and encouraged soil reclamation and replanting trees in areas where there has been deforestation.", "Forest gardening Forest gardening is a low-maintenance sustainable plant-based food production and agroforestry system based on woodland ecosystems, incorporating fruit and nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines and perennial vegetables which have yields directly useful to humans. Making use of companion planting, these can be intermixed to grow in a succession of layers, to build a woodland habitat.\nForest gardening is a prehistoric method of securing food in tropical areas. In the 1980s, Robert Hart coined the term \"forest gardening\" after adapting the principles and applying them to temperate climates. History Forest gardens are probably the world's oldest form of land use", "contribute to soil erosion, but are less effective when grasslands are not overgrazed or disturbed. Over the long term, however, their decomposing and recycling of plant material contribute to soil fertility and the global cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and other elements.", "author asserts that using a more balanced approach to conservation biology that addresses more densely populated areas, rather than one that focuses mainly on relatively undisturbed areas, can help to mitigate effects of human land use (Miller, 2002). Native plants use One study that was published in Conservation Biology reported that native plants supported more species of moths and butterflies than introduced plants (Tallamy, 2009). Another study, which studied species richness and diversity of small mammals, recommended planting native trees along riparian zone stream corridors in order to promote more diversity of small mammals in suburban and urban parks", "helps to return nutrients from plant matter back to soil, the heat from fire is necessary to the germination of certain types of seeds, and the snags (dead trees) and early successional forests created by high-severity fire create habitat conditions that are beneficial to wildlife. Early successional forests created by high-severity fire support some of the highest levels of native biodiversity found in temperate conifer forests. Post-fire logging has no ecological benefits and many negative impacts; the same is often true for post-fire seeding.\nAlthough some ecosystems rely on naturally occurring fires to regulate growth, some ecosystems suffer from too much", "planting of street trees and the Urban Reforestation organization in Australia, which focuses on sustainable living in urban places. Criticisms Urban reforestation efforts compete for money and urban land that could be used for other purposes. For example, effort placed in planting new trees can take away from maintenance of already established trees.", "Urban reforestation Urban reforestation is the practice of planting trees, typically on a large scale, in urban environments. It sometimes includes also urban horticulture and urban farming. Reasons for practicing urban reforestation include urban beautification, increasing shade, modifying the urban climate, improving air quality, and restoration of urban forests after a natural disaster. Programs Large scale urban reforestation programs include New York City's Million Tree Initiative, and TreePeople in Los Angeles, which planted 1 million trees in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics and continued planting thereafter.\nGrassroots efforts include Friends of the Urban Forest in San Francisco which advocates the", "The removal of vegetation damages the microclimate by removing shade and reducing humidity. It also contributes to global climate change by diminishing the capacity of the vegetation to absorb carbon dioxide. Land clearing could also be responsible for reduced rainfall levels & possible desertification of land as well as soil erosion. Deforestation and climate extremes An organisation checked the impacts on climate extremes and droughts by analysing daily rainfall and surface temperature output from the Mark 3 GCM.\nThis work, the first of its kind, demonstrated an increase in the number of dry days (<1mm rainfall) and hot days (maximum temperature", "shelter-belts around fields to increase productivity, providing food for cattle, offering shade and decorative landscapes, reducing drought and helping to prevent soil erosion, etc. It helps spread awareness about the harm caused by the cutting down of trees.\nPlanting of trees also serves other purposes like providing alternative fuel options, food for cattle, helps in soil conservation and more than anything offers a natural aesthetic beauty. Planting of trees also helps to avoid soil erosion which may cause floods.\nPeople celebrate Van Mahotsava by planting trees or saplings in and near their homes, offices, schools and colleges. Novel promotions like free circulation", "as the grass/fire cycle, and it undermines native plants’ ability to grow and thrive in their native environment. One result of this cycle is a drop in biodiversity in the affected area.", "trees from forests has been shown to increase the removal of plant nutrients and organic matter from an ecosystem, thereby reducing both the nutrients and humus content of the soil. One option to balance the negative effects of woodchip harvesting is to return the woodchip ash to the forest which would restore some of the lost nutrients back into the soil.\nIf woodchips are harvested as a by-product of sustainable forestry practices, then this is considered a source of renewable energy. On the other hand, harvesting practices, such as clearcutting large areas, are highly damaging to forest ecosystems.\nTheoretically, whole-tree chip harvesting", "to support their crop activities. This agricultural practice is repetitively employed on the same plot of land until it is denuded of its nutrients and could no longer suffice to support agricultural yields. Thereafter, these farmers will move on to occupy another plot of land and continually practice their slash-and-burn technique. This contributing social factor to deforestation reinforces the challenges faced by forestry sustainability in developing countries such as Indonesia.\nOn the political front, the Indonesian governmental role in curbing deforestation has largely been criticised. Corruption amongst local Indonesian officials fuels cynicism with regard to the governmental clampdown on illegal logging", "proximate causes were clustered into broad categories of agricultural expansion (96%), infrastructure expansion (72%), and wood extraction (67%). Therefore, according to this study, forest conversion to agriculture is the main land use change responsible for tropical deforestation. The specific categories reveal further insight into the specific causes of tropical deforestation: transport extension (64%), commercial wood extraction (52%), permanent cultivation (48%), cattle ranching (46%), shifting (slash and burn) cultivation (41%), subsistence agriculture (40%), and fuel wood extraction for domestic use (28%). One result is that shifting cultivation is not the primary cause of deforestation in all world regions, while transport extension", "to fix the soil as quickly as virgin forests, causing widespread soil erosion and often requiring large amounts of fertilizer to maintain while containing little tree and wild-life biodiversity compared to virgin forests. Also, the new trees planted are not as big as the trees that were cut down, and the argument that there will be \"more trees\" is not compelling to forestry advocates when they are counting saplings.\nIn particular, wood from tropical rainforests is rarely harvested for paper because of their heterogeneity. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation", "soil, water, wildlife, and the atmosphere. Through the Conservation Trees program, the Foundation works with ranchers, farmers, and landowners through communication and education encouraging environmental stewardship.\nTrees planted for conservation are “working trees.” They provide many benefits in communities and rural areas. Other than reducing soil erosion, cleaning waterways and air, trees cut energy costs and sequester carbon dioxide. They provide beauty to our land all the while providing food for wildlife and people. Energy-Saving Trees Strategically planting trees in a homeowner's yard lowers utility bills, conserves energy, and lowers peak electricity demand. The Foundation's Energy-Saving", "more damaging effects of cyclones and tsunamis. Uses Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests, which are areas that have a high density of trees. Cultivated trees are planted and tended by humans, usually because they provide food (fruits or nuts), ornamental beauty, or some type of wood product that benefits people. An area of land planted with fruit or nut trees is an orchard. A small wooded area, usually with no undergrowth, is called a grove and a small wood or thicket of trees and bushes is called a coppice or", "to the strain on the local environment, the destruction of the rainforests has \"a broader impact, affecting global climate and biodiversity\". Efforts to reverse the effects Many countries have undertaken plans to conserve and replenish the forest in response to the recent upsurge in deforestation. For example, in Nicaragua, forest management consists of shifting from timber to non-timber harvesting alongside sustainable logging methods. In Costa Rica, logging roads that had once added to the problem of deforestation are being researched as potential avenues of reforestation. Furthermore, in the mid-1990s, \"damage-controlled logging practices\" were implemented to prevent rampant", "weedy landscapes.\nNative plants suit today's interest in \"low-maintenance\" gardening and landscaping, with many species vigorous and hardy and able to survive winter cold and summer heat. Once established, they can flourish without irrigation or fertilization, and are resistant to most pests and diseases.\nMany municipalities have quickly recognized the benefits of natural landscaping due to municipal budget constraints and reductions and the general public is now benefiting from the implementation of natural landscaping techniques to save water and create more personal time.\nNative plants provide suitable habitat for native species of butterflies, birds, pollinators, and other wildlife. They provide more variety in" ]

[ "It's called twin because a long time ago you bought two of them, one for each person in a husband/wife partnership. You only slept together to make babies, you sinners! Then along came the Full which was meant for two people (though no room to move!). Queen was a luxury: they added 6\" in width and 5\" in length to a full so you could damn well sin all night! A king?? You heathens now get the length of a queen but add 16\" to the width. You could have devil-orgies in those things (which is why I sleep in a king)." ]

[ "or memory foam. These are particularly popular in Europe, and for one business accounted for 25% of beds in Sweden in 2010 and 70% of beds in the Netherlands.\nIn the 2010s, affiliate marketing became a major part of the business model for direct-to-consumer online mattress companies such as Amerisleep. Later, companies like Casper and Purple, with venture capital and funding followed and helped grow the global mattress industry to $28.5 billion dollar in 2018.According to experts, there are over 175 bed-in-a-box mattress companies in the United States. Sizes The size of mattress varies between national standards in width and height", "mimicking the Japanese founders, the futon appeared in the United States around 1980. William Brouwer is the person who evolved the first sofa convertible frame style in the United States. Mattress types Although most sofa beds use a queen short mattress measuring 60\"x72\", other common sizes include 58\"x72\", 54\"x72\", and 52\"x72\". The average sofa bed mattress thickness is 4.5\", thus being half as thick as a good standard mattress. Sofa mattresses can be produced out of many different materials, the majority on the market being made of springs or foam. Pocket-coil mattress Pocket-coil mattresses are generally higher in quality", "mattress is CertiPUR-US certified.\nEndy mattresses come in six standard sizes. Each mattress is sold with a 100 Night Trial period and a 10-year warranty. Returned mattresses are donated or recycled where possible.\nThe next product launched by Endy was an adjustable memory foam pillow. The three-layer pillow incorporates a 100% cotton and machine washable cover with hypoallergenic microfiber fill, and an inner core filled with shredded bamboo charcoal memory foam.\nThe bedding set includes a fitted sheet, a flat sheet, and two standard pillowcases. They are 100% sateen weave, long staple cotton and have a certified 480 thread count.\nThe Endy mattress protector", "that are intended for guest use or as permanent beds in the bedroom. Bed sizes for temporary air beds range from twin to king size, but few guest bed manufacturers offer king size as most guest air beds are sold outside the United States where king-size mattresses are not standard. Most permanent air beds use easy-to-find conventional sheets and bedding. California King (or Western King) sheets and bedding may be more difficult to find as this size was originally conceived for the waterbed industry.\nRaised guest or temporary beds are typically raised off the ground to keep users away from the", "Mattress pad Pillow top mattress toppers Pillow top mattress toppers are filled with natural fibers such as cotton or down, or synthetic options such as microfiber. The filling is usually segmented into pockets which help them stay in place. This is similar to quilts, though mattress toppers are usually 4 inches or thicker. The variant of mattress toppers are present in most hotel beds and is responsible for their plush feel. Eggshell mattress toppers are a good way to extend the life of an older bed. Memory foam mattress toppers Visco-elastic foam toppers are made from visco-elastic polyurethane, also known", "with light-weight beds may be foldable for storage, as with table tennis. Miniature tables range in size from tabletop 1 × 1.6 ft to free-standing 2.5 × 5 ft models, and use scaled-down cues and balls.", "Bed frame A bed frame or bedstead is the part of a bed used to position the mattress and base (foundation), and may include means of supporting a canopy above. Bed frames are typically made of wood or metal. A bed frame includes head, foot, and side rails. It may also include slats to support the mattress, in which case a separate base is not necessary, as in a platform bed. Most double (full) sized beds, along with all queen and king size beds, require some type of center support rail, typically also with extra feet extending down to the", "consists of a 480 sq ft (45 m²) single bedroom top floor and two 813 sq ft (75.5 m²) three-bedroom floors.", "Smart mattress The smart mattress is a mattress that has sensors to monitor sleep patterns. Major vendors include Casper Sleep, Eight Sleep, Kingsdown, Leggett & Platt, Nectar Sleep, Responsive Surface Technology, and Sleep Number. Products can take the form of mattress covers, mattress pads, or the entire mattress.", "module of 9.40 meters by 10.30 meters. The 9.40-meter dimension between walls is further subdivided into three modules of 3.13 meters ( 10'-3\"), and this is the architectural dimension we saw previously of all the bedrooms and living rooms. There are eleven 3.15 meter subdivisions in total which make up the one bedroom (6.30 meters) and two bedrooms (9.40 meters) apartments. The outermost 3.13 meters of slab at either end, and on each floor, shown hatched on the structural plan diagram, is cantilevered and that is how Quintana achieves the thin walls at the ends of the apartment block (on", "for the purposes of the regulations. Judge Lloyd-Davies decided that a room \"should be capable of accommodating a single adult bed, a bedside table and somewhere to store clothes, as well as providing space for dressing and undressing\". This implies a minimum size of 65.81 square feet for a rectangular room.", "popular and make up a much larger proportion of the mattresses sold. Construction A conventional mattress consists of two primary sections – a core or \"support layer\" and the upholstery or \"comfort layer\" – wrapped in a thick fabric called the ticking.\nUpholstery layers cover the mattress and provide cushioning and comfort. The upholstery layer consists of three parts: the insulator, the middle upholstery, and the quilt. Innerspring Innerspring mattresses commonly consist of just the spring core, and the top and bottom upholstery layers. Upholstery layers Upholstery layers cover the mattress and provide cushioning and comfort. Some manufacturers call the mattress", "the 160-foot level were 8 feet 7 ¹⁄₂ inches (2.63 m) thick, which, combined with the larger shaft well, yields an outer dimension of 48 feet 8 ¹⁄₂ inches (14.85 m) square at that level. The top of the second phase walls are 34 feet 5 ¹⁄₂ inches (10.50 m) square and 1 foot 6 inches (46 cm) thick. The second phase interior walls have rounded corners (2-foot (0.61 m) radii). The weight of the second phase walls (from 150 feet to 500 feet) are 21,260 long tons (23,810 short tons; 21,600 tonnes). The walls of the entire shaft (combined first and second phases) are 500 feet 5 ¹⁄₈ inches (152.530 m) high.\nThe first phase of the walls was constructed", "long pedigree among diverse cultures. In the classical architecture of Greco-Roman antiquity, the module was utilized as a standardized unit of measurement for proportioning the elements of a building. Typically the module was established as one-half the diameter of the lower shaft of a classical column; all the other components in the syntax of the classical system were expressed as a fraction or multiple of that module. In traditional Japanese construction, room sizes were often determined by combinations of standard rice mats called tatami; the standard dimension of a mat was around 3 feet by 6 feet, which approximate the", "announced that it had raise $7.35 million in Series A funding in August 2016. Investors included Double J Capital, Great Oaks VC, Simon Venture Group, WIT, Jonathan Klein, and Jess Itzler. Products Helix Sleep uses its users personal data to create a $900 custom mattress. The company gives customers a questionnaire to learn about their height and weight, how they sleep, and how firm their mattresses usually are. It then uses that data to create the mattress. Mattresses are made from latex, microcoils, and foam. Helix Sleep also sells a split mattress that customizes the side of the bed", "Trundle bed A trundle bed (or truckle bed) is a low, wheeled bed that is stored under a normal bed and can be rolled out for use by visitors or as just another bed.\nA pop-up trundle bed can be raised to meet the height of the normal bed, effectively creating a wider sleeping surface when positioned side-by-side.", "Platform bed A platform bed, also known as a cabin bed, is a bed with a base consisting of a raised, level, usually rectangular horizontal solid frame, often with rows of flexible wooden slats or latticed structure meant to support just a mattress. This platform alone provides adequate, flexible support and ventilation for a mattress, eliminating the need for a box-spring or separate bed base (foundation). History The actual date for the invention of the first platform bed is impossible to pinpoint, as the modern box-spring was not invented until the", "(200 mm) columns. Windows are 72 inches (1,800 mm) high and have a 3-inch (76 mm) arch at the top. Each level extends 8 feet (2.4 m) from floor to ceiling. Seventy-two studio apartments are each roughly 420 square feet (39 m²), 102 one-bedroom units are either 468 square feet (43.5 m²) or 606 square feet (56.3 m²), and 90 two-bedroom units are 774 square feet (71.9 m²), 861 square feet (80.0 m²), or 893 square feet (83.0 m²). Each tower has two pairs of elevators. The lobbies are accessed by 12 by 12 feet (3.7 m × 3.7 m) foyers on the north and south ends of the buildings. Each bank of", "too many variations for even a summary to be given here. Notable examples One of the largest beds in the world is the Great Bed of Ware, made in about 1580. It is 3.26 metres (10.7 ft) wide, 3.38 metres (11.1 ft) long. The bed is mentioned by Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. It is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in London. Another bed in the V&A is the Golden Bed created by William Burges in 1879.\nIn 1882, an Indian Maharajah had a bed made of solid silver. At each corner of the bed there was a life-sized statue of", "addition to a comfort layer, which reduces wear and is replaceable without replacing the entire mattress. The majority of high-end mattresses have a lifespan of between 7–10 years but it can last beyond 10 years and more depend on the level of care.\nIn the United States, mattress warranties are typically for 10 years or 20 years, sometimes 25 years, though this specifically addresses manufacturing defects and faster-than-normal deterioration, not expected deterioration with time. In the United States, as of 2008 there is a general expectation that mattresses should last about 10 years, and this is the average number of years", "degrees or slightly greater, used to wrap around walls or other furniture.\nOther variants include the divan, the fainting couch (backless or partial-backed) and the canapé (an ornamental three-seater). To conserve space, some sofas double as beds in the form of sofa beds, daybeds, or futons.\nA furniture set consisting of a sofa with two matching chairs is known as a \"chesterfield suite\" or \"living-room suite\". Also in the UK, the word chesterfield meant any couch in the 1900s, but now describes a deep buttoned sofa, usually made from leather, with arms and back of the same height. The first leather chesterfield", "× 48 in).\nArchitectural drawings are drawn to scale, so that relative sizes are correctly represented. The scale is chosen both to ensure the whole building will fit on the chosen sheet size, and to show the required amount of detail. At the scale of one eighth of an inch to one foot (1:96) or the metric equivalent 1 to 100, walls are typically shown as simple outlines corresponding to the overall thickness. At a larger scale, half an inch to one foot (1:24) or the nearest common metric equivalent 1 to 20, the layers of different materials that make up the wall", "the rooms: 26 sq. metres, 29 sq. metres, 33 sq. metres, and 42 sq. metres, approximately. Each block has shared kitchen and living room, with each living room having a unique set of furniture and other items.", "mid-1860s. Since the basic definition of a platform bed is \"a bed which uses only a mattress\", all incarnations of the bed up to that point would necessarily functionally be considered platform beds. While we generally think of the modern platform bed as having a solid surface for sleeping; rope, leather and wooden or bone slat bases were all used as supports for early mattresses.\nPlatform bed development was closely intertwined with the evolution of the modern bed. The earliest humans most probably slept on the ground. It would have been cold, hard and offered no protection from crawling insects or", "and hence \"mat, cushion\". During the Crusades Europeans adopted the Arabic method of sleeping on cushions on the floor, and the word materas eventually descended into Middle English through the Romance languages. The oldest known mattress dates to around 77,000 years ago.\nEarly mattresses contained a variety of natural materials including straw, feathers or horse hair. In the first half of the 20th century, a typical mattress sold in North America had an innerspring core and cotton batting or fiberfill. Modern mattresses usually contain either an inner spring core or materials such as latex, viscoelastic or other flexible polyurethane foams. Other", "to the Parker Morris standards. Each floor was 22m square, giving an approximate usable area of 476 square metres (5,120 sq ft). The layout of each floor was designed to be flexible as none of the partition walls were structural. The residential floors contained a two bedroom flat at each corner, in between which on the east and the west face was a one bedroomed flat. The core contained a stair column and the lift and service shafts. One-bedroom flats were 51.4 m² (553 sq ft) in area and two-bedroom flats were 75.5 m² (813 sq ft).\nThe building was innovative, as most LCC tower blocks used traditional brick", "which all types of mattress can retain their original support and comfort. Mattresses deteriorate over time, and the lifespan of a mattress depends on a variety of factors, notably materials, manufacturing quality, care, and the rigorousness of use. A poor quality foam comfort layer can deteriorate noticeably in 1 year, while a quality latex core can last 20 years or more; innerspring cores typically last around 10 years. The comfort layer is almost invariably the first area to fail, which is why mattresses are often double-sided, to extend the lifespan. A separate topper may be used instead of or in", "or fastened to the walls, a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut in by double curtains, sometimes even to exclude all drafts. The space between bed and wall was called the ruelle, and very intimate friends were received there. The 14th century is also the time when feather beds became highly prized possessions.\nIn the 15th century beds became very large, reaching 7 to 8 feet (2.1 to 2.4 m) by 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 m). The mattresses were often filled with pea-shucks, straw, or feathers. At this time great personages were in the habit", "on the bed's borders giving beds a more European, home furnishings look. Quality Many parameters determine the quality of a mattress. Laboratory test methods have been established for some of these parameters, such as pressure distribution, skin microclimate, hygiene, edge support, and long-term stability. Some of these have been developed by Duncan Bain, working on behalf of the UK's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency.\nOther parameters, such as firmness, are more specific to the sleeper. In general, firm mattresses are recommended for stomach and some back sleepers, soft mattresses are recommended for side sleepers, and medium mattresses are recommended for", "10th and 14th century, but slowly phased out during the Ming and Qing dynasties between 1368 and 1911 with the emergence of better pillow making materials. Construction and parts Pillows consist of a filler material enclosed in a fabric cover or shell. Covers are made of cloth, such as silk, known as the pillow case or pillow slip. Some pillows have a fancier cover called a sham which is closed on all sides and usually has a slit in the back through which the pillow is placed. Rectangular standard bed pillow cases usually do not have zippers, but instead, have" ]

[ "So, from what I've understood in the past, people who are lactose-intolerant aren't able to break down lactose. Their body doesn't produce enough lactase, which is an enzyme that breaks down lactose. So, depending on how much lactose is taken in, it usually is broken down by bacteria instead in the gut. This causes a bunch of side effects like, nausea, bloating, gas, and stomach cramps." ]

[ "delay, developmental verbal dyspraxia, and motor abnormalities. Galactosemic females frequently suffer from ovarian failure, regardless of treatment in the form of galactose restriction. Cause Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of glucose and galactose. After the ingestion of lactose, most commonly from breast milk for an infant or cow milk and any milk from an animal, the enzyme lactase hydrolyzes the sugar into its monosaccharide constituents, glucose and galactose. In the first step of galactose metabolism, galactose is converted to galactose-1-phosphate (Gal-1-P) by the enzyme galactokinase. Gal-1-P is converted to uridine diphosphate galactose (UDP-galactose) by the enzyme", "Lactase Food use Lactase is an enzyme that some people are unable to produce in their small intestine. Without it they can't break down the natural lactose in milk, leaving them with diarrhea, gas and bloating when drinking regular milk. Technology to produce lactose-free milk, ice cream and yogurt was developed by the USDA Agricultural Research Service in 1985. This technology is used to add lactase to milk, thereby hydrolyzing the lactose naturally found in milk, leaving it slightly sweet but digestible by everyone. Without lactase, lactose intolerant people pass the lactose undigested to the colon where bacteria break", "the naturally produced enzyme lactase in the stomach. Lactose intolerance is exemplified by the inability to tolerate and fully digest dairy products, such as milk, ice cream, cheese and pizza. Symptoms may include a painful combination of digestive discomfort, including gas, cramping, bloating or diarrhea. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition (2006), \"the symptoms of lactose intolerance can lead to significant discomfort, disruption of the quality of life, and loss of school attendance, leisure and sports activities, and work time, all at a cost to individuals, families, and society.\" \nCurrently, there is no", "in the small intestine by the enzyme lactase, in order for its constituents, galactose and glucose, to be absorbed. Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to not enough of the enzyme lactase in the small intestines. Those affected vary in the amount of lactose they can tolerate before symptoms develop. These may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. Severity depends on the amount a person eats or drinks. Those affected are usually able to drink at least one cup of milk without developing significant symptoms, with greater amounts tolerated if drunk with a", "which lactose is broken down by the fermentation process (e.g. cheese, yogurt). Also, healthy colonic gut bacteria may also aid in the breakdown of lactose, allowing those without the genetics for lactase persistence to gain the benefits from milk consumption. Lactose Tolerance Test Lactose tolerance test is conducted by asking test subjects to fast overnight and the glucose level was checked before the test. Lactose solution is given to the selected subjects in next morning for the test and blood glucose levels is being checked at a certain interval of time. The people who show a substantial rise in their", "the lack of the enzyme lactase in the small intestines to break lactose down into glucose and galactose. The unabsorbed lactose reaches the large intestine, where resident bacteria use it for fuel, releasing hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane gases. These gases are the cause of abdominal pain and other symptoms. Lactose intolerance does not cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract. There are four types: primary, secondary, developmental, and congenital. Primary lactose intolerance is when the amount of lactase declines as people age. Secondary lactose intolerance is due to injury to the small intestine, such as from infection, celiac disease, inflammatory", "in the pentose phosphate pathway, which is especially important in red blood cells.\nFor further information on inborn errors of glucose metabolism and inborn errors of glycogen metabolism see below. Lactose Lactose is a disaccharide sugar composed of galactose and glucose that is found in milk. Lactose can not be absorbed by the intestine and needs to be split in the small intestine into galactose and glucose by the enzyme called lactase; unabsorbed lactose can cause abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea.\nIn most mammals, production of lactase diminishes after infants are weaned from maternal milk. However, 5% to 90% of", "to secondary lactase deficiency, treatment of the underlying disease allows lactase activity to return to normal levels. Lactose intolerance is different from a milk allergy.\nThe number of people with lactose intolerance is unknown. The number of adults who cannot produce enough lactase in their small intestine varies markedly in different populations. Since lactase's only function is the digestion of lactose in milk, in most mammal species the activity of the enzyme is dramatically reduced after weaning. Within most human populations, however, some individuals have developed, by natural evolution, the ability to maintain throughout their life high levels of lactose in", "deficiency. Milk allergy, occurring in only 4% of the population, is a separate condition, with distinct symptoms that occur when the presence of milk proteins trigger an immune reaction. Signs and symptoms The principal symptom of lactose intolerance is an adverse reaction to products containing lactose (primarily milk), including abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhea, nausea, borborygmi, and vomiting (particularly in adolescents). These appear one-half to two hours after consumption. The severity of symptoms typically increases with the amount of lactose consumed; most lactose-intolerant people can tolerate a certain level of lactose in their diets without ill effects. Causes Lactose", "most accurate lactose intolerance test, after an overnight fast, 25 grams of lactose (in a solution with water) are swallowed. If the lactose cannot be digested, enteric bacteria metabolize it and produce hydrogen, which, along with methane, if produced, can be detected on the patient's breath by a clinical gas chromatograph or compact solid-state detector. The test takes about 2.5 hours to complete. If the hydrogen levels in the patient's breath are high, they may have lactose intolerance. This test is not usually done on babies and very young children, because it can cause severe diarrhea. Blood test In conjunction,", "it down, creating carbon dioxide and that leads to bloating and flatulence. Medical use Lactase supplements are sometimes used to treat lactose intolerance. Industrial use Lactase produced commercially can be extracted both from yeasts such as Kluyveromyces fragilis and Kluyveromyces lactis and from molds, such as Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus oryzae. Its primary commercial use, in supplements such as Lacteeze and Lactaid, is to break down lactose in milk to make it suitable for people with lactose intolerance, However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not formally evaluated the effectiveness of these products.\nLactase is also used to screen", "(table sugar). Hydrolysis of sucrose yields glucose and fructose. Invertase is a sucrase used industrially for the hydrolysis of sucrose to so-called invert sugar. Lactase is essential for digestive hydrolysis of lactose in milk; many adult humans do not produce lactase and cannot digest the lactose in milk.\nThe hydrolysis of polysaccharides to soluble sugars can be recognized as saccharification. Malt made from barley is used as a source of β-amylase to break down starch into the disaccharide maltose, which can be used by yeast to produce beer. Other amylase enzymes may convert starch to glucose or to oligosaccharides. Cellulose is", "would be possible to determine whether the patient is lactose intolerant. This test allows a noninvasive definitive diagnostic. Management When lactose intolerance is due to secondary lactase deficiency, treatment of the underlying disease may allow lactase activity to return to normal levels. In people with celiac disease, lactose intolerance normally reverts or improves several months after starting a gluten-free diet, but temporary dietary restriction of lactose may be needed.\nPeople with primary lactase deficiency cannot modify their body’s ability to produce lactase. In societies where lactose intolerance is the norm, it is not considered a condition that requires treatment. However, where", "and slaughtered when no longer productive). Lactose intolerance Lactose is the major sugar found in dairy milk. Lactose intolerance occurs when an individual is deficient in the enzyme lactase, which breaks down the lactose in the intestine. Bloating, cramps, constipation, or diarrhea may result when an individual who is lactose intolerant consumes a dairy product. \nDue to genetic differences, intolerance of lactose is more common globally than tolerance.\nRates of lactose intolerance vary globally, from less than 10% in Northern Europe to as high as 95% in parts of Asia and Africa. \nIn a modern western context, food products which have", "milk; dairy foods which are lower in lactose, such as cheese, are less likely to trigger a reaction in this case. Another carbohydrate intolerance caused by enzyme deficiency is hereditary fructose intolerance.\nCeliac disease, an autoimmune disorder caused by an immune response to the protein gluten, results in gluten intolerance and can lead to temporary lactose intolerance.\nThe most widely distributed naturally occurring food chemical capable of provoking reactions is salicylate, although tartrazine and benzoic acid are well recognised in susceptible individuals. Benzoates and salicylates occur naturally in many foods, including fruits, juices, vegetables, spices, herbs, nuts, tea, wines, and coffee. Salicylate", "lactose. The hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose is catalyzed by the enzymes lactase and β-galactosidase. The latter is produced by the lac operon in Escherichia coli.\nIn nature, lactose is found primarily in milk and milk products. Consequently, various food products made with dairy-derived ingredients can contain lactose. Galactose metabolism, which converts galactose into glucose, is carried out by the three principal enzymes in a mechanism known as the Leloir pathway. The enzymes are listed in the order of the metabolic pathway: galactokinase (GALK), galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT), and UDP-galactose-4’-epimerase (GALE).\nIn human lactation, glucose is changed into galactose via hexoneogenesis", "When lactose is present in the cell the enzyme β-galactosidase is produced to convert lactose into glucose or galactose. When lactose is absent in the cell the lac repressor inhibits the production of the enzyme β-galactosidase to prevent any inefficient processes within the cell.\nThe lac operon is used in the biotechnology industry for production of recombinant proteins for therapeutic use. The gene or genes for producing an exogenous protein are placed on a plasmid under the control of the lac promoter. Initially the cells are grown in a medium that does not contain lactose or other sugars, so the", "Lactose is added to tablet and capsule drug products as an ingredient because of its physical and functional properties, i.e., compressibility and cost effective use. For similar reasons it can be used to cut (dilute) illicit drugs. History The first crude isolation of lactose, by Italian physician Fabrizio Bartoletti (1576–1630), was published in 1633. In 1700, the Venetian pharmacist Lodovico Testi (1640–1707) published a booklet of testimonials to the power of milk sugar (saccharum lactis) to relieve, among other ailments, the symptoms of arthritis. In 1715, Testi's procedure for making milk sugar was published by Antonio Vallisneri. ", "acidosis in patients with restricted oral intake (for sodium bicarbonate) whose oxidative processes are not seriously impaired. However, the use in lactic acidosis is contraindicated. It can cause panic attacks in patients with existing panic disorder. Regarding milk Despite the similarity in name, sodium lactate is not chemically similar to lactose (milk sugar), so need not be restricted by those with lactose intolerance. In general, lactates such as sodium, calcium, and potassium lactate are salts derived from the neutralization of lactic acid and most commercially used lactic acids are fermented from dairy-free products such as cornstarch, potatoes, or molasses. Sugar", "become the first FDA-approved drug for the treatment of lactose intolerance. Ritter's pioneering scientific team developed this compound based on the philosophy of microbiome modulation and the ability to improve colon function by selectively increasing the growth of beneficial bacteria in the colonic ecosystem. Lactose intolerance Lactose intolerance (“LI”) is a widespread condition affecting over 1 billion people worldwide. Approximately 40 million Americans (or 15% of the US population) suffer from lactose intolerance, with an estimated 9 million of those individuals demonstrating moderate and severe symptoms. Lactose intolerance is caused by a lack of", "without being regurgitated.\nIt is often claimed that the difficulty of retaining milk is related to lactose intolerance: the inability of many people to metabolize lactose, a major component of milk. Sarah Ash, an associate professor of nutrition at North Carolina State University, finds this theory unlikely, as the symptoms of lactose intolerance occur in the large intestine, rather than the stomach. Legacy Many high school and college students hold their own challenges: Phi Delta Tau, at the Central College in Pella, Iowa have traditionally hosted an annual gallon challenge, four Rutgers fraternities host challenges for fundraisers, some MIT students celebrated", "does not contain any residual lactose. Therefore, people who are lactose intolerant can consume lactylates without concern.\nLactylates, in the free acid form, are not readily water dispersable. To improve the water dispersibility and emulsification properties, the carboxylic acids comprising lactylates can be neutralized using hydroxides or carbonates of group 1 or group 2 metals such as sodium or calcium.\nAt room temperature, lactylates can be viscous liquids or solids depending on the starting fatty acid, the total recoverable lactic acid content, and the degree of neutralization. Solid lactylates are often processed into powders. The traditional method is to solidify the liquid", "treatment for galactosemic infants is a strict galactose-free diet, endogenous (internal) production of galactose can cause symptoms such as long-term morbidity, presenile development of cataract, renal failure, cirrhosis, and cognitive, neurologic, and female reproductive complications. Galactosemia used to be confused with diabetes due to the presence of sugar in a patient's urine. However, screening advancements have allowed the exact identity of those sugars to be determined, thereby distinguishing galactosemia from diabetes. Mechanism A cataract is an opacity that develops in the crystalline lens of the eye. The word cataract literally means, \"curtain of water\" or \"waterfall\" as rapidly running water", "that causes the various abdominal symptoms. The unabsorbed sugars and fermentation products also raise the osmotic pressure of the colon, causing an increased flow of water into the bowels (diarrhea).\nThe LCT gene provides the instructions for making lactase. The specific DNA sequence in the MCM6 gene helps control whether the LCT gene is turned on or off. At least several thousand years ago, some humans developed a mutation in the MCM6 gene that keeps the LCT gene turned on even after breast feeding is stopped. Populations that are lactose intolerant lack this mutation. The LCT and MCM6 genes are", "lactose was the only source of energy. In doing so, he found that the rate at which the bacteria evolved the ability to metabolize lactose was many orders of magnitude higher than would be expected if the mutations were truly random. This inspired him to propose that the mutations that had occurred had been directed at those genes involved in lactose utilization.\nLater support for this hypothesis came from Susan Rosenberg, then at the University of Alberta, who found that an enzyme involved in DNA recombinational repair, recBCD, was necessary for the directed mutagenesis observed by Cairns and colleagues", "Lactose Structure and reactions Lactose is a disaccharide derived from the condensation of galactose and glucose, which form a β-1→4 glycosidic linkage. Its systematic name is β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucose. The glucose can be in either the α-pyranose form or the β-pyranose form, whereas the galactose can only have the β-pyranose form: hence α-lactose and β-lactose refer to the anomeric form of the glucopyranose ring alone.\nLactose is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose, isomerised in alkaline solution to lactulose, and catalytically hydrogenated to the corresponding polyhydric alcohol, lactitol. Lactulose is a commercial product, used for treatment of constipation. Occurrence and isolation Lactose", "intolerance is a consequence of lactase deficiency, which may be genetic (primary hypolactasia and primary congenital alactasia) or environmentally induced (secondary or acquired hypoalactasia). In either case, symptoms are caused by insufficient levels of lactase in the lining of the duodenum. Lactose, a disaccharide molecule found in milk and dairy products, cannot be directly absorbed through the wall of the small intestine into the bloodstream, so, in the absence of lactase, passes intact into the colon. Bacteria in the colon can metabolise lactose, and the resulting fermentation produces copious amounts of gas (a mixture of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane)", "down and recycling complex sulfate-containing sugars from lipids and mucopolysaccharides within the lysosome. The accumulation of lipids and mucopolysaccharides inside the lysosome results in symptoms associated with this disorder. Worldwide, forty cases of Multiple Sulfatase Deficiency have been reported to date. Causes Multiple sulfatase deficiency is thought to be caused by any mutation of the SUMF1 gene which would render its protein product, the formylglycine-generating enzyme (FGE), defective. These mutations result in inactive forms of FGE. This enzyme is required for posttranslational modification of a cysteine residue in the sulfatase enzyme active site into formylglycine, which is required for its", "products. Many adult humans lack the lactase enzyme, which has the same function of beta-gal, so they are not able to properly digest dairy products. Beta-galactose is used in such dairy products as yogurt, sour cream, and some cheeses which are treated with the enzyme to break down any lactose before human consumption. In recent years, beta-galactosidase has been researched as a potential treatment for lactose intolerance through gene replacement therapy where it could be placed into the human DNA so individuals can break down lactose on their own. Structure The 1,024 amino acids of E. coli β-galactosidase were", "adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by genetic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.\nSucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine. DNA and RNA digestion DNA and RNA" ]

[ "On a helicopter the main rotor blades are the wings, a plane has fixed wings that use the air to resist the torque of the prop that's trying to make the plane roll (this is also why single prop driven planes roll to one side faster than they can to the other)", "Fixed wing single engine planes **do** have to compensate for the counter torque. They can do it with flight controls. \n\nSingle rotor helicopters don't have controls which can compensate for torque on the vertical axis." ]

[ "Russian helicopters turn clockwise. Single main rotor With a single main rotor helicopter, the creation of torque as the engine turns the rotor creates a torque effect that causes the body of the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction of the rotor. To eliminate this effect, some sort of antitorque control must be used with a sufficient margin of power available to allow the helicopter to maintain its heading and provide yaw control. The three most common controls used today are the tail rotor, Eurocopter's Fenestron (also called a fantail), and MD Helicopters' NOTAR. Tail rotor The tail rotor", "is a smaller rotor mounted so that it rotates vertically or near-vertically at the end of the tail of a traditional single-rotor helicopter. The tail rotor's position and distance from the centre of gravity allow it to develop thrust in a direction opposite of the main rotor's rotation to counter the torque effect created by the main rotor. Tail rotors are simpler than main rotors since they require only collective changes in pitch to vary thrust. The pitch of the tail rotor blades is adjustable by the pilot via the anti-torque pedals, which also provide directional control by allowing the", "least three international drone racing organisations/promotions including the Drone Racing League ,Multi GP. And the Drone Championship League Flight dynamics Each rotor produces both a thrust and torque about its center of rotation, as well as a drag force opposite to the vehicle's direction of flight. If all rotors are spinning at the same angular velocity, with rotors one and three rotating clockwise and rotors two and four counterclockwise, the net aerodynamic torque, and hence the angular acceleration about the yaw axis, is exactly zero, which means there is no need for a tail rotor as on conventional helicopters.", "ways:\nFirst, there is no tail rotor, and the main rotors are contra-rotating. Yaw is controlled by fine adjustment of a differential gear in the rotor drive transmission. When one rotor is adjusted to spin slightly faster than the other, it induces yaw (turning motion).\nSecond, the rotors are fixed pitch, which assists with simplicity; this means, however, that in the event of engine failure autorotation is impossible. Usually, a ballistic parachute would be incorporated for safety.\nAn edition of Popular Science magazine in 1969 featured a backpack helicopter that used small jet engines in a tip jet configuration instead of contra-rotating rotors.", "to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case. Rotorcraft Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros, and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft.\nHelicopters have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips.\nAutogyros have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant", "Bölkow Bo 46 Background Helicopter rotors operate in a much more challenging environment than a normal aircraft propeller. To start with, helicopters normally use the main rotor both for lift and manoeuvrability, whereas fixed-wing aircraft normally use separate surfaces for these tasks. Pitch and yaw are operated by changing the lift on different sides of the rotor, using a system of bell cranks to adjust the blades to different angles of attack as they rotate. To roll to the left, the blades are adjusted so there is slightly more angle of attack on the front and slightly less on the", "speed, the rotors are progressively tilted forward, with the plane of rotation eventually becoming vertical. In this mode the wing provides the lift, and the rotor provides thrust as a propeller. Since the rotors can be configured to be more efficient for propulsion (e.g. with root-tip twist) and it avoids a helicopter's issues of retreating blade stall, the tiltrotor can achieve higher speeds than helicopters.\nA tiltrotor aircraft differs from a tiltwing in that only the rotor pivots rather than the entire wing. This method trades off efficiency in vertical flight for efficiency in STOL/STOVL operations. History The idea of", "the aircraft flies mostly using the fixed wings, with the rotor simply windmilling. The rotor spins with a tip speed below airspeed, which means that the retreating blade flies completely stalled. On a helicopter this would cause massive lift dissymmetry and insoluble control issues but the fixed wings keep the aircraft in the air and stable.\nThe low rotation speed and flat feathering of the rotor means that it causes little drag, and the company claims that the aircraft would be potentially able to leverage the advantages of fixed wings as well as gyrocopters, giving almost all the capabilities of helicopters", "Hughes XH-17 had a tip jet-driven rotor, which remains the largest rotor ever fitted to a helicopter. Dual rotors (counterrotating) Counterrotating rotors are rotorcraft configurations with a pair or more of large horizontal rotors that turn in opposite directions to counteract the torque effect on the aircraft without relying on an antitorque tail rotor. This lets the aircraft apply the power that would have driven a tail rotor to the main rotors, increasing lifting capacity. Primarily, three common configurations use the counterrotating effect on rotorcraft. Tandem rotors are two rotors—one mounted behind the other. Coaxial rotors are", "not widespread. Theory Where a helicopter has a powered rotor, a gyroplane or autogyro has a free-spinning rotor which relies on forward airspeed to keep it spinning. Some gyrodynes, such as the Fairey Rotodyne, power the rotor for vertical takeoff and landing but then change to a free-spinning mode during forward flight. \nTypically a gyrodyne also has fixed wings which provide some of the lift during forward flight, allowing the rotor to be offloaded. Computer simulations indicate that optimum distribution of lift could be 9% for the rotor, and 91% for the wing. However if the rotor is too lightly", "and longitudinally; and to create a desired total torque, or turning force.\nQuadcopters differ from conventional helicopters, which use rotors that are able to vary the pitch of their blades dynamically as they move around the rotor hub. In the early days of flight, quadcopters (then referred to either as 'quadrotors' or simply as 'helicopters') were seen as possible solutions to some of the persistent problems in vertical flight. Torque-induced control issues (as well as efficiency issues originating from the tail rotor, which generates no useful lift) can be eliminated by counter-rotation, and the relatively short blades are much easier to", "Tandem rotors Tandem rotor helicopters have two large horizontal rotor assemblies mounted one in front of the other. Currently this configuration is mainly used for large cargo helicopters.\nSingle rotor helicopters need a mechanism to neutralize the yawing movement produced by the single large rotor. This is commonly accomplished by a tail rotor, coaxial rotors, and the NOTAR systems. Tandem rotor helicopters, however, use counter-rotating rotors, with each cancelling out the other's torque. Therefore, all of the power from the engines can be used for lift, whereas a single rotor helicopter uses some of the engine power to counter the torque.", "spinning of the backwards-moving side of the rotor, so that side of the rotor sees zero or negative airspeed, and begins to stall. This limits modern helicopters to cruise speeds of about 150 knots / 277 km/h. However, with the tiltrotor this problem is avoided, because the proprotors are perpendicular to the motion in the high-speed portions of the flight regime (and thus not subject to this reverse flow condition), so the tiltrotor has relatively high maximum speed—over 300 knots / 560 km/h has been demonstrated in the two types of tiltrotors flown so far, and cruise speeds of 250 knots / 460 km/h ", "a tail rotor to control torque as in a conventional helicopter. \nFor high-speed forward flight, the exhaust is redirected through an ordinary jet nozzle and the rotor wing is stopped and held in a fixed position, as in a conventional airplane. Crashes During the third flight of the prototype X-50A, on 23 March 2004, the vehicle crashed, as a result of cross-coupling in the controls.\nA second, improved prototype (\"Ship 2\") was then built. On its sixth of 11 planned test flights, Ship 2 was completely destroyed in a crash at the Yuma Proving Grounds on April 12, 2006. Subsequent investigation", "engines, mounted on each side of the helicopter's rear pylon and connected to the rotors by drive shafts. Initial models were fitted with engines rated at 2,200 horsepower each. The counter-rotating rotors eliminate the need for an antitorque vertical rotor, allowing all power to be used for lift and thrust. The ability to adjust lift in either rotor makes it less sensitive to changes in the center of gravity, important for the cargo lifting and dropping. While hovering over a specific location, a twin-rotor helicopter has increased stability over a single rotor when weight is added or removed, for example,", "propellers and static lifting surfaces. Helicopter A helicopter is a rotorcraft whose rotors are driven by the engine(s) throughout the flight to allow the helicopter to take off vertically, hover, fly forwards, backwards and laterally, as well as to land vertically. Helicopters have several different configurations of one or more main rotors.\nHelicopters with a single shaft-driven main lift rotor require some sort of antitorque device such as a tail rotor, fantail, or NOTAR, except some rare examples of helicopters using tip jet propulsion, which generates almost no torque. Autogyro An autogyro (sometimes called gyrocopter, gyroplane, or rotaplane) utilizes an unpowered", "cause the turn. Missiles, airships and large hovercraft are usually steered by rudder and/or thrust vectoring. Small sport hovercraft have similar rudders, but steer mostly by the pilot shifting their weight from side to side and unbalancing the more powerful lift forces beneath the skirt. Jet packs and flying platforms are steered by thrust vectoring only. Helicopters are steered by cyclic control, changing the thrust vector of the main rotor(s), and by anti-torque control, usually provided by a tail rotor (see helicopter flight controls).", "maneuvers as full-sized helicopters, such as hovering and backwards flight, and many other maneuvers that full-sized helicopters cannot, such as inverted flight (where collective pitch control provides negative blade pitch to hold heli up inverted, and pitch/yaw controls must be reversed by pilot).\nThe various helicopter controls are effected by means of small servo motors, commonly known as servos. A solid-state gyroscope sensor is typically used on the tail rotor (yaw) control to counter wind- and torque-reaction-induced tail movement. Most newer helicopters have gyro-stabilization on the other 2 axes of rotation (pitch and roll) as well. Such 3-axis gyro", "Helicopter rotor A helicopter main rotor or rotor system is the combination of several rotary wings (rotor blades) and a control system that generates the aerodynamic lift force that supports the weight of the helicopter, and the thrust that counteracts aerodynamic drag in forward flight. Each main rotor is mounted on a vertical mast over the top of the helicopter, as opposed to a helicopter tail rotor, which connects through a combination of drive shaft(s) and gearboxes along the tail boom. The blade pitch is typically controlled by a swashplate connected to the helicopter flight controls. Helicopters are one", "the tail to provide pitch control. These helicopters have no roll control and have limited mobility.\nWhile a coaxial model is very stable and can be flown indoors even in tight quarters, such a helicopter has limited forward speed, especially outdoors. Most models are fixed-pitch, i.e. the collective pitch of the blades cannot be controlled, plus the cyclic control is only applied to the lower rotor. Compensating for even the slightest breeze causes the model to climb rather than to fly forward even with full application of cyclic. More advanced coaxial constructions with two swash plates and/or pitch control", "two rotors mounted one above the other on the same axis. Intermeshing rotors are two rotors mounted close to each other at a sufficient angle to let the rotors intermesh over the top of the aircraft. Another configuration—found on tiltrotors and some early helicopters—is called transverse rotors, where a pair of rotors are mounted at each end of a wing-type structure or outrigger. Tandem Tandem rotors are two horizontal main rotor assemblies mounted one behind the other. Tandem rotors achieve pitch attitude changes to accelerate and decelerate the helicopter through a process called cyclic pitch. To pitch forward", "to the helicopter's relatively long, and hence efficient rotor blades, and allows a helicopter to accomplish tasks that fixed-wing aircraft and other forms of vertical takeoff and landing aircraft could not perform at least as well until 2011.\nOn the other hand, the long rotor blades restrict the maximum speed to about 250 miles per hour (400 km/h) of at least conventional helicopters, as retreating blade stall causes lateral instability. Autogyro Autogyros are also known as gyroplanes or gyrocopters. The rotor is unpowered and rotates freely in the airflow as the craft travels forward, so the craft needs a conventional powerplant to", "back, resulting in a net upward lift on the right side that rolls the aircraft. The reason the blades are adjusted in the front and back instead of right and left is due to phase lag caused by precession.\nIn forward flight, the rotor system is subject to various forms of differential loading. Imagine a rotor system where the tips of the blades rotate at 300 km/h relative to still air. When that helicopter is hovering, the blades see the same 300 km/h relative wind throughout their rotation. However, when the helicopter starts to move forward its speed is added to the speed", "at the end of a fixed wing, and used for both lift and propulsion. For vertical flight, the rotors are angled to provide thrust upwards, lifting the way a helicopter rotor does. As the aircraft gains speed, the rotors progressively rotate or tilt forward, with the rotors eventually becoming perpendicular to the fuselage of the aircraft, similar to a propeller. In this mode, the wing provides the lift and the rotor provides thrust. The wing's greater efficiency helps the tiltrotor achieve higher speeds than helicopters.\nThe Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey by Bell Helicopter and Boeing is a twin-engine tiltrotor design that", "but never used in rough seas to launch a helicopter.\nDASH came about because Gyrodyne had worked with the United States Marine Corps to develop a small, experimental co-axial helicopter, the RON Rotorcycle, for use as a scouting platform. A co-axial helicopter has two contrarotating main rotors to control torque, unlike the more common main rotor/tail rotor found on most helicopters. Co-axial rotors put more power into lift, allowing shorter rotor blades. Both traits help a helicopter to be as small as possible. On the downside, the blades must be kept very far from each other to avoid colliding, since", "and control in forward flight. Both examples ended their lives in crashes.\nThe Sikorsky X-Wing had a four-bladed rotor utilizing compressed air to control lift over the surfaces while operating as a helicopter. At higher forward speeds, the rotor would be stopped to continue providing lift as tandem wings in an X configuration. The program was canceled before the aircraft had attempted any flights with the rotor system. Tail-sitter A Tail-sitter is an aircraft that rests on the ground pointing vertically upwards, so that it rests on its tail and takes off and lands vertically. The whole aircraft then tilts forward", "The main rotor was tilted 2.5° to the right from the fuselage to compensate for translating tendency at a hover. The landing gear was also tilted to the left so that the rotor would still be level when the aircraft was on the ground, making the rest of the airframe tilt to the left. The tail was also asymmetrical to give a side force at speed, thus unloading the tail rotor.\nA modified Mi-24B, named A-10, was used in several speed and time-to-climb world record attempts. The helicopter had been modified to reduce weight as much as possible—one measure was the", "pilot to rotate the helicopter around its vertical axis, thereby changing the direction the craft is pointed. Ducted fan Fenestron and FANTAIL are trademarks for a ducted fan mounted at the end of the tail boom of the helicopter and used in place of a tail rotor. Ducted fans have between eight and eighteen blades arranged with irregular spacing so that the noise is distributed over different frequencies. The housing is integral with the aircraft skin and allows a high rotational speed; therefore, a ducted fan can have a smaller size than a conventional tail rotor.\nThe Fenestron was used for", "the rotor receives power only sufficient to overcome the profile drag and maintain lift. The effect is a rotorcraft operating in a more efficient manner than the freewheeling rotor of an autogyro in autorotation, minimizing the adverse effects of retreating blade stall of helicopters at higher airspeeds. Rotor kite A rotor kite or gyroglider is an unpowered rotary-wing aircraft. Like an autogyro or helicopter, it relies on lift created by one or more sets of rotors in order to fly. Unlike a helicopter, autogyros and rotor kites do not have an engine powering their rotors, but while an autogyro has", "the same manner as a fixed-wing aircraft, as in the autogyro. Many can also provide forward thrust if required. Conventional rotary wings Conventional rotorcraft have vertical-axis rotors. The main types include the helicopter with powered rotors providing both lift and thrust, and the autogyro with unpowered rotors providing lift only. There are also various hybrid types, especially the gyrodyne which has both a powered rotor and independent forward propulsion, and the stopped rotor in which the rotor stops spinning to act as a fixed wing in forward flight. Magnus rotors When a spinning body passes through air at right angles" ]

[ "Caveat - I mess with boats but I'm not expert or pro. In general marine equipment is made with more corrosion resistant materials,such as stainless steel. The A/C on my boat exchanges the heat in the cabin air into water that flows through the other side of the heat pump, so this is an air/water heat pump where most home units are air/air heat pumps.\nAlso some or most marine units are 12 Volt DC power, possibly also 24 volt. I think some few are powered directly off the engine via a 'fan belt'.\n\nThe reefer on my boat is three way power - 120 VAC, 12 VDC, and propane. I suppose this would be possible in A/C but I've ever heard of this.", "Equipment wise, they're all the same, a compressor to circulate refrigerant through heat exchangers, and a fan to circulate the air. \n\nSo the only differences would be the type of refrigerant used, the voltage and current requirements package shape and possibly the resistance to salt water.\n\nFor example this 6000 btu unit looks like a small garbage can, and use 410a as a refrigerant\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "heat from the engine to the ambient air. Marine engines have the advantage of using cool ambient sea, lake, or river water, which is typically cooler than ambient air. In the case of combined heat and power systems, the engine's cooling water is used directly or indirectly for heating purposes, raising efficiency.\nAlternatively, heat may be supplied at ambient temperature and the heat sink maintained at a lower temperature by such means as cryogenic fluid (see Liquid nitrogen economy) or iced water. Displacer The displacer is a special-purpose piston, used in Beta and Gamma type Stirling engines, to move the working", "Air conditioning Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A/C, or air con) is the process of removing heat and moisture from the interior of an occupied space to improve the comfort of occupants. Air conditioning can be used in both domestic and commercial environments. This process is most commonly used to achieve a more comfortable interior environment, typically for humans and other animals; however, air conditioning is also used to cool and dehumidify rooms filled with heat-producing electronic devices, such as computer servers, power amplifiers, and to display and store some delicate products, such as artwork.\nAir conditioners often use", "a plume of waste heat. Seawater air conditioning Also known as Ocean Water Cooling. The InterContinental Resort and Thalasso-Spa on the island of Bora Bora uses a seawater air conditioning (SWAC) system to air-condition its buildings. The system accomplishes this by passing cold seawater through a heat exchanger where it cools freshwater in a closed loop system. This cool freshwater is then pumped to buildings and is used for cooling directly (no conversion to electricity takes place). Similar systems are also in place in The Excelsior hotel and The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation main building in Hong", "ambient. This process uses electrical energy.\nUnlike residential air conditioners, most modern commercial air conditioning systems do not transfer heat directly into the exterior air. The thermodynamic efficiency of the overall system can be improved by utilizing evaporative cooling, where the temperature of the cooling water is lowered close to the wet-bulb temperature by evaporation in a cooling tower. This cooled water then acts \nas the heat sink for the heat pump.\nDeep lake water cooling uses cold water pumped from the bottom of a lake as a heat sink for climate control systems. Because heat pump efficiency improves as the heat", "energy costs in cold and temperate climates while also potentially improving indoor air quality, but are most often not appropriate in hot and humid climates. With the appropriate controls, economizers can be used in climates which experience various weather systems. For information on how economizers and other controls can affect energy efficiency and indoor air quality in buildings, see the US Environmental Protection Agency report, \"Energy Cost and IAQ Performance of Ventilation Systems and Controls Study.\" \nWhen the outside air's dry- and wet-bulb temperatures are low enough, a water-side economizer can use water cooled by a wet cooling", "buoyancy of the gas bubbles, like a wet suit, which is proportional to the thickness of the foam, Although foamed-neoprene dry suits provide some insulation, thermal under-suits are usually worn in cold water.\nNeoprene dry suits are generally not as easy to put on and remove as are membrane dry suits, largely due to a closer fit which is possible due to the inherent elasticity of the material, and partly due to greater weight. As with wet suits, their buoyancy and thermal protection decreases with depth as the air bubbles in the neoprene are compressed. The air or other gas in", "as backups or supplements. Air-side economizers also use outside air to condition spaces, but do so using fans, ducts, dampers, and control systems to introduce and distribute cool outdoor air when appropriate.\nAn important component of natural ventilation is air change rate or air changes per hour: the hourly rate of ventilation divided by the volume of the space. For example, six air changes per hour means an amount of new air, equal to the volume of the space, is added every ten minutes. For human comfort, a minimum of four air changes per hour is typical, though warehouses might have", "hotter than the ambient air, its higher thermal conductivity offers comparable cooling (within limits) from a less complex and thus cheaper and more reliable oil cooler. Less commonly, power steering fluid, brake fluid, and other hydraulic fluids may be cooled by an auxiliary radiator on a vehicle.\nTurbo charged or supercharged engines may have an intercooler, which is an air-to-air or air-to-water radiator used to cool the incoming air charge—not to cool the engine. Aircraft Aircraft with liquid-cooled piston engines (usually inline engines rather than radial) also require radiators. As airspeed is higher than for cars, these are efficiently cooled in", "an air-side economizer to save energy in buildings by using cool outside air as a means of cooling the indoor space. When the temperature of the outside air is less than the temperature of the recirculated air, conditioning with the outside air is more energy efficient than conditioning with recirculated air. When the outside air is both sufficiently cool and sufficiently dry (depending on the climate) the amount of enthalpy in the air is acceptable and no additional conditioning of it is needed; this portion of the air-side economizer control scheme is called free cooling.\nAir-side economizers can reduce HVAC", "Water sports Dry suits are used for windsurfing, kitesurfing, kayaking, water skiing and other surface water sports where the user is frequently immersed in cold water. These suits are often made from very lightweight material for high flexibility. Membrane type suits are commonly used in the spring and autumn with moderate water temperatures, but Neoprene and hybrid dry suits for surface sports are preferred in cold water. These provide greater thermal protection in the event of a leak. The ability to swim for self-rescue in these types of suits is important to water sports users that do not use a", "not have a compressor or condenser. Liquid water is evaporated on the cooling fins, releasing the vapor into the cooled area. Evaporating water absorbs a significant amount of heat, the latent heat of vaporisation, cooling the air. Humans and animals use the same mechanism to cool themselves by sweating.\nEvaporative coolers have the advantage of needing no hoses to vent heat outside the cooled area, making them truly portable. They are also very cheap to install and use less energy than refrigerative air conditioners. Uses Air-conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process applications. Domestic usage Air conditioning", "there is an energy gradient, skillful application of engineering can harness that energy for productive use by humans. Assuming the source of deep ocean water is environmentally friendly and replenished by natural mechanisms, it forms a more innovative basis for cleaner energy than current fossil-fuel-derived energy.\nThe simplest use of cold water is for air conditioning: using the cold water itself to cool air saves the energy that would be used by the compressors for traditional refrigeration. Another use could be to replace expensive desalination plants. When cold water passes through a pipe surrounded by humid air, condensation results. The condensate", "\"Conditioned Air System\" is characterized by a cowl-mounted outside air receiver that passes fresh air through a heater core utilizing hot engine coolant for a heat source. The Nash system also pioneered the use of slight pressurization within the passenger compartment to eliminate the infiltration of cold outside air during winter use. This was a fan-boosted filtered ventilation and heating for the passengers, not the modern meaning of an \"air conditioning\" system. Nash was also the first automobile to make use of a disposable filter in the air-intake to clean incoming air. \nThe Nash system was a major advancement compared", "capacities of about 5,000–60,000 BTU/h (1,500–18,000 W) and with or without electric-resistance heaters. Portable air conditioners are either evaporative or refrigerative.\nThe compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat, in the same way as a car radiator or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air. Portable split system A portable system has an indoor unit", "Environmental protection Protection from heat loss in cold water is usually provided by wetsuits or dry suits. These also provide protection from sunburn, abrasion and stings from some marine organisms. Where thermal insulation is not important, lycra suits/diving skins may be sufficient.\nA wetsuit is a garment, usually made of foamed neoprene, which provides thermal insulation, abrasion resistance and buoyancy. The insulation properties depend on bubbles of gas enclosed within the material, which reduce its ability to conduct heat. The bubbles also give the wetsuit a low density, providing buoyancy in water. Suits range from a thin (2 mm or less) \"shortie\",", "air is already saturated with water. Therefore, the lower the humidity, such as in dry desert regions, the better the system works. Car coolers were popular, especially among summer tourists visiting or crossing the southwestern United States states of California, Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, and Nevada. Operating principles In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from the passenger compartment to the environment. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into the ambient environment.\nCirculating refrigerant gas vapor (which also carries the compressor lubricant oil across the system along with", "is useful in heating-dominated climates while an exterior vapor retarder is useful in cooling-dominated climates. In most climates it is often better to have a vapor-open building assembly, meaning that walls and roofs should be designed to dry: either to the inside, the outside, or both, so the ventilation of water vapor should be taken into consideration.\nA vapor barrier on the warm side of the envelope must be combined with a venting path on the cold side of the insulation. This is because no vapor barrier is perfect, and because water may get into the structure, typically from rain.", "seal air leaks. Insulation can also save energy in hot climates by reducing air conditioning use. Blowing Agent Climate Impact Most closed-cell spray foam is now formed using hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) blowing agents that have high global warming potential, partially or completely offsetting the climate benefits of the energy savings they can offer. In the United States, HFCs are scheduled to be phased out by January, 2021. A few spray foam suppliers have started supplying spray foam blown with \nhydrofluoroolefin (HFO) blowing agents without this problem as of early 2017.", "its \"minimum outdoor air\" air quality requirement. Advantages and disadvantages The primary advantage of the chilled beam system is its lower operating cost. For example, because the temperature of cooled water is higher than the temperature of cooled air, but it delivers the same cooling ability, the costs of the cooled water system are lower. Because cooling and heating of air are no longer linked to the delivery of air, buildings also save money by being able to run fewer air circulation fans and at lower speeds. One estimate places the amount of air handled at 25 to 50 percent", "the system. When the outside air is cooler than the demanded cool air, this will allow the demand to be met without using the mechanical supply of cooling (typically chilled water or a direct expansion \"DX\" unit), thus saving energy. The control system can compare the temperature of the outside air vs. return air, or it can compare the enthalpy of the air, as is frequently done in climates where humidity is more of an issue. In both cases, the outside air must be less energetic than the return air for the system to enter the economizer mode. Packaged vs.", "are less common than all-air systems for cooling, but can have advantages compared to all-air systems in some applications.\nSince the majority of the cooling process results from removing sensible heat through radiant exchange with people and objects and not air, occupant thermal comfort can be achieved with warmer interior air temperatures than with air based cooling systems. Radiant cooling systems potentially offer reductions in cooling energy consumption. The latent loads (humidity) from occupants, infiltration and processes generally need to be managed by an independent system. Radiant cooling may also be integrated with other energy-efficient strategies such as night time flushing,", "water level is used outdoors in winter, antifreeze can be added to the water. Automotive window washer fluid can also be used for antifreeze and increased visibility. Additionally it inhibits the formation of error-causing bubbles. A surfactant (surface active agent), such as hand-dishwashing liquid detergent, can be added to the water to significantly lower the surface tension of the water. This liquid solution will flow more easily and more rapidly in the tube than plain water, so operation of the device will be more precise, repeatable, and responsive – particularly when using a small-diameter tube. Also, this liquid solution can", "or insulation itself, so if the dry suit leaks or is torn, water can soak the undersuit, with a corresponding loss of buoyancy and insulation.\nMembrane dry suits may also be made of a waterproof but breathable material like Gore-Tex to enable comfortable wear without excessive humidity and buildup of condensation. This function does not work underwater. Sailors and boaters who intend to stay out of the water may prefer this type of suit. Neoprene Neoprene is a type of synthetic rubber which can be foamed during manufacture to a high proportion of tiny enclosed gas bubbles, forming a buoyant and", "power to the motor while allowing continued use of ailerons, rudder and elevator function. This allows the pilot to retain control of the airplane to glide or fly on low power to safety. Boats ESCs designed for boats are by necessity waterproof. The watertight structure is significantly different from that of non-marine type ESCs, with a more packed air trapping enclosure. Thus arises the need to cool the motor and ESC effectively to prevent rapid failure. Most marine-grade ESCs are cooled by circulated water run by the motor, or negative propeller vacuum near the drive shaft output. Like car ESCs,", "constitutes normal conditions. Free air delivery Free air delivery (FAD) indicates delivered air, referred to as \"free air\", at inlet conditions. Centrifugal fan rating Ratings found in centrifugal fan performance tables and curves are based on standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM). Fan manufacturers define standard air as clean, dry air with a density of 0.075 pounds mass per cubic foot, with the atmospheric pressure at sea level of 29.92 inches of mercury and a temperature of 70°F. Selecting a centrifugal fan to operate at conditions other than standard air requires adjustment to both static pressure and brake horsepower. The", "and to reduce heat gain. Instead of fresh water, sea water is used as coolant for the air-conditioning system.\nAll flooring is made from lightweight movable panels, under which lies a comprehensive network of power, telecommunication, and air-conditioning systems. This design was to allow equipment such as computer terminals to be installed quickly and easily.\nBecause of the urgency to finish the project, the construction of the building relied heavily on off-site prefabrication; components were manufactured all over the world. For example, the structural steel came from Britain; the glass, aluminium cladding and flooring came from the United States while the service", "Air purifier An air purifier or air cleaner is a device which removes contaminants from the air in a room to improve indoor air quality. These devices are commonly marketed as being beneficial to allergy sufferers and asthmatics, and at reducing or eliminating second-hand tobacco smoke. The commercially graded air purifiers are manufactured as either small stand-alone units or larger units that can be affixed to an air handler unit (AHU) or to an HVAC unit found in the medical, industrial, and commercial industries. Air purifiers may also be used in industry to remove impurities from air before processing. Pressure", "be achieved by installing a combination of different types of materials.\nThe automotive environment limits the thickness of materials that can be used, but combinations of dampers, barriers, and absorbers are common. Common materials include felt, foam, polyester, and Polypropylene blend materials. Waterproofing may be necessary based on materials used. Acoustic foam can be applied in different areas of a vehicle during manufacture to reduce cabin noise. Foams also have cost and performance advantages in installation since foam material can expand and fill cavities after application and also prevent leaks and some gases from entering the vehicle. Vehicle soundproofing can reduce", "controls systems may monitor the return air quality or carbon dioxide concentration in order to automatically modulate the air mix for optimum energy efficiency whilst maintaining desired fresh air requirements. Such systems work very well in buildings where the occupancy rate can vary greatly throughout the day, or seasonally. Additionally, when outside air conditions are such, typically mid-season weather conditions, it may be that ambient temperatures are suitable for free cooling purposes. In such conditions the mixing damper will be set to close and the system use full fresh air for optimum energy efficiency. Where fresh air is not required,", "in recent years. In another southern European country, Malta, it is estimated that around 55% of households have an air conditioner installed. Health effects In hot weather, air conditioning can prevent heat stroke, dehydration from excessive sweating and other problems related to hyperthermia. Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in developed countries. Air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. It is sometimes recommended for home use by people" ]

[ "I see two reasons:\n\n1. In most European countries you need a residence permit to open a bank account. In other words, you must live in the country where you want the bank account. Some countries, like Switzerland, allow foreigners to open bank accounts without a permit. However, the banking fees are high for such customers ( > 800$ per year). Unless people have substantial amounts of money ( > 100,000$) the fees will erase their savings. As it happens, many people in Ukraine are not very wealthy.\n\n2. It is difficult. You need to go abroad, speak a foreign language, spend significant amount of time and money. Most don't bother.", "People put money in banks for mainly 2 reasons; \n\n- Safety; cash is turned into a number on some computer (basicly an \"i owe you\"-note). This is generally better protected than say your own sockdrawer.\n\n- Interest; having money in a savings account generally compensates inflation of that money on the account.\n\nTo put money on a bank abroad prevents you from making large cash withdrawals as you need to be there in person (e.g. If i want more than 500 euro's in cash, I need to go to the bank where the account is). \n\nWhat annoys me more is that people withdraw their money from banks when they do poorly. All they do, is cause them to go down faster. Sure you may save some of your money, but you are also insured by the bank to regain X% amount of the money on it if they go under (atleast here you do).", "Think of all the things that may happen to your money if you keep it under the mattress. \n\n*Fire\n\n*Wear and tear\n\n*Accidental theft/theft with prior knowledge of you having money stashed\n\n*Your safety being compromised because so much money is next to you\n\n*Loss\n\nRisk of keeping your money under a mattress is far greater during stable macro financial times. With benefits of interest rates, send your money overseas, and types of insurance that you cant have that covers your mattress." ]

[ "loanable funds, particularly at banks, assuming the savings are held at banks, rather than currency itself being held (\"stashed under one's mattress\"). Thus an accumulation of savings yields an increase in potential lending, which will lower interest rates and stimulate borrowing. So a decline in consumer spending is offset by an increase in lending, and subsequent investment and spending.\nTwo caveats are added to this criticism. Firstly, if savings are held as cash, rather than being loaned out (directly by savers, or indirectly, as via bank deposits), then loanable funds do not increase, and thus a recession may be caused –", "of default, and borrowers will be more cautious about borrowing money because of lack of investment and speculation opportunities: if demand is dropping, new investment is unlikely to be profitable, and if asset prices are dropping (following the bursting of a speculative bubble), speculation on rising asset prices is unlikely to prove profitable. Excess reserves Restated, increases in central bank money may not result in commercial bank money because the money is not required to be lent out – it may instead result in a growth of unlent reserves (excess reserves).\nIf banks maintain low levels of excess reserves, as they", " The idea was that with marginally higher savings rates, savings and loans would attract more deposits that would allow them to continue to write more mortgage loans, which would keep the mortgage market liquid, and funds would always be available to potential borrowers.\nHowever, savings and loans were not allowed to offer checking accounts until the late 1970s. This reduced the attractiveness of savings and loans to consumers, since it required consumers to hold accounts across multiple institutions in order to have access to both checking privileges and competitive savings rates.\nIn the 1980s the situation changed. The United States", "rather than spend it, thus increasing savings and perhaps driving up financial asset prices. Aging populations (which spend less per capita) and a slowdown in productivity may also reduce investment. Governments facing secular stagnation may choose to: a) accept slower growth; b) accept an asset bubble to temporarily stimulate the economy; or c) absorb the savings surplus through higher budget deficits, which reduces national savings but increases the risk of financial crises. Central banks face a difficult dilemma; do they raise interest rates to ward off inflation (e.g., implement monetary policy austerity) assuming the economy is in a cyclical boom,", "or automobiles. On the other hand, individual savers (both households and firms) may have sudden, unpredictable needs for cash, due to unforeseen expenditures. So they demand liquid accounts which permit them immediate access to their deposits (that is, they value short maturity deposit accounts).\nThe banks in the model act as intermediaries between savers who prefer to deposit in liquid accounts and borrowers who prefer to take out long-maturity loans. Under ordinary circumstances, banks can provide a valuable service by channeling funds from many individual deposits into loans for borrowers. Individual depositors might not be able to", "well as there being less of an incentive for people to keep money that they were hoarded before due to their being more of a financial yield. This results in consumers dishoarding money that was previously hoarded. This causes an economy to grow and inflation to increase. The opposite effect takes place when interest rates are increased; as there is more incentive for consumers to hoard their money due to the financial gain, which leads to less spending. Resulting in an economy slowing and inflation decreasing. Central banks make these decisions according to different factors of an economy. This mainly", "the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy.\nHigher interest rates reduce the economy’s money supply because fewer people seek loans. When banks make loans, the loan proceeds are generally deposited in bank accounts that are part of the money supply. Therefore, when a person pays back a loan and no other loans are made to replace it, the amount of bank deposits and hence the money supply decrease. For example, in the early 1980s, when the", "in a new enterprise, or purchase valuable assets more quickly than by saving. Every day, banks estimate the prospects of a borrower succeeding or failing, and set interest rates for debt repayments according to their predictions of the risk (or average risk of ventures like it). If all banks together lend more money, this means enterprises will do more, potentially employ more people, and if business ventures are productive in the long run, society's prosperity will increase. If banks charge interest that people cannot afford, or if banks lend too much money to ventures that are unproductive, economic growth will", "realistic loans which people could repay and gain full ownership of their homes.\nSavings and loan associations sprang up all across the United States because there was low-cost funding available through the Federal Home Loan Bank Act. Further advantages Savings and loans were given a certain amount of preferential treatment by the Federal Reserve inasmuch as they were given the ability to pay higher interest rates on savings deposits compared to a regular commercial bank. This was known as Regulation Q (The Interest Rate Adjustment Act of 1966) and gave the S&Ls 50 basis points above what banks could offer.", "through a financial intermediary such as a bank. Banks are better able to verify the quality of borrowers, but they charge a fee for their services in the form of lower returns to their depositors then the full returns on the investments. Financial markets allow lenders to circumvent banks and avoid this fee, but they lose the banks ability to verify the quality of borrowers. According to Van Order, a small change in economic fundamentals that made borrowers more nervous about financial markets caused some borrowers to move their savings from financial markets to banks. Such a change would raise", "to promote private consumption. This led to a lack of savings in the US which was then provided from foreign countries on a basis which was not sustainable. Carl Christian von Weizsäcker follows Ben Bernanke claiming that aging populations which save more than can be profitably invested lead to a saving glut and negative equilibrium rates of interest which makes public deficits necessary to fill the gap between excess private savings and private investment.\nFrom the perspective of monetary economics, the savings glut idea has been criticized as conceptually flawed, ignoring the role of credit creation, and related unsustainable asset price", "a return on funds \"parked\" for the short term, waiting to be invested, which puts those banks a disadvantage to conventional banks. \nBanks/financial institutions must balance liquidity — the ability to convert assets into cash or a cash equivalent quickly in an emergency when their depositors need them without\nincurring large losses — with a competitive rate of return on funds. Conventional banks are able to borrow and lend by using the interbank lending market — borrowing to meet liquidity requirements and investing for any duration including very short periods, and thereby optimize their earnings. Calculating the return for any period", "borrow. However, if the market is not functioning, even solvent banks may be unable to borrow, most likely because of asymmetric information.\nA model developed by Flannery suggests that the private market for interbank loans can fail if banks face uncertainty about the risk involved in lending to other banks. In times of crisis with less certainty, however, discount window loans are the least costly way of solving the problem of uncertainty.\nRochet and Vives extend the traditional banking view to provide more evidence that interbank markets indeed do not function properly as Goodfriend and King had suggested. \"The main contribution of", "but this is due to holding cash, not to saving per se. Secondly, banks themselves may hold cash, rather than loaning it out, which results in the growth of excess reserves – funds on deposit but not loaned out. This is argued to occur in liquidity trap situations, when interest rates are at a zero lower bound (or near it) and savings still exceed investment demand. Within Keynesian economics, the desire to hold currency rather than loan it out is discussed under liquidity preference.\nThird, the paradox assumes a closed economy in which savings are not invested abroad (to fund exports", "regulation as depository banks.\nBehavior that may be optimal for an individual (e.g., saving more during adverse economic conditions) can be detrimental if too many individuals pursue the same behavior, as ultimately one person's consumption is another person's income. Too many consumers attempting to save (or pay down debt) simultaneously is called the paradox of thrift and can cause or deepen a recession. Economist Hyman Minsky also described a \"paradox of deleveraging\" as financial institutions that have too much leverage (debt relative to equity) cannot all de-leverage simultaneously without significant declines in the value of their assets.\nIn April 2009, US Federal", "in a downturn is due to a significant private-sector financial surplus, in which consumer savings is not fully invested by businesses. In a healthy economy, private-sector savings placed into the banking system by consumers are borrowed and invested by companies. However, if consumers have increased their savings but companies are not investing the money, a surplus develops.\nBusiness investment is one of the major components of GDP. For example, a U.S. private-sector financial deficit from 2004 to 2008 transitioned to a large surplus of savings over investment that exceeded $1 trillion by early 2009, and remained above $800 billion into September", "although with central bank zero and negative interest rate policies, some writers have noted depositors are already experiencing paying to put their savings even in fractional reserve banks. In their influential paper on financial crises, economists Douglas W. Diamond and Philip H. Dybvig warned that under full-reserve banking, since banks would not be permitted to lend out funds deposited in demand accounts, this function would be taken over by unregulated institutions. Unregulated institutions (such as high-yield debt issuers) would take over the economically necessary role of financial intermediation and maturity transformation, therefore destabilizing the financial system and leading to more", "an increased perception of risk regarding the solvency of other banks within the banking system. Easy credit conditions Easy credit conditions (sometimes referred to as \"easy money\" or \"loose credit\") are characterized by low interest rates for borrowers and relaxed lending practices by bankers, making it easy to get inexpensive loans. A credit crunch is the opposite, in which interest rates rise and lending practices tighten. Easy credit conditions mean that funds are readily available to borrowers, which results in asset prices rising if the loaned funds are used to buy assets in a particular market, such as real estate", "too many individuals or corporations focus on saving or paying down debt rather than spending, lower interest rates have less effect on investment and consumption behavior; the lower interest rates are like \"pushing on a string\". Economist Paul Krugman described the U.S. 2009 recession and Japan's lost decade as liquidity traps. One remedy to a liquidity trap is expanding the money supply via quantitative easing or other techniques in which money is effectively printed to purchase assets, thereby creating inflationary expectations that cause savers to begin spending again. Government stimulus spending and mercantilist policies to stimulate exports and reduce imports", "then they all lose the interest they could have earned, and some of them lose all their savings. Nonetheless, it is not obvious what any one depositor could do to prevent this mutual loss. Policy implications In practice, due to fractional reserve banking, banks faced with a bank run usually shut down and refuse to permit more withdrawals. This is called a suspension of convertibility, and engenders further panic in the financial system. While this may prevent some depositors who have a real need for cash from obtaining access to their money, it also prevents immediate bankruptcy, thus", "saving and investment, both understood in an ex ante sense, but integrates bank credit creation into this equilibrium condition. According to Ohlin: \"There is a credit market ... but there is no such market for savings and no price of savings\". An extension of bank credit reduces the interest rate in the same way as an increase in saving.\nDuring the 1930s, and again during the 1950s, the relationship between the loanable funds doctrine and the liquidity preference theory was discussed at length. Some authors considered the two approaches as largely equivalent but this issue is still unresolved. Ambiguous use While", "billion between 1997 and 2007, much of the increase caused by bank lending. If all the banks increase their lending together, then they can expect new deposits to return to them and the amount of money in the economy will increase. Excessive or risky lending can cause borrowers to default, the banks then become more cautious, so there is less lending and therefore less money so that the economy can go from boom to bust as happened in the UK and many other Western economies after 2007. Range of activities Activities undertaken by banks include personal banking, corporate banking, investment", "profits from remittance services are typically less than those of a bank's more traditional services, they have allowed the banks the opportunity to encourage remittance recipients to open savings accounts and to keep a portion of their remittances at the institution. This is incredibly important, as an inflow of remittance capital does not necessarily improve the economic environment of the region the money is sent to, since most of the money is spent on consumable goods and day to day expenses. This type of spending has a slight impact on demand, but has little effect on overall investment and infrastructure", "a greater chance of escaping poverty, in part because other poor people would have greater disposable income and spending power.\nSome regard Gesell's idea as a negative interest rate policy. The difference between them is that, with the free-money reforms of Gesell, hoarding money becomes impossible because the face-value of money is depreciated regularly. This forces the circulation of money. With negative interest, on the contrary, there is the possibility of hoarding money because the face value of money is constant and people can use their money as a means of saving. For example, Japan's negative interest rates are driving up", "financial products they did not understand, e.g., negative amortization loans, the finance industry would not have been as profitable as it has been, and the Late-2000s recession might have been avoided or postponed. Stiglitz argued that the Late-2000s recession was created in part because, \"Bankers acted greedily because they had incentives and opportunities to do so\". They did this in part by innovating to make consumer financial products like retail banking services and home mortgages as complicated as possible to make it easy for them to charge higher fees. Consumers who shop carefully for financial services typically find better options", "worldwide economic decline of 2008-2010. It was felt by some that, with banks cutting back on readily available funds to offer as loans to their customers, luxury asset lenders would be the acceptable alternative and that more people would begin to use the service. This trend to bypass banks and more conventional lenders has not just been applicable to personal finance but has risen in the business sector too with a reported one in four customers using Borro Private Finance to facilitate a business transaction or opportunity.\nIn its initial four months Borro Private Finance doubled its loan book every month,", "long as banks cannot easily replace the short-fall in deposits by issuing other uninsured liabilities. The abolition of reserve requirements on certificates of deposit in the mid-1980s made it much easier for banks facing falling retail deposits to issue new liabilities not backed by reserve requirements. This is not to say that the bank lending channel is no longer relevant. On the contrary, the fact that banks can raise funds through liabilities that pay market interest rates exposes banks to an external finance premium as well. Forms of uninsured lending carry some credit risk relative to insured deposits. The cost", "of borrowing funds to finance their capital expenditures to running financial surpluses that they are now lending to other sectors of the economy\". David Wessell in a Wall Street Journal article observed that, \"[c]ompanies, which normally borrow other folks’ savings in order to invest, have turned thrifty. Even companies enjoying strong profits and cash flow are building cash hoards, reducing debt and buying back their own shares—instead of making investment bets.\" Although the hypothesis of excess cash holdings or cash hoarding has been used by the OECD, the International Monetary Fund and the media (Wall Street Journal, Forbes, Canadian Broadcasting", "make these loans themselves, since they know they may suddenly need immediate access to their funds, whereas the businesses' investments will only pay off in the future (moreover, by aggregating funds from many different depositors, banks help depositors save on the transaction costs they would have to pay in order to lend directly to businesses). Since banks provide a valuable service to both sides (providing the long-maturity loans businesses want and the liquid accounts depositors want), they can charge a higher interest rate on loans than they pay on deposits and thus profit from the difference. Nash equilibria of", "between investments and savings. Funds for borrowing money from abroad are helping to decrease the difference between domestic savings and domestic investments. Borrowing money from foreigners is rising when the capital that flows to another country is taxed. This tax, however, doesn't influence domestic investment. In the long run, the country that has borrowed some money and has a debt, usually has to pay this debt for example by exporting some products abroad. It affects the standard of living in this country. Also that is why ″the foreign capital is not a perfect substitute for domestic savings.″ \nIn 1982, the" ]

[ "There are several reasons. The salt in the ocean lowers the temperature needed to make it freeze. Currents stop the ice from bonding, and if Ice did freeze, it is less dense and floats. But the main reason is the pressure, especially in deep water. To freeze, water needs to expand. Deep in the ocean, the pressure from the water stops it from being able to expand.", "Ocean salt water can freeze, but the salinity levels very through out the current. Deadly Brinicles or “frost fingers” where surface freezes then sloughs to the bottom in a chain, and continues freezing downward as it reaches the bottom surface, can kill some sea life unaware and sensitive to temperature changes.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nCurrently studying marine-weather changes with global warming, and how it can effect marine-biology as much as our pollution does.", "I am not sure I can ELI5 but there are 2 main reasons. \n\nFirst is that high pressure decreases the temperature water freezes at. Meaning it takes much colder temperatures at higher pressures.\n\nSecond deals with density. Ice is less dense than water which is why it floats.", "As a material water is most dense at 4 degrees Celsius, and expands in both thermal directions. Thermal increase phase shifts water from liquid to a gas at 100 degrees Celsius, and thermal decrease phase shifts water to a solid at 0 degrees Celsius. As a solid, water’s material expansion fixes at ~9% volume displacement.\n\nOne result of this is that solid state h2o floats in liquid state h2o.\n\nWater has a bunch of really unusual properties, very cool material.", "Other comments have touched on this, but your question itself is actually flawed. \n\nDeep in the ocean is not below freezing, because the freezing point is different. Higher pressure means lower freezing point.\n\nSalinity also affects this.", "This is due to the property of water that it reaches its maximum density at around 34 degrees. As water gets cooler than 34 degrees Fahrenheit (33-32 degrees) it is less dense and will be pushed up by denser 34 degree water. Also ice has a lower density than water as well. That's why ice cubes float. So if water deep down did freeze, it would quickly float to the top.", "If you have water, oil and a piece of metal in a glass, water (least dense) will be on top, oil (more dense than water) will be below, and metal - the most dense, on the bottom of the glass. \n\nSame with water. Unlike other substances, when water solidifies (freezes), it's density decreases, hence why in a glass of water ice will always float. So it's not the case of water freezing top to bottom, it's the fact that colder water is always on top, because it's less dense. \n\nWater is the most dense at 4 degrees Celsius, so even kilometres deep, the water is at 4 degrees, again, because of density.", "For why water freezes top to bottom: \n\n1) Dense things sink, less dense things rise. \n\n2) Water is peculiar. One of the few substances that is less dense in solid form than in some liquid. Specifically, water is at its densest at 4 degrees Celsius. Any cooler, and it starts to expand. \n\nBecause of this, if water cools close to freezing, the lowered density forces it to circulate to the surface. This is actually a very important trait water has; without it, sea life couldn't exist in any body of water that freezes.", "It's not below freezing deep in the ocean, it's 0-3 degrees according to wikipedia. \n\nWhy it freezes from top to bottom:\n\nWater is the heaviest at 4 degrees (for salt water it may be a bit different, perhaps that's why it's a bit colder than 4 degrees at the bottom of the ocean). So even if you cool it from the bottom it will just rise because it's warmer than the 4 degree water and mix with warmer water until it's all 4 degrees. That's why it doesn't really freeze from the bottom even if the bottom is cooling the most.\n\nTo freeze from the top it still requires the temperature above the water to be below 0 though. once the water is 4 degrees all over, cooling it from the top will not mix the water, so it can freeze from the top although it's still 4 degrees at the bottom. This requires much less energy than cooling all the water to 0 before any freezing starts, which happens if you try to freeze from the bottom only.\n\n(All degrees are Celsius)", "It does freeze f5om the top, but it doesn't necessarily have to. Even salt water can freeze, but when it does so, at a lower temperature than fresh water, the ice rises to the top, because ice is less dense. Ice crystals can form below the surface, but they will always rise to the top making it seem like only the surface freezes.\n\nYou could hold a bag of water well below the frozen surface of a body of salt water and it would freeze." ]

[ "of oceans lowers the freezing point by about 1.9 °C (see here for explanation) and lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water to the former freezing point at 0 °C. This is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the Arctic Ocean generally live in water 4 °C colder than at the bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and", "depth. As saline water does not freeze until it reaches −2.3 °C (27.9 °F) (colder as depth and pressure increase) the temperature well below the surface is usually not far from zero degrees.\nThe thermocline varies in depth. It is semi-permanent in the tropics, variable in temperate regions (often deepest during the summer) and shallow to nonexistent in the polar regions, where the water column is cold from the surface to the bottom. A layer of sea ice will act as an insulation blanket.\nIn the open ocean, the thermocline is characterized by a negative sound speed gradient, making the thermocline important in submarine", "the ocean's surface layer, acting like a lid, and also affecting deeper waters by increasing subsurface ocean warming and thus facilitating ice melt.\nOur “pure freshwater” experiments show that the low-density lid causes deep-ocean warming, especially at depths of ice shelf grounding lines that provide most of the restraining force limiting ice sheet discharge.\nAnother theory discussed in 2007 for increasing warm bottom water is that that changes in air circulation patterns have led to increased upwelling of warm, deep ocean water along the coast of Antarctica and that this warm water has increased melting of floating ice shelves. An ocean model", "formation of sea ice contributes to an increase in surface seawater salinity; saltier brine is left behind as the sea ice forms around it (pure water preferentially being frozen). Increasing salinity lowers the freezing point of seawater, so cold liquid brine is formed in inclusions within a honeycomb of ice. The brine progressively melts the ice just beneath it, eventually dripping out of the ice matrix and sinking. This process is known as brine rejection.\nThe resulting Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) sinks and flows north and east, but is so dense it actually underflows the NADW. AABW formed in the Weddell", "earth's oceans. Brinicles As sea ice freezes, it rejects increasingly salty water, which drains through narrow brine channels that thread through the ice. The brine flowing through the brine channels and out of the bottom of the ice is very cold and salty, so it sinks in the warmer, fresher seawater under the ice, forming a plume. The plume is colder than the freezing point of sea water under the ice, so the seawater can freeze where it touches the plume. Ice freezing around the edges of the plume gradually builds a hollow icicle-like tube, called a brinicle. These frozen", "most susceptible places to climate change on the planet.\nFurthermore, sea ice affects the movement of ocean waters. In the freezing process, much of the salt in ocean water is squeezed out of the frozen crystal formations, though some remains frozen in the ice. This salt becomes trapped beneath the sea ice, creating a higher concentration of salt in the water beneath ice floes. This concentration of salt contributes to the salinated water's density, and this cold, denser water sinks to the bottom of the ocean. This cold water moves along the ocean floor towards the equator, while warmer water on", "its freezing point of approximately −1.8 °C. This freezing point is however a function of salinity and pressure and thus −1.8 °C is not a general freezing temperature for sea water (see diagram to the right). Movement of deep water masses Formation and movement of the deep water masses at the North Atlantic Ocean, creates sinking water masses that fill the basin and flows very slowly into the deep abyssal plains of the Atlantic. This high-latitude cooling and the low-latitude heating drives the movement of the deep water in a polar southward flow. The deep water flows through the Antarctic Ocean Basin", "them would be killed. Furthermore, given that water is a good thermal insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not completely thaw in summer. The layer of ice that floats on top insulates the water below. Water at about 4 °C (39 °F) also sinks to the bottom, thus keeping the temperature of the water at the bottom constant (see diagram). Density of saltwater and ice The density of salt water depends on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature. Ice still floats in the oceans, otherwise they would freeze from the bottom up. However, the salt content", "are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow. It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer.\nThe temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater. Because the Arctic Ocean consists of saltwater, the temperature must reach −1.8 °C (28.8 °F) before freezing occurs.\nThe density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100–150 m (330–490 ft) of ocean water cools to the", "on liquid water, which is an important feature in Earth's biosphere. It has been argued that without this property, natural bodies of water would freeze, in some cases permanently, from the bottom up, resulting in a loss of bottom-dependent animal and plant life in fresh and sea water. Sufficiently thin ice sheets allow light to pass through while protecting the underside from short-term weather extremes such as wind chill. This creates a sheltered environment for bacterial and algal colonies. When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain sympagic organisms such as bacteria, algae, copepods and", "shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline.\nThis water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below. Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate.\nIn the depth range of 150–900 metres (490–2,950 feet) is", "is usually more closely and neatly packed and has a higher density than the liquid phase. When lakes freeze, they only do so at the surface while the bottom of the lake remains near 4 °C (277 K; 39 °F) because water is densest at this temperature. No matter how cold the surface becomes, there is always a layer at the bottom of the lake that is 4 °C (277 K; 39 °F). This anomalous behavior of water and ice is what allows fish to survive harsh winters. The density of ice Iₕ increases when cooled, down to about −211 °C (62 K; −348 °F); below that temperature, the", "the seafloor. To do so, the supercold brine from the pack ice overhead must continue to flow, the surrounding water must be significantly less saline than the brine, the water cannot be very deep, the overhead sea ice pack must be still, and currents in the area must be minimal or still. If the surrounding water is too saline, its freezing point will be too low to create a significant amount of ice around the brine plume. If the water is too deep, the brinicle is likely to break free under its own weight before reaching the seafloor. If the", "the ocean is supercooled to slightly below the freezing point, at which time tiny ice platelets (frazil ice) form. With time, this process leads to a mushy surface layer, known as grease ice. Frazil ice formation may also be started by snowfall, rather than supercooling. Waves and wind then act to compress these ice particles into larger plates, of several meters in diameter, called pancake ice. These float on the ocean surface, and collide with one another, forming upturned edges. In time, the pancake ice plates may themselves be rafted over one another or frozen together into a more solid", "high oxygen content relative to the rest of the oceans' deep waters. This is due to the oxidation of deteriorating organic content in the rest of the deep oceans. Antarctic bottom water has thus been considered the ventilation of the deep ocean. Formation and circulation Antarctic bottom water is created in part due to the major overturning of ocean water.\nAntarctic bottom water is formed in the Weddell and Ross Seas, off the Adélie Coast and by Cape Darnley from surface water cooling in polynyas and below the ice shelf. A unique feature of Antarctic bottom water is the cold", "CO\n2 release, further climate change.\nCold meltwater provides cooling of the ocean's surface layer, acting like a lid, and also affecting deeper waters by increasing subsurface ocean warming and thus facilitating ice melt.\nOur “pure freshwater” experiments show that the low-density lid causes deep-ocean warming, especially at depths of ice shelf grounding lines that provide most of the restraining force limiting ice sheet discharge. Erosion Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice. Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified", "ice and icicles. The reason is that they all form from freshwater (non saline water). Ice sheets, ice caps and glaciers essentially consist of glacial ice. Since glacial ice spreads sideways and down-slope (as a result of gravity), in some areas this ice reaches the coastline. Where this happens, depending on topography, the ice may break up into pieces that fall in the sea, a mechanism called ice calving, and drift away. Alternatively, ice sheets may spread offshore into extensive floating ice platforms called ice shelves, which can ultimately also calve. The features produced by these calving processes are known", "from rising much above freezing because of the snow-covered surface but can drop to −30 °C (−22 °F) even in July. Temperatures above 20 °C are rare but do sometimes occur in the far south and south-west coastal areas. Ice-free seas Most Arctic seas are covered by ice for part of the year (see the map in the sea-ice section below); 'ice-free' here refers to those which are not covered year-round. \nThe only regions that remain ice-free throughout the year are the southern part of the Barents Sea and most of the Norwegian Sea. These have very small annual temperature variations; average winter", "freezing point for sea ice to form. In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent.\nThere is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 19.7 in) over the frozen ocean.\nThe climate", "Furthermore, the sea ice itself functions to help keep polar climates cool, since the ice exists in expansive enough amounts to maintain a cold environment. At this, sea ice's relationship with global warming is cyclical; the ice helps to maintain cool climates, but as the global temperature increases, the ice melts, and is less effective in keeping those climates cold. The bright, shiny surface (albedo) of the ice also serves a role in maintaining cooler polar temperatures by reflecting much of the sunlight that hits it back into space. As the sea ice melts, its surface area shrinks, diminishing the", "that water is heaviest and most dense at 39 degrees Fahrenheit and lighter above and below this temperature because it is less dense. Therefore, in the early winter months, the lighter water molecules float to the top. Then as the weather gets colder the water closest to the top freezes first and turns to ice. In addition, since the canal is shallower and has less volume than the adjoining lakes it freezes quicker, and this is the reason why ice forms on Clam Lake canal before lakes Mitchell and Cadillac. As the winter advances and the temperatures drop more the", "pressure at the bottom is great enough that liquid water can exist at temperatures where water would freeze, at regular pressures. The ice above Lake Vostok, the largest antarctic lake, is approximately 4 kilometres thick.\nScientists studying the lakes, by careful drilling and water sampling, suggest conditions there may resemble the oceans believed to exist on planet Jupiter's moon Europa.", "sea can rise to about 20 C in the summer months. And during exceptionally cold winters, partly as a result of the low salinity of the Baltic, the seawater has also been known to freeze.", "a lower concentration of water, it therefore attracts the surrounding water. Due to the cold temperature of the brine, the newly attracted water freezes. If the brine channels are relatively evenly distributed, the ice pack grows downward evenly. However, if brine channels are concentrated in one small area, the downward flow of the cold brine (now so salt-rich that it cannot freeze at its normal freezing point) begins to interact with unfrozen seawater as a flow. Just as hot air from a fire rises as a plume, this cold, dense water sinks as a plume. Its outer edges begin accumulating", "in the Antarctic where precipitation over sea ice is high, is from snow deposition: on thin ice, the snow will weigh down the ice enough to cause flooding. Subsequent freezing will form ice with a much more granular structure. \nOne of the more interesting processes to occur within consolidated ice packs is changes in the saline content. As the ice freezes, most of the salt content gets rejected and forms highly saline brine inclusions between the crystals. With decreasing temperatures in the ice sheet, the size of the brine pockets decreases while the salt content goes up. Since", "atmospheric temperature and becomes saltier as sea ice crystallizes out. Both these factors make it denser, and the water sinks. From the deep sea near Greenland, such water flows southwards between the continental landmasses on either side of the Atlantic. When it reaches the Antarctic, it is joined by further masses of cold, sinking water and flows eastwards. It then splits into two streams that move northwards into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Here it is gradually warmed, becomes less dense, rises towards the surface and loops back on itself. Some flows back into the Atlantic. It takes a thousand", "strong enough to melt the ice if some antifreeze like ammonia (in the form of ammonia hydrate) or salt was present. Further melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water (ocean) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core–mantle boundary. The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K (−97 °C). If the temperature dropped below this value, the ocean would have subsequently frozen. The freezing of the water would have caused the interior to expand, which may have been responsible", "icepack is mobile or currents too strong, strain will break the brinicle.\nUnder the right conditions, including favorable ocean floor topography, a brine pool may be created. However, unlike brine pools created by cold seeps, brinicle brine pools are likely to be very transient as the brine supply will eventually cease.\nOn reaching the seafloor, it will continue to accumulate ice as surrounding water freezes. The brine will travel along the seafloor in a down-slope direction until it reaches the lowest possible point, where it will pool. Any bottom-dwelling sea creatures, including starfish or sea urchins can be encased in this expanding", "than the reflectivity of the sea (about 10%) and thus the ice also affects the absorption of sunlight at the surface. Hydrological effects The sea ice cycle is also an important source of dense (saline) \"bottom water\". When sea water freezes it leaves most of its salt content behind. The remaining surface water, made dense by the extra salinity, sinks and produces dense water masses such as North Atlantic Deep Water. This production of dense water is essential in maintaining the thermohaline circulation, and the accurate representation of these processes is important in climate modelling. Odden In the Arctic, a", "in the summer months. And during exceptionally cold winters, partly as a result of the low salinity of the Baltic, the seawater has also been known to freeze." ]

[ "Normally, They don't. If they actually want to track down someone who is using a proxy, they will be able to; but for something as harmless as pirating(relative to say, hacking a company's system) it is not worth their time and money just to find out who you are.\n\nTorrents from a hotspot are also not easy to trace back to the user, unless they have a way of identifying you(e.g you're at a hotel, and their internet asks for your room number). A lot of hotspot providers would(atleast in theory) attempt to prevent people from torrenting on their networks, otherwise, they do run the risk of being accused of illegal downloads. I'm not too sure of exactly how the copyright law side of things work though.\n\nOff the top of my head, i can remember atleast one case where a guy using mcdonald's internet was arrested for spreading computer viruses, based of the fact that he used his credit card at the store and they had somehow managed to find out exactly which computer was responsible, however, for pirating purposes, its not worth the trouble.", "I'm surprised no one has mentioned the identifier on your personal device (MAC ADDRESS) and the ability to change or \"spoof\" it to something else temporarily." ]

[ "blocks have been secretly blocked by ISPs, driving users to proxy comparison sites. The Pirate Bay created a version of Tor branded as the PirateBrowser specifically to encourage anonymity and circumvention of these blocks. On August 5, 2014, City of London Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit arrested a 20-year-old man in Nottingham on suspicion of operating a proxy server that allowed internet users to bypass blocks on many popular sites. ISP default network blocking Downloadable software enabling web browsers to bypass the ISP filtering began appearing in December 2013, and in 2014 versions began appearing for mobile Internet platforms.", "user behaviour that can be exploited through seemingly legitimate means. Three popular methods of attack include dumpster diving, role playing, and spear-phishing. Dumpster Diving Sifting through garbage is a popular tactic for social hackers to recover information about the habits, activities, and interactions of organizations and individuals. Information retrieved from discarded property allows social hackers to create effective profiles of their targets. Personal contact information such as employee titles and phone numbers can be appropriated from discarded phone books or directories and used to gain further technical information such as login data and security passwords. Another advantageous find for social", "is not known whether The Pirate Bay is actually located at CyberBunker or whether they are using the CyberBunker service that routes Cyberbunker IP addresses to any datacenter around the world. These routes are not visible to the outside world.\nCyberBunker was given a court injunction on 17 May 2010, taking the site offline briefly; later that day, hosting was restored by Sweden's Piratpartiet (The Pirate Party). Former spokesman for the Pirate Bay, Peter Sunde, commented that it would now be very difficult to stop the site because it would now be seen as political censorship if anyone tries to shut", "pirated codes and the pirates attempt to find or generate new ones. Some software publishers have started accepting known pirated codes, using the opportunity to educate users on the economics of the shareware model.\nSome shareware relies entirely on the user's honesty and requires no password. Simply checking an \"I have paid\" checkbox in the application is all that is required to disable the registration notices.", "hackers is discarded hardware, especially hard drives that have not properly been scrubbed clean and still contain private and accurate information about corporations or individuals. Since surfing through people's curbside garbage is not a criminal offence and does not require a warrant, it is a rich resource for social hackers, as well as a legally accessible one. Dumpster diving can yield fruitful, albeit smelly results for information seekers such as private investigators, stalkers, nosy neighbours, and the police. Roleplaying Establishing trust by fooling people into believing in the legitimacy of a false character is one of the main tenets of", "through doxing, they may be targeted for harassment through methods such as harassment in person, fake signups for mail and pizza deliveries, or through swatting (dispatching armed police to their house through spoofed tips).\nA hacker may obtain an individual's dox without making the information public. A hacker may look for this information in order to extort or coerce a known or unknown target. Also, a hacker may harvest a victim's information in order to break into their Internet accounts, or to take over their social media accounts.\nThe victim may also be shown their details as proof that they have been", "Mebroot Mebroot is a master boot record based rootkit used by botnets including Torpig. It is a sophisticated Trojan horse that uses stealth strategies to hide itself from the user. The Trojan opens a back door on the victim's computer which allows the attacker complete control over the computer. Payload The Trojan infects the MBR to allow itself to start even before the operating system starts. This allows it to bypass some safeguards and embed itself deep within the operating system. It is known that the Trojan can intercept read/write operations, embed itself deep within network drivers. This allows it", "a new feature. Two PSP systems running Acid can link wirelessly, allowing players to face each other in a \"sneak-off\". The objective is to collect a certain number of diskettes before the rival player. Diskettes can be stolen by another player, so there is an emphasis on avoiding detection. Story In 2016, a jumbo jet carrying Senator Hach, an important politician and likely future presidential candidate, is hijacked by terrorists. In exchange for the senator the terrorists demand from the United States government Pythagoras, a research project being conducted in the Moloni Republic in southern Africa. In efforts to identify", "links to The Pirate Bay. When a user sends an instant message that contains a link to The Pirate Bay, Windows Live Messenger prompts a warning and claims \"Blocked as it was reported unsafe\". \"We block instant messages if they contain malicious or spam URLs based on intelligence algorithms, third-party sources, and/or user complaints. Pirate Bay URLs were flagged by one or more of these and were consequently blocked\", Microsoft told The Register in an emailed statement. In media The Pirate Bay is featured in Steal This Film (2006), a documentary series about society and filesharing, produced by The League", "against The Pirate Bay in his manifesto Det Nätpolitiska Manifestet.\nIn the book Svenska Hackare (\"Swedish Hackers\"), the two technology journalists, Daniel Goldberg and Linus Larsson, describe how WeRebuild (a project name used by Telecomix) appeared on a seminar on net neutrality held by the Swedish Government in 2009, to influence the implementation of the Telecoms Package. Streisand A project created and hosted by Telecomix is the Streisand project, named after the Streisand effect. The aim is to mirror certain types of content that gets blocked or censored. WeRebuild WeRebuild is a decentralized wiki page containing Telecomix information and projects. Egypt", "Swiss anti-piracy tech firm Logistep SA was hired to help further intimidate and prosecute filesharing users. eDonkey poisoning Servers have appeared on the eDonkey network that censor shared content searches and information about files by the type of the file (such as video or MP3) or by keywords. These servers report large numbers of users (up to 1.5 million) connected to them, thus raising the number of users in the network to 10—13 million; however, it is impossible to determine how many people are actually connected to them. Such servers often disseminate advertisements disguised as commonly searched-for music/video files. Server", "the pirates, the siblings escape and attempt to find their scanner, only to be cornered by the pirates and drop it into Blackheart's grasp, who uses it unknowingly to zap his crew-mate, causing him to pixelate and melt.\nKate discovers that users are transported between islands in the game through icons, after jumping inside, she ends up on castaway island only to find that Carmen, the second in command, has stolen all the items from Kate's bedroom. The pirates arrive and chase the gang off the island, causing Sarah to trip against a tree trunk which triggers a secret entrance inside", "not designed to provide anonymity when used over Tor, and there is some debate as to whether torrenting over Tor acts as a drag on the network.\nPrivate torrent trackers are usually invitation only, and require members to participate in uploading, but have the downside of a single centralized point of failure. Oink's Pink Palace and What.cd are examples of private trackers which have been shut down.\nSeedbox services download the torrent files first to the company's servers, allowing the user to direct download the file from there. One's IP address would be visible to the Seedbox provider, but not to", "listening to connections. The hacker would just use a program that lets him know which ports are open by scanning all the ports on a network and trying to open them. There are many other type of scans, such as SYN, Idle, FIN, X-Mas, and Null scans.\nReach Out and Hack Someone\n\nThis part is about finding vulnerabilities in the typecasting of the network. Using a debugger to go through lines of code which are used for network protocols is the most efficient way to accomplish this. 0x500 Shellcode Shellcode is used in the exploitation of code. It is like the hacker's", "the ability to bypass some firewalls and communicate securely, using a custom encrypted tunnel, to the command and control server. This allows the attacker to install other malware, viruses, or other applications. The Trojan most commonly steals information from the victim's computer, in an attempt for small financial gain. Mebroot is linked to Anserin, which is another Trojan that logs keystrokes and steals banking information. This gives further evidence showing that financial motive is most likely behind Mebroot. Detection/removal The Trojan tries to avoid detection by hooking itself into atapi.sys. It also embeds itself in the Ntoskrnl.exe. Mebroot has no", "for internal food-related decisions. Pirate Parties Pirate Parties, parties focusing on reducing online censorship and increasing transparency, first came around in Sweden in the year 2006. Pirate Parties in Germany, Italy, Austria, Norway, France and the Netherlands use liquid democracy with the open-source software LiquidFeedback.\nSpecifically in the case of the Pirate Party in Germany, the communication with citizens uses tools and platforms similar to conventional parties – including Facebook, Twitter, and online sites – however, they developed the \"piratewiki\" project. This is an open platform opened to collaborative contributions to the political deliberative process. \"Liquid Feedback\" was the platform used", "logger without getting caught and downloading data that has been logged without being traced. An attacker that manually connects to a host machine to download logged keystrokes risks being traced. A trojan that sends keylogged data to a fixed e-mail address or IP address risks exposing the attacker. Trojans Researchers devised several methods for solving this problem. They presented a deniable password snatching attack in which the keystroke logging trojan is installed using a virus or worm. An attacker who is caught with the virus or worm can claim to be a victim. The cryptotrojan asymmetrically encrypts the pilfered login/password", "Bus Pirate Overview The Bus Pirate was designed for debugging, prototyping, and analysing \"new or unknown chips\". Using a Bus Pirate, a developer can use a serial terminal to interface with a device, via such hardware protocols as SPI, I²C and 1-Wire.\nThe Bus Pirate is capable of programming low-end microcontrollers, such as Atmel AVRs and Microchip PICs. Programming using more advanced protocols such as JTAG and SWD is possible, but is discouraged due to hardware speed limitations. \nThe Bus Pirate v3.6 is based on an PIC24 MCU (SSOP), and communicates with a host computer with either a USB interface", "Pirates CSG Online Online packs This game included packs from the series of Pirates of the Davy Jones' Curse, Pirates of the Mysterious Islands, Pirates At Ocean's Edge, and the Christmas Special Edition ship and crew, the Sleigh and Captain Whitebeard from Pirates of the North Pole. Virtual starter packs and booster packs could be bought or obtained by codes found in physical mega-tins and mega-packs of Pirates at Ocean's Edge. After obtaining a pack, a player could have played on this online version of the Pirates of the Spanish Main by WizKids.", "Torpig Torpig, also known as Anserin or Sinowal is a type of botnet spread through systems compromised by the Mebroot rootkit by a variety of trojan horses for the purpose of collecting sensitive personal and corporate data such as bank account and credit card information. It targets computers that use Microsoft Windows, recruiting a network of zombies for the botnet. Torpig circumvents antivirus software through the use of rootkit technology and scans the infected system for credentials, accounts and passwords as well as potentially allowing attackers full access to the computer. It is also purportedly capable of modifying", "will have just enemy pirate ships, some homing missiles, some gun turrets, some indestructible enemies on fixed-paths that have to be traversed and some a mixture of these. The Cybernoid ship can collect power-ups for assistance (including a rear-gun and a giant spiked ball that flies around the ship) and also use a variety of built-in special weapons such as shields and homing missiles.\nShooting pirate ships often leaves power-ups or jewels that Cybernoid can then collect.\nThe NES version was made by Studio 12 productions, consisting of Chris Harvey as the programmer and Adrian Carless for the graphics. They put a", "of stolen data and redirected 1.2 million IPs on to their private command and control server. The report goes into great detail about how the botnet operates. During the UCSB research team's ten-day takeover of the botnet, Torpig was able to retrieve login information for 8,310 accounts at 410 different institutions, and 1,660 unique credit and debit card numbers from victims in the U.S. (49%), Italy (12%), Spain (8%), and 40 other countries, including cards from Visa (1,056), MasterCard (447), American Express (81), Maestro (36), and Discover (24). Operation Initially, a great deal of Torpig's spread was attributable to", "is typically a trojan horse software used to intercept communications from the target computer. Some countries, like Switzerland and Germany, have a legal framework governing the use of such software. In the US, the term \"policeware\" has been used for similar purposes.\nUse of the term \"spyware\" has eventually declined as the practice of tracking users has been pushed ever further into the mainstream by major websites and data mining companies; these generally break no known laws and compel users to be tracked, not by fraudulent practices per se, but by the default settings created for users and the language of", "transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.\nAnti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured.", "the miners verify the transactions on the bitcoin network to secure that no one makes a double spent, Twister network verifies the users names and that the messages belonging to a specific user are really from that user. BitTorrent The messages are driven through the BitTorrent protocol. This allows keeping a distribution system of a great number of messages along the network in a fast and efficient way; and also, allows the users to receive notifications almost instantly about new messages and alerts – all of it without the necessity of a central server.\nSince Twister uses end-to-end encryption, if intercepted", "traffic through a worldwide volunteer network of servers in order to conceal a user's location or usage from someone conducting network surveillance or traffic analysis. Using Tor makes it more difficult to trace Internet activity, including \"visits to Web sites, online posts, instant messages and other communication forms\", back to the user. It is intended to protect users' personal freedom, privacy, and ability to conduct confidential business by keeping their internet activities from being monitored.\n\"Onion routing\" refers to the layered nature of the encryption service: The original data are encrypted and re-encrypted multiple times, then sent through successive Tor relays,", "May 20, 2011, leaked EVE Online source code was published by someone on a GitHub repository. After being online for four days, CCP issued a DMCA take-down request which was followed by GitHub. Virtual crime Piracy (in the ship-to-ship sense) is part of the game, as is protection racketeering, theft, and ransom. Eve Online periodically has arisen for discussion within the wider gaming community as players of the game find various ingenious methods of scamming, deceiving, or attacking each other. One infamous example was a corporate infiltration and heist where one corporation infiltrated a target corporation over the course of", "add these sites to a \"Safe list\" allowing them to continue using the Games and websites without interference from PeerGuardian.\nIn 2007, Bluetack/PeerGuardian 2 were criticized for blocking denis.stalker.h3q.com, the second largest BitTorrent tracker as of December 2007, as an \"Anti-P2P\" address, and claiming that its maintainers (whose tracking software \"Opentracker\" is also used by The Pirate Bay) were conspiring with the MPAA and MediaDefender. The maintainers are members of the Chaos Computer Club (CCC), a long-standing association of hackers and freedom of information activists, and had also briefly run their tracker from the CCC's own network. Bluetack also blocked CCC", "thief that drives through a window, steal jewels, and rather than keep them, waves them around and tosses them out to a crowd ... They're very noisy, low-grade crimes.\" In its 2013 Threats Predictions report, McAfee wrote that the technical sophistication of Anonymous was in decline and that it was losing supporters due to \"too many uncoordinated and unclear operations\".\nGraham Cluley, a security expert for Sophos, argued that Anonymous' actions against child porn websites hosted on a darknet could be counterproductive, commenting that while their intentions may be good, the removal of illegal websites and sharing networks should be performed", "to more usage of similar tactics by criminals. One such derivative botnet has been dubbed the \"Celebrity Spam Gang\", due to their use of similar technical tools as the Storm botnet controllers. Unlike the sophisticated social engineering that the Storm operators use to entice victims, however, the Celebrity spammers make use of offers of nude images of celebrities such as Angelina Jolie and Britney Spears. Cisco Systems security experts stated in a report that they believe the Storm botnet would remain a critical threat in 2008, and said they estimated that its size remained in the \"millions\".\nAs of early 2008," ]

[ "Because politics quickly becomes political. Currently D.C. is extremely Democratic, so Republicans don't want 2 new Democratic Senators. If the situation was reversed it's likely that the sides would quickly flip and Democrats would be blocking the amendment.", "Because they have to want to do it. Understand that the system in place for passing federal laws awards a certain amount of power and influence to each state. There is only so much power to go around, so legislators on all sides are less than willing to let others into the club.\n\nIn terms of how something expires? Well something like this, you don't vote \"no\". You can just fail to show up until the other side runs out of time. They need to get the amendment ratified within a certain time limit (because having it open ended would be a bad idea). So the states are free just to pretend it does not exist until the time limit passes and then, oh well!\n\nA nice amendment might be, once ratified by 10 states, all states are required to vote yes or no within the time limit. That would force other states to take a firm position on something and then defend it. You might see more of this kind of thing pass.\n\nBut in the US power flows from the states to the federal level (it flows up). So it is very difficult to do anything that restricts the power of the states.", "Amendments are difficult to pass (they require 2/3rds Congressional approval and 3/4ths of states to approve) and why would states want to add members to Congress, thus decreasing their legislator's voting power (i.e. 2 votes for a state out of 100 votes in the Senate is more power than 2 votes/state out of 102 votes total). Amendments are notoriously difficult to pass and without much political pressure/incentive there isn't a lot of hope." ]

[ "U.S. Constitution states:\n[The Congress shall have Power] To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States.\nThere were a number of reasons why voting rights for the District was not addressed. One was that it was effectively agreed at an early stage that the capital was to be in the South, and Northerners would have bitterly opposed any clause that would give the South even more voting power. Moreover, given the capital's", "Several bills have been introduced in Congress to grant the District of Columbia voting representation in one or both houses of Congress.\nThe constitutional argument about whether Congress can provide the District of Columbia with a voting member in the House of Representatives, but not in the Senate, is heavily debated by each side. In Hepburn v. Ellzey (1805), the Supreme Court held that the right of residents of the District to sue residents of other states is not explicitly stated in Article III, Section 2. In National Mutual Insurance Co. v. Tidewater Transfer Co., Inc, 337 U.S. 582 (1949), the", "held residency. Scholars have argued that if U.S. citizens who are residents of other countries are allowed to vote in federal elections, then the Congress can extend the same rights to residents of the nation's capital. Constitutional provisions The primary objection to legislative proposals to grant the District voting rights is that some provisions of the Constitution suggest that such an action would be unconstitutional. How the House of Representatives is to be composed is described in Article I, Section 2:\nThe House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States,", "and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in their federal legislature. Overseas and nonresident citizens U.S. citizens residing overseas who would otherwise have the right to vote are guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections by the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA) of 1986. As a practical matter, individual states implement UOCAVA.\nA citizen who has never resided in the United States can vote if a parent is eligible to vote in certain states. In some of these states the citizen can vote in local, state and", "of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, members of both houses of Congress have been directly elected. Today, U.S. citizens have almost universal suffrage under equal protection of the laws from the age of 18, regardless of race, gender, or wealth. The only significant exception to this is the disenfranchisement of convicted felons, and in some states former felons as well.\nUnder the U.S. Constitution, the representation of U.S. territories and the federal district of District of Columbia in Congress is limited: while residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes, their only congressional representative is", "has in fact acted in partial compliance with its obligations under the ICCPR when, in 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, it amended our fundamental charter to allow the United States citizens who reside in the District of Columbia to vote for the Executive offices. See U.S. Constitutional Amendment XXIII.51. Indeed, a bill is now pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as \"a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives\", and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of", "who make the laws under which, as good citizens, we must live. Other rights, even the most basic, are illusory if the right to vote is undermined.\"\nThe Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act allows U.S. citizens to vote absentee for their home state's Congressional representatives from anywhere else in the world. If a U.S. citizen were to move to the District, that person would lose the ability to vote for a member of the Congress. U.S. citizens who have permanently left the United States are still permitted to vote absentee for the Congress in the state where they last", "the power of the Federal Government and reserve other power to the States are to mean anything, they mean at least that the States have power to pass laws and amend their constitutions without first sending their officials hundreds of miles away to beg federal authorities to approve them. Impact Through the court's majority decision, the Voting Rights Act was upheld and able to be implemented without any barriers. This allowed for over 800,000 African Americans to register to vote between 1964 and 1967. This case was also used as a precedent in other judicial challenges to the Voting", "the Enforcement Act of 1870, which enforced the “Right of Citizens of the United States to vote in the several States of this Union, and for other Purposes.\" In furtherance of its chief end of assuring the right of African American to vote, it provided that it should be a misdemeanor for any \"person or officer\" wrongfully to fail in a duty imposed on him by State law to perform or permit performance of acts necessary to registering or voting. In the course of passage through Congress several sections were added which had a larger purpose. One of them was", "Voting Rights Act in federal court against the state government to gain polling places on their homelands in 2016. They have been disadvantaged in the past by having to travel excessive distances to vote in elections, which had reduced participation. They argued that the state had set up satellite offices in wealthy, mostly white neighborhoods. The Justice Department sided with the plaintiffs. When the counties said the change would cost too much and the state said that it could not intervene, the Justice Department \"said in a new filing Monday they appear to be confusing voting rights with 'voting convenience.'\"", "a bill was pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as \"a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives\", and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of Representatives. However, the United States has not taken similar steps with regard to the five million United States citizens who reside in the U.S. territories, of which close to four million are residents of Puerto Rico. In an opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part in a judicial decision, Circuit Judge Juan R. Torruella, who is", "for voting representation or statehood.\nOn December 29, 2003, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States concluded that the United States is violating the District of Columbia's rights under Articles II and XX of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in the Congress. The Commission reiterated the following recommendation to the United States: \"Provide the Petitioners with an effective remedy, which includes adopting the legislative or other measures necessary to guarantee to the Petitioners the effective right to participate, directly or", "California Voting Rights Act The California Voting Rights Act of 2001 (CVRA) expands on the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965, making it easier for minority groups in California to prove that their votes are being diluted in \"at-large\" elections. In 1986, the United States Supreme Court established conditions that must be met to prove that minorities are being disenfranchised; the CVRA eliminated one of these requirements. Unlike the federal Voting Rights Act, the CVRA does not require plaintiffs to demonstrate a specific geographic district where a minority is concentrated enough to establish a majority. Certain cites that have never", "Do they mean that all citizens shall vote in the several States? No; for suffrage is a political right which has been left under the control of the several States, subject to the action of Congress only when it becomes necessary to enforce the guarantee of a republican form of government (protection against a monarchy). Nor do they mean that all citizens shall sit on the juries, or that their children shall attend the same schools. The definition given to the term \"civil rights\" in Bouvier's Law Dictionary is very concise, and is supported by the best authority. It is", "of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed.\n In addition, the Seventeenth Amendment correspondingly describes the election of \"two Senators from each State\". Those who believe D.C. voting rights legislation would be unconstitutional point out that the District of Columbia is not a U.S. state. Advocates of voting rights legislation claim that Article I, Section 8, Clause 17 (the District Clause), which grants Congress \"exclusive\" legislative authority over the District, allows the Congress to pass legislation that would grant D.C. voting representation in the Congress.\nThe Twenty-third Amendment says the District is entitled to:\nA number of electors equal to the", "right to vote based on that citizen's \"race, color, or previous condition of servitude\".\nThe United States has enacted comprehensive legislation prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race and national origin in the workplace in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (CRA). The CRA is perhaps the most prominent civil rights legislation enacted in modern times, has served as a model for subsequent anti-discrimination laws and has greatly expanded civil rights protections in a wide variety of settings. The 1991 provision created recourse for victims of such discrimination for punitive damages and full back pay. In addition to individual civil recourse,", "While the states had the right to establish rules for voter registration and elections, the federal government found an oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the constitutional right to vote for federal officers: electors for president and vice president and members of the US Congress. Passage The Democratic Senate Majority Leader, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, realized that the bill and its journey through Congress could tear apart his party, as southern Democrats opposed civil rights, and its northern members were more favorable. Southern Democratic senators occupied chairs of numerous important committees because of their long seniority. Johnson", "Shelby County v. Holder Background Congress enacted the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to address entrenched racial discrimination in voting, \"an insidious and pervasive evil which had been perpetuated in certain parts of our country through unremitting and ingenious defiance of the Constitution.\" Section 5 of the Act contains a \"preclearance\" requirement that requires certain states and local governments to obtain a determination by the United States Attorney General or a three-judge panel of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia that changes to their voting laws or practices do not \"deny or abridge the right to", "This amendment failed to receive ratification by sufficient number of states within the seven years required.\nAs of 2013, a bill is pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as \"a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives\", and permit United States citizens residing in the capital to vote for a member to represent them in the House of Representatives. The District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Cong. was passed by the U.S. Senate on February 26, 2009, by a vote of 61-37.\nOn April 1, 1993, the Inter-American Commission on", "District of Columbia argue that as citizens living in the United States, the District's estimated 672,228 residents should have the same right to determine how they are governed as citizens of a state. At least as early as 1776, George Mason wrote in the Virginia Declaration of Rights:\nVI. That elections of members to serve as representatives of the people, in assembly, ought to be free; and that all men, having sufficient evidence of permanent common interest with, and attachment to, the community, have the right of suffrage, and cannot be taxed or deprived of their property for public uses without", "23, 1971, President Nixon signed the District of Columbia Delegate Act which authorized voters in the District to elect one non-voting delegate to represent them in the House of Representatives. On August 22, 1978, Congress submitted the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment to the states for ratification. This sweeping proposal would have granted the District of Columbia full representation in the United States Congress as if it were a state, repealed the Twenty-third Amendment and granted the District full representation in the Electoral College plus participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended as if it were", "any local laws. Washington, D.C., does not have full representation in the U.S. House or Senate. The Twenty-third Amendment, restoring U.S. Presidential Election after a 164-year-gap, is the only known limit to Congressional \"exclusive legislature\" from Article I-8-17, forcing Congress to enforce for the first time Amendments 14,15,19, 24, and 26. Amendment 23 gave the District of Columbia three electors and hence the right to vote for President, but not full U.S. Congresspersons nor U.S. Senators. In 1978, Congress proposed a constitutional amendment that would have restored to the District a full seat for representation in the Congress as well.", "House of Representatives.\nBecause of the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, the people of the District of Columbia are allowed to vote for President of the United States. The District is allotted three electoral votes, equal to that of the least populous state. Venezuela The Capital District has the capital of Venezuela, Caracas.", "until the passage of the Organic Act of 1801, citizens living in D.C. continued to vote for members of Congress in Maryland or Virginia; legal scholars therefore propose that the Congress has the power to restore those voting rights while maintaining the integrity of the federal district. However, the proposed legislation never made it out of committee. Amendment process Given the potential constitutional problems with legislation granting the District voting representation in the Congress, scholars have proposed that amending the U.S. Constitution would be the appropriate manner to grant D.C. full representation. District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment In 1978,", "any greater depth.\nThe court then asked whether the right to vote was one of the \"privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States\" at the time of the Fourteenth Amendment's adoption in 1868. Citing a variety of historical sources, it found that it was not. The court reasoned that the Constitution of the United States did not explicitly give citizens an affirmative right to vote and that, throughout the history of the nation from the adoption of the Constitution, a wide variety of persons—including women—were recognized as citizens but denied the right to vote. For example, at", "act, which had simply been the conventional approach for Congress to use. Another was that the new state constitution allowed aliens to vote, which led to concerns that this was tantamount to conferring U.S. citizenship; this objection was also overcome, since states were allowed to set their own qualifications for voting, even for federal elections, and this was separate from the notion of citizenship. \nThe Toledo War, the dispute over a ten-mile-wide strip of land along the Michigan–Ohio border, continued to occupy both Congress and the Legislature throughout the term of the 1st Legislature. Some southern senators also employed delaying", "the Constitution, ratified in 1920, prohibited sex-based denial or abridgment of any United States citizen's right to vote—thus effectively overruling the key holding in Minor v. Happersett. In some later voting rights cases, however, Minor was cited in opposition to the claim that the federal Constitution conferred a general right to vote, and in support of restrictive election laws involving poll taxes, literacy tests, and the role of political parties in special elections.\nIn the 1960s, the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In a", "that the \"right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged ... on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.\" U. S. Const., Amdt. 15, §1. In addition to that self-executing right, the Amendment also gives Congress the \"power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.\" §2. The first century of congressional enforcement of the Amendment, however, can only be regarded as a failure. Early enforcement Acts were inconsistently applied and repealed with the rise of Jim Crow. South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U. S. 301, 310 (1966); A. Keyssar, The Right", "authority of Congress. In the process, DC residents lost voting representation in Congress as they were no longer part of a US state. They also lost representation in the Electoral College and the right to home rule. By 1938, the residents were still fighting for these rights. The Twenty-third Amendment restored the right to vote in the Electoral College and on December 24, 1973, the District of Columbia Home Rule Act allowed the residents to elect a mayor and the 13-member Council of the District of Columbia.\nIn 1938 however, the situation was much different. The Evening Star points out that", "in the House of Representatives only, which would still leave the issue of Senate representation for District residents unresolved. Thus far, no bill granting the District voting representation has successfully passed both houses of Congress. If a bill were to pass, the law would not grant the District any additional authority over its local affairs. Political support Leading supporters of DC Statehood include most of the organizations that led the civil and voting rights movement of the 1960s. It is viewed as the logical extension of the expansion of voting rights that has occurred over the course of American" ]

[ "Tske into consideration the literacy rate.\n\nMost people could not read and had no reason to.\n\nNecessity is the mother of invention, that is a true idiom.\n\nThere wasn't a need for it.\n\nAs was stated, the Chinese invented movable type a few centuries before Europe.\n\nBut we did have related items. The Romans had stamps wood blocks, which it technically the basics of the press. They just didn't need it in mass numbers." ]

[ "Global spread of the printing press The global spread of the printing press began with the invention of the printing press with movable type by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, Germany c. 1439. Western printing technology was adopted in all world regions by the end of the 19th century, displacing the manuscript and block printing.\nIn the Western world, the operation of a press became synonymous with the enterprise of publishing and lent its name to a new branch of media, the \"press\" (see List of the oldest newspapers). Germany Gutenberg's first major print work was the 42-line Bible in Latin, printed probably", "technology was invented and developed in China by the Han Chinese printer Bi Sheng between the years 1041 and 1048. In the West, the invention of an improved movable type mechanical printing technology in Europe is credited to the German printer Johannes Gutenberg in 1450.\nThe exact date of Gutenberg's press is debated based on existing screw presses. Gutenberg, a goldsmith by profession, developed a printing system by both adapting existing technologies and making inventions of his own. His newly devised hand mould made possible the rapid creation of metal movable type in large quantities Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing", "were responsible for a 53-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in c. 1440 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the first Gutenberg press in Istanbul that was established by the Sephardic Jews of Spain in 1493 (who had migrated to the Ottoman Empire a year earlier, escaping from the Spanish Inquisition of 1492.) However, the printing press was used only by the non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the", "the printing press was a decisive invention in the history of the West. Lewis Mumford pointed out that printing was \"a completely mechanical achievement...the type for all future instruments of reproduction: for the printed sheet...was the first completely standardized product.\" Thus, for Innis, the printing press and the accompanying medium of paper ushered in not just the mechanization that would become characteristic of an industrial society based on mass production, but also the mechanization of knowledge itself. By that, Innis meant that printing led to the production of beliefs and practices that reinforced monopolies of knowledge characteristic of industrial culture.\nAn", "was set up in the Philippines by the Spanish in 1593. The Rev. Jose Glover intended to bring the first printing press to England's American colonies in 1638, but died on the voyage, so his widow, Elizabeth Harris Glover, established the printing house, which was run by Stephen Day and became The Cambridge Press.\nThe Gutenberg press was much more efficient than manual copying. It remained largely unchanged in the eras of John Baskerville and Giambattista Bodoni, over 300 years later. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had constructed a press completely from cast iron, reducing the force required by 90% while doubling", "or hand press that was used to print 180 copies of the Bible. At 1,282 pages, it took him and his staff of 20 almost 3 years to complete. 48 copies remain intact today. This form of presswork gradually replaced the hand-copied manuscripts of scribes and illuminators as the most prevalent form of printing. Printers' workshops, previously unknown in Europe before the mid-15th century, were found in every important metropolis by 1500. Later metal presses used a knuckle and lever arrangement instead of the screw, but the principle was the same. Ink rollers made of composition made inking faster and", "Publishing History Publishing became possible with the invention of writing, and became more practical upon the introduction of printing. Prior to printing, distributed works were copied manually, by scribes. Due to printing, publishing progressed hand-in-hand with the development of books.\nThe Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware circa 1045, but there are no known surviving examples of his printing. Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This invention gradually made books less expensive", "The Printing Revolution The Printing Revolution occurred when the spread of the printing press facilitated the wide circulation of information and ideas, acting as an \"agent of change\" through the societies that it reached. (Eisenstein (1980)) Mass production and spread of printed books The invention of mechanical movable type printing led to a huge increase of printing activities across Europe within only a few decades. From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany, printing had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe by the end of the 15th century. As early as 1480,", "Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 19th century. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour, but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour. Monotype and linotype typesetting machines were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once. There have been numerous improvements in the printing press. As well, the conditions for freedom of the press have been improved through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also intellectual property, public domain, copyright. In mid-20th century, European book production had risen", "of knowledge. Within 50 or 60 years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). More people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Book production became more commercialised, and the first copyright laws were passed. On the other hand, the printing press was criticized for allowing the dissemination of information which may have been incorrect.\nA second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by", "movable type mechanical device known as the printing press in 1450, the first outside of Asia. His printing press facilitated the mass-production of text and graphic art and eventually, replaced manual transcriptions altogether.\nAgain during the Renaissance years, graphic art in the form of printing played a major role in the spread of classical learning in Europe. Within these manuscripts, book designers focused heavily on typeface.\nDue to the development of larger fonts during the Industrial Revolution, posters became a popular form of graphic art used to communicate the latest information as well as to advertise the latest products and services.\nThe invention", "Letterpress printing History Johannes Gutenberg is credited with the development in the western hemisphere, in about 1440, of modern movable type printing from individually cast, reusable letters set together in a form (frame or chase). Movable type was first invented in China using ceramic type in 1040 AD. Gutenberg also invented a wooden printing press, based on the extant wine press, where the type surface was inked with leather-covered ink balls and paper laid carefully on top by hand, then slid under a padded surface and pressure applied from above by a large threaded screw. It was Gutenberg's \"screw press\"", "Making, and alike. In 1854, Watch and Clock making was given up as it was found not suitable to the requirements and capacity of the people.\nPrinting press with book binding department, another Industrial undertaking by missionaries, proved to be successful. After the Printing press started in 1841 at Mangalore, first Lithograph and later Kannada types[fonts] were introduced. In 1851, a printer with Kannada fonts came from the Basel for the press at Mangalore. The press printed Christian books and books related to Literature, Science, and The arts providing employment to several souls.\nAfter twenty-six years of missionary service, he returned to", "Introduced in the 1st century AD by the Romans, it was commonly employed in agricultural production for pressing wine grapes and (olive) oil fruit, both of which formed an integral part of the Mediterranean and medieval diet. The device was also used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also been inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century and which worked on the same mechanical principles.\nGutenberg adopted the basic design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand", "the nineteenth century. The roots lie with the Arts and Crafts Movement, particularly the Kelmscott Press. The use of small letterpress machines by amateur printers increased proportionately to the mechanization of commercial printing. Later, the advance of practical lithography made small press publication much easier.\nA recent burgeoning of small presses has been caused by the introduction of digital printing, especially print on demand technology. Combined with Internet based marketing, digital typesetting, design tools with the rise of eBooks, the new printing technologies have lowered the economic barriers to entry, allowing many new niches to be served, and many new publishers", "important signs of change; the first printing press was installed in Paris in 1470, and the printed book became a major force for intellectual and cultural change.", "type enhanced the already widespread use of woodblock methods of printing thousands of documents and volumes of written literature, consumed eagerly by an increasingly literate public. The advancement of printing deeply affected education and the scholar-official class, since more books could be made faster while mass-produced, printed books were cheaper in comparison to laborious handwritten copies. The enhancement of widespread printing and print culture in the Song period was thus a direct catalyst in the rise of social mobility and expansion of the educated class of scholar elites, the latter which expanded dramatically in size from the 11th to 13th", "declaring them out of print. Modern manufacturing The methods used for the printing and binding of books continued fundamentally unchanged from the 15th century into the early 20th century. While there was more mechanization, a book printer in 1900 had much in common with Gutenberg. Gutenberg's invention was the use of movable metal types, assembled into words, lines, and pages and then printed by letterpress to create multiple copies. Modern paper books are printed on papers designed specifically for printed books. Traditionally, book papers are off-white or low-white papers (easier to read), are opaque to minimise the show-through of text", "continued to be prevalent through most of the 19th century. For these purposes, offices employed copy clerks, also known as copyists, scribes, and scriveners.\nA few alternatives to hand copying were invented between the mid-17th century and the late 18th century, but none had a significant impact on offices. In 1780 James Watt obtained a patent for letter copying presses, which James Watt & Co. produced beginning in that year. Letter copying presses were used by the early 1780s by the people like Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson. In 1785, Jefferson was using both stationary and portable presses made", "inventor of modern printing in China, as Johannes Gutenberg is in the West. The first standard edition of the Confucian classics with commentary was published in 130 volumes between 932 and 953 in Xi'an. The improved printing technology quickly spread, and the earliest known Korean book was printed in 950.\n\"The work of Feng Tao and his associates for printing in China may be compared to the work of Gutenberg in Europe. There had been printing before Gutenberg − block printing certainly and very likely experimentation in typography also − but Gutenberg's Bible heralded a new day in the", "was at the time not very technologically advanced in this respect:\nMusic-printing was becoming increasingly widespread in the 18th century ... In those areas of Europe like Britain, France, and northern Germany, where music-publishing was well established, printed copies of instrumental music became the principal means of dissemination ... On the other hand, in [other] parts of Europe, principally the Austrian monarchy, southern Germany, Italy, and the Iberian peninsula, ... copying of music by hand remained the principal means of dissemination for all music through Haydn's lifetime [1732–1809].\nAs Jones as elsewhere pointed out, what set Traeg apart from most professional copyists", "the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today. Rotary press The steam powered rotary printing press, invented in 1843 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe, allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace.\nBy the late 1930s or early 1940s, rotary presses had increased", "type pieces were sturdier and the lettering more uniform, leading to typography and fonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible (1455) established the superiority of movable type for Western languages. The printing press rapidly spread across Europe, leading up to the Renaissance, and later all around the world.\nGutenberg's innovations in movable type printing have been called the most important invention of the second millennium. Rotary printing press The rotary printing press was invented by Richard March Hoe in 1843. It uses impressions curved around a cylinder to print on long continuous rolls of paper or", "to the decline of merchant guilds and the rise of individual traders. Industrial printing presses At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the mechanics of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press were still essentially unchanged, although new materials in its construction, amongst other innovations, had gradually improved its printing efficiency. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had built a press completely from cast iron which reduced the force required by 90%, while doubling the size of the printed area. With a capacity of 480 pages per hour, the Stanhope press doubled the output of the old style press. Nonetheless, the limitations inherent to the", "book was hand-copied or printed. Printing history Japan has had a long history of printing that has included a variety of different methods and technologies, but until the Edo period most books were still copied by hand. There were many types of printings: woodblock printing was the most popular publishing style, hand-copied printing were less popular and recognized as private publishing together with movable-type printing. The latter were used to print academic and Buddhist printing and one which was banned in woodblock printing. In the printing which used the kana syllabary before the Meiji period, the letters aimed to mimic", "Industrial Revolution By the early 19th century, many cities in Europe, as well as North and South America, published newspaper-type publications though not all of them developed in the same way; content was vastly shaped by regional and cultural preferences. Advances in printing technology related to the Industrial Revolution enabled newspapers to become an even more widely circulated means of communication, as new printing technologies made printing less expensive and more efficient. In 1814, The Times (London) acquired a printing press capable of making 1,100 impressions per hour. Soon, this press was adapted to print on both sides of a", "in just over a decade, the European age of printing began. However, the evidence shows a more complex evolutionary process, spread over multiple locations. Also, Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer experimented with Gutenberg in Mainz.\nCompared to woodblock printing, movable type page-setting was quicker and more durable. The metal type pieces were more durable and the lettering was more uniform, leading to typography and fonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible (1455) established the superiority of movable type, and printing presses rapidly spread across Europe, leading up to the Renaissance, and later all around the world.", "Printing press Economic conditions and intellectual climate The rapid economic and socio-cultural development of late medieval society in Europe created favorable intellectual and technological conditions for Gutenberg's improved version of the printing press: the entrepreneurial spirit of emerging capitalism increasingly made its impact on medieval modes of production, fostering economic thinking and improving the efficiency of traditional work-processes. The sharp rise of medieval learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technological factors Technologies preceding the press that led to the press's invention included:", "Gutenberg, the inventor of modern printing:\nIn 1440, Johannes Gutenberg introduced Europe to the mechanical printing press, printing Bibles for mass consumption. The technology allowed for books and manuscripts – originally replicated by hand – to be printed at a much faster rate, thus spreading knowledge and helping to usher in the European Renaissance ... Google has done a similar job.\nThe comparison was also noted by the authors of The Google Story: \"Not since Gutenberg ... has any new invention empowered individuals, and transformed access to information, as profoundly as Google.\" Also, not long after the two \"cooked up their new engine for web searches,", "(1440s)\nJohannes Gutenberg's great innovation was not the printing itself, but instead of using carved plates as in woodblock printing, he used separate letters (types) from which the printing plates for pages were made up. This meant the types were recyclable and a page cast could be made up far faster.\nPaper (13th century)\nPaper was invented in China and transmitted through Islamic Spain in the 13th century. In Europe, the paper-making processes was mechanized by water-powered mills and paper presses (see paper mill).\nRotating bookmark (13th century)\nA rotating disc and string device used to mark the page, column, and precise level in the" ]

[ "Nuclear Winter is not a local effect resulting from an atomic blast, but rather a hypothetical effect from lots of nukes going off. The theory is that the nukes would kick a lot of soot and dust up in to the air, blocking out the sun. The blocking out of the sun would result in lower temperatures since the sun can't heat up as much of the Earth anymore.\n\nSome of the effects are based on similar effects felt when a large volcano goes off. Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines went off in the early 90's and we only saw a slight drop in temperature (1 degree F).", "No. The concept of nuclear winter is that if a bunch of nukes all went off in a short period of time (like a nuclear war) the amount of dust put into the air would reduce the global temperature because they would block out sunlight.\n\nThe reality is if nuclear winter were to happen it would be the least of our worries as full scale nuclear war would have already broken out.", "_URL_0_\n\nTrinity and Beyond...movie about early atomic bomb development. Should be interesting to you.\n\nWhile these tests did not create \"nuclear winter\", the surface tests did create fallout. It was *mostly* localized and largely the reason that testing moved underground in its later stages before it was banned." ]

[ "but the Foreign Office warned that a moratorium on nuclear testing might come into effect in late October.\nThe scientists at Aldermaston had created a design incorporating staging, radiation implosion, and compression, but they had not mastered the design of thermonuclear weapons. Knowing that much of the yield of American and Soviet bombs came from fission in the uranium-238 tamper, they had focused on what they called the \"lithium-uranium cycle\", whereby neutrons from the fission of uranium would trigger fusion, which would produce more neutrons to induce fission in the tamper. However, this is not the most important reaction. Corner and", "nuclear weapons tested in space. The United States suspected that the Soviet Union might attempt to conduct secret nuclear tests after signing the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. On July 2, 1967, at 14:19 UTC, the Vela 4 and Vela 3 satellites detected a flash of gamma radiation unlike any known nuclear weapons signature. Uncertain what had happened but not considering the matter particularly urgent, the team at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, led by Ray Klebesadel, filed the data away for investigation. As additional Vela satellites were launched with better instruments, the Los Alamos team continued to find", "as opposed to the comparatively dilute global fallout created when nuclear weapons are fuzed in air burst mode.\nAltfeld and Cimbala also argued that belief in the possibility of nuclear winter would actually make nuclear war more likely, contrary to the views of Sagan and others, because it would serve yet further motivation to follow the existing trends, towards the development of more accurate, and even lower explosive yield, nuclear weapons. As the winter hypothesis suggests that the replacement of the then Cold War viewed strategic nuclear weapons in the multi-megaton yield range, with weapons of explosive yields closer to tactical", "of the tests, which released nuclear fallout into the atmosphere (most dramatically with the Castle Bravo test in 1954, but in more limited amounts with almost all atmospheric nuclear testing).\nBecause testing was seen as a sign of technological development (the ability to design usable weapons without some form of testing was considered dubious), halts on testing were often called for as stand-ins for halts in the nuclear arms race itself, and many prominent scientists and statesmen lobbied for a ban on nuclear testing. In 1958, the U.S., USSR, and the United Kingdom (a new nuclear power) declared a temporary testing", "tests; they were not supposed to result in nuclear radiation. All four took place at the Nevada Test Site. The safety tests were intended to ensure that the bombs would not malfunction. However, the test named Coulomb-C which took place in 1957 on December 9 did malfunction. It resulted in an unanticipated 500-ton blast. The blast released a nuclear radiation fallout cloud that traveled toward Los Angeles and resulted in low levels of nuclear radiation. The bomb failure added to public concern over nuclear testing's safety.\nSome tests were cut in an effort to meet Eisenhower's demands for a shorter testing", "at various locations in the United States, including Alaska, Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico. There have been an estimated 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide; the number of nuclear tests conducted by the United States alone is currently more than the sum of nuclear testing done by all other known nuclear states (the USSR, Great Britain, France, China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea) combined.\nThese nuclear tests infused vast quantities of radioactive material into the world's atmosphere, which was widely dispersed and then deposited as global fallout. How downwinders are exposed to fallout Aboveground nuclear explosions produce a characteristic mushroom cloud, which", "went into effect in 1961 halting all testing. However, in September, 1961, the Soviets broke the moratorium, performing 45 nuclear test events in two months, culminating with a 60-megaton blast on October 30, 1961, the largest at the time. When the Soviets broke the moratorium, the U.S. was not prepared to resume testing, and an immense effort was launched to get the test program back up and running, but even so, it wasn't until April, 1962, that America was able to perform their first post-moratorium tests (Operations Dominic and Fishbowl). Besides the work to prepare and launch the weapon, a", "the Bravo test. When the Soviet Union tested its first megaton device in 1955, the possibility of a limited nuclear war seemed even more remote in the public and political mind. Even cities and countries that were not direct targets would suffer fallout contamination. Extremely harmful fission products would disperse via normal weather patterns and embed in soil and water around the planet.\nSpeculation began to run towards what fallout and dust from a full-scale nuclear exchange would do to the world as a whole, rather than just cities and countries directly involved. In this way, the fate of the world", "but this proved ineffective.\nJust six months after the UN General Assembly, the United States conducted its first post-war nuclear tests. This was called Operation Crossroads. The purpose of this operation was to test the effectiveness of nuclear explosions on ships. These tests were performed at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific on 95 ships, including German and Japanese ships that were captured during World War II. One plutonium implosion-type bomb was detonated over the fleet, while the other one was detonated underwater.\nBehind the scenes, the Soviet government was working on building its own atomic weapons. During the war, Soviet efforts", "where nuclear weapons have been used in combat. Subsequently, the world's nuclear weapons stockpiles grew.\nOperation Crossroads was a series of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean in the summer of 1946. Its purpose was to test the effect of nuclear weapons on naval ships. Pressure to cancel Operation Crossroads came from scientists and diplomats. Manhattan Project scientists argued that further nuclear testing was unnecessary and environmentally dangerous. A Los Alamos study warned \"the water near a recent surface explosion will be a witch's brew\" of radioactivity. To prepare the atoll for", "official count, a total of 1,054 nuclear tests and two nuclear attacks were conducted, with over 100 of them taking place at sites in the Pacific Ocean, over 900 of them at the Nevada Test Site, and ten on miscellaneous sites in the United States (Alaska, Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico). Until November 1962, the vast majority of the U.S. tests were atmospheric (that is, above-ground); after the acceptance of the Partial Test Ban Treaty all testing was regulated underground, in order to prevent the dispersion of nuclear fallout.\n\nThe U.S. program of atmospheric nuclear testing exposed a number of the", "239 nuclear tests between 1965 and 1988. Furthermore, many of the \"tests\" were considered economic applications, not tests, in the Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy program.\nThese included a 30 kilotons explosion being used to close the Uzbekistani Urtabulak gas well in 1966 that had been blowing since 1963, and a few months later a 47 kilotons explosive was used to seal a higher-pressure blowout at the nearby Pamuk gas field. (For more details, see Blowout (well drilling)#Use of nuclear explosions.)\nDevices that produced the highest proportion of their yield via fusion-only reactions are possibly the Taiga Soviet peaceful nuclear explosions", "Downwinders Nuclear testing Between 1945 and 1980, the United States, the U.S.S.R., the United Kingdom, France and China exploded 504 nuclear devices in atmospheric tests at thirteen primary sites yielding the explosive equivalent of 440 megatons of TNT. Of these atmospheric tests, 330 were conducted by the United States. Accounting for all types of nuclear tests, official counts show that the United States has conducted 1,054 nuclear weapons tests to date, involving at least 1,151 nuclear devices, most of which occurred at Nevada Test Site and the Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands, with ten other tests taking place", "States has failed to ratify the treaty. Nevada From 1951 – mid-1962, the Nevada Test Site (NTS) was a primary site used for both surface and above-ground nuclear testing, with 86 tests at or above ground level, and 14 other tests underground, all of which involved releases of significant amounts of radioactive material into the atmosphere.\nIn the 1950s, people who lived in the vicinity of the NTS were encouraged to sit outside and watch the mushroom clouds that were created by nuclear bomb explosions. Many were given radiation badges to wear on their clothes, which were later collected by the", "the 35 nuclear tests in Operation Hardtack I, four were surface burst shots: Cactus, Koa, Quince and Fig. These tests took place from May to August 1958, all at the Enewetak Atoll. Surface tests inherently present the potential for more radioactive exposure issues than the high-altitude or underwater detonations. This is because there is more material present to be converted to radioactive debris by excess neutrons due to the proximity to the Earth's surface, and due to the soil and other minerals excavated from the craters created by these blasts. The existence of this extra material allows for larger radioactive", "Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Background Much of the stimulus for the treaty was increasing public unease about radioactive fallout as a result of above-ground or underwater nuclear testing, particularly given the increasing power of nuclear devices, as well as concern about the general environmental damage caused by testing. In 1952–53, the US and Soviet Union detonated their first thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs), far more powerful than the atomic bombs tested and deployed since 1945. In 1954, the US Castle Bravo test at Bikini Atoll (part of Operation Castle) had a yield of 15 megatons of TNT, more than doubling", "with technical support by the Naval Research Laboratory in October 1979 was that the American intelligence community had \"high confidence\" that the event was a low-yield nuclear explosion, although no radioactive debris had been detected, and there were \"no corroborating seismic or hydro-acoustic data\". A later NSC report revised this position to \"inconclusive\" about whether a nuclear test had occurred. That same report concluded that if a nuclear test had been carried out, responsibility should be ascribed to the Republic of South Africa. Office of Science and Technology evaluation The Carter Administration asked the Office of Science and Technology Policy", "fusion bomb, but would kill many people and contaminate a large area. A radiological weapon has never been deployed. While considered useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over nuclear terrorism.\nThere have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted since 1945. In 1963, all nuclear and many non-nuclear states signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, while China continued up until 1980. The last underground test by the United States was in", "exposure to radioactivity remaining at the Nevada Test Site from nuclear weapons tests was still an issue as late as 2007. The Pentagon planned to test a 700-ton ammonium nitrate-and-fuel oil \"bunker buster\" weapon. The planned \"Divine Strake\" test would have raised a large mushroom cloud of contaminated dust that could have blown toward population centers such as Las Vegas, Boise, Salt Lake City, and St. George, Utah. This project was cancelled in February 2007, in large part due to political pressure inspired by the threat of downwind exposure to radioactivity. Hanford While many downwinders were exposed to weapons testing,", "as a result of the 1971 Winter war, Bhutto of Pakistan launched scientific research on nuclear weapons. The Indian test caused Pakistan to spur its programme, and the ISI conducted successful espionage operations in the Netherlands, while also developing the programme indigenously. India tested fission and perhaps fusion devices in 1998, and Pakistan successfully tested fission devices that same year, raising concerns that they would use nuclear weapons on each other.\nAll of the former Soviet bloc countries with nuclear weapons (Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan) transferred their warheads to Russia by 1996.\nSouth Africa also had an active program to develop", "Daigo Fukuryū Maru, sailed home with enough fallout on her decks to allow scientists in Japan and elsewhere to determine, and announce, that most of the fallout had come from the fission of U-238 by fusion-produced 14 MeV neutrons. Underground testing The global alarm over radioactive fallout, which began with the Castle Bravo event, eventually drove nuclear testing literally underground. The last U.S. above-ground test took place at Johnston Island on November 4, 1962. During the next three decades, until September 23, 1992, the United States conducted an average of 2.4 underground nuclear explosions per month, all but a few", "New Mexico, the first nuclear test took place, code-named \"Trinity\", using a device nicknamed \"the gadget.\" The test, a plutonium implosion-type device, released energy equivalent to 22 kilotons of TNT, far more powerful than any weapon ever used before. The news of the test's success was rushed to Truman at the Potsdam Conference, where Churchill was briefed and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin was informed of the new weapon. On July 26, the Potsdam Declaration was issued containing an ultimatum for Japan: either surrender or suffer \"complete and utter destruction\", although nuclear weapons were not mentioned.\nAfter hearing arguments from scientists and", "January 1991, with the popular TV scientist personality of the time, Carl Sagan, who was also the co-author of the first few nuclear winter papers along with Richard P. Turco, John W. Birks, Alan Robock and Paul Crutzen together collectively stated that they expected catastrophic nuclear winter like effects with continental sized impacts of \"sub-freezing\" temperatures as a result of if the Iraqis went through with their threats of igniting 300 to 500 pressurized oil wells and they burned for a few months.\nLater when Operation Desert Storm had begun, Dr. S. Fred Singer and Carl Sagan discussed the possible environmental", "that the U.S. government had declared in advance. However, the test was more than twice as powerful as predicted, and changes in weather patterns blew nuclear fallout, in the form of a fine ash, outside the danger zone. On that day, the sky in the west lit up like a sunset. Seven minutes later, the sound of the explosion arrived, with fallout reaching the ship two hours later. The fishermen attempted to escape from the area, but they took time to retrieve fishing gear from the sea, exposing themselves to radioactive fallout for several hours.\nThe fallout – fine white flaky", "nuclear weapons, which were not unloaded but kept in Alexandria harbor until November to counter the Israeli nuclear preparations, which Soviet satellites had detected (Soviet intelligence informed Egypt that Israel had armed three nuclear weapons). American concern over possible evidence of nuclear warheads for the Soviet Scud missiles in Egypt contributed to Washington's decision to go to DEFCON 3. According to documents declassified in 2016, the move to DEFCON 3 was motivated by Central Intelligence Agency reports indicating that the Soviet Union had sent a ship to Egypt carrying nuclear weapons along with two other amphibious vessels. Soviet troops never", "and stored above ground, making them vulnerable to attack and bombings. It hypothesises that in any nuclear crisis, the Soviet Union would be obliged to fire all of them as early as possible in order to avoid their destruction by counterattack, hence the rapid progression from tactical to strategic nuclear exchange.\nIn the chaos just before the attack, towns and cities are evacuated and residents forced to move to the country. On 18 September at 9:11am, a doctor visits a family with an ill patient. As he finishes checking up on her and steps outside the air-raid sirens start to wail", "Test Readiness Program The Test Readiness Program was a United States Government program established in 1963 to maintain the necessary technologies and infrastructure for the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, should the treaty which prohibited such testing be abrogated. Events leading to the program From 1958 to 1961, as the world powers negotiated a treaty to ban all testing of nuclear weapons except underground, there was a major push in both the U.S. and the Soviet Union to complete as much development and testing of nuclear weapons as possible before such work was prohibited. Anticipating the upcoming treaty, a moratorium", "Soviet Union agreed on 30 August. This did not mean an immediate end to testing; on the contrary, all three rushed to perform as much testing as possible before the deadline. The British scientists needed to gather as much data as possible to allow them to design production nuclear weapons. As the prospect of increased American cooperation grew after October 1957, they knew that the quality and quantity of what the Americans would share would depend on what they had to offer. A new British test series, known as Grapple Z, commenced on 22 August. It explored new technologies such", "thirteen years, twelve major British nuclear tests would occur on Australian territory, along with thirty \"minor\" atomic trials testing sub-systems. The last Vixen B trial occurred in 1963 whereupon the United Kingdom moved its testing operations to the United States.\nThe Royal Commission into nuclear tests arose out of a public outcry, led by media reports, over the increasing evidence (and statistical significance) of premature deaths of former Australian staff associated with the atomic tests and subsequent birth defects of their off-springs. Likewise, remote indigenous communities downwind of the tests had statistically significant higher rates of radiation related diseases not generally", "nuclear test carried out as part of Operation Storax displaced 12 metric tons of earth, creating the largest man-made crater in the world, generating a large nuclear fallout over Nevada and Utah. Three tests were conducted in order to stimulate natural gas production, but the effort was abandoned as impractical because of cost and radioactive contamination of the gas.\nThere were many negative impacts from Project Plowshare's 27 nuclear explosions. For example, the Project Gasbuggy site, located 55 miles east of Farmington, New Mexico, still contains nuclear contamination from a single subsurface blast in 1967. Other consequences included blighted land, relocated" ]

[ "How long do you want to take to accelerate? Merging onto the highway in a reasonable time takes far more power than maintaining a constant speed. There are plenty of 1.0 l cars for sale in Europe. They take about 17 +/- seconds to reach 100 kph, but they are very fuel efficient. No one would buy them here in the US because it would be frankly frightening to try to merge onto our freeways in a car that slow.", "German here: u wot m8?\n\nNo seroiusly. Cars aren't only sold at one specific country. And slow cars wont sell no matter what the speed limits are", "Better question: many cars have electronically limited top speed, normally 135-155 mph. Why is it so much higher than most state's maximum speed limit and most people's maximum safe driving speed?", "Manufacturers make cars for sale all over the world. Speed limits vary, and some don't even have speed limits on the freeways (think Autobahn). It would be difficult and a waste of money to install per-country limiters.", "Basically it comes down to passion being more important than logic.\n\nSure it would not be technologically that difficult to engineer a car that is limited to 110kph, or any other arbitrary number chosen. As I recall Japan actually does this, all vehicles have a specified top speed.\n\nThe problem is human. Tell people \"You can never do X\" and a lot of people will do whatever it takes to do X. You can't do 111kph leads to people making it their life's work to do 111. As an example many BMW, Mercedes, Audi vehicles come with a limiter at 250kph. The very first thing a lot of tuners do is remove that limit. \n\nWill you ever drive faster than 250kph? No, and neither will almost anyone that has that modification done. They do it for bragging rights. They do it to say \"But mine does 270kph\".\n\nAs I mentioned Japan. I looked it up. The limit is 190kph, although apparently it is not legal, it is instead by agreement much like the German 250kph agreement. Again though, the very first modification done is to remove the limit. Not because they plan on driving faster, but just for bragging rights, just so they know they can. \n\nSo there it is, because humans will always brag about who is biggest strongest, fastest, dumbest, those limits would be immediately removed.", "An engine with reduced output that could only get your car up to 110 km/h max like you suggest, would have such piss-poor acceleration performance that you could hardly get enough speed to merge onto the freeway or make a safe pass on a two-lane highway.\n\nAlso like has been mentioned multiple times, speed limits are different, or non-existent, in countries other than yours.", "I had a datsun 120y which could merge safely onto the expressway but it's top speed on level road with my foot to the floor was about 105km/h. The speed limit here is 110km/h.", "Some folks mentioned about smaller engines being more efficient-\n\nThey're not, not really. Tiny-engine vehicles tend to get put into small cars that don't require as much energy to move, and they may not be driven all that fast.\n\nWhat you're looking for is a Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) map. What you're gonna see is an engine is most efficient at around 40% of its max HP. Varies a lot... but like that.\n\nNow it depends on what the body is, and honestly it's not well-documented. But a sedan on the highway can require over 30 hp easy. So a 75 hp engine would be needed for efficiency.\n\nExcept on hills, that engine falls significantly out of the sweet spot. It may be more efficient to go with a larger engine.\n\nLarger engines run at partial throttle aren't the liabilities they used to be. Some super-efficient engines out there with like 150hp. You might say \"well then it'd be MUCH more efficient if it were half the size.\" Probably not, though. That would require higher RPM to cruise on the highway- it'll be LESS efficient to use a smaller engine of the same tech and run at higher throttle most of the time.", "If the top speed of your car was the speed limit it would mean more work for your engine. Slower acceleration, more time at high revs which would lead to more strain on the engine and a shorter life span. \n\nAs safety standards increase so does the weight of cars so engines seem like they are much more powerful than before but they are just making up for extra weight." ]

[ "were most efficient at 55 mph (89 km/h).\nIn 1998, the U.S. Transportation Research Board footnoted an estimate that the 1974 National Maximum Speed Limit (NMSL) reduced fuel consumption by 0.2 to 1.0 percent. Rural interstates, the roads most visibly affected by the NMSL, accounted for 9.5% of the U.S' vehicle-miles-traveled in 1973, but such free-flowing roads typically provide more fuel-efficient travel than conventional roads. Fuel economy data reliability The mandatory publication of the fuel consumption by the manufacturer led some to use dubious practices to reach better values in the past. If the test is on a test stand, the vehicle may", "of generating 265 horsepower and could reach a maximum speed of 115 miles per hour (185 km/h).\nIn June 1931, during a Society of Automotive Engineers meeting in West Virginia, Duesenberg \"predicted that speeds of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) on the highways would soon be common.\" As of May 2019, speed limits for passenger cars on U.S. interstate highways remain under 100 mph (160 km/h), ranging from 55 mph (89 km/h) to 85 mph (137 km/h), depending on the individual state and road segment. Later auto racing Although the Duesenberg team had mechanical and fuel issues in the Indianapolis 500-mile race in 1919 and its entries", "at 105 km/h (65 mph) than at 72 km/h (45 mph) (9.4 L/100 km (25 mpg‑US) vs 22 mpg‑US (11 L/100 km)). The proportion of driving on high speed roadways varies from 4% in Ireland to 41% in the Netherlands.\nWhen the US National Maximum Speed Law's 55 mph (89 km/h) speed limit was mandated, there were complaints that fuel economy could decrease instead of increase. The 1997 Toyota Celica got better fuel-efficiency at 105 km/h (65 mph) than it did at 65 km/h (40 mph) (5.41 L/100 km (43.5 mpg‑US) vs 5.53 L/100 km (42.5 mpg‑US)), although even better at 60 mph (97 km/h) than at 65 mph (105 km/h) (48.4 mpg‑US (4.86 L/100 km) vs 43.5 mpg‑US (5.41 L/100 km)), and its best economy (52.6 mpg‑US (4.47 L/100 km)) at only 25 mph (40 km/h). Other", "distance, from intra-city trips at low-speed for shopping, to inter-city trips at high-speeds to visit distant relatives. No other form of transit offers the same variety of capabilities.\nThat said, there are numerous reasons why automobiles are not as efficient as they could be. Engines are normally sized to provide the acceleration performance or load-bearing capacity needed for operations in a city, which is far too much power than would be needed for operations on an expressway at high speeds. Suspension loads vary relative to the square of speed, so cars have systems able to deal with loads at highway speeds", "be able to maintain a maximum speed over 100 km/h (62 mph), weigh below 400 kg (882 lbs), fuel consumption at 30 km/L (85 mpg‑imp; 71 mpg‑US) or more, at an average speed of 60 km/h (37 mph) on a level road, and not require maintenance or significant service for at least 100,000 km (62,000 mi). This established a \"compact car\" target that was larger than what has become known as the \"light car\" or the kei car. \nOne of the first compact cars that met those requirements was the Toyota Publica with an air cooled two cylinder opposed engine, the Datsun 110 series, and the Mitsubishi 500. The Publica and", "was within 15% of that from 29 to 57 mph (45 to 95 km/h). At higher speeds, wind resistance plays an increasing role in reducing energy efficiency.\nHybrids typically get their best fuel efficiency below this model-dependent threshold speed. The car will automatically switch between either battery powered mode or engine power with battery recharge. Electric cars, such as the Tesla Model S, may go up to 728.7 kilometres (452.8 mi) at 39 km/h (24 mph).\nRoad capacity affects speed and therefore fuel efficiency as well. Studies have shown speeds just above 45 mph (72 km/h) allow greatest throughput when roads are congested. Individual drivers can improve their fuel", "that the driver will be matching their speed to the vehicle in front before they reach it, eliminating the \"brick-wall\" effect.\nWidely used numbers are that a car traveling at 60 mph will require about 225 feet to stop, a distance it will cover just under 6 seconds. Nevertheless, highway travel often occurs with considerable safety with tip-to-tail headways on the order of 2 seconds. That's because the user's reaction time is about 1.5 seconds so 2 seconds allows for a slight overlap that makes up for any difference in braking performance between the two cars.\nVarious personal rapid transit systems in the 1970s", "capacity roads One line of light rail (requires 25' Right of Way) has a theoretical capacity of up to 8 times more than one 12' lane of freeway (not counting buses) during peak times. Roads have ultimate capacity limits that can be determined by traffic engineering. They usually experience a chaotic breakdown in flow and a dramatic drop in speed (colloquially known as a traffic jam) if they exceed about 2,000 vehicles per hour per lane (each car roughly two seconds behind another). Since most people who drive to work or on business trips do so alone, studies show that", "their own more aggressive law. Because of federal law, car dealers cannot legally sell the vehicles to go faster than 25 mph (40 km/h), but the buyer can easily modify the car to go 35 mph (56 km/h). However, if modified to exceed 25 mph (40 km/h), the vehicle then becomes subject to additional safety requirements.\nThese speed restrictions, combined with a typical driving range of 30 miles (48 km) per charge and a typical three-year battery durability, are required because of a lack of federally mandated safety equipment and features which NEVs can not accommodate because of their design. To satisfy federal safety requirements for", "(205 N⋅m) at 4000 rpm of torque. All variants can be had with a MT or AT, with the MT fuel efficiency of 9.0 L/100 km (31.4 mpg‑imp; 26.1 mpg‑US) City and 7.0 L/100 km (40.4 mpg‑imp; 33.6 mpg‑US) Highway. The AT performs slightly better, at 9.0 L/100 km (31.4 mpg‑imp; 26.1 mpg‑US) City and 6.6 L/100 km (42.8 mpg‑imp; 35.6 mpg‑US) Highway.\nThe MX-5 (ND) has been very popular with diecast manufacturers like Hot Wheels and Matchbox, both companies releasing their own versions of the car to the market. MX-5 RF In late 2016, a new MX-5 RF (Retractable Fastback) model was announced. It features a rigid roof and buttresses that give the silhouette a more", "35 or 45 mph (56 or 72 km/h). Because of federal law, car dealers cannot legally sell the vehicles to go faster than 25 mph (40 km/h), but the buyer can easily modify the car to go 35 mph (56 km/h). However, if modified to exceed 25 mph (40 km/h), the vehicle then becomes subject to safety requirements of passenger cars.\nThese speed restrictions, combined with a typical driving range of 30 miles (48 km) per charge and a typical three-year battery durability, are required because of a lack of federally mandated safety equipment and features which NEVs can not accommodate because of their design. To satisfy federal safety", "On roads or lanes with a (general or posted) speed limit under 80 km/h, these vehicles must abide by this lower limit. Trucks and vehicles above 3.5 tons are required to have a speed limiting device to prevent them from speeding above 90 km/h (56 mph).\nCars and trucks pulling a trailer with a total (car+trailer) weight under 3.5 tons have an overall speed limit of 90 km/h (56 mph), and coaches equipped with seat belts, categorized as T100, have an overall speed limit of 100 km/h (62 mph). This following the same regulation as standing above. Light commercial vehicles under 3.5 tons", "60 mph (97 km/h) is similar to paying an additional $0.30 per gallon for gas. The exact speed at which a vehicle achieves its highest efficiency varies based on the vehicle's drag coefficient, frontal area, surrounding air speed, and the efficiency and gearing of a vehicle's drive train and transmission. Residential sector The residential sector is all private residences, including single-family homes, apartments, manufactured homes and dormitories. Energy use in this sector varies significantly across the country, due to regional climate differences and different regulation. On average, about half of the energy used in U.S. homes is expended on space", "vehicles tested had from 1.4 to 20.2% better fuel-efficiency at 90 km/h (56 mph) vs. 105 km/h (65 mph). Their best economy was reached at speeds of 40 to 90 km/h (25 to 56 mph) (see graph).\nOfficials hoped that the 55 mph (89 km/h) limit, combined with a ban on ornamental lighting, no gasoline sales on Sunday, and a 15% cut in gasoline production, would reduce total gas consumption by 200,000 barrels a day, representing a 2.2% drop from annualized 1973 gasoline consumption levels. This was partly based on a belief that cars achieve maximum efficiency between 65 and 80 km/h (40 and 50 mph) and that trucks and buses", "maximum speed limit for cars and motorcycles in Autovía 2 is 120 km/h, with the exception of urban zones where the limit reduces to 60 km/h. For buses, the speed limit has been established at 90 km/h and trucks must go at 80 km/h.\nThe contract of concession specifies that current dual carriageway could become a highway, as well as a reconstruction of the curves to raise the speed limit to 120 km/h in those sectors.", "rapidly than in a diesel because of throttling losses. Because cruising at an efficient speed uses much less than the maximum power of the engine, the optimum operating point for cruising at low power is typically at very low engine speed, around or below 1000 rpm. This explains the usefulness of very high \"overdrive\" gears for highway cruising. For instance, a small car might need only 10–15 horsepower (7.5–11.2 kW) to cruise at 60 mph (97 km/h). It is likely to be geared for 2500 rpm or so at that speed, yet for maximum efficiency the engine should be running at about 1000 rpm to generate", "and a six-speed (four forward, two reverse) Allison X-1100-3B Hydro-Kinetic automatic transmission, giving it a governed top speed of 45 mph (72 km/h) on paved roads, and 30 mph (48 km/h) cross-country. With the engine governor removed, speeds of around 60 mph (97 km/h) are possible on an improved surface; however, damage to the drivetrain (especially to the tracks) and an increased risk of injuries to the crew can occur at speeds above 45 mph (72 km/h). The tank was built around this engine and it is multifuel–capable, including diesel, kerosene, any grade of motor gasoline, and jet fuel (such as JP-4 or JP-8). For logistical reasons, JP-8", "the open road is 100 km/h (62 mph) for cars and motorcycles, with 50 km/h (31 mph) the default limit in urban areas. Around 31 km (19 mi) of motorway and expressway in Waikato and the Bay of Plenty have a higher posted speed limit of 110 km/h (68 mph). Speed limits of 10 to 90 km/h (6.2 to 55.9 mph) are also used in increments of 10 km/h (6.2 mph), and the posted speed limit may be more than the allowed speed limit for a particular vehicle type. Speeds are often reduced to 30 km/h (19 mph) beside roadworks.\nPrivate landowners may set their own speed limits, for example 5 km/h (3 mph), although these are", "average of 63 km/h while the car was equipped with a much heavier engine.", "The 2003 model recorded fuel efficiency of 39 kW·h/100 mi city, 49 kW·h/100 mi highway; the city mileage rating was equivalent to 125 mpg‑US (1.88 L/100 km; 150 mpg‑imp), and 100 mpg‑US (2.4 L/100 km; 120 mpg‑imp) on the highway. The EPA rated combined mileage was 112 mpg‑US (2.10 L/100 km; 135 mpg‑imp).\nIn 2007, the EPA updated its rating system and revised the ratings to a city equivalent of 87 mpg‑US (2.7 L/100 km; 104 mpg‑imp), highway equivalent of 69 mpg‑US (3.4 L/100 km; 83 mpg‑imp), and a combined equivalent of 78 mpg‑US (3.0 L/100 km; 94 mpg‑imp). Consumable items The RAV4 EV's battery system is a consumable item. Toyota reports that battery pack replacement costs are currently higher than the value of the used vehicle. Toyota tested", "30 km/h limit. Most sections of numbered routes that are not part of expressways have a limit of 70 km/h. Many connecting main roads, longer roads and dual carriageways also have the speed limit increased to 70 km/h and 80 km/h for a few other connecting roads. Many roads with this speed limit are bypasses.\nNote that for safety reasons, the speed limit for buses, medium and heavy goods vehicles is 70 km/h for all roads with a general speed limit at or above 70 km/h.\nA speeding offence under 10 km/h over the speed limit is not usually enforced; many drivers in", "for French automobiles and they are likely to be significantly larger in more auto-centric countries like the United States and Canada, where much larger and heavier cars are more common.\nDriving practices and vehicles can be modified to improve their energy efficiency by about 15%.\nOn a percentage basis, if there is one occupant in an automobile, between 0.4-0.6% of the total energy used is used to move the person in the car, while 99.4-99.6% (about 165 to 250 times more) is used to move the car. Trains Trains are in general one of the most efficient means of transport for freight", "what the average driver would achieve.\nThe following data is taken from the EPA figures for the Prius: 48 mpg‑US (4.9 L/100 km; 58 mpg‑imp) city driving, 45 mpg‑US (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg‑imp) highway driving, 46 mpg‑US (5.1 L/100 km; 55 mpg‑imp) combined. United Kingdom The official UK fuel consumption data, provided by the Department for Transport, rates the Prius as: 56.5 mpg‑imp (5.00 L/100 km; 47.0 mpg‑US) urban, 67.3 mpg‑imp (4.20 L/100 km; 56.0 mpg‑US) extra urban and 65.7 mpg‑imp (4.30 L/100 km; 54.7 mpg‑US) combined. Air pollution In the United States the EPA measures a vehicle's air-borne pollution based on hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and formaldehyde before assigning them a score. In most states the XW20 Prius is", "and has a maximum road speed of 60 km/h on road and 30 km/h off-road.", " Low-speed vehicles are defined as a four-wheeled motor vehicle that has a gross vehicle weight rating of less than 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) and a top speed of between 20 to 25 mph (32 to 40 km/h).\nStates which have specific regulations for LSVs include Alaska, California, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine Maryland, Missouri, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Utah\nNearly all 50 states allow LSVs, also called NEVs, to drive on their roads where the speed limit is 35 mph or less. Either they follow FMVSS500 (25 mph top speed on 35 mph limit roads), or make", "more fuel-efficient travel than conventional roads. 1987 and 1988—65 mph limit In the April 2, 1987, Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act, Congress permitted states to raise speed limits to 65 mph (105 km/h) on rural Interstate highways. In a bill that passed in mid-December 1987, Congress allowed certain non-Interstate rural roads built to Interstate standards to have the higher speed limits. As of December 29, 1987, the states of California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, and Oklahoma had applied for and been accepted into this program. The program was originally slated to last four years. A total of 40 states raised", "while the road is oily or while pedestrian traffic is dense.\nA law in 1960 limited the speed inside settlements between 5 a.m. and 11 p.m. to 50 km/h (31 mph). Buses and trucks over 3,500 kg (7,700 lb) were limited outside settlements to 80 km/h (50 mph). Also, in 1966, motorcycles were limited to 80 km/h. Long-distance buses were freed from limits. Towed automobiles were limited to 50 km/h.\nSpeed limits were abolished on motorways (dálnice), even for trucks and motorcycles, in 1971. Furthermore, in 1976, all of the 50 km/h limits were increased to 60 km/h (37 mph). The special limits for motorcycles, trucks and buses were repealed. The ordinance in", "Ontario which were reduced to 55 mph.\nIn 1977, highways started using the metric system with speeds being increased slightly to a maximum ranging from 80 to 100 km/h (50 to 62 mph).\nIn 2013, \"speed too fast / exceed speed limit\" contributed to 18.4% of all collisions, while \"speeding\" accounted for 55.2% of all driving convictions. An Ontario-based group is lobbying to increase speed limits from 100 km/h to 130 km/h (80 mph).\nIn 2015, the Ontario government announced a plan to reduce residential speed limits from the statutory default 50 km/h, either by reducing the statutory limit to 40 km/h or by giving municipalities the option to set", "speed at zero flow and jam density. The congested branch has a negative slope, which implies that the higher the density on the congested branch the lower the flow; therefore, even though there are more cars on the road, the number of cars passing a single point is less than if there were fewer cars on the road. The intersection of freeflow and congested vectors is the apex of the curve and is considered the capacity of the roadway, which is the traffic condition at which the maximum number of vehicles can pass by a point in a", "30 mpg and 28 highway, with combined 29 mpg. The AWD version EPA ratings 28 city and 26 highway, combined 27 mpg -U.S. in city traffic, and has demonstrated it can travel 400–500 miles (644–805 km) on a single 15.0-U.S.-gallon (57 L; 12.5 imp gal) mpg-U.S. (7.6L-8.1 L/100 km; 35–37 mpg₋ᵢₘₚ) on the highway. To obtain these mileage figures, the owners manual states that pure gasoline, not ethanol blends, must be used. Unlike conventional vehicles, hybrids often achieve better figures in the city because they do not waste power idling and can recover some power when stopping (by using regenerative braking) that would be wasted in" ]

[ "The idea that everyone has a unique fingerprint isnt really scientifically proven. There is a real possibility that you and someone else currently living have identical fingerprints." ]

[ "might be used to gain unauthorized access. However, the article did say that biometrics technology had improved since tests on spoofing fingerprint readers had been conducted.\nKingsley-Hughes suggested the Touch ID as a form of two-factor authentication, combining something one knows (the password) with \"something you are\" (the fingerprint). Forbes said that, if two-factor authentication is available, it will be an overall improvement for security.\nForbes columnist Andy Greenberg said the fact that fingerprint data was stored on the local device and not in a centralized database was a win for security.", "16) were now required to have fingerprints taken from their two index fingers, as well as a photograph. The J-BIS system was the second system of its type enacted in the world; the first was the United States's US-VISIT system.\nThe fingerprint scans and photographs are transferred from the airport to the immigration office's servers, and this information is compared against a blacklist in around five seconds.\nThis list is a collection of Interpol information and around 14,000 people that have been searched by Japanese police, as well as the fingerprints and pictures that were recorded from around 800,000 foreigners who were", "developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to be used to verify the identity of persons applying for a United States for the purposes of conducting background checks, confirming identity, and ensuring that a person has not received a visa under a different name. This report was released on November 13, 2002, however, according to NIST, this was later \"determined that the fingerprint system used was not as accurate as current state-of-the-art fingerprint systems and is approximately equivalent to commercial fingerprint systems available in 1998\" This report was later superseded by section 303(a) of the Enhanced Border", "tests showing the system managing to separate the two, while other tests have failed.\nHowever, despite Apple's promise of increased security of Face ID compared to the Touch ID fingerprint authentication system, there have been multiple media reports indicating otherwise. The Verge noted that courts in the United States have granted different Fifth Amendment rights in the United States Constitution to biometric unlocking systems as opposed to keycodes. Keycodes are considered \"testimonial\" evidence based on the contents of users' thoughts, whereas fingerprints are considered physical evidence, with some suspects having been ordered to unlock their phones via fingerprint. Many attempts to", "but concluded that it is not an easy process in either time or effort, given that the user has to use a high resolution photocopy of a complete fingerprint, special chemicals and expensive equipment, and because the spoofing process takes some time to achieve. Impact In a 2013 New York magazine opinion piece, Kevin Roose argued that consumers are generally not interested in fingerprint recognition, preferring to use passcodes instead. Traditionally, he wrote, only businesspeople used biometric recognition, although they believe Touch ID may help bring fingerprint recognition to the masses. Roose stated the feature will also allow application developers", "of the most recognisable companies that use Fingerprint Cards' technology include; Google, Huawei, Oppo and BlackBerry. Fingerprint Cards' sensor, FPC1025, was chosen by Google for their first Pixel smartphone. The newest Pixel also include a Fingerprint Cards sensor (FPC1035) which was released on May 8, 2019.\nHuawei have been using Fingerprint Cards' product in their smartphones since 2015. Some of their models with Fingerprint Cards technology include their new phones; Nova 3e and Enjoy 8. Partnerships Fingerprint Cards is working together with Precise Biometrics, STMicroelectronics and Gemalto to replace Username/Password applications. Fingerprint Cards and its partners are working on the development", "also noted that fingerprint technology still has some issues, such as the potential to be hacked, or of the device's not recognizing the fingerprint (for example, when the finger has been injured).\nAdrian Kingsley-Hughes, writing for ZDNet, said Touch ID could be useful in bring your own device situations. He said the biometric protection adds another layer of security, removing the ability of people to look over others' shoulders and read their passcode/password. He added that Touch ID would prevent children from racking up thousands of dollars in unwanted purchases when using iPhones owned by adults. He observed that Touch ID", "not their fingerprint, can be used to unlock the device, or during other specific use cases.\nIn September 2013, the German Chaos Computer Club announced that it had bypassed Apple's Touch ID security. A spokesman for the group stated: \"We hope that this finally puts to rest the illusions people have about fingerprint biometrics. It is plain pity to use something that you can't change and that you leave everywhere every day as a security token.\" Similar results have been achieved by using PVA Glue to take a cast of the finger. Others have also used Chaos Computer Club's method,", "Haque and Bose.\n\nHaque's unique contribution to fingerprinting development technique is recently noted in an article by Clive Thompson in the April 2019 issue of Smithsonian magazine. Thompson, reviewing the history of the development of fingerprint science, noted that while other thinkers in the 19th century tried to create a method to categorize fingerprints, these other methods could not be quickly used to match a set of prints to a suspect. Thompson writes:\nThe breakthrough in matching prints came from Bengal, India. Azizul Haque, the head of identification for the local police department, developed an elegant system that categorized prints into subgroups", "of fingerprints. A query fingerprint that needs to be matched can therefore be compared with a subset of fingerprints in an existing database. Early classification systems were based on the general ridge patterns, including the presence or absence of circular patterns, of several or all fingers. This allowed the filing and retrieval of paper records in large collections based on friction ridge patterns alone. The most popular systems used the pattern class of each finger to form a numeric key to assist lookup in a filing system. Fingerprint classification systems included the Roscher System, the Juan Vucetich System and the", "and upon death still exhibited almost complete relation to one another. Fingerprint verification Fingerprints can be captured as graphical ridge and valley patterns. Because of their uniqueness and permanence, fingerprints emerged as the most widely used biometric identifier in the 2000s. Automated fingerprint verification systems were developed to meet the needs of law enforcement and their use became more widespread in civilian applications. Despite being deployed more widely, reliable automated fingerprint verification remained a challenge and was extensively researched in the context of pattern recognition and image processing. The uniqueness of a fingerprint can be established by the overall pattern", "\"token\") higher than biometrics.\nAlthough it ranks facial recognition and iris recognition ahead of contactless fingerprint identification, it is the fingerprint that ranks highest of the three for high-security situations. The whitepaper noted that the Canadian Border Services Agency was planning to utilize a combination of facial recognition and fingerprints.\nOne such experiment used an assist: using flight manifests to compare faces with passport photos of those listed.\nA pending court case defined failures of even 1% to be \"high risk\" if it results in denials of government benefits. Research A 2012 technology review of fingerprint identification with 95 citations only had three", "considered more resilient to website fingerprinting techniques than other tunneling protocols.\nThe reason for this is conventional single-hop VPN protocols do not need to reconstruct packet data nearly as much as a multi-hop service like Tor or JonDonym. Website fingerprinting yielded greater than 90% accuracy for identifying HTTP packets on conventional VPN protocols versus Tor which yielded only 2.96% accuracy. However, some protocols like OpenSSH and OpenVPN required a large amount of data before HTTP packets were identified.\nResearchers from the University of Michigan developed a network scanner allowing identification of 86% of live Tor \"bridges\" with a single scan. Autonomous system", "regarding contactless/touchless research.\nA 2017 NIST designed to see how effectively members of the public could use a contactless fingerprint device in a simulated airport situation found that about half of the participants could not successfully validate their fingerprints on their first try. The study added a training video, and that improved results. The report considered it \"encouraging for the employment of touchless finerprint technology.\"", "laboratories Although there are hundreds of reported techniques for fingerprint detection, many of these are only of academic interest and there are only around 20 really effective methods which are currently in use in the more advanced fingerprint laboratories around the world.\nSome of these techniques, such as ninhydrin, diazafluorenone and vacuum metal deposition, show great sensitivity and are used operationally. Some fingerprint reagents are specific, for example ninhydrin or diazafluorenone reacting with amino acids. Others such as ethyl cyanoacrylate polymerisation, work apparently by water-based catalysis and polymer growth. Vacuum metal deposition using gold and zinc has been shown to be", "through 1988, while working in the CCMB, Singh established that this Bkm-derived probe could be used to generate individual specific DNA Fingerprints of humans for forensic investigations; and in 1988, he used that probe for the first time to solve a case of parentage dispute in India. In 1991, Singh produced the first DNA fingerprinting based evidence in an Indian Court to settle a disputed paternity. This was followed by DNA fingerprinting based resolution of hundreds of civil and criminal cases, including cases such as the assassination case(s) of Beant Singh and Rajiv Gandhi, Naina Sahni Tandoor murder case, Swami", "patterns. Beavan further writes: \nBy 1897, Haque had collected 7000 fingerprint sets in his cabinet. His simple methods of further sub-classification, which were easier to learn and less prone to error than Galton's, meant that even a collection numbering in the hundreds of thousands could be divided into small groups of slips. As he predicted, his fingerprint sets, compared with anthropometric cards, were far less prone to error and could be classified and searched with much greater confidence. The registration of a convict or a search for his existing card took an hour under the anthropometric system, but only five", "reflected from the tops of fingerprints on a plate.\"\nAs of 2017, \"face recognition technologies on the whole are in general less accurate than fingerprinting.\" Aging, variations in pose and problems with illumination have caused the former to have \"higher error rates.\" History The use of lasers to detect fingerprints already existed in the 1980s, but this was limited to matching objects to fingerprints on file. USA Public/Private Contactless study A 30-page white paper titled \"Risks and Opportunities of Contactless Biometrics\" identified \"spoofing as a serious limitation, and ranks what people know (password, challenge question) and what they have (keycard, identify", "ill to work on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, Francis Galton, who was interested in anthropology. Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book Finger Prints. He had calculated that the chance of a \"false positive\" (two different individuals having the same fingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion.\nJuan Vucetich, an Argentine chief police officer, created the first method of recording the fingerprints of individuals on file. In 1892, after studying Galton's pattern types,", "another user's fingerprint, that fingerprint (or the key it refers to) will be stored locally along with a record of the other user's name or address, so that future communications with that user can be automatically authenticated.\nIn systems such as X.509-based PKI, fingerprints are primarily used to authenticate root keys. These root keys issue certificates which can be used to authenticate user keys. This use of certificates eliminates the need for manual fingerprint verification between users.\nIn systems such as PGP or Groove, fingerprints can be used for either of the above approaches: they can be used to authenticate", "that guarantees integrity and authenticity of communication (but not necessarily secrecy), before starting their conversation. If the fingerprints match, there is in theory, no man in the middle. \nWhen displayed for human inspection, fingerprints are usually encoded into hexadecimal strings. These strings are then formatted into groups of characters for readability. For example, a 128-bit MD5 fingerprint would be displayed as follows:\n 43:51:43:a1:b5:fc:8b:b7:0a:3a:a9:b1:0f:66:73:a8\nSome protocols display natural language representations of the hexadecimal blocks. As the approach consists of a one-to-one mapping between fingerprint blocks and words, there is no loss in entropy. The protocol may choose to display words in", "Device fingerprint History Basic web browser configuration information has long been collected by web analytics services in an effort to accurately measure real human web traffic and discount various forms of click fraud. With the assistance of client-side scripting languages, collection of much more esoteric parameters is possible. Assimilation of such information into a single string comprises a device fingerprint. \nIn 2010, Electronic Frontier Foundation launched a website where visitors can test their browser fingerprint. After collecting a sample of 470161 fingerprints, they measured at least 18.1 bits of entropy possible from browser fingerprinting, but that was before the", "down. Alice can then check that this trusted fingerprint matches the fingerprint of the public key. Exchanging and comparing values like this is much easier if the values are short fingerprints instead of long public keys.\nFingerprints can also be useful when automating the exchange or storage of key authentication data. For example, if key authentication data needs to be transmitted through a protocol or stored in a database where the size of a full public key is a problem, then exchanging or storing fingerprints may be a more viable solution.\nIn addition, fingerprints can be queried with search", "material to Optimal.\" Biometrics and Fingerprint Identification International Automated Systems developed a biometric device consisting of an automated fingerprint reader (AFIM = Automated Fingerprint Identification Machine) that was able to read a person's fingerprint, then use that information to create a specific, personalized code number, which could be stored in a small amount of digital space, such as on the magnetic strip of a credit card. People could then use other AFIM fingerprint scanners to identify themselves and purchase items or obtain access to controlled locations and devices in a secured way. Other Products The company currently is developing", "as an electronic passport) has descriptive data and a digitized passport photo on its contactless chips, and does not have fingerprint information placed onto the contactless chip. However, the chip is large enough (64 kilobytes) for inclusion of biometric identifiers. The U.S. Department of State first issued these passports in 2006, and since August 2007 issues biometric passports only. Non-biometric passports are valid until their expiration dates.\nAlthough a system able to perform a facial-recognition match between the bearer and his or her image stored on the contactless chip is desired, it is unclear when such a system will be deployed", "by FP Experts. It uses Minutiae based search after converting the Finger Prints available on ten digit F.P. slips and lifted chance prints to their digital form. Since it is a Minutiae based search even the most partial chance prints not having delta or core i.e., complete pattern, are successfully searched on the entire database of AFIS and the search results are offered with great speed and fool-proof accuracy. \nThe Karnataka State Police installed an imported portable live scan device in various Police stations in the State under the Police Modernization scheme for obtaining 10 digit finger prints of arrested", " As well as standard user information, finger displays the contents of the .project and .plan files in the user's home directory. Often this file (maintained by the user) contains either useful information about the user's current activities, similar to micro-blogging, or alternatively all manner of humor. Security concerns Supplying such detailed information as e-mail addresses and full names was considered acceptable and convenient in the early days of networking, but later was considered questionable for privacy and security reasons. Finger information has been used by hackers as a way to initiate a social engineering attack on a", "biometrics engineer Geppy Parziale, Roose suggested that the CMOS-based sensor could become inaccurate and wear out over time unless Apple had designed the sensor to prevent this from occurring. Brent Kennedy, a researcher of the United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team, recommended that users not immediately rely on the technology, citing the uncertainty over whether the system could properly reject a spoofed fingerprint.\nFollowing the release of the iPhone 5S, the German Chaos Computer Club announced on September 21, 2013 that they had bypassed Apple's new Touch ID fingerprint sensor by using \"easy everyday means\". The group explained that the security", "as a means in which records would be logically filed and searched had not yet been invented.\nIn 1880, Dr. Henry Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin, explaining a system for classifying fingerprints, asking for his assistance in their development. Darwin was unable to assist Dr. Faulds, but agreed to forward the letter to his cousin, Sir Francis Galton. Dr. Henry Faulds and Sir Francis Galton did not engage in much correspondence, but in the following decade, they devised very similar fingerprint classification systems. It is unclear whom to credit for the classification system. However, we do know that Dr. Henry Faulds", "with a propagation model to determine the distance between the client device and the access points. Trilateration (sometimes called multilateration) techniques can be used to calculate the estimated client device position relative to the known position of access points.\nThough one of the cheapest and easiest methods to implement, its disadvantage is that it does not provide very good accuracy (median of 2-4m), because the RSSI measurements tend to fluctuate according to changes in the environment or multipath fading. Fingerprinting based Traditional fingerprinting is also RSSI-based, but it simply relies on the recording of the signal strength from several access points" ]

[ "The people with the guns stop doing what the president says, and they use their guns to do what they want. That's basically how it goes.", "Basically they shoot it. All civilian governments have exactly as much power over their military/police forces as those forces choose to allow them, political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.", "If they stop following orders, those people aren't in control anymore." ]

[ "Military coups in Nigeria There have been a large number of successful and failed military coups in Nigeria since the country's independence from the British Empire in 1960. A military coup is the violent or non-violent overthrow of an existing political regime by the military. Between 1966 and 1999 the army held power in Nigeria without interruption apart from a short-lived return to democracy between 1979-1983. “Military coups and military rule (which began as an emergency aberration) became a seemingly permanent feature of Nigerian politics.Buhari was the one who lead the military coup of 1983. Buhari removed then head of", "prevails, he may have any one rebel sent to the firing squad. In the case of a Junta victory, the rebels elect a new President. A Pro-Junta loyalist takes no part in the election. The First Rebel breaks a tied vote. The new President may then send any player, rebels as well as loyalists, to be executed. An executed player discards his political cards and hands over his pocket money to the President. Exile A player may go into exile during the Location phase by placing a location marker on one of the embassies on the map, to indicate the", "the country's leader actually surviving the assassination attempt; the next step would be to stage a coup attempt while that leader is recovering at a hospital. If an attempted coup fails, the insurgent forces are usually destroyed. A coup is very unlikely to succeed unless the insurgents are very strong and the government is Very Weak, so a premature coup which destroys the insurgency can be a useful strategy for helping a government (often much more effective than disrupting a fast-growing insurgency).\nOnce diplomatic and espionage policy is set, the player moves on to the military actions. It is not possible", "executive purview (Art. 55).\nThe National Council can force the president to dismiss the cabinet, or specific individual cabinet members, through a vote of no confidence (Art. 74). In concert with the Federal Council, it can also impeach the President before the Constitutional Court (Art. 142) or call for a referendum to have the President removed by the electorate (Art. 60).\nThe President can dissolve the National Council (Art. 29)\nActing on the advice of his or her cabinet, the President can also dissolve state legislatures (Art. 100)\nLegislative and administrative acts of government are subject to judicial review. The Constitutional Court reviews statutes", "Junta (governing body) Junta (/ˈhʊntə/ or /ˈdʒʌntə/) is a Spanish, Portuguese and Italian (giunta) term for a civil deliberative or administrative council. In English, it predominantly refers to the government of an authoritarian state run by high ranking officers of a military. Military juntas can refer to either a government in which a coalition of military officers rules in conjunction or to a military dictatorship in which a leader's government and administration is staffed primarily by military officers. Juntas, like military dictatorships, are often the result of military coups. \"Junta\" literally means \"union\" and often refers to the army, navy", "by instigating and leading the military coup by turning over the government under his control on 12 October 1999.\nThe army chiefs, including the previous army's commanders-in-chiefs, had justified their course of actions by noting to attempt to control the worsening of the law and order situation in the country, as in the case of Yahya Khan (1969) and General Zia-ul-Haq (1977), or by attempting to revive the economic prosperity in a threat of financial crises, as seen in the case of General Ayub Khan (1958) and General Pervez Musharraf (1999). Vice Chief of Army Staff The Vice Chief of Army", "occurs mostly in Latin America and southeast Asia.\nAn example of a Military Coup resulting in a Domain Democracy is in 2017 when Zimbabwe Defence Forces seized control of the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, key areas in the city, and also placed the Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe under house arrest. In this instance the coup was successful and after the resignation of Robert Mugabe, Emmerson Mnangagwa peacefully became the 3rd President of Zimbabwe. While Domain Democracy in Zimbabwe was temporary, the Military acted against their sitting president in order to achieve different political goals which the people of Zimbabwe viewed as favorable.", "number of states where the central government functions in collusion with warlords to achieve its goal of exercising its sovereignty over regions that would otherwise fall outside its control. In such decentralized states, particularly those where armed groups challenge national sovereignty, warlords can serve as useful allies of a central government that is unable to establish a monopoly over the use of force within its national territory. The Philippines As political scientist Dr. Ariel Hernandez documented, one example is the Philippines, where successive presidential administrations—at least since Ferdinand Marcos secured power in 1965—have \"franchised violence to regional warlords\" to", "Congress may itself terminate such appointments, by impeachment, and restrict the president. Bodies such as the War Claims Commission (created by the War Claims Act of 1948), the Interstate Commerce Commission, and the Federal Trade Commission—all quasi-judicial—often have direct Congressional oversight.\nCongress often writes legislation to restrain executive officials to the performance of their duties, as laid out by the laws Congress passes. In Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha (1983), the Supreme Court decided (a) The prescription for legislative action in Art. I, § 1—requiring all legislative powers to be vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and a", "as the lieutenant governor, attorney general, comptroller, secretary of state, and others.\nThe constitutions of 19 states allow for citizens to remove and replace an elected public official before the end of their term of office through a recall election. Each state follows its own procedures for recall elections, and sets its own restrictions on how often, and how soon after a general election, they may be held. In all states, the legislatures can remove state executive branch officials, including governors, who have committed serious abuses of their power from office. The process of doing so includes impeachment (the bringing of", "the legislature; although the legislature does not issue orders directly to the armed forces and therefore does not control the military in any operational sense. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the military forces within their territory.\nA commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as supreme commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is also used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship, and as a subordinate (usually) to a head of state (see Generalissimo). The term is also used for officers who hold authority over an individual", "of force to maintain power, as is practised by authoritarian or totalitarian rulers. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon III of France and King Zog of Albania. In Spain, general Francisco Franco adopted the formal title Jefe del Estado, or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy. Uganda's Idi Amin was one of several who named themselves President for Life. By foreign imposition A foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests. This was the outcome", "can defeat the rebels. If we do not advance and instead focus on building fortifications, the people will think that we are afraid of the rebels. This is not in line with military doctrine. If the rebels hold the local officials' families hostage to force them to rebel, we will end up losing popular support. Those who are being threatened by Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin know that they are in the wrong, but they do not dare to escape because their families' lives are at stake. This is a place where a motley crowd gathers and where the rebel", "military coup d'état by a group of junior officers under Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu led to the overthrow of Nigeria's civilian government. In the course of this coup, mostly northern and western leaders were killed, including Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Nigeria's Prime Minister; Sir Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto and Premier of the Northern Region; and Samuel Akintola, Premier of the Western Region, Lt Col Arthur Unegbe and so many more. The then Lieutenant Colonel Gowon returned from his course at the Joint Staff College, Latimer UK two days before the coup – a late arrival that possibly exempted him from", "commissions officers and decides on the mobilisation of the Defence Forces. If Parliament is not in session when a decision to mobilise is taken, it must be immediately convened. As commander-in-chief the President has the power to issue military orders concerning general guidelines for military defence, significant changes in military preparedness and the principles according to which military defence is implemented.\nDecisions concerning military orders are made by the president in conjunction with the Prime Minister, and the Minister of Defence. The President decides on military appointments in conjunction with the Minister of Defence. Emergency powers Under the Preparedness Act, in", "now is not a military coup by any standards. It was a necessary decision that the Armed Forces’ leadership took to protect democracy, maintain the country's unity and integrity, restore stability and get back on track towards achieving the goals of the January 25 Revolution.\" Arrests According to Morsi, he was kidnapped by the Armed Forces and held at the Republican Guard headquarters one day before the army announced his removal, and held there until 5 July 2013, after which he and his aide were forcibly moved to a naval base for the next four months. His family had ", "Chief Martial Law Administrator The office of the Chief Martial Law Administrator was a senior government authoritative post with ZMLA as Zonal Martial Law Administrator as deputies created in countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh and Indonesia that gave considerable executive authority and powers to the holder of the post to enforce martial law in the country in an events to ensure the continuity of government. This office has been used mostly by military officers staging a coup d'état. On some occasions, the office has been under a civilian head of state. Indonesia In Indonesia, this post was briefly held by", "to declare for or against the government.\nThere is no fighting at this point; if the rebellion has no support the organizers lose. They may have to flee the country or retire from the armed forces, or they may be arrested, and typically they would face a lenient fate. If the bulk of the armed forces declare in favor of the pronunciamiento the government resigns. It is similar to a vote of no-confidence, except that it is issued by the armed forces, not by the legislature. History The origins of the pronunciamiento lie in the Spanish and Portuguese resistance to Napoleonic", "a coup d'état, a government in exile of a such afflicted country may be established abroad. One of the most well-known instances of this is the Polish government-in-exile, a government in exile that commanded Polish armed forces operating outside Poland after German occupation during World War II. Other examples include the Free French Forces government of Charles de Gaulle of the same time, and the Central Tibetan Administration, commonly known as the Tibetan government-in-exile, and headed by the 14th Dalai Lama. Drama Exile is an early motif in ancient Greek tragedy. In the ancient Greek world, this was seen", "country fled to. It is also possible to flee the republic during a coup, provided that the player controls an embassy with their forces.\nA player in exile is safe from executions and assassinations, but is very limited in all but the social aspects of the game. A player may return from exile at any time, but normally the Minister of Internal Security may have the returning player executed by the secret police at will. It is only safe to return from exile when the President is dead, before a new one has been elected, during a coup provided that a", "military coup.", "stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of, nor is it appointed by, the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, congresses do not select or dismiss heads of governments, and governments cannot request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments. Some states, such as France, have a semi-presidential system which falls between parliamentary and congressional systems, combining a powerful head of state (president) with a head of government, the prime minister, who is responsible to parliament. Other parliaments Parliament of Zimbabwe", "minister. During a state of war, the president may promulgate regulations with the force of law on the basis of, and within the scope of, authority obtained from the parliament. In such circumstances, the president may convene government cabinet meetings and preside over them. If the parliament is not in session, the president is authorized to regulate all matters required by the state of war through regulations carrying the force of law. In case of an immediate threat to the independence, unity and existence of the state, or if the governmental bodies are prevented from performing their constitutional duties regularly,", "can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish his or her term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.\nHeads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which he or she violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the", "there. 1980 military coup On 25 February 1980, a military coup overthrew Arron's government. It was initiated by a group of 16 sergeants, led by Dési Bouterse. Opponents of the military regime attempted counter-coups in April 1980, August 1980, 15 March 1981, and again on 12 March 1982. The first counter attempt was led by Fred Ormskerk, the second by Marxist-Leninists, the third by Wilfred Hawker, and the fourth by Surendre Rambocus.\nHawker escaped from prison during the fourth counter-coup attempt, but he was captured and summarily executed. Between 2 am and 5 am on 7 December 1982, the military, under the leadership", "or country between organized groups. Less commonly, it can also be fought between two countries that have been created from one previously unified state. Often these conflicts involve one group wishing to take control of a region or expressing dissatisfaction with the government. There is typically a desire to overthrow the existing power or at least change some of their policies. In many cases, an outside power may intervene on behalf of one side if they share their ideology or condemn the methods/motives of their opponents. Counter-insurgency Counter-insurgency, another form of political violence, describes a spectrum of actions taken by", "the Government and ministers of state. The government conducts domestic and foreign policy, civil and military administration, and the defense of the nation all in the name of the king on behalf of the people. Additionally, the government exercises executive authority and statutory regulations.\nThere is no provision in the Spanish Constitution for explicitly granting any emergency powers to the government, which could be understood as exorcising the ghost of the recent dictatorship in Spain. However, Title II, Sections 56 of the constitution vests the monarch as the \"arbitrator and moderator of the institutions\" of government, [The King] arbitrates and moderates", "the military memorandum of 12 March 1971, but continued to be in force until the military coup of 1980. 1980–2018 The country underwent a military coup on 12 September 1980. The Constitution was suspended and political parties were dissolved. Many politicians were forbidden from entering politics again. The military power ruling the country established a \"Constituent Assembly\", as had been done in 1961. The Constituent Assembly was composed of the National Security Council and the Advisory Assembly. Within two years, the new constitution was drafted and was presented to the referendum on 7 November 1982. Participation in the referendum was", "which are primarily tried by a civilian court of law. Higher government authorities do not deal with the military doctrines.\nThe President of India can use his judicial power, (Article 72), to give either pardon, reprieve, respite or remission of punishment or sentence given by a court martial. Netherlands In the Netherlands, members of the military are tried by a special military section of the civilian court in Arnhem. This section consists of a military member and two civilian judges. The decision whether or not to prosecute is primarily made by the (civilian) attorney general. New Zealand Service members of the", "officers for treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Reinforcing these powers is Congress’s broad authority “to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof”.\nThe authority to oversee derives from these constitutional powers. Congress could not carry them out reasonably or responsibly without knowing what the executive is doing; how programs are being administered, by whom, and at what cost; and whether officials are obeying the law and complying" ]

[ "The lowest level instructions in a computer are the instructions of the CPU architecture. This varies between CPUs but there's two main ones currently: x86 used by Intel and AMD processors, and the one used by ARM processors.\n\nThese instructions usually look something like \"MOV 1, 2\" which might mean to take the number stored in memory location 1 and copy it to memory location 2. Or you might have \"ADD 1, 2, 3\" which adds the two numbers at 1, 2 and puts the result in 3.\n\nWhen you hear about binary being the lowest level in a computer, it's just a binary encoding of these CPU instructions. So MOV might be 001 and ADD is 010, then the memory locations are represented as binary numbers after the type of instruction. When you hear about a 32-bit or 64-bit processor, that's how many bits each CPU instruction is." ]

[ "Binary code A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a two-symbol system. The two-symbol system used is often \"0\" and \"1\" from the binary number system. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits, also known as bits, to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can, therefore, represent a wide variety of different items.\nIn computing and telecommunications, binary codes are used for various methods of encoding data, such as character strings, into bit strings. Those methods may use fixed-width", "Binary-coded decimal In computing and electronic systems, binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a class of binary encodings of decimal numbers where each decimal digit is represented by a fixed number of bits, usually four or eight. Special bit patterns are sometimes used for a sign or for other indications (e.g., error or overflow).\nIn byte-oriented systems (i.e. most modern computers), the term unpacked BCD usually implies a full byte for each digit (often including a sign), whereas packed BCD typically encodes two decimal digits within a single byte by taking advantage of the fact that four bits are enough to represent the", "\"shorthand\" for binary—every 4 binary digits (bits) relate to one and only one hexadecimal digit. In hexadecimal, the six digits after 9 are denoted by A, B, C, D, E, and F (and sometimes a, b, c, d, e, and f).\nThe octal numbering system is also used as another way to represent binary numbers. In this case the base is 8 and therefore only digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are used. When converting from binary to octal every 3 bits relate to one and only one octal digit.\nHexadecimal, decimal, octal, and a wide variety of", "BCD (character encoding) History Technically, binary-coded decimal describes the encoding of decimal numbers where each decimal digit is represented by a fixed number of bits, usually four.\nWith the introduction of the IBM card in 1928, IBM created a code capable of representing alphanumeric information, later adopted by other manufacturers. This code represents the numbers 0-9 by a single punch, and uses multiple punches for upper-case letters and special characters. A letter has two punches (zone [12,11,0] + digit [1–9]); most special characters have two or three punches (zone [12,11,0,or none] + digit [2–7] + 8).\nThe BCD code is the", "two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same", "The code is typically fast but nonportable since the binary code is designed for a specific computer hardware platform. A different approach uses a virtual machine instruction set, which has no particular target hardware. An interpreter executes it on each new target hardware.\nEarly computers had relatively little memory. For example, most Data General Nova, IBM 1130, and many of the first microcomputers had only 4 kB of RAM installed. Consequently, a lot of time was spent trying to find ways to reduce the size of programs so they would fit in the memory available.\nOne way to do so is to use", "Language code A language code is a code that assigns letters or numbers as identifiers or classifiers for languages. These codes may be used to organize library collections or presentations of data, to choose the correct localizations and translations in computing, and as a shorthand designation for longer forms of language-name. Difficulties of classification Language code schemes attempt to classify the complex world of human languages, dialects, and variants. Most schemes make some compromises between being general and being complete enough to support specific dialects.\nFor example, most people in Central America and South America speak Spanish. Spanish spoken", "use the term binary for numbers written in base two, Lapointe reasoned that one could also say \"bi-binary\" for base four, and thus \"bibi-binary\" for base 16. Its name may also be a pun, as the word bibi in French is slang for \"me\" or \"myself\"; various forms of word play were at the centre of Lapointe's artistic œuvre. Pronunciation In addition to unique graphical representations, Lapointe also devised a pronunciation for each of the sixteen digits. Using four consonants (HBKD) and four vowels (OAEI), one obtains sixteen combinations:\nHO, HA, HE, HI, BO, BA, BE, BI, KO, KA,", "0 and +1 (rather than 0, 1 and 2 as in the standard ternary system, or 1, 2 and 3 as in the bijective ternary system). Gray code The reflected binary code, also known as the Gray code, is closely related to binary numbers, but some bits are inverted, depending on the parity of the higher order bits. Bases that are not positive integers A few positional systems have been suggested in which the base b is not a positive integer. Negative base Negative-base systems include negabinary, negaternary and negadecimal; in base −b the number of different numerals used is", "likely to be transmitted than others.\nTruncated binary encoding is a straightforward generalization of fixed-length codes to deal with cases where the number of symbols n is not a power of two. Source symbols are assigned codewords of length k and k+1, where k is chosen so that 2ᵏ < n ≤ 2ᵏ⁺¹.\nHuffman coding is a more sophisticated technique for constructing variable-length prefix codes. The Huffman coding algorithm takes as input the frequencies that the code words should have, and constructs a prefix code that minimizes the weighted average of the code word lengths. (This is closely related to minimizing the", "Six-bit character code A six-bit character code is a character encoding designed for use on computers with word lengths a multiple of 6. Six bits can only encode 64 distinct characters, so these codes generally include only the upper-case letters, the numerals, some punctuation characters, and sometimes control characters. Such codes with additional parity bit were a natural way of storing data on 7-track magnetic tape. Types of six-bit codes An early six-bit binary code was used for Braille, the reading system for the blind that was developed in the 1820s.\nThe earliest computers dealt with numeric data only, and made", "to or from decimal-encoded data, such as strings (ASCII, Unicode, etc.) and BCD. A binary encoding is therefore best chosen only when the data are binary rather than decimal. IBM has published some unverified performance data.", "Application binary interface In computer software, an application binary interface (ABI) is an interface between two binary program modules; often, one of these modules is a library or operating system facility, and the other is a program that is being run by a user.\nAn ABI defines how data structures or computational routines are accessed in machine code, which is a low-level, hardware-dependent format; in contrast, an API defines this access in source code, which is a relatively high-level, hardware-independent, often human-readable format. A common aspect of an ABI is the calling convention, which determines how data is provided as input", "plus 2 entries with deprecated B-codes. This sums up to 520 + 22 + 4 = 546 codes that cannot be used in part 3 to represent languages or in part 5 to represent language families or groups. The remainder is 17,576 – 546 = 17,030.\nThere are somewhere around six or seven thousand languages on Earth today. So those 17,030 codes are adequate to assign a unique code to each language, although some languages may end up with arbitrary codes that sound nothing like the traditional name(s) of that language. Alpha-4 code space (withdrawn) \"Alpha-4\" codes (for codes composed", "(MASM) and Microsoft's other languages including QuickBASIC, Pascal, and Fortran could be linked together into one program, in a process they called \"Mixed Language Programming\" and now \"InterLanguage Calling\". If BASIC was used in this mix, the main program needed to be in BASIC to support the internal runtime system that compiled BASIC required for garbage collection and its other managed operations that simulated a BASIC interpreter like QBasic in MS-DOS.\nThe calling convention for C code, in particular, was to pass parameters in \"reverse order\" on the stack and return values on the stack rather than in a processor register.", "\"a\" is represented by 1100001 as a bit string (which is \"97\" in decimal). Binary-coded decimal Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a binary encoded representation of integer values that uses a 4-bit nibble to encode decimal digits. Four binary bits can encode up to 16 distinct values; but, in BCD-encoded numbers, only the first ten values in each nibble are legal, and encode the decimal digits zero, through nine. The remaining six values are illegal and may cause either a machine exception or unspecified behavior, depending on the computer implementation of BCD arithmetic.\nBCD arithmetic is sometimes preferred to floating-point numeric formats", "Code-mixing As code-switching Some linguists use the terms code-mixing and code-switching more or less interchangeably. Especially in formal studies of syntax, morphology, etc., both terms are used to refer to utterances that draw from elements of two or more grammatical systems. These studies are often interested in the alignment of elements from distinct systems, or on constraints that limit switching. \nSome work defines code-mixing as the placing or mixing of various linguistic units (affixes, words, phrases, clauses) from two different grammatical systems within the same sentence and speech context, while code-switching is the placing or mixing of units (words, phrases,", "Binary Goppa code In mathematics and computer science, the binary Goppa code is an error-correcting code that belongs to the class of general Goppa codes originally described by Valerii Denisovich Goppa, but the binary structure gives it several mathematical advantages over non-binary variants, also providing a better fit for common usage in computers and telecommunication. Binary Goppa codes have interesting properties suitable for cryptography in McEliece-like cryptosystems and similar setups. Properties and usage Binary Goppa codes viewed as a special case of Goppa codes have the interesting property that they correct full errors, while only errors in ternary", "nothing in information theory that requires every message to consist ultimately of a binary code. Any linguistic message can be represented by a binary code, just as our decimal number system can be represented binarily. Therefore, the bit can be used as convenient but arbitrary measure of information for speech or for numerical information. But nobody seriously proposes that people fundamentally use binary digits in counting, as some linguists do for speech.\nUnlike most other schools, CSL concentrates on articulation, rather than sound, as its object of study (but see also articulatory phonology). For example, CSL attributes the", "geared to aid computer programming. The letter characters were in numerical order of code point, so an alphabetical sort could be achieved simply by sorting the data numerically. The code point for corresponding upper and lower case letters differed only by the value of bit 6, allowing a mix of cases to be sorted alphabetially if this bit was ignored. Other codes were introduced, notably IBM's EBCDIC derived from the punched card method of input, but it was ASCII and its derivatives that won out as the lingua franca of computer information exchange. ASCII extension and Unicode", "bases. Binary In binary arithmetic, division by two can be performed by a bit shift operation that shifts the number one place to the right. This is a form of strength reduction optimization. For example, 1101001 in binary (the decimal number 105), shifted one place to the right, is 110100 (the decimal number 52): the lowest order bit, a 1, is removed. Similarly, division by any power of two 2ᵏ may be performed by right-shifting k positions. Because bit shifts are often much faster operations than division, replacing a division by a shift in this way can be a helpful", "code requires between five and six comparisons (the extra is due to the repetitions needed to distinguish the three states of < > and = via binary comparisons in the absence of a three-way comparison) plus some messy arithmetic, while the binary search algorithm can be written with one comparison per iteration and uses only trivial integer arithmetic. It would thereby search an array of a million elements with no more than twenty comparisons (involving accesses to slow memory where the array elements are stored); to beat that, the interpolation search, as written above, would be allowed no more than", "are about equal in length. Binary Form can be written as AB or AABB. Using the example of Greensleeves provided, the first system is almost identical to the second system. We call the first system A and the second system A' (A prime) because of the slight difference in the last measure and a half. The next two systems (3rd and 4th) are almost identical as well, but a new musical idea entirely than the first two systems. We call the third system B and the fourth system B' (B prime) because of the slight difference in the last measure", "(\"Hello World\")\nThis one line of Python code prints \"Hello World\"; no declarative statement like main() is required here.\nA scripting language is usually interpreted from source code or bytecode. By contrast, the software environment the scripts are written for is typically written in a compiled language and distributed in machine code form.\nScripting languages may be designed for use by end users of a program—end-user development—or may be only for internal use by developers, so they can write portions of the program in the scripting language. Scripting languages typically use abstraction, a form of information hiding, to spare users the details of", "in computer memory.\nMachine code was the language of early programs, written in the instruction set of the particular machine, often in binary notation. Assembly languages were soon developed that let the programmer specify instruction in a text format, (e.g., ADD X, TOTAL), with abbreviations for each operation code and meaningful names for specifying addresses. However, because an assembly language is little more than a different notation for a machine language, any two machines with different instruction sets also have different assembly languages.\nHigh-level languages made the process of developing a program simpler and more understandable, and less bound to the underlying", "is the 3b/4b code. Each 6- or 4-bit code word has either equal numbers of zeros and ones (a disparity of zero), or comes in a pair of forms, one with two more zeros than ones (four zeros and two ones, or three zeros and one one, respectively) and one with two less. When a 6- or 4-bit code is used that has a non-zero disparity (count of ones minus count of zeros; i.e., −2 or +2), the choice of positive or negative disparity encodings must be the one that toggles the running disparity. In other words, the non", "code via just-in-time compilation (JIT), similar to Java. The type system consists of basic types such as integer or floating point numbers and five derived types: pointers, arrays, vectors, structures, and functions. A type construct in a concrete language can be represented by combining these basic types in LLVM. For example, a class in C++ can be represented by a mix of structures, functions and arrays of function pointers.\nThe LLVM JIT compiler can optimize unneeded static branches out of a program at runtime, and thus is useful for partial evaluation in cases where a program has many options, most of", "encoder works with a smaller range of numbers at any given time. After some number of digits have been encoded, the leftmost digits will not change. In the example after encoding just three symbols, we already knew that our final result would start with \"2\". More digits are shifted in on the right as digits on the left are sent off. This is illustrated in the following code:\nint low = 0;int range = 100000;void Run(){\nEncode(0, 6, 10);// A\nEncode(0, 6, 10);// A\nEncode(6, 2, 10);// B\nEncode(0, 6, 10);// A\nEncode(8, 2, 10);// <EOM>\n\n// emit final digits - see below\nwhile (range < 10000)\nEmitDigit();\n\nlow +=", "code (for the sequence with that character) is added to the dictionary.\nThe idea was quickly adapted to other situations. In an image based on a color table, for example, the natural character alphabet is the set of color table indexes, and in the 1980s, many images had small color tables (on the order of 16 colors). For such a reduced alphabet, the full 12-bit codes yielded poor compression unless the image was large, so the idea of a variable-width code was introduced: codes typically start one bit wider than the symbols being encoded, and as each code", "numerical order of their codes, and this ordering being extended to strings in accordance with the basic principles of alphabetical ordering (mathematically speaking, lexicographical ordering). So a computer program might treat the characters a, b, C, d, and $ as being ordered $, C, a, b, d (the corresponding ASCII codes are $ = 36, a = 97, b = 98, C = 67, and d = 100). Therefore, strings beginning with C, M, or Z would be sorted before strings with lower-case a, b, etc. This is sometimes called ASCIIbetical order. This deviates from the standard alphabetical order, particularly" ]

[ "Spiciness isn't a flavor, it's a reaction to the chemical capsaicin, which irritates any tissue it contacts, not just your tongue. This is also why the area around your lips gets sore while eating wings.", "Your digestive system is not %100 efficient. Sometimes raw food makes it all the way though. Spicy is just more noticeable due to the flaming ass pain." ]

[ "are preferred by scientists as they eliminate the potential ambiguity arising from use of the words \"hot\" and \"spicy\", which can also refer to temperature and the presence of spices, respectively.\nFor instance, a pumpkin pie can be both hot (out of the oven) and spicy (due to the common inclusion of spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, mace, and cloves), but it is not pungent. (A food critic may nevertheless use the word \"piquant\" to describe such a pie, especially if it is exceptionally well-seasoned.) Conversely, pure capsaicin is pungent, yet it is not naturally accompanied by a hot temperature", "which is why spicy foods cause nasal drip. The zygomatic sends signals to the lacrimal nerve that activate the lacrimal gland; which is the reason that spicy foods can cause tears. Both the lesser palatine and the zygomatic are maxillary nerves (from the trigeminal nerve).\nThe special visceral afferents of the vagus nerve carry taste from the epiglottal region of the tongue.\nThe lingual nerve (trigeminal, not shown in diagram) is deeply interconnected with chorda tympani in that it provides all other sensory info from the ⅔ of the tongue. This info is processed separately (nearby) in rostal lateral subdivision of nucleus", "spiciness or hotness) Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food's activating nerves that express TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptors. Some such plant-derived compounds that provide this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers, piperine from black pepper, gingerol from ginger root and allyl isothiocyanate from horseradish. The piquant (\"hot\" or \"spicy\") sensation provided by such foods and spices plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world—especially in equatorial and sub-tropical climates, such as Ethiopian,", "food is an important consideration. Cabernet Sauvignons with high alcohol levels do not pair well with spicy foods due to hotness levels of the capsaicins present in spices like chili peppers being enhanced by the alcohol with the heat accentuating the bitterness of the tannins. Milder spices, such as black pepper, pair better due to their ability to minimize the perception of tannins—such as in the classic pairings of Cabernet Sauvignon with steak au poivre and pepper-crusted ahi tuna.\nFats and proteins reduce the perception of tannins on the palate. When Cabernet Sauvignon is paired with steak or dishes with a", "or fat. As a general rule, the flavors from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to herbs which are usually added late in preparation. Salmonella contamination A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007-2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table", "the fruit layer (which also contains the spicy piperine). Other flavors also commonly develop in this process, some of which are described as off-flavors when in excess: Primarily 3-methylindole (pig manure-like), 4-methylphenol (horse manure), 3-methylphenol (phenolic), and butanoic acid (cheese). The aroma of pepper is attributed to rotundone (3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl)azulene-1(2H)-one), a sesquiterpene originally discovered in the tubers of Cyperus rotundus, which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/l in water and in wine: rotundone is also present in marjoram, oregano, rosemary, basil, thyme, and geranium, as well as in some Shiraz wines.\nPepper loses flavor and aroma through evaporation, so", "mild to hot. The Scoville scale measures the pungency of chili peppers, as defined by the amount of capsaicin they contain.\nPungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to", "very spicy pizza that was very spicy.\nMovement tests not only prove that the constituent moved is a stand-alone constituent, but also proves that this phrase very spicy is an AP if drawn in a syntax tree. Thus, because this adjective phrase could be moved to the right (pseudocleft), it's sufficient proof that it is both a constituent and an adjective phrase. Tree diagram representations The structure of adjective phrases (and of all other phrase types) can be represented using tree structures. There are two modern conventions for doing this, constituency-based trees of phrase structure grammars and dependency-based trees of dependency", "off until the soup is done because you will be using the same utensils repeatedly and you don't want any marvelous tidbits of flavor losing themselves down the drain.\" Bisques are thickened with rice, which can either be strained out, leaving behind the starch, or pureed during the final stages.\nSeafood bisque is traditionally served in a low two-handled cup on a saucer or in a mug.\nBisque is also commonly used to refer to cream-based soups that do not contain seafood, in which the sometimes pre-cooked ingredients are pureed or processed in a food processor or a food mill. Common", "Off-flavour Off-flavours or off-flavors (see spelling differences) are taints in food products caused by the presence of undesirable compounds. They can originate in raw materials, from chemical changes during food processing and storage, and from micro-organisms. Off-flavours are a recurring issue in drinking water supply and many food products.\nWater bodies are often affected by geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol, affecting the flavour of water for drinking and of fish growing in that water. Haloanisoles similarly affect water bodies, and are a recognised cause of off-flavour in wine. Cows grazing on weeds such as wild garlic can produce a ‘weedy’ off-flavour in milk.\nMany", "the food is spicy enough) but not so great for people who want relatively bland foods. The downside to the concept is that the flavors could easily get \"muddled\" by selecting the wrong combinations of components.\nA food writer for Forbes Magazine who was born in Malaysia and specializes in writing about Asian cuisine, gave the chain a mixed review. Although she thought the individual components had great flavor, she believed that it is a big mistake for ShopHouse to allow the individual components to be mixed together in a single bowl and suggests that the food would taste better if", "back of the throat, up the nose, then eventually moves to the roof of the mouth and finally the tongue where the pain is intense, at which point there can be gustatory sweating and tears from the eyes. Some tasters note the strong, fruity Fatalii flavour, which is quite distinct, as being almost identical to the yellow version. Others find it milder.\nHot chili aficionados who have tasted all four colour varieties report the heat increasing from the white, which has pronounced citrus lime and lemon flavours, through yellow, then red, then to the hottest and sweetest being the chocolate or", "Astringent (taste) Astringent is a taste that puckers the mouth, numbs the tongue, and constricts the throat. This taste is caused by astringents such as tannins. \nThe astringent taste is in unripened bananas, unripe persimmons and acorns dominantly, which prevents them from being eaten. It is also present in pomegranates, cranberries, crabapples, quinces as one among others, and in vegetables and beans as a secondary taste. It is also present in red meat, burnt and smoked food, and amla. Astringent foods are dry, cool, and heavy. \nSquirrels, wild boars, insects can eat astringent food as their tongues are able to", "had created was indeed, quite spicy, it was modified and adapted to be accepted in a wide variety of locations, and the resulting flavor, while still mildly spicy, was more like the flavor of Church's Fried Chicken. This was in no small part because the Creole Fried Chicken concept was developed by Brian T. Reynolds and Shane Mitchell, whose experience in this concept came from that company.\nIn the late 1970s and early 1980s, most of their locations were in small towns at or near the primary intersections of the communities (commonly referred to as \"Main and Main\"). At that time,", "or spices.\nAs the Oxford, Collins, and Merriam-Webster dictionaries explain, the term \"piquancy\" refers to mild pungency and flavors and spices that are much less strong than chilli peppers, including, for example, the strong flavor of some tomatoes. In other words, pungency always refers to a very strong taste whereas piquancy refers to any spices and foods that are \"agreeably stimulating to the palate\", in other words to food that is spicy in the general sense of \"well-spiced\". Applications Pungent substances have been used as analgesics and for flavoring foods. In foods Pungency is often quantified in scales that range from", "pungent agents.\nThe pungent sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world, such as Korean, Persian, Turkish, Tunisian, Ethiopian, Hungarian, Indian, Burmese, Filipino (particularly Bicolano), Indonesian, Laotian, Singaporean, Malaysian, Bangladeshi, Mexican, Peruvian, Caribbean, Pakistani, Somali, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Sri Lankan, Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines. Mechanism Pungency is sensed via chemesthesis, the sensitivity of the skin and mucous membranes to chemical substances. Substances such as piperine and capsaicin can cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve stimulation together", "with normal taste reception. The pungent feeling caused by allyl isothiocyanate, capsaicin, piperine, and allicin is caused by activation of the heat thermo- and chemosensitive TRP ion channels including TRPV1 and TRPA1 nociceptors.\nThe pungency of chilies may be an adaptive response to microbial pathogens.", "wet.\nSour flavor is cold and dry and cause dryness and coldness in the body as well. Vinegar and pickled vegetables and fruits preserved in vinegar, sour fruits or sour juices, verjuice, and Qarehqurut or black kashk (fabricated from the liquid yoghurt) are all cold and dry.\nSalty, bitter and spicy flavors which are usually used to give foods a special taste are warm and dry. Although spicy foods are warmer and dryer than bitter and salty foods respectively.\nSweet flavor is warm and wet and most food items (including main dishes and high-calorie food) are classified in this group and that's why", "flavors make it difficult to know which recipe is more close to the original recipe or which is more true to how luosifen noodles are to taste. Many restaurants might use tomatoes, leafy greens, diced chicken, chile oil, and even chestnuts to give the dish a bit of a flavor as well as balancing with the richness of the meats that are used in the dish. Other restaurants will add more peppers or chili to give the dish a spicy flavor. Some would even use sesame oil, red chili, jalapeños, tofu, cumin, and other spices to bring out the pungent", "sandwich, it was initially marketed as the Cajun (Style) McChicken. The name was changed back to just McChicken around 2001, alongside the change to a milder, softer chicken patty.\nIn the south and southwestern parts of the US, the Hot 'n Spicy variant is sold. It originated as a nationwide menu item in January 2006, but by June of that year, McDonald's confirmed it had been discontinued due to slow sales. In March 2013, McDonald's re-introduced the Hot 'n Spicy across the country to what was then called the Dollar Menu. In November 2013, as part of the chain's Dollar Menu", "spicy. It is thickened with pounded chile paste which also turns it a vivid orange-red. Tamarind is often used instead of lime juice as its souring agent, and dried instead of fresh chilies are used to provide a fiery kick. Malay-style tom yam soup tends to be heavily seafood-based, whereas in Chinese-style eateries the broth's spiciness is toned down and usually serves as a base for noodle soup.", "spicy variant is also available as the Double McSpicy, which consists of two spicy chicken patties.\nOutlets in Taiwan serve the Hot n' Spicy variant, which is available on a traditional bread bun or a formed rice bun, while locations in Malaysia serve a variant similar to the McSpicy called the Spicy Chicken McDeluxe but with a cornmeal bun. Other variants In Hawaii, the Ala Moana Shopping Center McDonald's sells the McTeriChicken variant, a McChicken with teriyaki (\"teri\") sauce. \"Teri\" is heavily used in Hawaii and has been added to various McDonald's sandwiches, such as the McTeri Burger.\nIn other US states,", "components were kept separate, like in a bento. She wrote that \"all those carefully crafted flavors were at the end muted and lost\" and believed that the cause of the taste confusion is caused by \"a lack of respect for national cuisines or even particular genres within national cuisines.\"", "flavor The experience of eating favored foods with a cold often disappoints. This is because congestion blocks nasal passageways through which air and flavor molecules enter and exit, thus temporarily reducing retronasal smell capacity.\nAnother way to isolate the sense of retronasal smell is to use the “nose pinch test.” When eating while pinching the nostrils closed, the flavor of food appears to dissipate, namely because the pathway for air exiting the nose that creates the flavor image is blocked. Speculative evolutionary significance Deeper understanding of the role of retronasal smell in flavor has led many to rethink smell's evolutionary significance", "this area of the country, and it is often by far more spicy than anything found in France or Belgium. Chaudin is unique to the area, and the method of cooking is comparable to the Scottish dish haggis: the stuffing includes onions, rice, bell peppers, spices, and pork sewn up in the stomach of a pig, and served in slices piping hot. Crayfish are a staple of the Cajun grandmother's cookpot, as they are abundant in the bayous of Southern Louisiana and a main source of livelihood, as are blue crabs, shrimp, corn on the cob, and red potatoes, since", "the spice during breakfast can increase energy expenditure by 23% immediately after meal ingestion. Capsaicin, also known as hot pepper, is a primary ingredient in chilli peppers and red hot peppers. Hot peppers have been reported to induce thermogenesis at the cellular level.\nAs well, capsaicin induces satiety as a result of oral and gastro-intestinal contribution. Lower energy and fat intake were observed under short-term conditions; however, the effect of the spice was reduced over prolonged exposure. Increased satiety was observed when oral contribution of capsaicin was measured in addition to the gastro-intestinal exposure, indicating the sensory effect of hot peppers", "in nature to this condition is gustatory rhinitis, which involves rhinorrhea induced by certain foods, such as spicy foods.", "Astringent An astringent (sometimes called adstringent) is a chemical that shrinks or constricts body tissues. The word derives from the Latin adstringere, which means \"to bind fast\". Calamine lotion, witch hazel, and yerba mansa, a Californian plant, are astringents.\nAstringency, the dry, puckering mouthfeel caused by the tannins in unripe fruits, lets the fruit mature by deterring eating. Ripe fruits and fruit parts including blackthorn (sloe berries), Aronia chokeberry, chokecherry, bird cherry, rhubarb, quince and persimmon fruits, and banana skins are very astringent; citrus fruits, like lemons, are somewhat astringent. Tannins, being a kind of polyphenol, bind salivary proteins and make", "Latiao History Latiao (Spicy strip), originated in Pingjiang, in Hunan province. It was at first called mianjin (Chinese:面筋). Later, Pingjiang people called it mala (Chinese:麻辣) because Latiao is spicy. Latiao is made from flour that is cooked and seasoned, and is not fried and spicy. Pingjiang has a history of making dried sauce, spicy sauce and spicy bean curd, which are important parts of the Pingjiang industry.\nIn 1998, a major flood disaster occurred in Hunan, which led to a serious loss of agricultural products. Soybean, the main raw material for sauce industry, experienced a large decline in production.This directly caused", "kind of spicy salad dish, is a homophone of the loanword for soup. The name of the dish is often misspelled as ซุปหน่อไม้, which would mean \"bamboo-shoot soup\"." ]

[ "To reward you for making a comment even if no one else does.", "So you have the satisfaction of having a +1 post and another person has the satisfaction of down voting that satisfaction from you.", "When your post gets upvoted, its ranking goes up using what's called a [logarithm](_URL_0_). Basically, the more upvotes a post has, the less each new upvote pushes it up a page in proportion to how many points it already has. Going from 1 point to 2 is as helpful as going from 10 points to 20, or 500 to 1000.\n\nThe thing is, this model breaks down when you get zero points (theoretically a post with zero score should be infinitely low!) so when Reddit calculates how high up the post should appear, it treats a post with 0 points the same as one with 1 point. If you really started at zero points, then the first upvote your post gets would have no effect, since it has to treat 0 points as 1 point anyway! Reddit's current solution is to have you automatically start at 1 point, so as soon as someone sees your post and likes it, they can make it go higher in the rankings by upvoting it. If there was no automatic self-upvote, then people who don't choose to upvote themselves (or don't know they can) would be worse off. Another way to fix that would be to just make it so you can't upvote your own posts at all, but then you would need two upvotes before you start going up in the rankings, making it a little harder to sort out the good posts from the bad ones.\n\nEdit: I think I read that you don't get karma from your self upvotes anyway, so you can't keep making useless posts to get more karma.", "Think of upvotes like a tally of how many people agree with you. You count, too.\n\nEDIT: Agree/like/can relate to/is funny WHATEVER you know what I'm saying.", "So you can still vote for yourself. \nMost people that post want karma and would usually up vote yourself anyways. \nYou can downvote yourself if you want.", "short answer:math.\n\nlong answer:\nwhen choosing hot it takes the number of upvotes, subtracts the number of downvotes, does a bit of math (specificially a logarithm on the absolute value of that) to get an order for it, it adds 1 or negative 1 to it unless 0 then it just leaves it be, and then multiplies that by the number of seconds since reddit was started\n\nthis math has [since been corrected](_URL_1_) but here we have the automatic 1. if it had started as 0, the time would have been multiplied by 0 and nothing would have ever showed up (except in \"new\" view, which is based solely on the timestamp.)\n\nthere may be other areas where a 0 would have really messed with the math, this is just one i'm familiar with.", "Does the presidential candidate go vote for the other guy?" ]

[ "figure is indexed at the beginning of every financial year.) Usually people are issued with warnings when it is found that they have not voted, and they are given an opportunity to show cause. Acceptable reasons for not voting may include being in the accident department of a hospital, being ill (requires confirmation), being out of the country on election day, religious objections, being incarcerated, etc. \"I forgot\" is not considered acceptable and will incur a fine. Section 245 of the Electoral Act (Cwth) provides that if an elector has been asked the \"true reason\" for his failure to vote", "Voters are allowed to give \"personal votes\" (personstemme) to people on the ballot by putting a mark next to their name. Also on the ballot is a table allowing voters to write in candidates who are running for another party. Voters can give personal votes to candidates on other ballots (so called \"danglers\") by entering the candidate's name in the table.\nAfter the voter has selected the ballots, and making whatever adjustments desired, the voter folds the ballot together, hiding the information on the inside, thereby keeping the vote secret. An election official checks the person's identity and stamps the ballot,", "on the front and is blank on the back. This ballot is used when a voter wishes to vote for a particular party, but does not wish to give preference to a particular candidate. The name ballot paper has a party name followed by a list of candidates (which can continue on the other side). A voter using this ballot can choose (but is not required) to cast a personal vote by entering a mark next to a particular candidate, in addition to voting for their political party. Alternatively, a voter can take a blank ballot paper and", "write a party name on it. Finally, if a party hasn't registered its candidates with the election authority, it is possible for a voter to manually write the name of an arbitrary candidate. In reality, this option is almost exclusively available when voting for unestablished parties. However, it has occasionally caused individuals to be elected into the city council to represent parties they don't even support as a result of a single voter's vote.\nThe municipalities and the national election authority have the responsibility to organise the elections. On the election day, voting takes place in a municipal building such as", "between parties on how each party will allocate later preferences to other parties and candidates.\nVoting is compulsory once enrolled in South Australian elections, which results in turnout rates above 90 percent. Informal voting, which occurs when a voting slip is not valid, is at a rate of under five percent. Voting slips are informal when they are not filled out correctly, such examples are not numbering subsequent numbers, not filling out all the candidate boxes with numbers (except the last candidate), or in some other way that is verified by the State Electoral Office as illegible. South Australian elections have", "the fact that having received a ballot paper, the elector can simply fold it up and put it into the ballot box without formally marking it, if he or she objects, in principle, to casting a vote. However, the consistently low number of informal votes each election indicates that having attended, had his or her name marked off, very few electors then choose not to vote formally.\nCompulsory voting has also been promoted for its collective benefits. It becomes difficult for coercion to be used to prevent disadvantaged people (the old, illiterate or disabled) to vote, and for obstacles to", "the polls reported any rule violations perpetrated by any candidate's party.\nIn 2000, Candidate's for the United States presidential race frequently used their websites to encourage their voters to not only vote, but to encourage their friends to vote as well. This two-step process, encouraging an individual to vote and to tell his or her friends to vote, was just emerging at that time. Now, political involvement from a variety of social media is commonplace and civic engagement through online forums frequent. Through the use of ICTs, politically minded individuals have the opportunity to become more involved. Youth engagement Young people", "days before the election in the UK, people in the participating countries will be able to vote at a physical ballot box or by sending a text message to a local number. The votes are then proportionately assigned to UK participants, who will receive a text message with voting instructions on the eve of the election. On election day, they are asked to mark the respective party on their ballot paper. Aims According to the project website, Give Your Vote aims to show that \"the UK makes decisions about climate change, migration, poverty and war that directly affect millions around", "a simple \"yes or no\" question, people who pick \"no\" are often persecuted, thus encouraging them to pick the \"yes\" option. An example of this is the elections of the People's Parliaments in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in 1940 shortly after the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states; where those who voted received stamps in their passport for voting and those who did not vote did not receive stamps and were persecuted as enemies of the people. Another example is in contemporary North Korea.\nIn some cases, show elections can backfire against the party in power, especially if the regime believes", "hold similar views.\nThe only barrier stopping a group from campaigning directly for their favorite candidate or cause was something called the \"reasonable person\" test: if a reasonable person, viewing the communication, comes to the conclusion the sponsor wants them to vote in one way, it is express advocacy, not interest advocacy.\nOne problem with the reasonable person test is it is not definitive or a bright-line rule. There was no clear line that clearly stated if you cross this point you are on the wrong side. In an attempt to help the situation, in 1976 a footnote was included in", "with knowledge on a specific subject or with required experience. However, the general public could also make detrimental mistakes \"about matters of the common good\" due to simply not having enough accurate information about the issue. Another issue is that people's subjective interests that come into play while they are voting could \"shape the welfare of their community\", especially if one person has his/her own vote on a matter plus multiple others from delegation. Google Votes Google has experimented with liquid democracy through an internal social network system known as Google Votes. Google Votes was primarily used to delegate votes", "party logos on the ballot paper. The ballot paper continues to have a box for each party above a heavy line, with each party's candidates in a column below that party's box below the solid line. Previously, a voter could either mark a single box above the line, which triggered the party's group voting ticket (a pre-assigned sequence of preferences), or place a number in every box below the line to assign their own preferences. As a result of the changes, voters may assign their preferences for parties above the line (numbering as many boxes as they wish), or individual", "positions, though no evidence measures how much these raise turnout. Facebook apps let users see who their friends endorse, which gives them a shortcut in deciding whom to vote for.\nStudies in 2012 and 2017 found that Facebook's “I’m Voting/I’m a Voter” button increased turnout in the 2010 Congressional elections by six tenths of a percentage point, and in the 2012 presidential election by a quarter of a percentage point. It named their friends who had clicked the voting button, thus opting in and minimizing complaints. However the button only appeared on election day, so it did not let friends track", "and whatever. I'm not going to tell them how to vote - there's enough people doing that already. I'd rather talk about girlfriends and football. We don't like to write about things we don't really know about. We know about rejection from girls and all that, so we can write about that.\"", "the degree that the electorate perceives their individual votes to count for less, they will have less incentive to spend any time actually learning any details about the candidate(s).\nA more nuanced example occurs when a voter identifies with a particular political party, akin to the adoption of a favorite movie critic. Based on prior experience a responsible voter will seek politicians or a political party that draws conclusions about social policy that are similar to what their own conclusions would have been had they done a complete analysis. But when voters find themselves agreeing with the same party or", "to destroy the working class. It freaks me out. So I don't really think there's anything left to vote for. I believe that I, as a person, can only change things once every 5 years and that's by voting, and my point is that even casting that vote means that the same guy gets in, the only difference is one has a red tie and the other has a blue one.\"\nGallagher was passionate in his support for Barack Obama's successful bid for US President, calling his acceptance speech to the 2008 Democratic National Convention \"spellbinding.\"\nIn 1997, he played a 5-song", "not-voting is deeply affected by the particular candidate running in an election. Voting, therefore, is more reflective of what candidate is running—and therefore a poor measure of partisanship.\nMore recently, scholars focused on self-identification as a good measure of a person's political independence. The value of self-identification as a measure of a person's political independence or partisanship is that it is seen as a proxy for the behavior which should be exhibited by the independent voter. Additionally, self-identification could be easily captured either with a nominal question (\"Do you self-identify with an existing political party?\", a question which is answered with", "Ballot access Write-in status versus ballot access Depending on the office and the state, it may be possible for a voter to cast a write-in vote for a candidate whose name does not appear on the ballot. It is extremely rare for such a candidate to win office. In some cases, write-in votes are simply not counted. Having one's name printed on the ballot confers an enormous advantage over candidates who are not on the ballot. The US Supreme Court has noted that write-in status is absolutely no substitute for being on the ballot.\nThe two most notable cases of write-in", "the voting kicks in. Registered voters have the option of voting just \"yes\" or \"no\". Non-votes are also considered \"no\" votes. If a panelist (excluding the host) votes \"yes\", another 7% is added to the tally of the contestant. The contestants also see random photos of voters in their favour. Faces of panelists voting \"yes\" will also be shown in much larger frames. Once the contestant reaches 70% /80% of \"Yes\" votes, the wall is raised and the contestant goes to the next round of the competition. Duels Contestants who make it through the auditions are paired by the", "'NOTA' is as good as the phrase 'None of the Above', the logic being that it would confuse voters into thinking it is possible to cast a formal vote for 'None of the Above' when they would in fact just be voting for another party, albeit one standing on a single issue NOTA platform. Zero, None Of the Above None Of The Above Zero was a candidate at the 2010 general election in Filton and Bradley Stoke. Previously known as Eric Mutch, he changed his name by deed poll to stand under that name. As candidates are listed by surname", "free to continue numbering as many preferences as they like beyond the minimum number specified. Another savings provision allows ballot papers with at least 6 below the line preferences to be formal, catering for people who confuse the above and below the line instructions; an additional change to the savings provision will also accept below the line votes with a higher number of sequence errors than previously, treating the sequence as stopping at the first error (missed or repeated numbers).\nAs a result of these reforms, it is now much less likely that a candidate with such a minuscule primary vote", "is due to many factors. In general, voters are not equally engaged or interested in politics or an election and do not share the same exposure to information or political advertising; even many well-engaged voters change their preference for a candidate or remain undecided during a race. No voter commitment exists for any candidate on a ballot; voters are free to change their minds and may develop their voting decisions up to and including on election day.\nIn opinion polling, voters are frequently asked for their choice from among a list of candidates; a candidate who is not listed as a", "Gordon Lafer, who in testimony before the U.S. Congress stated:\nIn the American democratic tradition the principle of the secret ballot is not simply the fact that you go into a voting booth and pull a curtain and nobody sees what you do. It is your right to keep your political opinion private to yourself before, during and after the act of voting; that you can't be lured or coerced into a conversation that is designed to make you reveal your political preferences. In the NLRB, while the vote does take place in a booth where nobody sees what you're doing,", "name written in at the time of election as a write-in candidate. This is used for candidates who did not fulfill the legal requirements to be pre-listed on the voting ticket. It is also used by voters to express a distaste for the listed candidates, by writing in an alternative candidate for president such as Mickey Mouse or comedian Stephen Colbert (whose application was voted down by the South Carolina Democratic Party). In any event, a write-in candidate has never won an election for President of the United States.\nBecause U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College, U.S. citizens", "turn out to vote, especially in presidential elections (only 51 percent in the 2000 election). One vote may feel very small in a group of millions, so people may not think a vote is worth the time and effort. If too many people think this way, there is a small voter turnout. Some countries enforce compulsory voting to eliminate this effect. \"Sucker\" effect/Aversion Some people feel that others in the group will leave them to do all the work while they take the credit. Because people do not want to feel like the \"sucker\", they wait to see how much", "Others may be well-informed, but have no preference for any particular candidate, or may have no wish to give support to the incumbent political system. In compulsory voting areas, such people often vote at random simply to fulfill legal requirements: the so-called donkey vote may account for sufficient percentage which has the potential to change the result in close races. (Robson rotation can be used to distribute the donkey vote equally among all candidates, however.) Similarly, citizens may vote with a complete absence of knowledge of any of the candidates or deliberately skew their ballot to slow the polling process", "to the candidate or group listed at the top, or top left, of the ballot paper (depending on the format of the paper), because they will attract a donkey vote. Donkey voters thoughtlessly number the preferences on their ballots from left to right and/or top to bottom, purely in the order of the candidates' names and groups on the ballot.\nSuch voters are a feature of voting systems which require people to express their degree of preference for every candidate, by numbering in preferential order, or have their vote declared invalid. While donkey votes may only form a small percentage of", "how electors will vote at an election, or of the preferences of electors concerning any candidate or group of candidates or any political party or issue with which an identifiable candidate or group of candidates is associated at an election. It is also an offence to publish on polling day before all the polling stations have closed any exit poll, that is, \"any statement relating to the way in which voters have voted at the election where that statement is (or might reasonably be taken to be) based on information given by voters after they have voted\", or \"any forecast", "\"donkey vote\" even with voluntary turnout. In many US elections, a voter may well be intensely interested in (e.g.) the Presidential contest but not in other, less prominent races on the same \"long ballot\".\nSince most non-preferential elections require the voter to mark only one single candidate, or one single party list, it becomes impossible to speculate how many votes for the first candidate or party on the ballot are genuine supporters and how many are donkey votes.\nIn some elections (e.g. Germany and some US states), the order of parties on the ballot is in descending order of their support at", "wish to vote for and then confirm their vote when the candidate's photo is displayed on screen. Online voting In some countries people are allowed to vote online. Estonia was one of the first countries to use online voting: it was first used in the 2005 local elections. Postal voting Many countries allow postal voting, where voters are sent a ballot and return it by post. Open ballot In contrast to a secret ballot, an open ballot takes place in public and is commonly done by a show of hands. An example is the Landsgemeinde system in Switzerland, which is" ]

[ "This is to do with, not the display itself, but the layers of diffusers that make up the backlight behind the display\n\nAn LCD TV consists of a backlight and an LCD panel. The backlight's job is to produce an even spread of light across the display. You first have an array of LEDs, but those LEDs are point sources, and you don't want lots of bright dots. So the light has to be spread out. They do this with sheets of plastic etched with fine lines. These lines bend the light and spread it out - but only in one direction. If you only had one of these sheets, you'd have an array of lines, one for each LED. So instead they use many sheets, each sheet with lines at an angle to the one beneath. With enough of them, the light is spread evenly.\n\nIt is these fine lines etched into plastic that produces those rainbows. Each line reflects the light of your lighter when the angle is right. You get a spot of light from each line, which makes a line of light stretching away from the reflection of the lighter. But the lines are close enough that you get interference - as the angle increases, the distance the light has to travel between scratches increases, and you find places where, for one color of light, the distance the light travels is exactly one-half wavelength, so the peaks of the light waves line up with the troughs, and cancel out. When you cancel out one color of light, then you only see the other colors.\n\nThis is the same effect that gives CDs and DVDs their rainbow appearance.\n\nAnd this explanation is way too long." ]

[ "faces inward toward the other rainbow, in both rainbows). This second rainbow is caused by light reflecting twice inside water droplets. The region between a double rainbow is dark. The reason for this dark band is that, while light below the primary rainbow comes from droplet reflection, and light above the upper (secondary) rainbow also comes from droplet reflection, there is no mechanism for the region between a double rainbow to show any light reflected from water drops, at all.\nA rainbow spans a continuous spectrum of colors; the distinct bands (including the number of bands) are an artifact of human", "cannot be used in high-contrast scenes, leaving some light showing from black parts of an image with bright parts, such as (at the extreme) a solid black screen with one fine intense bright line. This is called a \"halo\" effect which has been minimized on newer LED-backlit LCDs with local dimming. Edgelit models cannot compete with this as the light is reflected via a light guide to distribute the light behind the panel. Screen burn-in Image burn-in occurs on CRTs and plasma panels when the same picture is displayed for long periods. This causes the phosphors to overheat, losing some", "reaching the observer. The reflected rainbow is frequently visible, at least partially, even in small puddles.\nA reflection rainbow may be produced where sunlight reflects off a body of water before reaching the raindrops), if the water body is large, quiet over its entire surface, and close to the rain curtain. The reflection rainbow appears above the horizon. It intersects the normal rainbow at the horizon, and its arc reaches higher in the sky, with its centre as high above the horizon as the normal rainbow's centre is below it. Due to the combination of requirements, a reflection rainbow is rarely", "off-camera, or even a white-painted wall) as a fill light instead of an actual lamp. Reflecting and redirecting the key light's rays back upon the subject from a different angle can cause a softer, subtler effect than using another lamp.\nThe backlight (a.k.a. the rim, hair, or shoulder light) shines on the subject from behind, often (but not necessarily) to one side or the other. It gives the subject a rim of light, serving to separate the subject from the background and highlighting contours.\nBack light or rim light is different from a kick in that a kick (or kicker) contributes", "partial color spectra, purple fringing or other chromatic aberration. With rain droplets, an image may capture light passing through the droplet creating a small rainbow effect.\nFujifilm describes the artifacts as a common photographic problem:\nThere is always a certain amount of dust floating around in the air. You may have noticed this at the movies when you look up at the light coming from the movie projector and notice the bright sparks floating around in the beam. In the same way, there are always dust particles floating around nearby when you take pictures with your camera. When you use the flash,", "the image is inverted. An upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen. Physical optics In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as a wave. This model predicts phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which are not explained by geometric optics. The speed of light waves in air is approximately 3.0×10⁸ m/s (exactly 299,792,458 m/s in vacuum). The wavelength of visible light waves varies between 400 and 700 nm, but the term \"light\" is also often applied to infrared (0.7–300 μm) and ultraviolet radiation (10–400 nm).\nThe wave model", "not contain sufficient energy to eject further electrons where they land, they will instead neutralize any positive charge that has been built-up in that region. Since darker images produce less positive charge on the target, the excess electrons deposited by the splash will be read as a dark region by the scanning electron beam.\nThis effect was actually cultivated by tube manufacturers to a certain extent, as a small, carefully controlled amount of the dark halo has the effect of crispening the visual image due to the contrast effect. (That is, giving the illusion of being more sharply focused than it", "inner side. This rainbow is caused by light being refracted when entering a droplet of water, then reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it.\nIn a double rainbow, a second arc is seen outside the primary arc, and has the order of its colours reversed, with red on the inner side of the arc. This is caused by the light being reflected twice on the inside of the droplet before leaving it. Overview A rainbow is not located at a specific distance from the observer, but comes from an optical illusion caused by any", "lights would indicate the difference in intensity (e.g. a light twice as far would be four times the intensity). Ritchie's photometer Ritchie's photometer depends upon equal illumination of surfaces. It consists of a box (a,b) six or eight inches long, and one in width and depth. In the middle, a wedge of wood (f,e,g) was angled upwards and covered with white paper. The user's eye looked through a tube (d) at the top of a box. The height of the apparatus was also adjustable via the stand (c). The lights to compare were placed at the side of the box", "spherules of lime-rich glass scatter blue light, producing a strong bluish cast\". The fact that particles or inhomogeneities smaller than a light wavelength preferentially scatter blue light is known as Rayleigh scattering. The glaze contains large numbers of tiny bubbles, from gases produced in the glaze during firing. These, though invisible to the naked eye, contribute to the visual effect of the pieces. In many pieces they leave the glaze rather rough to the touch, though the finest pieces avoid this, perhaps by grinding the materials very finely. Applying more than one layer of glaze appears to have been", "floodlights, the planes tangent to its vertices and edges cause it to need many more lights in order for it to be fully illuminated. For any convex body, the number of floodlights needed to completely illuminate it turns out to equal the number of smaller copies of the body that are needed to cover it. Examples As shown in the illustration, a triangle may be covered by three smaller copies of itself, and more generally in any dimension a simplex may be covered by n + 1 copies of itself, scaled by a factor of n/(n + 1). However, covering a square by smaller", "varies widely according to surface texture and colour. As a result, it is most commonly used to control contrast in both artificial and natural lighting, in place of a fill light or \"kick\" light. In this case, light \"spilling\" from the main ambient or key light illuminating a scene is reflected back into the scene with a varying degrees of precision and intensity, according to the chosen reflective surface and its position relative to the scene.\nReflectors may also be used as a means of increasing the size of the main light source, which may (or may not) retain a direct", "propagation of light. When light of a given wavelength is reflected back upon itself by a mirror, standing waves are generated, much as the ripples resulting from a stone dropped into still water create standing waves when reflected back by a surface such as the wall of a pool. In the case of ordinary incoherent light, the standing waves are distinct only within a microscopically thin volume of space next to the reflecting surface.\nLippmann made use of this phenomenon by projecting an image onto a special photographic plate capable of recording detail smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. The", "of this is not only to give different colours to different parts of the rainbow, but also to diminish the brightness. (A \"rainbow\" formed by droplets of a liquid with no dispersion would be white, but brighter than a normal rainbow.)\nThe light at the back of the raindrop does not undergo total internal reflection, and some light does emerge from the back. However, light coming out the back of the raindrop does not create a rainbow between the observer and the sun because spectra emitted from the back of the raindrop do not have a maximum of intensity, as the", "the light is reflected at the partially transmissive mirror and the 100% reflective mirror, and thus the light travels back and forth between the partially transmissive mirror and the 100% reflective mirror. \nWhen the light beam is reflected each time at the partially transmissive mirror, a small portion of the light power passes through the mirror and travels away from the glass plate. For a light beam passing though the mirror after multiple reflections, the position of the line-focus can be seen in the virtual image when observed from the light output side. Therefore, this light beam travels as if", "surface), the reflective portion can be tilted (blazed) to scatter a majority of the light into the preferred direction of interest (and into a specific diffraction order). \nFor multiple wavelengths the same is true; however, in that case it is possible for longer wavelengths of a higher order to overlap with the next order(s) of a shorter wavelength, which is usually an unwanted side effect.\nIn echelle gratings, however, this behavior is deliberately used and the blaze is optimized for multiple overlapping higher orders. Since this overlap is not directly useful, a second, perpendicularly mounted dispersive element (grating or prism)", "iris), but proportionately amplifies the transmission through the LCD panel; this gives the benefit of realizing the potential static contrast ratio of the LCD panel in dark scenes when the image is watched in a dark room. The drawback is that if a dark scene contains small areas of superbright light, the resulting image will be over exposed.\nThe trick for the display is to determine how much of the highlights may be unnoticeably blown out in a given image under the given ambient lighting conditions.\nBrightness, as it is most often used in marketing literature, refers to the emitted luminous intensity", "occurs when a floor or surface area is not level.\nDot – A small round scrim, mesh, net or solid material used to dim or control the brightness of a light, commonly used when a light cannot be dimmed electronically. May also be used when dimming a light would cause it to change color, such as fluorescent bulbs changing to an orange hue.\nDuvetyne – A black, cotton fabric used to make flags, cutters and butterflies. The opaque material can also be used to reduce reflected light.\nFeathering – A process of slowing down and speeding up a camera dolly extremely smoothly.", "At this point, LightScribe support has not explained which conditions lead to this reaction, nor the precautions that can be taken to avoid it.\nMultiple LightScribes of the same image increases contrast, but the image quality decreases with successive burns. Noticeable contrast variations are seen in solid shades. Other uses A LightScribe optical drive was used by Maher El-Kady, a graduate of UCLA in 2012 to successfully turn a specially prepared graphite oxide layer coated onto a DVD into graphene. El-Kady and Richard Kaner, his lab professor, used an unmodified LightScribe drive. The disc was prepared by coating the disc with", "red spotlights that are both dimmer than the purple spotlight. If the intensity of the purple spotlight was doubled it could be matched by doubling the intensities of both the red and blue spotlights that matched the original purple. The principles of additive color mixing are embodied in Grassmann's laws.\nAdditive mixing of coincident spot lights was applied in the experiments used to derive the CIE 1931 colorspace. The original monochromatic primaries of the (arbitrary) wavelengths of 435.8 nm (violet), 546.1 nm (green), and 700 nm (red) were used in this application due to the convenience they afforded to the experimental work.\nRed, green,", "an incandescent light is used, the fringes may only show up in the reflection of the filament. By moving the lamp much closer to the flat, the angular size becomes larger and the filamen Precision and errors Counterintuitively, the fringes do not exist within the gap or the flat itself. The interference fringes actually form when the light waves all converge at the eye or camera, forming the image. Because the image is the compilation of all converging wavefronts interfering with each other, the flatness of the test piece can only be measured relative to the flatness of the optical", "that is less saturated even when they have the same luminance.\nThe difference between brightness and lightness is that the brightness is the intensity of the object independent of the light source. Lightness is the brightness of the object in respect to the light reflecting on it. This is important because the Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect is a measure of the ratio between the two. Effects on the entertainment industry It is essential for lighting users to be aware of the Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect when working in theaters or in other venues where lighting is often used. In order to get the greatest effect", "overlapping in a key over centered fill strategy the incident strength is 1:1 between them but the overlap creates a 2:1 reflected ratio. So when expressing ratios it is important to make the distinction between incident and reflected to avoid confusion. Negative fill / subtractive lighting In cases where the fill light is desired to be darker than what is available without artificial means, a flag or frame may be used to block ambient light and thereby provide what is called negative fill.\nIn omnidirectional open shade or an overcast day where the light creates few highlight or shadow clues regarding", "beam, or \"hot spot\") of a few degrees corresponds to a spot light, useful for searching for distant objects; beam widths of 20 degrees or more are described as flood lights, suitable for lighting a wide nearby area. Typically even a flashlight beam with a small hot spot will have some light visible as \"spill\" around the spot.", "crossing point, a dichromic mirror was positioned to reflect the blue light up, while allowing the green light to pass through unchanged. Both \"beams\" were now traveling toward the top of the tube. A third tube and mirror completed the system by adding red to the image. A suitable red phosphor was not available at the time; instead, a red Wratten filter was placed over a tube with bright yellow phosphor, and then neutral filtered to get the proper brightness in relation to the other two tubes. All three signals then shone onto a mirror at the top of the", "Each of the lighted sections can be programmed to project any color and change color up to every tenth of a second. The entire display uses only 3,000 watts of electricity, about the amount used when a hair dryer and toaster are running simultaneously, according to the artist. Students often can be seen lying on their backs with their feet up on the wall, watching the colors change.", "bright spot of light that swept across the subject. A selenium photoelectric tube detected the light reflected from the subject and converted it into a proportional electrical signal. This was transmitted by AM radio waves to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon light behind a second Nipkow disk rotating synchronized with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each hole in the disk passed by, one scan line of the image was reproduced. Baird's disk had 30 holes, producing", "metal (usually aluminium). The result is a mirrored surface that reflects some light and is penetrated by the rest. Light always passes equally in both directions. However, when one side is brightly lit and the other kept dark, the darker side becomes difficult to see from the brightly lit side because it is masked by the much brighter reflection of the lit side.", "beam of white light approaches a glass-to-air interface at increasing obliquity, the most strongly-refracted rays (violet) are the first to be \"taken out\" by \"total Reflexion\", followed by the less-refracted rays. Second, he observed that total reflection could be frustrated (as we now say) by laying together two prisms, one plane and the other slightly convex; and he explained this simply by noting that the corpuscles would be attracted not only to the first prism, but also to the second.\nIn two other ways, however, Newton's system was less coherent. First, his explanation of partial reflection depended not only on the", "the electrodes may be cut in the shape of alphanumeric characters and figural shapes.\nA flicker light bulb, flicker flame light bulb or flicker glow lamp is a gas-discharge lamp which produces light by ionizing a gas, usually neon mixed with helium and a small amount of nitrogen gas, by an electric current passing through two flame shaped electrode screens coated with partially decomposed barium azide. The ionized gas moves randomly between the two electrodes which produces a flickering effect, often marketed as suggestive of a candle flame (see image). High pressure discharge lamps High-pressure lamps have a discharge that takes" ]

[ "US copyright has a Fair Use clause, which a minor reference like the ones you are mentioning fall under. You don't need to pay royalties for something like mentioning \"I saw something like this on Star Trek once!\" or \"This is like Episode 79 of the Original Series, Turnabout Intruder! They got bodyswapped!\" \n\nAs to when you cross the line of fair use, that's subjective and really you have to use your best judgment. \n\n_URL_0_ has more info.", "It depends on how it's done, but most cases of what you describe would fall under fair use.\n\nFair use is a legal right that allows you to use certain parts of a copyrighted work so long as your use meets certain criteria. One of the biggest distinctions is whether or not you're competing with the copyright owner's market share by using the copyrighted work. A reference to a TV show or video game that shows up in a written book isn't going to provide consumers with a substitute for the actual TV show or video game, so that would generally fall under fair use.\n\nHowever, if you reproduced substantial portions of the actual script for the movie in the book, that would probably not be covered by fair use because the copyright owner could argue that reading this script may serve as a substitute for seeing the movie, and therefore threatens to reduce the owner's ability to profit from their copyrighted work." ]

[ "In this Part \"copyright work\" means a work of any of those descriptions in which copyright subsists.\n\n(3) Copyright does not subsist in a work unless the requirements of this Part with respect to qualification for copyright protection are met (see section 153 and the provisions referred to there).\"\nAccording to the UK Patent Office website, the definition of 'original' is the following:\n\"A work can only be original if it is the result of independent creative effort. It will not be original if it has been copied from something that already exists. If it is similar to something that already exists but", "copyright is identified and filtered out from further examination. The final step is to compare the defendant's program to the plaintiff's, looking only at the copyright-protected material as identified in the previous two steps, and determine whether the plaintiff's work was copied. In addition, the\ncourt will assess the relative significance of any copied material with respect to the entire program. Abstraction The purpose of the abstraction step is to identify which aspects of the program constitute its expression and which are the ideas. By what is commonly referred to as the idea/expression dichotomy, copyright law protects an author's expression, but", "copy, it must appear in a fashion that brings their identity to the attention of any person using or acquiring a copy of the work. If the work is a building, the name must be visible to people entering or approaching it. If the author specifies a pseudonym or some other form of identification when asserting the right of attribution, that form of identification should be adopted.\nSpecific circumstances lead to a requirement for attribution, and it is only in these circumstances that the right to be identified can be infringed. An author of a literary or dramatic work has the", "Copyright in compilation Copyright in compilation is a facet of copyright law that may provide copyright protection to a compilation (or collection) of material, irrespective of copyright in the underlying material.\nIn the copyright law in the United States, such copyright may exist when the materials in the compilation (or \"collective work\") are selected, coordinated, or arranged creatively such that a new work is produced. Copyright does not exist when content is compiled without creativity, such as in the production of a telephone directory. In the case of compilation copyright, the compiler does not receive copyright in the underlying material, but", "code and misuse of routines which require some understanding to use correctly.\n\nThe code listings are copyrighted and commercially licensed by the Numerical Recipes authors. However, Numerical Recipes includes the following statement regarding copyrights on computer programs:\nCopyright does not protect ideas, but only the expression of those ideas in a particular form. In the case of a computer program, the ideas consist of the program's methodology and algorithm, including the necessary sequence of steps adopted by the programmer. The expression of those ideas is the program source code ... If you analyze the ideas contained in a program, and then express those", "instead declaring that all \"original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression\" fall into copyright status. The elimination of registration also eliminated a central recording location to track and identify copyright-holders. Consequently, potential users of copyrighted works, e.g., filmmakers or biographers, must assume that many works they might use are copyrighted. Where the planned use would not be otherwise permitted by law (for example, by fair use), they must themselves individually investigate the copyright status of each work they plan to use. With no central database of copyright-holders, identifying and contacting copyright-holders can sometimes be", "work unless and until it is recorded, in writing or otherwise; and references in this Part to the time at which such a work is made are to the time at which it is so recorded. Provision Added by reg 15 of the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 50BA.—(1) It is not an infringement of copyright for a lawful user of a computer program to observe, study or test the functioning of the program in order to determine the ideas and principles which underlie any element of the program if he does so while performing any of the acts", "is an original creation, rather than based on whether it is unique; two authors may own copyright on two substantially identical works, if it is determined that the duplication was coincidental, and neither was copied from the other. Registration In all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply, copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been reduced to tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to", "validity or to learn more about the subject. Such items are often listed at the end of a work in a section marked References or Bibliography.\nReferences are particularly important as for the use of citations, since copying of material by another author without proper reference and / or without required permissions is considered plagiarism, and may be tantamount to copyright infringement, which can be subject to legal proceedings. A reference section contains only those works indeed cited in the main text of a work. In contrast, a bibliographical section often contains works not cited by the author, but used as", "from the program itself for executing the method, the program being merely an expression of the method, and thus being copyrighted.\nPatents cover the underlying methodologies embodied in a given piece of software, or the function that the software is intended to serve, independent of the particular language or code that the software is written in. Copyright prevents the direct copying of some or all of a particular version of a given piece of software, but does not prevent other authors from writing their own embodiments of the underlying methodologies. Assuming a dataset meets certain criteria, copyright can also be used", "hand, and was amended as required to add newly enacted laws, revise laws that had been amended, and delete laws that had been repealed. In contrast with printing, hand copying is an individual act by an individual copyist with ideas and a style of his own. Each of the several dozen surviving manuscripts features a unique set of errors, corrections, content and organization. The laws are called \"titles\" as each one has its own name, generally preceded by de, \"of\", \"concerning\". Different sections of titles acquired individual names which revealed something about their provenances. Some of these dozens of names", "(as well as all countries where the Berne Convention standards apply), copyright is automatic, and need not be obtained through official registration with any government office. Once an idea has been produced as a tangible form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape, or a computer file), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce their exclusive rights.\nVarious groups have adapted the design and sold it commercially or used it to represent different organizations or campaigns. The BDSM rights flag, for example, is intended to represent the belief that people", "start processing the content and decide what should be noted. This step involves taking the time to make sense of the information captured in the moment before recording the content. The notes should not reflect everything said by the speaker, nor should they be extremely comprehensive.\nWriting: After processing the content and deciding what information is relevant, begin writing these key ideas down. This should be done quickly, while maintaining consistency and legibility.\nDrawing: Illustrations and visual elements can be added to supplement written content. Elements Text: used for traditional methods of note taking. An example of this is handwritten notes. Handwriting", "copying, and the effect on potential markets.\nThe amount of sustainability of dealing asks about how much of the original work is used in the meme, or how the meme transforms the original content. A meme makes use to existing copyright work whether it is a cinematograph still, rage comic, personal photograph or a meme made for the purpose of being a meme. However, since a meme is made for comedic purposes, taken out of context of the original work, they are transforming the work and creating a new work\nThe purpose of copying factors in the purpose of the meme compared", "domain is a range of creative works whose copyright has expired, or was never established; as well as ideas and facts which are ineligible for copyright. A public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public, or no longer can claim control over, the distribution and usage of the work. As such any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise use the work, without legal ramifications. A work in the public domain or released under a permissive licence may be referred to as \"copycenter\". Copyleft Copyleft is a play on the word copyright and describes the", "Copyright transfer agreement A copyright transfer agreement or copyright assignment agreement is an agreement that transfers the copyright for a work from the copyright owner to another party. This is one legal option for publishers and authors of books, magazines, movies, television shows, video games, and other commercial artistic works who want to include and use a work of a second creator: for example, a video game developer who wants to pay an artist to draw a boss to include in a game. Another option is to license the right to include and use the work, rather than", "assign value to a tool or artwork. The combination of the two is key. As Kubler explains, \"...existence without meaning seems terrible in the same degree as meaning without existence seems trivial\" (25).\nSerial Appreciation\nKubler declares that nearly everything is based from an original object. Whether the copy, manipulated or not, is better or worse than the original ultimately does not matter; The object is still a copy. However, it is up to the maker to decide how to mutate the original as well as to create another domain for the object. The maker is the one who subconsciously creates boundaries", "copyright notices be maintained.\nA symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the copyright symbol, facing the other way; the opening of the C points left rather than right. Unlike the copyright symbol, the copyleft symbol does not have a codified meaning. Usage Projects that provide free content exist in several areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video, and engineering.\nTechnology has reduced the cost of publication and reduced the entry barrier sufficiently to allow for the production of widely disseminated materials by individuals or small groups. Projects to provide free literature and multimedia", "work passes into the public domain but the character in question remains a registered trademark.\nAlthough intellectual property laws such as these are theoretically distinct, more than one type may afford protection to the same article. For example, the particular design of a bottle may qualify for copyright protection as a non-utilitarian [sculpture], or for trademark protection based on its shape, or the 'trade dress' appearance of the bottle as a whole may be protectable. Titles and character names from books or movies may also be protectable as trademarks while the works from which they are drawn may qualify for copyright", "the same as for any other literary work, and copyright lasts for the normal term of such a work. The effect of this is that copyright exists in the database if, and only if, the database's creation is the original work of the author.\nFor databases created after 27 March 1996, in addition to the ordinary literary copyright, a separate database right also exists. Database right exists if a substantial amount of work was required by the maker of the database to obtain the data in the database, to verify the data, or to present the database's contents. Database right is", "MyNotex How it works The basic unit of content is a note, and has several characteristics: title, date, keywords (tags), list of activities, attachments (compressed in a ZIP archive) and text that can be formatted and encrypted, and may contain hashtags.\nNotes are grouped in subjects. A side pane lets you select a subject to view all notes that are part of it, sorted by date, title or by a custom order. Once displayed, a note can be directly edited.\nEach note has a spreadsheet-like grid to manage a list of activities which is quite similar to the one used in many", "similarity between the two works suggest copying. Second, the court will determine whether the works are substantially similar, which involves comparing only the copyrightable elements of the original and allegedly infringing works. Copying-in-fact The first step of the infringement analysis, copying-in-fact, includes determining that the defendant actually copied the work as a factual matter. Because direct evidence of copying is rare, courts tend to permit evidence showing that (1) the defendant had access to the copyrighted work and so had the opportunity to copy the work and (2) a sufficient degree of similarity exists between the two", "practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies and modified versions of a work. The aim of copyleft is to use the legal framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes, modify content that is created by an author. Unlike works in the public domain, the author still maintains copyright over the material, however the author has granted a non-exclusive license to any person to distribute, and often modify, the work. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the same terms, and that the original", "etching, &c., by which the ideas in the mind of the author are given visible expression.\" The Court noted that \"maps and charts\" were among the subjects of the first Copyright Act of 1790, and that etchings and engravings were added when it was first amended in 1802. The members of Congress that passed these first copyright acts were contemporaries of the Framers of the Constitution, and many of them attended the Constitutional Convention itself. As such, their interpretation of the Constitution, Justice Miller wrote, \"is of itself entitled to very great weight, and when it is", "program to define a record based on a library call specifying a length. When the user program reads the data, the library retrieves data via the file system and returns a record.\nSome file systems allow the specification of a fixed record length which is used for all writes and reads. This facilitates locating the nᵗʰ record as well as updating records.\nAn identification for each record, also known as a key, makes for a more sophisticated file system. The user program can read, write and update records without regard to their location. This requires complicated management of blocks of media usually", "between a library full of copyrighted materials with a self-service photocopier, per CCH, and making a shared folder on the Internet. Therefore, the mere fact of placing a copy on a shared directory in a computer where that copy can be accessed via a peer-to-peer service does not amount to distribution, and hence authorization. According to the case, \"before it constitutes distribution, there must be a positive act by the owner of the shared directory, such as sending out the copies or advertising that they are available for copying.\" Some experts, such as University of Toronto Law Professor Ariel", "Internet Providers.\nThe Copyright Board was tasked with determining which Internet-based acts engaged the rights of SOCAN's members under section 3(1) of the Copyright Act. Section 3(1) of the Copyright Act gives copyright owners:\nthe sole right to produce or reproduce the work or any substantial part thereof in any material form whatever, to perform the work or any substantial part thereof in public or, if the work is unpublished, to publish the work or any substantial part thereof, and includes the sole right....\nSection 3(1) then lists additional subsections, including subsection (f) which reads, \"in the case of any literary, dramatic, musical", "copyright subsisting in the data or material itself.\nThe text mirrors that of Article 2(5) of the Berne Convention, which applies to \"collections of literary or artistic works\".\nThis treaty provision is broadly in line with the United States Copyright Act and the Act's case law, which protects compilations of data whose \"selection and arrangement\" is sufficiently original. See 17 U.S.C. § 101 (\"compilation\" as defined by the United States Copyright Act includes compilations of data). The standard for such originality is fairly low; for example, business listings have been found to meet this standard when deciding which companies should be listed and categorizing", "photograph from which it was derived. It is a form of copy which makes the original photograph, or a copy of it, available for viewing by a person who has access to the file. There is nothing in the Act which makes it necessary that a copy should itself be a photograph within the dictionary or the statutory definition, and if there was, it would make the inclusion of the reference to a copy unnecessary. The Court of Appeal concluded that there is no restriction on the nature of a copy, and that the data in a computer file represents", "images, templates, and other items are referenced in the same way.\nPictures can be embedded or linked using a tag:\n <v:imagedata w:rel=\"rId1\" o:title=\"example\" />\nThis is the reference to the image file. All references are managed via relationships. For example, a document.xml has a relationship to the image. There is a _rels directory in the same directory as document.xml, inside _rels is a file called document.xml.rels. In this file there will be a relationship definition that contains type, ID and location. The ID is the referenced ID used in the XML document. The type will be a reference schema definition for the" ]

[ "Before the 1930's the Island of Taiwan was part of the nation of China. During the 1930's China suffered a civil war with many factions, the most prominent of which were the communist party(CPC) and the Government(KMT). This civil war spanned world war 2 and reached a physical conclusion in 1950 when the Communist party physically wrested control of the mainland. The KMT retreated to the Island of Taiwan and has remained there in exile ever since.\n\nThe big issue about sovereignty comes down to the United Nations. As one of the main victorious nations of World War 2, China was granted a seat on the UN permanent security council, alongside the USA, UK, France and USSR. However this seat was granted to the KMT government, not the Communist party of China. So when the KMT were exiled, they still retained the official recognition in the UN as the official government of China.\n\nThe communist party however, having established pretty total control over the entire mainland, considered themselves the rightful leaders of China, including the Island of Taiwan that the exiled KMT government now resided on. The US government was initially disinterested until the Korean war came along, and they realised that they needed a card to play against the communist chinese, so sent the 7th fleet to help protect Taiwan.\n\nThis stalemate continued until 1971 when Communist China was given the UNPSC seat instead of the exiled Taiwanese government under UN resolution 2758. Since then most nations have adopted the attitude that Taiwan is technically officially part of communist China while also treating Taiwan as its own nation in everything but name. As CGP grey once put it, \"The united states sometimes sends aircraft carriers to protect one part of china from another part of china\".\n\nI hope this ELI5 is insightful, the Taiwanese situation is a very complex one from a political and cultural one, and is a major part of 20th century history.", "Taiwan was a part of China before the communist revolution. When the old government started to lose to the revolutionaries they fled to Taiwan and made their last stand there. The communists were not able to fully defeat them and by the time they had gathered enough strength Taiwan had obtained the protection of the West. \n\nSo Taiwan believe that they own all of China because they are the original government. \n\nChina believes the own Taiwan because they believe they own all of the historic territory of China from before the revolution.", "Taiwan has been historically part of the Chinese Empire. When there was the civil war, the losers (the old government) went to Taiwan and set up their government there. As China (the \"new\" communist government version) claims Taiwan, Taiwan also claims all of China, as they were the old government that got booted by the communists in the civil war. Each side claims that the other side is the fake government." ]

[ "Chinese Civil War, the PRC has claimed the territories governed by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province. These claims are controversial because of the complicated Cross-Strait relations, with the PRC treating the One-China policy as one of its most important diplomatic principles.\nIn addition to Taiwan, China is also", "Independence recognize themselves to be Taiwanese only and reject the designation \"Zhongguoren 中國人\" (Chinese national or Chinese). In particular, they have emphasized that, politically and legally, they are not Chinese. A portion of Taiwanese feel that the country's official name Republic of China has legally imposed upon them the identity of Chinese national, and therefore are discontent to a certain degree, thus wishing to seek Taiwan Independence. However, the majority of the supporters of Taiwan Independence do not deny themselves as \"huaren 華人\" (ethnic Chinese) or \"huayi 華裔\" (person of Chinese descent), meaning that they seek more of a political", "the People's Republic of China both domestically and internationally is \"Whether from the perspective of history, government or international law, Taiwan is an inseparable part of China. The political status of Taiwan is a Chinese domestic affair, and, under the premise of no hope for unification as well as certain other (conditions), (the Chinese government) does not abandon (the possibility of) the use of force to resolve it.\" Those persons promoting Taiwan independence feel that, because of the Treaty of San Francisco signed by Japan and the United States and the unclear indication of the handover of", "China.\nAfter the KMT's retreat to Taiwan, most countries, notably the countries in the Western Bloc, continued to maintain relations with the ROC. Due to diplomatic pressure, recognition gradually eroded and many countries switched recognition to the PRC in the 1970s. UN Resolution 2758 (25 October 1971) recognized the People's Republic of China as China's sole representative in the United Nations.\nThe PRC refuses to have diplomatic relations with any nation that have diplomatic relations with the ROC, and requires all nations with which it has diplomatic relations to make a statement recognizing its claims to Taiwan. As a result, only 14 UN", "with the right to rule Taiwan under the succession of states theory.\nThe position of PRC is that the ROC and PRC are two different factions in the Chinese Civil War, which never legally ended. Therefore the PRC claims that both factions belong to the same sovereign country—China. Since, as per the PRC, Taiwan's sovereignty belongs to China, the PRC's government and supporters believe that the secession of Taiwan should be agreed upon by all 1.3 billion Chinese citizens instead of just the 23 million residents of Taiwan. Furthermore, the position of PRC is that UN General Assembly Resolution 2758, which", "of China, Chen Yi, the Republic of China formally receiving Taiwan. In 1951, Japan formally signed the Treaty of San Francisco, but, due to the unclear situation of the Chinese civil war, the peace treaty did not clearly indicate to whom Taiwan's sovereignty belonged. In the second article of the 1952 Treaty of Taipei, following the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan reiterated its abandonment of sovereignty of Taiwan, the Pescadores, the Spratlys and the Paracels.\nThe People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) continued a state of war until 1979. In October 1949 a PRC", "did not accept China's claim to sovereignty over the island (Six Assurances), and the U.S. Department of State informed the Senate that \"[t]he United States takes no position on the question of Taiwan's sovereignty.\"\nThe U.S. Department of State, in its U.S. Relations With Taiwan fact sheet, states \"[T]he United States and Taiwan enjoy a robust unofficial relationship. The 1979 U.S.–P.R.C. Joint Communiqué switched diplomatic recognition from Taipei to Beijing. In the Joint Communiqué, the United States recognized the Government of the People's Republic of China as the sole legal government of China, acknowledging the Chinese position that there is but", "said Taiwan is “not sovereign,” provoking strong comments from both the Pan-Green and Pan-Blue coalitions – but for very different reasons. From the DPP's side, President Chen declared that “Taiwan is definitely a sovereign, independent country, a great country that absolutely does not belong to the People's Republic of China\". The TSU (Taiwan Solidarity Union) criticized Powell, and questioned why the US sold weapons to Taiwan if it were not a sovereign state. From the KMT, then Chairman Ma Ying-jeou announced, “the Republic of China has been a sovereign state ever since it was formed [in 1912].” The pro-unification PFP", "this situation, the ROC in Taiwan maintained their membership as \"China\" in the United Nations, and a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. However, the PRC was granted the seat of \"China\" in the United Nations and Security Council in 1971, in place of the ROC whose recognition was withdrawn and the representatives it had sent were expelled as unlawful representatives of China. This was done through the adoption of General Assembly Resolution 2758. As of 2014, the PRC exercises sovereignty over mainland China, while the ROC continues to be unrecognised by the United Nations but exercises sovereignty over", "areas have claimed their own independence, but not received widespread international recognition.\nAfter decades of civil war, Indonesia finally recognized the independence of East Timor in 2002.\nIn 1949, the Communists won the civil war and established the People's Republic of China in Mainland China. The Kuomintang-led Republic of China government retreated to Taipei, its jurisdiction now limited to Taiwan and several outlying islands. Since then, the People's Republic of China has been involved in disputes with the ROC over issues of sovereignty and the political status of Taiwan.\nAs noted, self-determination movements remain strong in some areas of the world. Some", "of China\". However, this point is dubious given that it has a huge amount of influence over the UN as one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council. The Beijing regime also claims that the majority of countries recognize Taiwan as a province of China, though this is only a half-truth.\nPeople's Republic of China authorities also accuse the US, Japan, and the EU of interfering in \"Chinese internal affairs\", claiming that the United States is responsible for separating Taiwan from China, and is responsible for manufacturing \"artificial\" pro-independence sentiments within Taiwan. Most governments, including the U.S. government, claim", "official recognition as the sole legitimate government of China. Eventually, the PRC (mostly) won this war, and ascended to the position of \"China\" in the United Nations in 1971, evicting the ROC from that same position.\nThis left an awkward situation where the ROC still ruled Taiwan but was not recognized as a member state of the United Nations. In recent years, membership in the United Nations has become almost an essential qualifier of statehood. Most states with limited recognition are not at all recognized by most governments and intergovernmental organizations. However, the ROC on Taiwan is a unique case, given", "that it has still managed to attain a significant degree of unofficial international recognition, even though most countries do not officially recognize its existence. This is mainly due to the fact that the ROC was previously recognized as the legitimate government of China, providing an extensive framework for unofficial diplomatic relations to be conducted between the ROC on Taiwan and other countries.\nIn the years following the ROC's retreat to Taiwan, Taiwan has gone through a series of significant social, political, economic, and cultural shifts, strengthening the divide between Taiwan and mainland China. This has been further exacerbated by Taiwan's history", "and Nationalists of the KMT, defines Taiwan independence as “splitting Taiwan from China, causing division of the nation and the people.” What PRC claims by this statement is somewhat ambiguous according to supporters of Taiwanese independence, as some statements by the PRC seem to identify China solely and uncompromisingly with the PRC. Others propose a broader and more flexible definition suggesting that both mainland China and Taiwan are parts that form one cultural and geographic entity, although divided politically as a vestige of the Chinese Civil War. The PRC considers itself the sole legitimate government of all China, and the", "ROC has not renounced claims over the territories currently controlled by the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, Russia, Myanmar and some Central Asian states. However, Taiwan does not actively pursue these claims in practice; the remaining claims that Taiwan is actively seeking are of uninhabited islands: the Senkaku Islands, whose sovereignty is also asserted by Japan and the PRC. As far as the Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands in the East Sea [called by Vietnam] or South China Sea [called by China] are concerned, Vietnam has repeatedly claimed its sovereignty over these islands, rejecting China's so-called “Nine Dash Line”", "would fall under the definition of an \"internal conflict of China\", if Taiwan approaches independence.\nMost Taiwanese (ROC) people oppose joining China (PRC) for various reasons, including fears of the loss of Taiwan (ROC)'s democracy, human rights, and Taiwanese nationalism. Opponents either favour maintaining the status quo of Republic of China administrating Taiwan or the pursuit of Taiwan independence. The ROC Constitution states that its territory includes the mainland, but the official policy of the ROC government is dependent on which coalition is currently in power. The position of the Pan-Blue Coalition, which comprises the Kuomintang (KMT), the People First Party", "to adhere to a so-called \"One-China Policy\", which is based on the Chinese \"One China Principle\".\nMost \"developed\" and \"Western\" countries consider Taiwan to be a self-governing state in reality, but claim that they consider this political reality to be illegal/illegitimate. However, since recognizing the existence of a \"de facto independent Taiwan/ROC\" provides some form of grounds for officially recognising Taiwan independence, China (PRC) usually rejects the main premise of the Montevideo Convention, which is that \"there are certain realities which determine statehood\" (irrespective of international recognition).\nWithin the Pan-Green Coalition of Taiwan, there are two main factions. The faction which is", "2012 Taiwan presidential election explained her stance on the existence of the Republic of China on Taiwan as \"...the Republic of China has lost the land on which it was originally established. It only exists in Taiwan. It has merged into the land and people of Taiwan. Today, the majority of the people in Taiwan can agree that Taiwan is the Republic of China, and the Republic of China is Taiwan.\", \"Taiwan is a sovereign and independent country\", and \"...after we began directly electing our president, the current Republic of China government is no longer a foreign government. It is", "ruled by the ROC or PRC—deliberately vague, and the question of legitimate sovereignty over China is why China was not included in the San Francisco Peace Treaty.\nThe ROC government still governs Taiwan, but it transformed itself into a free and democratic state in the 1990s following decades of martial law. During this period, the legal and political status of Taiwan has become more controversial, with more public expressions of Taiwan independence sentiments, which were formerly outlawed. Viewpoints within Taiwan Within Taiwan, there is a distinction between the positions of the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP).\nThe Kuomintang holds", "Foreign policy of China Status of Taiwan China considers Taiwan area administered by Republic of China, part of its inviolable sovereign territory. In China's view, Taiwan is a separatist, breakaway province that must be reunified, by force if necessary. China exerts efforts for countries recognizing the ROC to switch their recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC). This has forced Taiwan to go to great lengths to maintain its extant diplomatic relations, particularly with countries that recognize the Republic of China as the one \"China\".\nIt has passed the controversial Anti-Secession Law authorizing the use of military force", "mentioning that the Government of China is the sole and legitimate Government and the position of the United Nations is that Taiwan is part of China.\nResponding to the UN's rejection of its application, the ROC government has stated that Taiwan is not now nor has it ever been under the jurisdiction of the PRC, and that since General Assembly Resolution 2758 did not clarify the issue of Taiwan's representation in the UN, it does not prevent Taiwan's participation in the UN as an independent sovereign nation. The ROC government also criticized Ban for asserting that Taiwan is part of China", "Taiwan came under U.S. jurisdiction based on it being the principal occupying power as designated in the Treaty of Peace with Japan and remains so to this day. Moreover, the plaintiffs claimed that the United States has never recognized the incorporation of Taiwan into Chinese national territory. The defendant in this case was the United States government.\nThe District Court agreed with United States government on 18 March 2008 and ruled that the case presents a political question; as such, the court concluded that it had no jurisdiction to hear the matter and dismissed the complaint. This decision was appealed by", "because \"Taiwan is already an independent, sovereign country\" and the Republic of China is the same as Taiwan. Despite being a member of KMT prior to and during his presidency, Lee Teng-hui also held a similar view and was a supporter of the Taiwanization movement.\nPan-Blue members generally support the concept of the One-China policy, which states that there is only one China and that its only government is the ROC. They favour eventual re-unification of China. The more mainstream Pan-Blue position is to lift investment restrictions and pursue negotiations with the PRC to immediately open direct transportation links. Regarding independence,", "of China's (commonly known as Taiwan; non-UN member) Foreign Ministry stated \"We congratulate the Kosovo people on their winning independence and hope they enjoy the fruits of democracy and freedom. [...] Democracy and self-determination are the rights endorsed by the United Nations. The Republic of China always supports sovereign countries' seeking democracy, sovereignty and independence through peaceful means.\" Taiwan's political rival, the People's Republic of China, responded quickly, saying that \"Taiwan, as a part of China, has no right and qualification at all to make the so-called recognition\".\nAmongst Southeast Asian countries where Muslim separatist movements were active in at least", "million people residing in the Taiwanese mainland and other islands. The argument, however, has not been accepted by the UN, because the issue of Taiwan independence was not raised in UN.\nSince the 1970s, the PRC and ROC have competed for diplomatic recognition from nations across the world, often by offering financial aid to poorer countries as an inducement. As a precondition for diplomatic relations, the PRC requires that the other country renounce any recognition of the ROC. Since the introduction of the \"pragmatic diplomacy\" (務實外交 Wùshí wàijiāo) policy in 1991, the ROC has not insisted on consideration as the sole", "the General Assembly for the first time since it began the campaign in 1993.\nA 2013 United States congressional report describes US bipartisan \"One China\" policy as follows:\nThe United States has its own \"one China\" policy (vs. the PRC's \"one China\" principle) and position on Taiwan's status. Not recognizing the PRC's claim over Taiwan nor Taiwan as a sovereign state, U.S. policy has considered Taiwan's status as unsettled.\nThe Constitution of the Republic of China still claims to be the government of the whole of China. Taiwan independence supporters say that the non-assertion of the claim is mainly due to PRC's public", "in the South China Sea. The People's Republic of China (PRC) was established in mainland China on 1 October 1949, claiming to be the successor to the ROC.\nQuemoy, Matsu and Wuchiu on the coast of Fukien, Taiping and Pratas in the South China Sea, are part of the ROC's present territory, but were not ceded to Japan. Some arguments supporting the independence of Taiwan do not apply to these islands. Cession, retrocession, legal status, and self-determination of Taiwan China, during the Qing Dynasty, ceded the island of Taiwan, including Penghu, to Japan \"in perpetuity\" at the end of the First", "Proposed flags of Taiwan Several proposals for a flag of Taiwan have been initiated by supporters of formal Taiwan independence to replace the flag of the Republic of China as the national flag flown over Taiwan. Supporters of Taiwan independence object to the use of the flag of the Republic of China since it was designed by and is closely associated with the Kuomintang. However, no single flag has been established as the symbol of the independence movement, and moderate supporters of Taiwan independence, such as the Democratic Progressive Party, have accepted the flag of the Republic of China for", "as a colony of the Japanese Empire, which led to the establishment of a unique Taiwanese identity and the desire for Taiwan independence. The Taiwan independence movement has grown considerably stronger in recent decades, and has especially become a viable force on the island ever since the ROC's transition to multi-party politics, during what has become known as the Democratization of Taiwan. Due to this new political reality, independence-oriented parties have been able to gain majority control over Taiwan (ROC) via elections.\nChina (PRC) has never recognized the existence of Two Chinas. China (PRC) asserts that the ROC ceased to exist", "compatriots in Taiwan, to accomplish the great task of reunifying the motherland.\" The PRC claim to sovereignty over Taiwan is generally based on the theory of the succession of states, with the PRC claiming that it is the successor state to the Republic of China.\nHowever, the Communist Party of China has never controlled Taiwan. The Government of the Republic of China formerly administered both mainland China and Taiwan but has been administering primarily Taiwan only since the Chinese Civil War in which it fought the armed forces of the Communist Party of China. While the official name of the state" ]

[ "People have made it so. Words can be given such power based on how they're used in the culture. I remember when Austin Powers 2 came out (it was called Austin Powers 2: The Spy Who Shagged Me), and that was seen as quite vulgar for British people. In the US, Shagged is a cute word (like using Poop in place of the word Shit). Just remember that it is how it is taken, not how it is intended. You could be using cunt like the Aussies do in friendly conversation (referring to their friends), but someone who isn't used to hearing that can still take offense to it.", "Yarr, ye forgot yer searchin' duties, for ['twas asked by those what came before ye!](_URL_0_)" ]

[ "the word \"fuck\" in their titles. He discusses uses of the word from the 15th century onwards. Fairman establishes that most current usages have connotations distinct from its denotation of sexual intercourse, and asserts that rather than having sexual meaning, the word's use is most commonly associated with power.\nFairman discusses the efforts of conservatives in the United States to censor the word from common parlance in the country, and says these acts are opposed to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Fairman warns against a tendency toward self-censorship. He explains that those who choose to silence themselves tacitly", "a substitute for words regarded as taboo, often to the extent that the association with the taboo word becomes unknown over time. \"Berk\" (often used to mean \"foolish person\") originates from the most famous of all fox hunts, the \"Berkeley Hunt\" meaning \"cunt\"; \"cobblers\" (often used in the context \"what you said is rubbish\") originates from \"cobbler's awls\", meaning \"balls\" (as in testicles); and \"hampton\" (usually \"'ampton\") meaning \"prick\" (as in penis) originates from \"Hampton Wick\" (a place in London) - the second part \"wick\" also entered common usage as \"he gets on my wick\" (he is an annoying", "You Can Never Say on Television\".\nThe director explained in an interview that he was fascinated with the word \"fuck\" because of its different uses. He originally proposed the idea of a film about the word in jest, later realizing that the topic could fuel a documentary. The Observer quoted him as saying that he was entertained by the word \"fuck\", and intrigued with the idea of examining how the word had been incorporated into popular culture. He wanted to analyze why some people were offended by its use and others enjoyed it, noting that the word sharpened debate about taboo", "sexual imagery that motivate the taboo\", and 'users' for whom \"metaphorical uses of the word fuck no more evoke images of sexual intercourse than a ten-year-old's 'My mom'll kill me if she finds out' evokes images of murder,\" so that the \"criteria of taboo are missing.\"\nBecause of its increasing usage in the public forum, in 2005 the word was included for the first time as one of three vulgarities in The Canadian Press's Canadian Press Caps and Spelling guide. Journalists were advised to refrain from censoring the word but use it sparingly and only when its inclusion was essential to", "Taboo Etymology The term \"taboo\" comes from the Tongan tapu or Fijian tabu (\"prohibited\", \"disallowed\", \"forbidden\"), related among others to the Maori tapu and Hawaiian kapu. Its English use dates to 1777 when the British explorer James Cook visited Tonga, and referred to the Tongans' use of the term \"taboo\" for \"any thing is forbidden to be eaten, or made use of\". He wrote:\nNot one of them would sit down, or eat a bit of any thing.... On expressing my surprise at this, they were all taboo, as they said; which word has a very comprehensive meaning; but, in general,", "the word \"fuck\" on U.S. television, when the group played it uncensored on The Dick Cavett Show on August 19, 1969. This song also helped popularize the phrase as a counterculture rallying cry, over and beyond the immediate impact of the anarchist group.\nAt various times, the line became popular among several groups that came out of the sixties, from Black Panthers to feminists and even \"rednecks.\" In 1968, David Peel and the Lower East Side included the song, \"Up against the Wall, Motherfucker\" on their album entitled, Have a Marijuana. In the 1970s, Texas country singer-songwriter Ray Wylie Hubbard adapted", "considered obscene but is commonly used in many informal and familiar situations.\nIt is unclear whether the word has always been considered vulgar or, if not, when it first came to be used to describe (often in an extremely angry, hostile or belligerent manner) unpleasant circumstances or people in an intentionally offensive way, such as in the term motherfucker, one of its more common usages in some parts of the English-speaking world. Some English-speaking countries censor it on television and radio. Andrea Millwood Hargrave's 2000 study of the attitudes of the British public found that fuck was considered the third most", "looking for ways to apply it where other English words had previously been applied. For example, J. M. Powis Smith, in his book The American Bible (editor's preface 1927), used \"taboo\" occasionally in relation to Israel's Tabernacle and ceremonial laws, including Exodus 30:36, Exodus 29:37; Numbers 16:37–38; Deuteronomy 22:9, Isaiah 65:5, Ezekiel 44:19 and Ezekiel 46:20.\nAlbert Schweitzer wrote a chapter about taboos of the people of Gabon. As an example, it was considered a misfortune for twins to be born, and they would be subject to many rules not incumbent on other people. Function Communist and materialist theorists have argued", "word taboo.\nAfter the book's publication, Fairman was consulted by media sources, including CNN, on issues involving word taboo. The American Civil Liberties Union of Ohio invited Fairman to host its forum \"Word Taboos\" in 2010; his presentation was titled \"Putting the 'F' in Free Speech\". In a 2012 article on the word \"fuck\", The New York Times characterized Fairman as the foremost legal scholar in the United States on the word \"fuck\".", "Word taboo Word taboo, also called taboo language, language taboo or linguistic taboo is a kind of taboo that involves restricting the use of words or other parts of language due to social constraints. This may be due to a taboo on specific parts of the language itself (such as certain words, or sounds), or due to the need to avoid a taboo topic. The taboo against naming the dead in parts of the world is an example. Taboo words are commonly avoided with euphemisms, such as the English euphemism pass away, meaning \"die\". It is a common source of", "to the American Library Association.\nThe first documented use of the word fuck on live British television (and probably on any television system) has been attributed to theatre critic Kenneth Tynan in 1965, though it has been claimed Irish playwright Brendan Behan used the word on Panorama in 1956 (although no one could understand him because he was drunk) or the man who painted the railings on Stranmillis Embankment alongside the River Lagan in Belfast, who in 1959 told Ulster TV's teatime magazine programme Roundabout that his job was \"fucking boring\". Controversy also ensued in 1976 when Today host Bill Grundy", "language in society.\nAnderson explained to the Los Angeles Times the confusing, forbidden nature of the word \"fuck\" in the face of the increased pervasiveness of euphemisms for it. He commented on its taboo nature and demonstrated how it can be indirectly referred to, so youth understand the reference without using the word itself. In an interview with the South China Morning Post, Anderson said that film directors should fight against censorship, because it can block their true message.\nThe director told CanWest News Service that he hoped the documentary would provoke a wider discussion about freedom of speech, sexual slang and", "in British use than Americans typically realize\". The word was used twice to comic effect in the Simpsons episode \"Trash of the Titans\", which caused no offence to American audiences, but prompted complaints on occasions when the episode was broadcast unedited in the United Kingdom. In popular culture \"The Winker's Song (Misprint)\" by Ivor Biggun is one of many songs about masturbation. It describes the singer: \"I'm a wanker, I'm a wanker. And it does me good like it bloody well should\", and it reached number 22 in the 1978 UK charts. It was banned by BBC Radio 1", "given many vulgar names, three of which are cunt, twat, and pussy. Cunt is also used as a derogatory epithet referring to people of either sex. This usage is relatively recent, dating from the late nineteenth century. Reflecting different national usages, cunt is described as \"an unpleasant or stupid person\" in the Compact Oxford English Dictionary, whereas the Merriam-Webster has a usage of the term as \"usually disparaging and obscene: woman\", noting that it is used in the United States as \"an offensive way to refer to a woman\". Random House defines it as \"a despicable, contemptible or foolish man\".", "Fuck Fuck is a profane English-language word which often refers to the act of sexual intercourse but is also commonly used as an intensifier or to denote disdain. While its origin is obscure, it is usually considered to be first attested to around 1475. In modern usage, the term \"fuck\" and its derivatives (such as \"fucker\" and \"fucking\") can be used as a noun, a verb, an adjective, an interjection or an adverb. There are many common phrases that employ the word as well as compounds that incorporate it, such as \"motherfucker,\" \"fuckwit\", \"fuckup\" and \"fucknut\". Offensiveness The word is", "interviewed the Sex Pistols, after guitarist Steve Jones called Grundy a \"dirty fucker\" and a \"fucking rotter\" (see EMI and the Grundy incident).\nJohn Cleese during his eulogy in the memorial service for Graham Chapman declared himself to be the first person to use the word \"fuck\" on such an occasion.\nThe word began to break into cinema when it was uttered once in the film Vapor (1963) and in two Andy Warhol films – Poor Little Rich Girl (1965) and My Hustler (1965), and later in each of two 1967 British releases, Ulysses and I'll Never Forget What's'isname. It was used", "earliest written appearance was in the 1475 poem \"Flen flyys\". It was not, as is often claimed, originally an acronym for \"For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge\" or \"Fornication Under Consent of the King\". The word has been used by authors including Robert Burns, D. H. Lawrence (in his 1928 Lady Chatterley's Lover) and James Joyce. The film explains that \"fuck\" established its current usage during the First and Second World Wars, and was used by General George S. Patton in a speech to his forces who were about to enter France.\nFuck states that the first use of the word in", "alleged forms of discrimination.\nIncest itself has been pulled both ways, with some seeking to normalize consensual adult relationships regardless of the degree of kinship (notably in Europe) and others expanding the degrees of prohibited contact (notably in the United States.) Although the term taboo usually implies negative connotations, it is sometimes associated with enticing propositions in proverbs such as forbidden fruit is the sweetest.\nIn medicine, professionals who practice in ethical and moral grey areas, or fields subject to social stigma such as late termination of pregnancy, may refrain from public discussion of their practice. Among other reasons, this taboo may", "Some feminists of the 1970s sought to eliminate disparaging terms such as cunt. Twat is widely used as a derogatory epithet, especially in British English, referring to a person considered obnoxious or stupid. Pussy can indicate \"cowardice or weakness\", and \"the human vulva or vagina\" or by extension \"sexual intercourse with a woman\". In contemporary English, use of the word pussy to refer to women is considered derogatory or demeaning, treating people as sexual objects. In contemporary literature and art The vagina loquens, or \"talking vagina\", is a significant tradition in literature and art, dating back to the ancient folklore", "for the subject of the sentence).\nEmphatic exclamations, not aimed to insult but to express strong emotion, often include words for sexual relations (e.g. ¡joder! \"fuck!\", ¡chingados! \"fuckers!\") or to excretions or sexual organs (¡mierda! \"shit!\", ¡coño! \"pussy!\"). Sexual taboo words that describe a masculine sexuality may be used in a positive sense (e.g. cabrón \"male goat\", gallo \"rooster\", cerdo \"pig\"). References to sexual acts The following words are indicative of a variety of sexual acts, especially sexual intercourse and masturbation, though mostly limited to specific geographic regions. Chingar chingar—originating from the Basque verb txingartu, meaning \"to burn with coal\" or", "at least since the early nineteenth century. In those languages, the term is also often current vernacular (not just legal, unlike in other cultures) and a formal way of referring to any practice of anal penetration; the word sex is commonly associated with consent and pleasure with regard to all involved parties and often avoids directly mentioning two common aspects of social taboo—human sexuality and the anus—without a shunning or archaic connotation to its use.\nIn modern German, the word Sodomie has no connotation of anal or oral sex and specifically refers to bestiality. The same goes for the Polish sodomia.", "swear word) to form a euphemism is known as taboo deformation, or a minced oath. In American English, words that are unacceptable on television, such as fuck, may be represented by deformations such as freak, even in children's cartoons. Feck is a minced oath originating in Hiberno-English and popularised outside of Ireland by the British sitcom Father Ted. Some examples of rhyming slang may serve the same purpose: to call a person a berk sounds less offensive than to call a person a cunt, though berk is short for Berkeley Hunt, which rhymes with cunt.\nBureaucracies frequently spawn euphemisms intentionally, as", "Its vulgarity also contributes to its mostly figurative sense, though the word itself is used in its literal sense to refer to sexual intercourse, its most common usage is figurative—to indicate the speaker's strong sentiment and to offend or shock the listener. Rise of modern usage Though it appeared in English lexicographer John Ash's 1775 A New and Complete Dictionary, listed as \"low\" and \"vulgar\", and appearing with several definitions, fuck did not appear in any widely consulted dictionary of the English language from 1795 to 1965. Its first appearance in the Oxford English Dictionary (along with the word cunt)", "has been considered taboo, or discouraged, in many cultures and parts of the world. In Chinese Taoism, cunnilingus is revered as a spiritually-fulfilling practice that is believed to enhance longevity. In modern Western culture, oral sex is widely practiced among adolescents and adults. Laws of some jurisdictions regard cunnilingus as penetrative sex for the purposes of sexual offenses with regard to the act, but most countries do not have laws which ban the practice, in contrast to anal sex or extramarital sex.\nPeople give various reasons for their dislike or reluctance to perform cunnilingus, or having cunnilingus performed on them. Some", "the time. This attracted less attention. The word was strongly implied, but not said explicitly, in Isaac Hayes' huge 1971 hit song \"Theme from Shaft\". Though rarely broadcast in the US, the word has since become common in popular music, particularly in hip hop.\nThe word appears in George Carlin's Seven Words You Can't Say on Television. In one HBO special, he comments that at one point, someone asked him to remove it, since, as a derivative of the word \"fuck\", it constituted a duplication. He later added it back, claiming that the bit's rhythm does not work without it.\nThe word", "severe profanity and its derivative motherfucker second. Cunt was considered the most severe.\nNevertheless, the word has become increasingly less vulgar and more publicly acceptable, an example of the \"dysphemism treadmill\", wherein former vulgarities become inoffensive and commonplace. According to linguist Pamela Hobbs, \"notwithstanding its increasing public use, enduring cultural models that inform our beliefs about the nature of sexuality and sexual acts preserve its status as a vile utterance that continues to inspire moral outrage.\" Hobbs considers users rather than usage of the word and sub-divides users into 'non-users', for whom the word \"evokes the core sexual meanings and associated", "Seven dirty words The seven dirty words are seven English-language words that American comedian George Carlin first listed in 1972 in his monologue \"Seven Words You Can Never Say on Television\". The words are: shit, piss, fuck, cunt, cocksucker, motherfucker, and tits.\nAt the time, the words were considered highly inappropriate and unsuitable for broadcast on the public airwaves in the United States, whether radio or television. As such, they were avoided in scripted material, and bleep censored in the rare cases in which they were used. Broadcast standards differ in different parts of the world, then and now, although most", "several times in the 1969 British film Bronco Bullfrog. According to director Robert Altman, the first time the word \"fuck\" was used in a major American studio film was in 1970's M*A*S*H, spoken by Painless during the football match at the end of the film. Use in marketing In April 1997, clothing retailer French Connection began branding their clothes \"fcuk\" (usually written in lowercase), stating it was an acronym for \"French Connection United Kingdom\". Its similarity to the word \"fuck\" caused controversy. French Connection produced a range of T-shirts with messages such as \"fcuk this\", \"hot as fcuk\", \"mile high", "or profanity. It seems more likely, according to Rawson, that the taboo against the word arose secondarily, perhaps because of an association with menstruation.\nThe Oxford English Dictionary prefers the theory that it arose from aristocratic rowdies known as \"bloods\", hence \"bloody drunk\" means \"drunk as a blood\". History of use Until at least the early 18th century, the word was used innocuously. \nIt is used as an intensifier without apparent implication of profanity by 18th-century authors such as Henry Fielding and Jonathan Swift (\"It was bloody hot walking today\" in 1713) and Samuel Richardson (\"He is bloody passionate\" in", "as a benign minced oath such as \"fork\" for \"fuck\", \"shirt\" for \"shit\", or \"bench\" for \"bitch\".\nDubbing of movies for television often replaces \"Fuck you!\" with \"Forget you!\", \"bastard\" with \"buzzard\", \"fucking\" with \"stinking\", and \"prick\" with \"pig\". Music The Fugs, a mid-1960s band named by Tuli Kupferberg, used a euphemism for \"fuck\" found in Norman Mailer's novel (above), The Naked and the Dead. Internet In a discussion of profanity, writer Leigh Lundin uses the glyph ƒ. He further discusses being \"nannied\" by Internet software, noting that words like cockatoo, pussycat, and even Hummer may be flagged, which has become" ]

[ "Human being are designed to eat as much food as they possibly can, because in nature food is a whole lot rarer. We crave salt, fat, and sugar. This is a problem today because we have industrial farming and society. When he had to hunt down all out food ourselves it was a lot harder to eat enough to actually.make us fat. But now that all we have to do is take a trip to the grocery store and pick up a 4 lb bag of M & Ms, it's easy to be fat. We", "Who do you know that can start working out regularly easily?? Cause I gotta jump on that wave...." ]

[ "insecurity, exhaustion, and difficulty concentrating. Stress may also perpetuate or lead to binge eating, smoking, and alcohol consumption.\nThe feeling that simply working hard is not enough anymore is acknowledged by many other American workers. \"To get ahead, a seventy-hour work week is the new standard. What little time is left is often divided up among relationships, kids, and sleep.\" This increase in work hours over the past two decades means that less time will be spent with family, friends, and community as well as pursuing activities that one enjoys and taking the time to grow personally and spiritually.\nAccording to a", "Ripping (bodybuilding) Dieting and cardiovascular exercise In order for one to take part in the cutting stage, they must change their diet to be in a deficit from their maintenance calories by 300-500 calories, but still eating 1g of protein per pound of bodyweight to maintain or even gain strength. During your workouts you wanna keep going heavy to maintain muscle mass and even sometimes progress on your weights. Another key thing to help you lose weight but not beneficial is to add 3 cardio burning sessions of 300-500 calories. Depending on your own body some people don't even", "of more sedentary lifestyles and convenience foods. People are sitting more throughout their days, whether it be in their cars during rush hour or in their cubicles during their full-time jobs. Less physical activity in general means fewer calories burned throughout the day. Human diets have changed considerably over the 10,000 years since the advent of agriculture, with more processed foods in their diets that lack nutritional value and lead them to consume more sodium, sugar, and fat. These high calorie, nutrient-deficient foods cause people to consume more calories than they burn. Fast food combined with decreased physical activity means", "(2017) found that due to increased economic development and urbanization, the labour-intense jobs are being replaced with more automated methods of work thus requiring lesser physical activity. The labour-intensive work are generally categorized as hard manual work which is commonly a job title that the poorer population owns. In this sense, the physical activity involved in the automated and less labour-intense job are far less compared to the jobs that require harder physical-intense work that is common among the poor population, which implies that the population working automated methods of work have a higher incidence of obesity and being overweight.", "at home, to living on their own, which results in students not knowing how to properly eat on their own. Students then tend to go eat with other students and choose poor eating decisions.\nMost college students activity levels significantly decrease over the course of college. This results in weight gain because students do not workout as much and become lazier in everyday tasks. Transitioning into college is the first time when students actually have to learn how to maintain a healthy lifestyle and manage time in their schedules for physical activity. College diet College students must deal with many different", "fast foods, or other unhealthy alternatives to be consumed often for their ease of acquisition and generally low price.This leads to long-term epidemiological problems in which children who become obese maintain their obesity into their adult lives, suffering from associated ailments such as heart disease, high blood pressure, increased risk for several types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, stroke, infertility, arthritis, breathing difficulties and/or depression. Social class system Social reproduction is the passing on of social inequality across generations. The upper class has many advantages; having money provides the ability to have even more resources to get ahead. The opposite", "because of their recent entry to the work force or because they are still completing their education. Typically, once they enter the labour force or take a part-time job while in school, they start at entry level positions with low level wages. Furthermore, because of their lack of prior work experience, they can also often be forced to take marginal jobs, where they can be taken advantage of by their employers. As a result, many older people have to face obstacles in their lives. Inequalities in health Health inequalities can be defined as differences in health status or in the", "in food properly, their health is effected drastically and their food preferences are limited greatly (to soft or liquids only).\nDeclines in physical health can cause deterioration in diet due to difficulties in preparing and eating food as a result of conditions like arthritis.\nAt the 2010 \"Providing Healthy and Safe Foods As We Age\" conference sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Katherine Tucker noted that the elderly are less active and have lower metabolism with a consequent lower need to eat. Also, they tend to have existing diseases and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient absorption. With changing", "meals, because if they do not eat at around the same time on the next days, they may suffer extra severe hunger pangs. Older people may feel less violent stomach contractions when they get hungry, but still suffer the secondary effects resulting from low food intake: these include weakness, irritability and decreased concentration. Prolonged lack of adequate nutrition also causes increased susceptibility to disease and reduced ability for the body to self heal. Pre world war II Throughout history, the need to aid those suffering from hunger has been commonly, though not universally, recognized. The philosopher Simone Weil wrote", "suddenly have it sprung upon you because of job loss can lead to a rapid and stress-filled learning curve for both men and women.\" In her 2013 book Bread and Roses — And the Kitchen Sink, based on the study, Doucet said, \"It's been just a steady progression of women's education going up and employment going up, but then quite a remarkable leap in women being primary breadwinners or shared primary breadwinners relates to the changes in the economy.\" Research From 1998-2002 she was the principal investigator of \"Fathers as Primary Caregivers\" which received a Canada Social Sciences and", "people may have problems because of aging or illness. People of college age have issues with malnutrition as well, though it may not be as severe as with the younger kids or the elderly.\nIn people in their undergraduate years of study at a four-year university, malnutrition can occur due to negligence of eating and even their diet. Other causes Students often eat to deal with the pressures of stress. Stress may come from the pressures of unclear assignments, homework, and the transition from high school to college. The biggest stress factor for students is exams and doing well on them.", "in abundance, our bodies, for the most part, can't say no. \n. . . to put it simply, human beings are evolving much more slowly than the food we eat. And the food is tricking us. We think it's what we need, but it's just what we want. What can we do? Eat sensibly and exercise, of course. One thing we have to do, though, is not to “listen to your body\" – because it craves food that, in abundance, is bad for it. . . This is a clear, well-written and thoughtful guide to the fat crisis.\" - The", "and sometimes to avoid them altogether. This can be a problem because 'achieving many of the things that are important and worthwhile requires us to take actions that involve some discomfort.' Avoiding difficult situations and tasks can also prevent us from dealing constructively with problems, such as ending unpleasant relationships, improving unhealthy lifestyles, and moving on from dissatisfying jobs. Moreover, tasks perceived as boring, difficult or demanding of greater effort, are said to make a person more likely to procrastinate. Reducing LFT In REBT, reducing irrational beliefs and increasing rational beliefs can reduce LFT. This cognitive restructuring allows a modification", "be improved by evaluating physical facets like hormone balance. Female hormones, in particular, can alter cravings and even self-perception of one's body. Additionally, emotional eating can be exacerbated by social pressure to be thin. The focus on thinness and dieting in our culture can make young girls, especially, vulnerable to falling into food restriction and subsequent emotional eating behavior.\nEmotional eating disorder predisposes individuals to more serious eating disorders and physiological complications. Therefore, combatting disordered eating before such progression takes place has become the focus of many clinical psychologists.", "that alerts you to the fact that you need to exercise more, or you aren't eating healthily enough, they think they are solving the problem.", "preliminary and uncertain due to an absence of studies on its long term effects. There is preliminary evidence that intermittent fasting may be effective for weight loss, may decrease insulin resistance and fasting insulin, and may improve cardiovascular and metabolic health, although the long term sustainability of these effects has not been studied.\nThe AHA recommends intermittent fasting as an option for weight loss and calorie control as part of an \"intentional approach to eating that focuses on the timing and frequency of meals and snacks as the basis of a healthier lifestyle and improved risk factor management\". For overweight people,", "employees, although it is suggested that the effects of such incentives causes aging to have a negative effect upon earnings sooner than would be otherwise expected. Goofing off has been shown to improve work or study in the right environments, and can relieve stress. It may be a form of creativity and experimentation, providing useful learning experiences and discoveries.\nSome research has indicated that women tend to feel more guilt than men about taking time for themselves and so use breaks to become more organized.\nPerhaps the most famous example of goofing off is the tale reported by Suetonius of Nero fiddling", "fasting may be integrated into a wider dietary change, such as \"placing snacks strategically before meals that might be associated with overeating\", planning meals and snacks throughout the day to help manage hunger and control meal portions, and \"promote consistent overnight fast periods\". The AHA noted that eating some food on a fast day (instead of a complete fast) produced the greatest weight loss and decreases in insulin resistance, when at least 4% weight loss was achieved by obese individuals.\nAlthough intermittent fasting showed weight loss success in several studies on obese or overweight individuals, the NIA does not recommend intermittent", "to better digestion. This is turn, prevents various stomach complications such as acidity or indigestion that people usually complain after having their meals. Boosts metabolism Apart from caloric intake and pattern of eating, leading an active physical life is one of the key reasons to boost metabolism. Hence, people are advised to go for a walk after having their dinner as it stimulates the metabolic process and influences the functioning of other organs in the body. Induces sleep The habit of going to bed after having dinner is definitely not good for health. However, a few minutes of walking in", "geared toward older adults have simplified the design of their sites in order to enhance their look and usability for older adults. Motivational strategies Increase identifiability: Studies of social loafing suggest that people are less productive when they are working with others, but social facilitation studies have shown that people are more productive when others are present (at least with an easy task). If individuals in a group know one another, feel that their productivity or inputs are not identifiable, then social loafing is likely to occur. Alternatively, if individuals are anonymous and therefore unidentifiable, then social loafing may also", "even further, suggesting that everything from the shows dietary guidelines to workout routines are completely flawed.\nNutritionist Dr. Barry Sears sums up the wellness paradox: \"First, eating less can cause stress to the system causing more hunger. Second, the more people exercise, the hungrier they become.\" Dr. Sears continues by claiming that \"even with the most intense training, people are unlikely to add more than five pounds of muscle in 12 weeks of weight training. The reason viewers see their muscles emerging as the show goes on is because as the layer of fat surrounding the muscles is lost, muscles become", "Weight cutting Dieting In addition to improving performance through healthy eating, some athletes will seek to lose weight through dieting and aerobic exercise. By losing fat they hope to achieve a higher \"strength-to-mass ratio\" or \"lean weight.\" This means more muscle and less fat, and should theoretically give them an advantage against other athletes of the same weight.", "or unbalanced diet, problems with digestion or absorption, or certain medical conditions. Hunger is a main cause of malnutrition because if it is not satisfied then malnutrition is sure to follow. People suffer from hunger because of a lack of food and the nutrients which accompany food in the short term. If hunger proceeds for an extended period of time there is a good chance that it will lead to malnutrition.\nMalnutrition can affect people of every age. Though infants, children, and adolescents suffer more from malnutrition because of their need for critical nutrients for their normal development, older", "after few years of experience. From that it is clear to understand that how increased minimum wages has its effects on employees services, life style, and well being. Because workers start to work better when their life style changes as well as their payments. Packaging waste A 2011 study of litter in the Bay area by Clean Water Action found that nearly half of the litter present on the streets was fast food packaging. The Natural Resources Defense Council's paper “Waste and Opportunity 2015: Environmental Progress and Challenges in Food, Beverage, and Consumer Goods Packaging” reported that no fast", "and decreased body fat, blood pressure, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides.\nThe body's basal metabolic rate increases with increases in muscle mass, which promotes long-term fat loss and helps dieters avoid yo-yo dieting. Moreover, intense workouts elevate metabolism for several hours following the workout, which also promotes fat loss.\nWeight training also provides functional benefits. Stronger muscles improve posture, provide better support for joints, and reduce the risk of injury from everyday activities. Older people who take up weight training can prevent some of the loss of muscle tissue that normally accompanies aging—and even regain some functional strength—and by doing so, become less", "task, give up on mastering the task, experiencing the inferiority complex, or a depressed state. The individual may also make several attempts at solving the problem and find a solution to the problem that causes problems in other areas. An individual who answers the question \"How can I be thin?\" by not eating will become thin but at the cost of their overall health.\nAn individual who is not adequately trained to answer life's problems may turn from striving for superiority in useful ways to that of a personal superiority at all cost. If an individual cannot be", "increasing unemployment and declining wages, one needs to worry more about \"bad policy that fails to offset the imbalances in demand, trade, income, and opportunity.\"\nFor people who use both the Internet and mobile devices in excessive quantities it is likely for them to experience fatigue and over exhaustion as a result of disruptions in their sleeping patterns. Continuous studies have shown that increased BMI and weight gain are associated with people who spend long hours online and not exercising frequently. Heavy Internet use is also displayed in the school lower grades of those who use it in excessive amounts.", "Assuming that people who are skilled in learning can finish college more easily than people who are unskilled, then by finishing college the skilled people signal their skill to prospective employers. No matter how much or how little they may have learned in college or what they studied, finishing functions as a signal of their capacity for learning. However, finishing college may merely function as a signal of their ability to pay for college, it may signal the willingness of individuals to adhere to orthodox views, or it may signal a willingness to comply with authority. Screening Joseph", "it is more important to maintain a constant appearance of working urgently so that they and others believe that what is being done is important. Constant urgency in workers can lead to disproportionate distribution of actual work, as workers may put off important work by attempting to complete previously-designated less important work. Maintaining very high levels of constant busyness may actually be detrimental to the operations of a business or organization in which new tasks are not undertaken in a timely manner because workers are always very busy. That can also lead to workers taking shortcuts to accomplish tasks more", "family members, friends and coworkers can affect daily activities. Social undermining can affect exercise routines when their exercise routines can conflict with seeing friends or even coworkers. Friends and coworkers can influence the person to skip their exercise, even when a spouse is concerned about their well being. The study also showed that social undermining can affect men and women differently. Men tend to feel as if they can overcome social undermining because they were still able to make a healthy eating decision. Women have stated that they tend to make bad eating decision when they are eating with other" ]

[ "In the 60s and 70s, the US had a **lot** of fatalities as a result of teenage drunk driving. Waaay more than any other country did.\n\nReally, there were two options available to them: raise the drinking age, or raise the driving age.\n\nI think they made the right choice.", "As someone already said it was because of the drunk driving problem. However it's worth noting that that drop it drunk driving was so staggering with the new limit that it'd be political suicide to try and change it back.", "It was 21 for a long time. Then back in the 1970s, a lot of states lowered it to 18. And the drunk driving deaths immediately shot up. So Congress raised it back up.", "It is, from wikipedia:\n > The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 (23 U.S.C. § 158) was passed on July 17, 1984 by the United States Congress. It punished every state that allowed persons below 21 years to purchase and publicly possess alcoholic beverages by reducing its annual federal highway apportionment by ten percent.", "It's a reasonable question. After all, U.S. citizens are deemed adult enough to be licensed to drive a vehicle, to vote, or to join the military anddie for their country at 18." ]

[ "In 1974, the minimum age was decreased to 18 years old for the entire state. In 1982, the minimum age was increased to 21 years old but with a grandfather clause which allowed those who had already turned 18 (born June 30, 1964 or earlier) to consume beer and wine.", "lower to 18, or raise to 25. Some people, such as sociology Professor David Hanson, suggest lowering it. Underage drinking is already common, but NHTSA spokeswoman Evelyn Avant believes that lowering the drinking age would lead to even more alcohol use among young people. Many people say they wouldn't mind the high drinking age as long as the enlistment age were also 21. There are also some who believe the age should stay the same for hard liquor, while being lowered for wine and beer.", "more than tobacco and illicit drugs. Although the purchase of alcohol by persons under the age of 21 is illegal, people aged 12–20 years old drink 11% of all alcohol consumed in the US. Among the 14 million adults aged 21 or older who were classified as having alcohol dependence or abuse in the past year, more than 13 million had started using alcohol before age 21. Since 1984, when the National Minimum Drinking Age Act made the minimum legal drinking age for every state in the nation 21, there has been a steady increase in prevalence of alcohol use,", "in the United States the legal drinking age for unsupervised persons is 21 years, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. However, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary deadline is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual is sufficiently mature for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some proposed changes, however, have included the completion of an", "afterwards, packing up.\nWhile the legal drinking age in the United States is 21, the minimum age to work as a bartender or bar-back varies from 18 to 21.", "this vote, \"certainly defies the 'conventional wisdom' regarding young people being eager to lower the drinking age.\"\nIn 2014, a pair of researchers published a literature review in Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs of studies on the effect of the drinking age in response to the Amethyst Initiative; the review indicates support for the drinking age remaining at 21. That review, however, was specific to studies focused on the United States of America and comparing trends before and after 1984; based on World Health Organization (WHO) data from 2011 and 2014, foreign countries with lesser drinking ages often have", "though an adult who supplied a substantial amount of liquor to an underage person could possibly be prosecuted for contributing to the delinquency of a minor Furthermore, arrests and criminal prosecutions for underage drinking in bars or public areas were very uncommon before the 1980s.\nNew Jersey's drinking age was lowered to 18 in 1973 as part of a broader legal change which reduced New Jersey's age of majority from 21 to 18. Much of the impetus for lowering the drinking age to 18 was to grant returning Vietnam veterans the right to purchase alcohol. Possibly because of concerns about 18-year-old", "tolerated. Minimum legal drinking age A legal minimum age for the buying or consuming of alcohol is in place in many of the world's countries, typically with the intent to protect the young from alcohol-related harm. This age varies between countries; for example, the minimum legal drinking age for Australia is 18, whereas the MLDA in the United States is 21.", "struggle with alcoholism. The movement of young adults from high school to college shows that 44% of college students were binge drinkers and that binge drinking peaked at age 21. Approximately three quarters of college students aged 18–20 years old drank alcohol in 2009. Within the U.S., youth are being targeted by social media in order to drive sales higher by highlighting alcohol consumption in a positive way. The legal drinking age was set to 21 years of age because studies showed that the leading cause of death of people age 1 to 34 accounted for one third of deaths", "Legal drinking age 20None\nThe legal drinking age is the minimum age at which a person can legally consume alcohol beverages. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary between different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age", "drinking age was again amended in 1910 when the legal age to drink in hotels was increased to 21 - however minors could still buy alcohol to take home until 1914 when the age for both on- and off-licence purchase was set at 21.\nIn 1969 the purchase age was lowered from 21 to 20. (although 18-year-olds were allowed to drink in bars from 1990 on certain conditions.) \nIn 1999 the legal purchasing age was lowered from 20 to 18 - at which it remains despite despite several calls and attempts at legislation to raise it. \nIt has never been illegal", "in the prior three months. Although the legal drinking age is eighteen, many young adults begin consuming before that.", "Wisconsin is 21. Those under the legal drinking age may be served, possess, or consume alcohol if they are with a parent, legal guardian, or spouse who is of legal drinking age.\nThose age 18 to 20 may also possess (but not consume) alcohol as part of their employment. \nIn the early 70s the sale of alcohol was reduced to the age of 18.\nThe 1983 Wisconsin Act 74, effective July 1, 1984, created a drinking age of 19. Meeting in special session at the call of the governor, the legislature enacted 1985 Wisconsin Act 337, which raised the drinking age to", "21, which was considered the age of majority at that time. In 1939, it became a criminal offense to sell alcohol to a person under 21, and for a person under 21 to purchase or consume alcohol in a licensed establishment. The state criminalized the underage possession of alcohol in motor vehicles and other public areas in 1957, possibly in response to young New Jerseyans traveling to New York, where the drinking age was 18, and returning home with liquor. For many years laws against underage drinking and the serving of alcohol to minors did not apply on private property,", "their family members while maintaining complete control over the other establishments. Collaboration isn't only limited to families, for example, Premier Group in western New York has three locations each individually owned and operated. Drinking age In response to the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in 1984, which reduced by up to 10% the federal highway funding of any state which did not have a minimum purchasing age of 21, the New York Legislature raised the drinking age from 19 to 21, effective December 1, 1985. (The drinking age had been 18 for many years before the first raise on", "of alcohol is legal all throughout the country by people of the legal drinking age. In Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland the legal drinking age starts with 16 years. In the other states the legal drinking age depends on the beverage in question: 16 for beer and wine and 18 for distilled spirits and mixed drinks. In Carinthia teenagers between 16 and 18 are further restricted to a blood alcohol level below 0.05.\nSome cities, like Graz in Styria or Klagenfurt in Carinthia, limit public consumption of alcohol in specific areas. Brazil Having an open container is legal in Brazil. Drinking", "experience to be held criminally responsible. After reaching the initial age, there may be levels of responsibility dictated by age and the type of offense committed. Drinking age The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can consume or purchase alcoholic beverages. These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary among different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most", "18- to 24-year-olds have a percentage of 20.1% when it comes to heavy episodic drinking events which is higher than the general adult population.", "He has also studied the effects of raising the legal drinking age in the United States to 21 on alcohol consumption. Awards and honors In 1999, Wagenaar received the Jellinek Award for research on alcohol. In 2001, he received the Innovator's Award from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. In 2004, he was named an ISI highly cited researcher.", "age. The minimum age for products containing over 22% ABV is 20. When asked at checkout a customer must prove his or her age with an official ID (only a driver's licence, ID card or passport is accepted). Alcohol will not be sold to visibly intoxicated customers or when there is a reason to suspect misuse or illegal supply to a person who would not be authorized to buy. Persons under the age of 18 are prohibited from entering an Alko unless accompanied by an adult. History From 1919 to 1932, the distribution and consumption of alcoholic beverages was forbidden", "21 and brought the state into compliance with the NMDA (National Minimum Drinking Age) on September 1, 1986.\nThe NMDA law was amended to permit an exception for those persons who were between ages 18 and 21 on the effective date of the law. Wisconsin 19- and 20-year-olds were “grandfathered in” by this exception after enactment of Act 337. In effect, the state did not have a uniform age of 21 until September 1, 1988.", "is considered dangerous to adults. When the survey results were separated into age groups the findings were that 13% of 15-year-old's and 22% of 17-year-old's had alcohol consumption levels above the daily maximum suggested to adults and that 20% of 17-year-old's had a consumption level of alcohol considered risky to adults.\nOther risk factors that influence the development of alcohol abuse or alcoholism include social and genetic factors. Several researchers have found that starting drinking before the age of 15 is associated with a fourfold increased risk for developing alcoholism compared to people that delay drinking until age 20 or later.", "the previous legal drinking age of 18 with effect from 1st December 2017. However, the enforcement on the new legal drinking age of 21 was held back until 16th October 2018. The legal limit for alcohol while driving in Malaysia is 80 milligrams per decilitre or 100 millilitres. Any vendors, restaurants and retailers need a licence to serve or sell tap/draft beers, liquor and spirits in the country, but bottled and canned beers are exempted from such licence requirements which is why it is common to find many vendors and coffee houses continue to serving alcohol in their", "engage in civil, informed, and dispassionate debate and consider all policy alternatives no matter how controversial. Statement The Amethyst Initiative states the following:\nIt’s time to rethink the drinking age\nIn 1984 Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which imposed a penalty of 10% of a state's federal highway appropriation on any state setting its drinking age lower than 21.\nTwenty-four years later, our experience as college and university presidents convinces us that…\nTwenty-one is not working\nA culture of dangerous, clandestine “binge-drinking”—often conducted off-campus—has developed.\nAlcohol education that mandates abstinence as the only legal option has not resulted in significant constructive behavioral change", "Minor (law) Canada For all provincial laws (such as alcohol and tobacco regulation), the provincial and territorial governments have the power to set the age of majority in their respective province or territory, and the age varies across Canada.\nAlberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Prince Edward Island have the age of majority set at 18, while in British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick the age of majority is 19. In Saskatchewan, the legal gaming age and the legal drinking age are both 19. Italy In Italy, law nr. 39 of March 8, 1975, states", "Drinking age The minimum drinking age in Pennsylvania is 21 years. Minors are prohibited from purchasing, possessing, or consuming alcohol, even if it is furnished by the minor's immediate family. Persons over the age of 18 are permitted to serve alcohol, so an exception is made in the possession portion of the law in this respect. Many states have exceptions for consuming alcohol made for religious or medicinal purposes, but Pennsylvania does not have exceptions for either.\nA person under the age of 21 may also be arrested, charged, and convicted of underage drinking through constructive possession, even if they had", "Amethyst Initiative's parent organization, Choose Responsibility, proposes that only high school graduates should be eligible.\nIn a press release, MADD argues that lowering the drinking age would result in greater numbers of fatal automobile accidents, and that the presidents are \"looking for an easy way out of an inconvenient problem\" and \"misrepresenting science.\" MADD cited former U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Secretary, and current University of Miami president Donna Shalala statement that \"maintaining the legal drinking age at 21 is a socially and medically sound policy that helps parents, schools and law enforcement protect our youth from the potentially", "legal age for consumption of alcohol in these establishments is 18 although anyone above the age of 12 in the presence of an adult will usually be served a beer.\nThe town is also noted for its distinct dialect which is a fusion of Brummie, Coventry and Tamworth accents. The general greeting is \"alright yuff\" which follows a strict order of precedence. persons of the same age can greet each other this way and those older can address their younger associates the same but it is an absolute no-no to address someone senior to yourself as \"Yuff\" and may result in", "the military. The legal age for purchasing and consuming alcohol and recreational marijuana, the latter of which is only legal in the District of Columbia, Colorado, Oregon, Washington, California, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Nevada, Michigan, and Alaska, is 21. The legal age for purchasing and consuming tobacco products is 18 in most states; 19 in Alabama, Alaska and Utah; and 21 in California, New Jersey, Oregon, Hawaii and Maine. Multiple localities have also raised the minimum purchase age independent of state laws. \nIn Canada, a person aged 16 and over can legally drive a car and work, but are only considered to", "being teetotal, and at 1.5 litres per head, alcohol consumption is the lowest in Europe. This amount is disputed by WHO Data from 2016 which places the amount of alcohol consumed per person per year at 28.5 litres, the 8th highest in the world. Age limits In Turkey, the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages is age limited to persons 18 and over. A governmental act imposed in January 2011 restricted the sale of alcohol at various events to persons under 24 years of age rather than 18 as it was previously established. However, the ban was later overturned by" ]

[ "Why don't you see your nose? It's within your vision.\n\nYour brain filters out your nose, because it's always there, and likewise, it filters out smells that are \"always there\". \n\nThe phenomenon is called [sensory adaptation](_URL_0_), this is the brain caring less about constant stimuli. Olfactory neurons also fire less frequently.", "You probably just get used to it, so your brain tunes it out as background noise and then you can't smell it anymore." ]

[ "reactions in some individuals, especially those with severe or atopic asthma. Many fragrance ingredients can also cause headaches, allergic skin reactions or nausea.\nIn some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the skin. For instance, acetophenone, ethyl acetate and acetone while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory allergens. Nevertheless, this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals (either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin irritation when it degrades", "amounts are inhaled. Such solvents are common inhalants for adolescents due, in part, to the fact that they are inexpensive in comparison to other recreational drugs. Use of correction fluid as an inhalant can cause the heart to beat rapidly and irregularly, which can cause death. An unpleasant smell is added to some brands in order to deter abusers.\nCompanies have worked closely with authorities in order to ensure that all the warnings are duly mentioned on packaging (card and product labels) to inform parents and younger users of the risks associated with inhaling or drinking the fluid.\nIndia has imposed a", "of anecdotes and lacks controlled scientific studies to back up its claims.\nWith some fragrances, such as those found in perfume, scented shampoo, scented deodorant, or similar products, people can be allergic to the ingredients. The reaction, as with other chemical allergies, can be anywhere from a slight headache to anaphylactic shock, which can result in death.\nUnpleasant odors play various roles in nature, often to warn of danger, though this may not be known to the subject who smells it. An odor that is viewed as unpleasant by some people or cultures can be viewed as attractive by others where it", "perfumes can personally enhance body odours that indicate an individuals immunogenetics. However, several infertility issues may arise due to the fact that people often use perfumes or scented body washes that erase their natural scent, hindering women in particular from being able to detect if their partner is genetically comparable. Insects Insects use extremely sensitive receptors to detect pheromone signals. Each pheromone signal can elicit a distinct response based on the gender and social status of the recipient. In insects, sex pheromones can be detected in very minute concentrations in the environment. Insect sex pheromones, usually released by the female", "use in perfumery, as some people may become sensitised to it, but the degree to which citronellol can cause an allergic reaction in humans is disputed.", "to peroxides, however the use of antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this. As well, the furanocoumarin present in natural extracts of grapefruit or celery can cause severe allergic reactions and increase sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation.\nSome research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation. However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that opoponax is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, still lack scientific consensus.\nIt is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation.\nA number of national and international surveys have identified balsam of Peru, often used in", "whether it amplifies or reduces their natural scents.\nIn 2001, a study found that the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) (a polymorphic set of genes which is important for immune-function in humans) is correlated with the ingredients found in perfume. This suggests that humans do, in fact, choose perfumes that complement or enhance their natural scents (their pheromones). This evidence offers support for the hypothesis that perfume is chosen by individuals to advertise their physical health. Research suggests that this advertisement of good health will, in fact, enhance females’ attractiveness to the opposite sex as health markers have been shown to do.", "the device seems to have \"an unerring attraction to shampoo and soapsuds\". According to Iraqi police officer Jasim Hussein, \"The vast majority of the people we stop, it's because of their perfume\". A fellow officer, Hasan Ouda, commented that \"Most people now understand it's what gets them searched, so they don't use as much.\" McCormick of ATSC falsely claimed that the apparent responsiveness of the ADE 651 was due to fragrances containing traces of the explosive substance RDX.\nThe veteran Canadian-American magician and skeptic James Randi has publicly offered one million dollars to anyone who can prove the device's effectiveness as", "effects of fragranced products (such as perfume, household cleaners, laundry supplies, personal care products, scented candles, air fresheners), concluding that those products \"impair rather than improve indoor air quality\" and \"pose a range of health and economic risks.\"\nHer nationally representative population studies found that 34.7% of adults in the USA, 33.0% in Australia, 33.1% in Sweden, and 27.8% of people in the United Kingdom report adverse health effects from exposure to fragranced products. Adverse health effects include asthma attacks, breathing difficulties, migraine headaches, dizziness, seizures, rashes, and gastrointestinal problems. The effects are also economic with \"more than 20% of", "the quality of air in a building, not just by removing the negative pollutants, but also by introducing through ventilation or air conditioning systems olfactory stimulation]s to get a mix of ventilated air and odor.\nIt is necessary to ensure that the dosage is such that the odor is not excessive and should be kept just above the detection level. Also, these olfactory substances are very different from perfume and should instead replicate the smell of natural outdoor air.\nA skilled aromachologist can concoct combinations of oils to reduce road rage, reduce fatigue and improve concentration while driving. Peppermint decreases anxiety and", "off bubonic plague. By drinking the cologne the citrus oil scent would be exuded through the pores, repelling fleas. Much as flea shampoo for dogs can be based on citrus oils today.\nIn modern times, Eau de Cologne or \"cologne\", has become a generic term. The term \"cologne\" can be applied to perfume for men or women, but it conventionally refers to perfumes marketed towards men.", "in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing. The perfumer The job of composing perfumes that will be sold is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer. They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a \"Nez\" (French for nose) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition.\nThe composition of a perfume typically begins with", "in the OR6A2 gene has been identified as a likely cause of some people's strong dislike of coriander (also known as cilantro), often associating it with a combination of soap and vomit, while for others it is closer to the foul smelling odor emitted by stinkbugs. This is due to the presence of aldehyde chemicals, which are present in soap, various detergents, coriander, several species of stinkbugs and cinnamon.", "their physical properties and their scent. Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of the perfume market. Copyright It is doubtful whether perfumes qualify as appropriate copyright subject matter under the US Copyright Act. The issue has not yet been addressed by any US court. A perfume's scent is not eligible for trademark protection because the scent serves as the functional purpose of the product.\nIn 2006 the Dutch Supreme Court", "should be avoided by people with known skin sensitization issues. Its use in perfumes is now highly restricted by International Fragrance Association regulations, and many scents have been reformulated in recent years with other chemicals substituted for oakmoss.", "something you can't get enough of. It's hot, it's sexy, it definitely makes you feel like you caught the fever.\" She additionally stated that her favorite fragrance notes are red vanilla orchid, due to its \"sexy\" and \"spicy\" smell, and honeysuckle, due to its \"sensual\" and \"sweet\" smell. She concluded: \"It was a lot of work but I was really really happy and I think it's something I'll be proud of 20 years from now.\" During an interview with Teen Vogue, Beyoncé stated that she loved the perfume because it featured notes of orchid, her favorite flower. She further said", "Perfumer A perfumer is an expert on creating perfume compositions, sometimes referred to affectionately as a Nose (French: le nez) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in producing olfactory compositions. The perfumer is effectively an artist who is trained in depth on the concepts of fragrance aesthetics and who is capable of conveying abstract concepts and moods with fragrance compositions. At the most rudimentary level, a perfumer must have a keen knowledge of a large variety of fragrance ingredients and their smells, and be able to distinguish each of the fragrance ingredients whether alone or in combination", "While strong evidence has been found to support the hypothesis that wearing perfume enhances females’ attractiveness to males, little research has been done into the effect of fragrance on males’ attractiveness to females. Considerably more research has covered the effect of males’ natural odor and females’ ratings of attractiveness. Many studies (e.g.) found that odor predicted attractiveness when female raters were not on any form of contraceptive pill. For those who were, there was no relation between attractiveness and body odor.\nA person's odor can increase or decrease ratings of attractiveness because the olfactory receptors in the brain are directly linked", "creating bespoke perfumes for individuals who are less interested in purchasing the same fragrances that every other person is wearing and more inclined to wearing a perfume tailored precisely to their own preferences, memories and scent matches. Some cosmetic brands such as Shiseido and Décléor are devoting substantial efforts to the task of finding out the beneficial properties of aromas on our sense of well-being and health. Shiseido currently has a skincare line called \"The Skincare\" that uses aromachology in their products.\nBroader applications for aromachology are found in industries that introduce scent into products other than cosmetics or perfumes. Aromachology", "I wanted my nana to smell it and not have an allergic reaction. she also notes that her mother inspired her to get into the beauty business stating \"My mom used to have this pretty display with tons of perfume bottles and I’d always look at them. So I knew from a young age that I wanted to make my own fragrance one day. Packaging and scent The perfume is described as an \"unusual mixture\". The fragrance's Top Notes consists of notes of white tea, bitter orange, lemon zest. In its Heart Notes, the scent features a combination of mint,", "smells may be pleasant while one is cooking, but not necessarily after the meal.\nOdor molecules transmit messages to the limbic system, the area of the brain that governs emotional responses. Some believe that these messages have the power to alter moods, evoke distant memories, raise their spirits, and boost self-confidence. This belief has led to the concept of \"aromatherapy\" wherein fragrances are claimed to cure a wide range of psychological and physical problems. Aromatherapy claims that fragrances can positively affect sleep, stress, alertness, social interaction, and general feelings of well-being. However, the evidence for the effectiveness of aromatherapy consists mostly", "Smell rights Smell rights are claims of ownership to particular smells. These rights can include copyright or non-conventional trademark.\nIn France the scent of a perfume is not eligible for copyright.\nIn 2006 a Dutch court ruled that a perfume could have a copyright.\nLegal commentators have described possible systems for trademarking scents.\nIn the United States Hasbro has a trademark for the smell of Play-doh.", "extrait) in Western cultures is at pulse points, such as behind the ears, the nape of the neck, and the insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm the perfume and release fragrance continuously. According to perfumer Sophia Grojsman behind the knees is the ideal point to apply perfume in order that the scent may rise. The modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so that it is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended", "groups, such as pregnant women, may be advised to keep them close to hand.\nSmelling salts are often used on athletes (particularly boxers) who have been dazed or knocked unconscious to restore consciousness and mental alertness. Smelling salts are now banned in most boxing competitions, but are not harmful.\nThey are also used as a form of stimulant in athletic competitions (such as powerlifting, strong man and ice hockey) to \"wake up\" competitors to perform better. In 2005, Michael Strahan estimated that 70–80% of National Football League players were using smelling salts as stimulants. History Smelling salts have been used since Roman", "it does not get metabolized there. Delusional halitosis One quarter of the people seeking professional advice on bad breath have an exaggerated concern of having bad breath, known as halitophobia, delusional halitosis, or as a manifestation of olfactory reference syndrome. They are sure that they have bad breath, although many have not asked anyone for an objective opinion. Bad breath may severely affect the lives of some 0.5–1.0% of the adult population. Self diagnosis Scientists have long thought that smelling one's own breath odor is often difficult due to acclimatization, although many people with bad breath are able to detect", "contact with wounds, both central nervous system and cardiac symptoms may result. The scent can also cause toxic reactions such as headaches and vomiting from N. bulbocodium. Traditional medicine Despite the lethal potential of Narcissus alkaloids, they have been used for centuries as traditional medicines for a variety of complaints, including cancer. Plants thought to be N. poeticus and N. tazetta are described in the Bible in the treatment for what is thought to be cancer. In the Classical Greek world Hippocrates (ca. B.C. 460–370) recommended a pessary prepared from narcissus oil for uterine tumors, a practice continued by", "June 2012, Coty announced in a press release that the perfume would be titled Lady Gaga Fame. Scent and packaging Reports circulated in early 2011 that Gaga wanted the perfume to smell of blood and semen. However, the singer stated that while the perfume was based on the molecular structure of the two substances, it would not smell of them. She further explained that the blood element was based on a sample her own blood molecules to create \"a sense of having me on your skin\". Rather than blood and semen, she said that the perfume would smell like an", "series of short, quick sniffs versus one long inhale will also maximize the likelihood of aromatics being detected. The human nose starts to \"fatigue\" after around six seconds and so a pause may be needed between sniffs.\nWhen wine is sipped, it is warmed in the mouth and mixes with saliva to vaporize the volatile aroma compounds. These compounds are then inhaled \"retro-nasally\" through the back of the mouth to where it is received by nearly five million nerve cells. The average human can be trained to distinguish thousands of smells but can usually only name a handful at a time", "these species, as well as illegal trafficking and harvesting. Safety regulations The perfume industry in the US is not directly regulated by the FDA, instead the FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their ingredients and requires that they be tested to the extent that they are Generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing of ingredients regardless of their effects on health. In Europe, as from 11 March 2005, the mandatory listing of a set of 26 recognized fragrance allergens was enforced. The requirement to list these", "granted copyright protection to Lancôme's perfume Tresor (Lancôme v. Kecofa). The French Supreme Court has twice taken the position that perfumes lack the creativity to constitute copyrightable expressions (Bsiri-Barbir v. Haarman & Reimer, 2006; Beaute Prestige International v. Senteur Mazal, 2008). Health and environmental issues Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all cause health or environmental problems when used. Although the areas are under active research, much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human health and the environment. Immunological; asthma and allergy Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause asthmatic" ]

[ "Typically each twin controls a different part of the body. Like the twin girls Brittany and Abigail Hensel. They give the appearance of being one body with two heads, though they have two of each organ above the waist. They have two arms, each controlling one. And from the waist down, they have one body, with each controlling one half. So each controls a leg, for example. There doesn't appear to be any part that both of their brains controls. So they coordinate with each other so that they can walk, but they each have their own body parts they use. In some cases of animals with two heads, only one head \"works\". The other head doesn't seem to have any reactions to stimuli so it's vestigial." ]

[ "Polycephaly Occurrences Two-headed people and animals, though rare, have long been known to exist and documented. Occurrence in humans In humans, as in other animals, partial twinning can result in formation of two heads supported by a single torso. Two ways this can happen are dicephalus parapagus, where there are two heads side by side, and craniopagus parasiticus, where the heads are joined directly. Dicephalus parapagus dipus In dicephalus parapagus dipus, the two heads are side by side, on a torso with two legs, with varying levels of twinning of organs and structures within the torso. The shared body may", "spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles: The prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed eyes form around outgrowths from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss. The forebrain is well developed and subdivided in most tetrapods, while the midbrain dominates in many fish and some salamanders. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the cerebral hemispheres in mammals.\nThe resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single hollow nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles,", "or two pores near the posterior end of the animal.\nThe brain consists of a pair of ganglia in the head region, from which two or three pairs of nerve cords run down the length of the body. The nerve cords running along the ventral surface are always the largest, while the dorsal cords are present only in the Aspidogastrea. Trematodes generally lack any specialised sense organs, although some ectoparasitic species do possess one or two pairs of simple ocelli. Reproductive system Most trematodes are simultaneous hermaphrodites, having both male and female organs. There are usually two testes, with sperm ducts", "twins may happen at any portion of the calvarium. The juncture can involve either the entire diameter of the head or any portion of the head and can be positioned at a multitude of rotational angles. In fact, craniopagus twins are rarely found in a symmetrical union. Apart from this, the vertebral axes may have a straight line. Despite this, the angle of the vertebrae is the ultimate dictator in how the individuals heads actually face. The majority of twins face either the same way or the exact opposite direction.\nMany reviews suggest a practical four-category system that breaks down the", "possible through \"backwards mating\", wherein the male and female approached each other backwards and joined their cloacae with their tails flexed sideways, and movement of the legs would allow individuals of different sizes to mate this way. \"Backwards mating\" is the only way sauropods could have mated without the need of a male intromittent organ. Such a pose is common in mating arthropods and in the \"tied\"-phase of mating carnivoran mammals such as Canis.\nVidal and colleagues presented a study at a 2018 conference wherein they examined the effect of intervertebral soft tissue and its thickness on the posture and range", "many fish and some salamanders. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the cerebral hemispheres in mammals. The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single, hollow ventral nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles is unique to vertebrates. Cerebellum The circuits in the cerebellum are similar across all classes of vertebrates, including fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. There is also an analogous brain structure in cephalopods with well-developed brains, such as octopuses. This has been taken as evidence that the cerebellum performs functions important to all animal species with", "of the two mylohyoid muscles unite in a midline raphe (where the two muscles intermesh).\nThe mylohyoid muscle separates the sublingual space from the submandibular space, which communicate via a lateral gap between the mylohyoid and hyoglossus muscles at the posterior free margin of mylohyoid muscle. The submandibular gland wraps around the edges of the mylohyoid, and is divided into superficial and deep lobes above and below the muscle. Innervation The mylohyoid muscle is innervated by a branch of the mandibular nerve, the inferior alveolar nerve. The mylohyoid nerve is a branch of the inferior alveolar nerve. The mylohyoid nerve", "a “head”, hosting a cluster of sensory organs, the mouth, or both. This head often becomes a locomotor anterior in which the organism orients itself, moving forward so that the head of the body is first to approach the upcoming environment.\nHowever, despite being bilaterally symmetrical, Heterocentrotus mammillatus does not possess a fixed locomotor anterior like many other bilaterally symmetrical organisms do, which allows it to proceed with equal ease in whatever direction it chooses. Instead, H. mammillatus seems to display temporary locomotor anteriors when moving, orienting itself in the direction that it first moves. Therefore, H. mammillatus often insists on", "by the fact that transplantation of somites from one region to a completely different region results in the formation of structures usually observed in the original region. In contrast, the cells within each somite retain plasticity (the ability to form any kind of structure) until relatively late in somitic development. Derivatives In the developing vertebrate embryo, somites split to form dermatomes, skeletal muscle (myotomes), tendons and cartilage (syndetomes) and bone (sclerotomes).\nBecause the sclerotome differentiates before the dermatome and the myotome, the term dermomyotome refers to the combined dermatome and myotome before they separate out. Dermatome The dermatome is the dorsal", "to each other so that they can be suspended in a particular order while still being able to move freely within the cavity. Most bilateral animals, including all the vertebrates, are coelomates.\nPseudocoelomate animals have a pseudocoelom (literally \"false cavity\"), which is a fluid filled body cavity. Tissue derived from mesoderm partly lines the fluid filled body cavity of these animals. Thus, although organs are held in place loosely, they are not as well organized as in a coelomate. All pseudocoelomates are protostomes; however, not all protostomes are pseudocoelomates. An example of a Pseudocoelomate is the roundworm. Pseudocoelomate animals are also", "regressed or absent, whereas the adult gonads are relatively large.\nThe head is the largest part of the body, and bears most of the appendages. Two pairs of well-developed antennae are used to swim through the water. In addition, there is a pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae. The thorax typically has two pairs of appendages, but these are reduced to a single pair, or entirely absent, in many species. The two \"rami\", or projections, from the tip of the tail, point downwards and slightly forward from the rear of the shell.\nOstracods typically have no gills, instead taking in", "endoderm, and the mesoderm is up for grabs. In rare cases, an embryo may split laterally with all 3 layers. This was found in a bird, for instance. The nervous system forms from a fold in ectoderm. Gonads form from endoderm. And, each organ typically forms from one cell apparently. So each organ will be expected to be nearly 100% from one embryo or the other, except in very rare cases. There is some infiltration of cells from the other embryo, but it's minor. This means that typically, the brain will form from one embryo, and the gonads from a", "between them contain two reproductive organs, a single female gonopore and nine pairs of testes. The last seven segments contain the posterior brain and are fused to form the animal's tail sucker.\nThe body wall consists of a cuticle, an epidermis and a thick layer of fibrous connective tissue in which are embedded the circular muscles, the diagonal muscles and the powerful longitudinal muscles. There are also dorso-ventral muscles. The coelomic channels run the full length of the body, the two main ones being on either side. The coelom has taken over the function of the hemal system (blood vessels) in", "Monotreme General characteristics Like other mammals, monotremes are endothermic with a high metabolic rate (though not as high as other mammals; see below); have hair on their bodies; produce milk through mammary glands to feed their young; have a single bone in their lower jaw; and have three middle-ear bones.\nIn common with reptiles and marsupials, monotremes lack the connective structure (corpus callosum) which in placental mammals is the primary communication route between the right and left brain hemispheres. The anterior commissure does provide an alternate communication route between the two hemispheres, though, and in monotremes and marsupials it carries all", "backwards. For example, the main human gaits are bipedal walking and running, but they employ many other gaits occasionally, including a four-legged crawl in tight spaces.\nIn walking, and for many animals running, the motion of legs on either side of the body alternates, i.e. is out of phase. Other animals, such as a horse when galloping, or an inchworm, alternate between their front and back legs. An alternative to a gait that alternates between legs is hopping or saltation, where all legs move together. As a main means of locomotion, this is usually found in bipeds or semi-bipeds. Among the", "direction. But animals that move in one direction necessarily have upper and lower sides, head and tail ends, and therefore a left and a right. The head becomes specialised with a mouth and sense organs (cephalisation), and the body becomes bilaterally symmetric (though internal organs need not be). More puzzling is the reason for the fivefold (pentaradiate) symmetry of the echinoderms. Early echinoderms were bilaterally symmetrical, as their larvae still are. Sumrall and Wray argue that the loss of the old symmetry had both developmental and ecological causes. Trees, fractals The branching pattern of trees was described in the Italian", "clusters of sensory hair cells. All jawed vertebrates also possess three semicircular canals arising from the utricle, each with an ampulla containing sensory cells at one end.\nAn endolymphatic duct runs from the saccule up through the head, and ending close to the brain. In cartilaginous fish, this duct actually opens onto the top of the head, and in some teleosts, it is simply blind-ending. In all other species, however, it ends in an endolymphatic sac. In many reptiles, fish, and amphibians this sac may reach considerable size. In amphibians the sacs from either side may fuse into a single structure,", "all allosauroids include the structure of their hind limb and pelvis. The pelvis in particular is thought to be designed to reduce stress regardless of body size. In particular, the way the femur is inclined reduces the bending and torsion stress. Furthermore, like other animals with tails, allosauroids possess a caudofemoralis longus (CFL) muscle that allowed them to flex theirs. Larger allosauroids are found to have a lower CFL muscle-to-body-mass proportion that smaller allosauroids.\nIn addition to body similarities, allosauroids are also united by certain skull features. Some of the defining ones include a smaller mandibular fenestra, a short quadrate bone,", "the anus always opens separately. In chimaeras and most teleosts, however, all three openings are entirely separated. Mammals With a few exceptions noted below, mammals have no cloaca. Even in those that have one, the cloaca is partially subdivided into separate regions for the anus and urethra. Monotremes The monotremes (egg-laying mammals) possess a true cloaca. Marsupials In marsupials (and a few birds), the genital tract is separate from the anus, but a trace of the original cloaca does remain externally. This is one of the features of marsupials (and monotremes) that suggest their basal nature, as the amniotes from", "which is located on the rear ventral side. Both the gonads and the gonoduct are derived from true coelom tissue. In females, the two ovaries are joined in the middle and to the horizontal diaphragm. The gonoduct appears differently depending on whether the species is live-bearing or egg-laying. In the former, each exit channel divides into a slender oviduct and a roomy \"womb\", the uterus, in which the embryos develop. The single vagina, to which both uteri are connected, runs outward to the gonopore. In egg-laying species, whose gonoduct is uniformly constructed, the genital opening lies at the tip of", "usually described as \"one animal with two heads\". One of the heads, especially in three-headed animals, may be poorly developed and malformed, and not \"participate\" much. Two faces on one head Where twinning of the head itself is only partial, it can result in the condition known as diprosopus — one head with two faces. Earliest known occurrence The February 22, 2007, issue of the journal Biology Letters detailed the discovery of a 122 million-year-old fossil of a two-headed Hyphalosaurus lingyuanensis, marking the earliest known occurrence of axial bifurcation. Choristoderes In 2006, the UK Royal Society announced that it had", "the development of a head with sense organs and a mouth. The body stretches back from the head, and many bilaterians have a combination of circular muscles that constrict the body, making it longer, and an opposing set of longitudinal muscles, that shorten the body; these enable soft-bodied animals with a hydrostatic skeleton to move by peristalsis. They also have a gut that extends through the basically cylindrical body from mouth to anus. Many bilaterian phyla have primary larvae which swim with cilia and have an apical organ containing sensory cells. However, there are exceptions to each of these characteristics;", "Pierson's Puppeteers Biology and sociology Pierson's Puppeteers are described by Niven as having two forelegs and a single hindleg ending in hoofed feet, and two snake-like heads instead of a humanoid upper body. The heads are small, containing a forked tongue, rubbery lips rimmed with finger-like knobs, and a single eye per head. The Puppeteer brain is housed not in the heads, but in the \"thoracic\" cavity well protected beneath the mane-covered hump from which the heads emerge. They use the \"mouths\" to manipulate objects, as a humanoid uses hands. The Puppeteer's native language sounds like highly complex orchestral music,", "of which anastomose (come into contact), and so convert it into a solid rod of polygonal-shaped cells (the notochord) which is then separated from the endoderm.\nIn vertebrates, it extends throughout the entire length of the future vertebral column, and reaches as far as the anterior end of the midbrain, where it ends in a hook-like extremity in the region of the future dorsum sellae of the sphenoid bone. Initially it exists between the neural tube and the endoderm of the yolk-sac, but soon becomes separated from them by the mesoderm, which grows medially and surrounds it. From the mesoderm surrounding", "tube running along the length of the animal, from which the peripheral nervous system branches out to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles: The prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed eyes form around outgrows from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss. The forebrain is well developed and subdivided in most tetrapods, while the midbrain dominate in", "Movement of the filaments over each other happens when the globular heads protruding from myosin filaments attach and interact with actin filaments to form crossbridges. The myosin heads tilt and drag along the actin filament a small distance (10–12 nm). The heads then release the actin filament and then changes angle to relocate to another site on the actin filament a further distance (10–12 nm) away. They can then re-bind to the actin molecule and drag it along further. This process is called crossbridge cycling and is the same for all muscles (see muscle contraction). Unlike cardiac and skeletal muscle, smooth muscle", "the forehead is closest to the shoulders. The lips, hands, feet and sex organs have more sensory neurons than other parts of the body, so the homunculus has correspondingly large lips, hands, feet, and genitals. The motor homunculus is very similar to the sensory homunculus, but differs in several ways. Specifically, the motor homunculus has a portion for the tongue most lateral while the sensory homunculus has an area for genitalia most medial and an area for visceral organs most lateral. Well known in the field of neurology, this is also commonly called \"the little man inside the brain.\" This", "so that the ilium moved forward, and the pubis and ischium moved to the rear. The same pattern is seen in all modern mammals, and the thyroid fenestra and obturator foramen have merged to form a single space. The ilium is typically narrow and triangular in mammals, but is much larger in ungulates and humans, in which it anchors powerful gluteal muscles. Monotremes and marsupials also possess a fourth pair of bones, the prepubes or \"marsupial bones\", which extend forward from the pubes, and help to support the abdominal muscles and, in marsupials, the pouch. In placental mammals, the pelvis", "encircles the body. However, in most polychaetes the two main nerve cords are fused, and in the tube-dwelling genus Owenia the single nerve chord has no ganglia and is located in the epidermis.\nAs in arthropods, each muscle fiber (cell) is controlled by more than one neuron, and the speed and power of the fiber's contractions depends on the combined effects of all its neurons. Vertebrates have a different system, in which one neuron controls a group of muscle fibers. Most annelids' longitudinal nerve trunks include giant axons (the output signal lines of nerve cells). Their large diameter decreases their resistance,", "are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia. The head segment contains the brain, also known as the supraesophageal ganglion. In the insect nervous system, the brain is anatomically divided into the protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum. Immediately behind the brain is the subesophageal ganglion, which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia. It controls the mouthparts, the salivary glands and certain muscles. Many arthropods have well-developed sensory organs, including compound eyes for vision and antennae for olfaction and pheromone sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain.\nIn insects, many neurons" ]

[ "Finally a question that being a voice major has equipped me to answer! (Avoiding the proper terms for parts because that's what Google is for):\n\nAir passes from your lungs in between your vocal folds (roughly right behind your Adam's apple, that's a front projection of the mechanism that protects it). They're quite tiny and produce a tiny sound. Cartilage around them can manipulate/stretch them to make them thinner (higher sound) or thicker (lower sound). That small bit of sound that they make while vibrating is amplified by the natural cavities in your head: your throat, your mouth, and your sinuses. The way that you manipulate those cavities (especially the mouth) produces the other qualities to the sound, such as the volume, nasality, and very importantly, sounding like different vowels or voiced consonants. Some consonants are produced with only air (for example, \"s\"). \n\nI would assume the reason why everything we say sounds different from other types of sound is that we train ourselves constantly from an early age to pay attention and sort patterns out of speech sounds versus other types of sound." ]

[ "Human voice The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal tract, such as talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, shouting, yelling etc. The human voice frequency is specifically a part of human sound production in which the vocal folds (vocal cords) are the primary sound source. (Other sound production mechanisms produced from the same general area of the body involve the production of unvoiced consonants, clicks, whistling and whispering.)\nGenerally speaking, the mechanism for generating the human voice can be subdivided into three parts; the lungs, the vocal folds within the larynx (voice box), and the", "a spoken language. Physiology and vocal timbre The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body, especially the vocal tract, and the manner in which the speech sounds are habitually formed and articulated. (It is this latter aspect of the sound of the voice that can be mimicked by skilled performers.) Humans have vocal folds that can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at", "as a sound source.\nThe vocal folds, in combination with the articulators, are capable of producing highly intricate arrays of sound. The tone of voice may be modulated to suggest emotions such as anger, surprise, fear, happiness or sadness. The human voice is used to express emotion, and can also reveal the age and sex of the speaker. Singers use the human voice as an instrument for creating music. Voice types and the folds (cords) themselves Adult men and women typically have different sizes of vocal fold; reflecting the male-female differences in larynx size. Adult male voices are usually lower-pitched and", "as well as other things. Even though speech synthesis has existed since around 1930, according to that source, and the Speech synthesis article, it is difficult to fool experienced listeners into believing that the voice is indeed human.\nThis may be similar to the difficulty in achieving true Artificial Intelligence that can actually pass a Turing Test by presenting spectators with something indistinguishable from what it is trying to simulate. Common uses Like its text counterpart, each voice font can supply a different experience and provide a selection for different purposes. The simplest one is to select a voice font from", "a high pitched voice in an initial presentation (such as the perpetrator's voice in a crime), individuals are likely to choose an even higher-pitched voice in the test phase (audio line-up). Similarly, upon hearing a low-pitched voice, they are likely to remember the voice as being even lower in pitch when voices are presented in an audio line-up. Comparable cognitive functions seem to operate when individuals attempt to remember faces; ambiguity surrounding the ethnicity or gender of faces is likely to result in the individual's recall of faces to be exaggerated with regards to ethnic and gender-related features. Researchers call", "best systems can recognize continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%.With the help of artificial intelligence, machines nowadays can use people's voice to identify their emotions such as satisfied or angry Robotic voice Other hurdles exist when allowing the robot to use voice for interacting with humans. For social reasons, synthetic voice proves suboptimal as a communication medium, making it necessary to develop the emotional component of robotic voice through various techniques. An advantage of diphonic branching is the emotion that the robot is programmed to project, can be carried on the voice", "describing vocal sound lies in the vocal vocabulary itself. There are many schools of thought within vocal pedagogy and different schools have adopted different terms, sometimes from other artistic disciplines. This has led to the use of a plethora of descriptive terms applied to the voice which are not always understood to mean the same thing. Some terms sometimes used to describe a quality of a voice's sound are: warm, white, dark, light, round, reedy, spread, focused, covered, swallowed, forward, ringing, hooty, bleaty, plummy, mellow, pear-shaped, and so forth. Body alignment The singing process functions best when certain physical conditions", "voice is conducted from one note to another, he distinguished between \"con portamento\" (the gliding or slurring mode) and \"legato\" (simply the smooth mode of vocalization). \"To slur is to conduct the voice from one note to another through all the intermediate sounds. ... This dragging of the notes will assist in equalizing the registers, timbres and power of the voice.\" He warned that learners should not acquire the bad habit of attacking a note with a slur, a prevailing fault in bad singers. As to \"Smooth or Legato Vocalization (Agilità legata e granita)\", it means \"to pass from one", "been neglected.\" Aristotle defined voice as controlling one's voice, using rate, volume and pitch, to convey the appropriate emotions. The manner of voice in which an idea or speech is conveyed affects not only the emotions of the audience but, also, their ability to understand this concept.\nAlthough Aristotle gives this mention and explanation of voice, he does not go into specifics about how to produce appropriate voice or how to convey specific tones with one's voice. This may or may not be due to his mild disdain for the topic as a whole. Modern scholars have", "Vocal-Auditory Channel The vocal-auditory channel describes the way vocal signals can be used to produce language. The speaker uses a vocal tract (containing most of the speech organs) to produce speech sounds, and the hearer employs an auditory apparatus (the sense of hearing) to receive and process the speech sounds. This is why human language is said to be based on speech sounds produced by the articulatory system and received through the auditory system. The vocal channel is a particularly excellent means through which speech sounds can be accompanied or substituted by gestures, facial expressions, body movement, and way of", "It's often the case – even in our daily life – the sort of expression you look for can't be voice out, but if we gather strength and voice it out, it's a progress. When you voice it out, the you've also jumped over the obstacle. \"Your Body\" came really out of my instinct and nature; I accumulated knowledge and experience to that extent and produced such a work with so much effort, but I have always wanted to transcend it.\" ... Your Body actually started my first person narration approach. When I was creating that piece, my life was", "tone, the timbre excellent – imperative, very sharp. A slightly lower pitch would have been better, but it could still fall within this man's spectrum.\" The Voice may also be subtly employed in any manner of conversation, public speaking, or debate to help soothe, convince, persuade, influence, or otherwise enhance the effect of the words being spoken.\nThe Voice is useless against targets who cannot hear the speaker; both Baron Harkonnen in Dune and House Corrino in Children of Dune employ deaf people to guard Jessica, knowing that she cannot control them via the Voice. Being a manipulation of the target's", "parts of the human body that act as resonators and of those seven the three most effective resonators that help amplify and create the most pleasing sounds are all located in the head: the pharynx, the oral cavity, and the nasal cavity. Not falsetto Resonances and registration aside, the term \"head voice\" is commonly used to mean \"high notes that are not falsetto or strained\". For example, when Pavarotti, Stevie Wonder or Bill Withers slide from chest voice to a high C5 in full, balanced voice, this is referred to as \"head voice\".\nBeginning singers who have difficulty controlling their vocal", "from the digital voice. The voice therefore lacks a human-like fullness of tone and sounds more robotic.\nCertain body postures can significantly influence the tone of voice. For instance, if someone is speaking whilst sitting in a chair with a hunched back, then this obstructs the breathing system, including the throat, and may muffle the tone of voice and convey the impression of being deenergised, unhappy or bored. Whereas if they were sitting up straight, this would allow the breathing system to be unobstructed, the throat to be open, and the tone of voice to be clearer, more energetic and focused.", "voice within vocal pedagogical circles. This controversy does not exist within speech pathology and the other sciences, because vocal registers are viewed from a purely physiological standpoint that is concerned with laryngeal function. Various writers concerned with the art of singing state that there are anywhere from one to seven registers present. The diversity of opinion is quite wide and there is no consensus or single point of view.\nThe prevailing practice within vocal pedagogy is to divide both men and women's voices into three registers. Men's voices are designated \"chest\", \"head\", and \"falsetto\" and women's voices are \"chest\", \"middle\", and", "Voice prosthesis A voice prosthesis (plural prostheses) is an artificial device, usually made of silicone that is used in conjunction with voice therapy to help laryngectomized patients to speak. During a total laryngectomy, the entire voice box (larynx) is removed and the windpipe (trachea) and food pipe (esophagus) are separated from each other. During this operation an opening between the food pipe and the windpipe can be created (primary puncture). This opening can also be created at a later time (secondary puncture). This opening is called a tracheo-esophageal puncture (TE puncture). The voice prosthesis is placed in this opening. Then,", "Tone The tone of voice in speaking is modulated to convey expression and emotion. This enables the responder to recognise emotion that is appropriate of the circumstance and this enables the audience to process information immediately and correctly. The pitch of one’s voice can impact the clarity of speech. A monotonous tone of voice can cause the listener to misinterpret information as it is harder to focus to a monotonous tone. A verbose tone of voice highlights technical language that is inwardly focused. A verbose tone of voice is used to convey factual information. An informal", "Eric Owens. Pedagogy Since the early 19th century, vocal pedagogy has made use of the vocalise as a means to present to the student specific technical challenges with an aim to solving those challenges in order to make a sound of ever increasing quality and consistency.\nSmith’s pedagogy differs from this tradition in that he has developed a series of six vocalises, which he trains in sequence, that he has designed to first isolate two specific activities that produce vocal sound: phonation, as in conversational speech, and breath release, as in a voiced sigh. In isolation, these activities do not necessarily", "explored voice more extensively. According to Taylor Stoehr, \"voice is the pervasive reflection in written or spoken language, of an author's character, the marks by which we recognize his utterance as his.\". However, just as in Aristotle's time set of specific rules or guidelines has yet been laid out for the production or interpretation of voice. Due to the vast array of elements involved in the production of voice this task would be nearly, if not entirely, impossible. \nLanguage\nAs mentioned before, Aristotle thought the language of a speech should avoid being too", "Cambridge. Many trebles are also able to reach higher notes by use of the whistle register but this practice is rarely called for in performance. Classifying singers Vocal pedagogues generally consider four main qualities of a human voice when attempting to classify it: vocal range, tessitura, timbre, and vocal transition points known as passaggio. However, teachers may also consider physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and other factors such as vocal register. Voice classification into the correct voice type is important for vocal pedagogues and singers as a guiding tool for the development of the voice.\nMis-classification of a singer's voice", "of the aims of groups particularly valued by voice hearers and may be associated, not only with the voices themselves, but also with other aspects of recovery and getting better. People’s relationships with the voices were mostly improved. They heard the voices less frequently. The voices were perceived as less powerful (omnipotent) relative to them. People felt much better able to cope with their voices, and there were trends towards people feeling less controlled by their voices and feeling less alone. Perhaps most importantly, evaluations show that people improved in relation to what they had identified as their own", "to analyse the voice, one must divorce it from the message it seeks to convey'. However, few other experiments of the hundreds conducted since Moses assessed the recorded voice of a boy have evidenced that listeners are able to accurately deduce information about the speaker from the voice alone. Selected publications Moses, P. J. (1942). \"The study of personality from records of the voice\". Journal of Consulting Psychology. 6 (5): 257–261. doi:10.1037/h0055754.\nMoses, P. J. (1953). \"Speech and voice therapy in otolaryngology\". Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Monthly. 32: 367–375.\nMoses, P. J. (1958). \"Reorientation of concepts and facts in phonetics\". Logos.", "vocal sound significantly. Classification of vocal sounds Vocal sounds are divided into two basic categories-vowels and consonants-with a wide variety of sub-classifications. Voice Teachers and serious voice students spend a great deal of time studying how the voice forms vowels and consonants, and studying the problems that certain consonants or vowels may cause while singing. The International Phonetic Alphabet is used frequently by voice teachers and their students. Problems in describing vocal sounds Describing vocal sound is an inexact science largely because the human voice is a self-contained instrument. Since the vocal instrument is internal, the singer's ability to monitor", "a group in order to get the clearest one, or to choose the one with a speed that is appropriate for different settings.\nFor people who are hard of hearing in the upper range of the hearing spectrum, for example, selecting a voice that uses a lower pitch will deliver deeper sounds.\nAnother use for voice fonts is in electronic music. A commonly available set of synthetic voices from Macintosh computers can be used to enhance the mood of certain music pieces that need a voice but where the composer feels that providing a human voice is not in their interests. Here,", "subconscious mind, the Voice is of limited utility against an extremely disciplined mind, such as a Reverend Mother or a strong Mentat; if the target understands what the Voice is and how it works, and is aware that it is being used, he may resist it. One trained in the use of the Voice may easily detect its use by others, even subtly. In Dune Messiah, Paul trains some guards to resist the Voice so that he may imprison Bene Gesserit. By the time of Children of Dune, Gurney Halleck has also been trained by Jessica to resist the Voice", "Subtractive synthesis A human example The basis of subtractive synthesis can be understood by considering the human voice; when a human speaks, sings or makes other vocal noises, the vocal folds act as an oscillator and the mouth and throat as a filter. Consider the difference between singing \"oooh\" [uː] and \"aaah\" [ɑː], at the same pitch. The sound generated by the vocal folds is much the same in either case — a sound that is rich in harmonics. The difference between the two comes from the filtering applied with the mouth and throat. By changing the shape of the", "it becomes possible to speak by occluding the stoma and blowing the air from the lungs through the inside of the voice prosthesis and through the throat, creating a voice sound, which is called tracheo-esophageal speech.\nThe back end of the prosthesis sits at the food pipe. To avoid food, drinks, or saliva from coming through the prosthesis and into the lungs, the prosthesis has a small flap at the back.\nThere are two ways of inserting the voice prosthesis: through the mouth and throat (retrograde manner) with the help of a guide wire, or directly through the tracheostoma (anterograde) manner. Nowadays,", "Human microphone A human microphone, also known as the people's microphone, is a means for delivering a speech to a large group of people, wherein persons gathered around the speaker repeat what the speaker says, thus \"amplifying\" the voice of the speaker without the need for amplification equipment.\nThe speaker begins by saying \"mic check\". When the people near the speaker respond \"mic check\", the speaker knows they have the group's attention. The speaker says a short phrase, part of a speech, and then pauses. Those that can hear what the speaker has said repeat the phrase in unison, and when", "men, there are bass, baritone, tenor and countertenor (ranging from E2 to even C6 and higher), and among women, contralto, mezzo-soprano and soprano (ranging from F3 to C6 and higher). There are additional categories for operatic voices, see voice type. This is not the only source of difference between male and female voice. Men, generally speaking, have a larger vocal tract, which essentially gives the resultant voice a lower-sounding timbre. This is mostly independent of the vocal folds themselves. Voice modulation in spoken language Human spoken language makes use of the ability of almost all people in a given society", "the sound produced is complicated by the vibrations carried to the ear through the Eustachean (auditory) tube and the bony structures of the head and neck. In other words, most singers hear something different in their ears/head than what a person listening to them hears. As a result, voice teachers often focus less on how it \"sounds\" and more on how it \"feels\". Vibratory sensations resulting from the closely related processes of phonation and resonation, and kinesthetic ones arising from muscle tension, movement, body position, and weight serve as a guide to the singer on correct vocal production.\nAnother problem in" ]

[ "1. AK-47's distance between the sight and post is very short which makes it so that for longer ranges, it is extremely difficult to line up an accurate shot as you are more likely to be misaligned with your eye to the sights.\n\n2. It uses a relatively low velocity round, meaning it arcs more and spends more time to get to the target, making it deviate more from environmental conditions\n\n3. Its feeding mechanism uses very large and heavy moving parts which reduces accuracy dramatically from recoil.\n\n4. It has a more significant recoil upon firing due to its type of ammunition, making subsequent rounds less accurate.\n\n5. It operates on a lot looser tolerances, while making it more reliable, also reduces its overall accuracy.\n\n6. [Its gun barrel flexes more than other guns during recoil.](_URL_1_) \nCompare that with [this](_URL_2_), Or [this](_URL_0_)\n\n7. The barrel isn't inline with the stock, making recoils want to push the gun upwards.", "they are.....the round the fire, 7.62x39 is however sometimes called the rainbow round because it takes quite an arc after a few hundred meters. This, however doesnt mean the gun wont shoot straight, or you cant make longer shots, you just have to compensate. It probably gets that rep because its available and cheap so often poorly trained people are using it.", "US Special Forces soldiers in Vietnam described it like this:\n\nThe American rifles and ammunition are like supermodels. Pretty, slender and shapely, and great at what they do until you get them wet or dirty.\n\nRussian weapons are like Russian women, tough, dependable, and built to work. You can drop an AK47 in the mud, wipe it off, and it's ready to go back to work.", "It all depends on the rifle and ammo. If you've got a milled receiver and quality parts, you can have an accurate gun. Get a stamped receiver and parts that don't fit as tightly, and you're going to lose accuracy. \n \nAnd then we add the round. If you're using cheap milsurp ammo, you're going to lose accuracy. If you're using good ammo, you'll be more accurate.\n \nOn top of this, if you're firing a lot, the metal expands a bit in the gun, so your accuracy is affected. And if you're firing in rapid succession, then you're losing even more accuracy to recoil.\n \nTry out one of the nice Veprs in 7.62x39 or a good Krebs AK with good ammo versus one of the cheap-o AK-47 models with cheap ammo and you'll see the difference." ]

[ "The AK-47 and its variants have been and are made in dozens of countries, with \"quality ranging from finely engineered weapons to pieces of questionable workmanship.\" As a result, the AK-47 has a service/system life of approximately 6,000, to 10,000, to 15,000 rounds. The AK-47 was designed to be a cheap, simple, easy to manufacture assault rifle, perfectly matching Soviet military doctrine that treats equipment and weapons as disposable items. As units are often deployed without adequate logistical support and dependent on \"battlefield cannibalization\" for resupply, it is actually more cost-effective to replace rather than repair weapons.\nThe AK-47 has small", "a chicken or a sack of grain\".\nThe AK-47 has also spawned a cottage industry of sorts and has been copied and manufactured (one gun at a time) in small shops around the world (see Khyber Pass Copy). The estimated numbers of AK-type weapons vary greatly. The Small Arms Survey suggest that \"between 70 and 100 million of these weapons have been produced since 1947\". The World Bank estimates that out of the 500 million total firearms available worldwide, 100 million are of the Kalashnikov family, and 75 million are AK-47s. Because AK-type weapons have been made in many countries, often illicitly, it is impossible", "The AK-47 was designed to be a simple, reliable fully automatic rifle that could be manufactured quickly and cheaply, using mass production methods that were state of the art in the Soviet Union during the late 1940s. The AK-47 uses a long stroke gas system that is generally associated with great reliability in adverse conditions. The large gas piston, generous clearances between moving parts, and tapered cartridge case design allow the gun to endure large amounts of foreign matter and fouling without failing to cycle. Cartridge The AK fires the 7.62×39mm cartridge with a muzzle velocity of 715 m/s (2,350 ft/s).\nThe cartridge", "to magnum loads. Other dual-use rounds were the .32-20 Winchester and the .38-40 Winchester.\nSome past dual-purpose cartridges, like the .44-40 Winchester, gave their manufacturers trouble when people loaded the \"high-speed\" versions designed for rifles into handguns. Since the .44 Magnum was designed from the start as a revolver cartridge, there are no such issues, and SAAMI-compliant ammunition fires from any handguns or rifles chambered for the .44 Magnum.\nAs a rifle or carbine cartridge the .44 Magnum is sufficiently powerful for medium-sized game, yet fits easily into a compact, lightweight package. In 1961, Ruger introduced their .44 carbine, the first .44", "armed forces such as Call of Duty: Modern Warfare show them armed with 7.62x39mm AK variants (AK-47 or AKM) as their standard-issue assault rifles, a long-standing anachronism thanks to the AK-47's inconic status, despite the Soviets having actually replaced them with the 5.45x39mm AK-74 in the 1970s. Movies and video games often pass off licensed clones like the Norico Type 56 assault rifle as the AK-47.\nThe AK-47 made an appearance in U.S. popular culture as a recurring focus in the Nicolas Cage film Lord of War (2005). Numerous monologues in the movie focus on the weapon, and its effects on", "the AK47 was produced by the millions and was standard-issue to all Soviet troops, as well as those of many other nations. The US was slow to follow suit, insisting on retaining a full-power, 7.62×51mm NATO rifle, the M14 (although this was selective fire), until too-hastily adopting the 5.56mm M16 rifle in the mid-1960s, with initially poor results due to the rapidity of its introduction (but later to become a highly successful line of rifles and carbines).\nIn the 1950s, the British developed the .280 British, an intermediate cartridge, and a select-fire bullpup assault rifle to fire it, the EM-2. They", "Desert Eagle. By using the same rim dimensions as the .44 Magnum, a Desert Eagle could be converted from .44 Magnum to .50 AE by merely changing the barrel and magazine. Other convertible cartridges, such as the short-lived .41 Action Express (with the same rim diameter as 9×19mm Parabellum) used in the Jericho 941 convertible pistol and Uzi submachine gun and carbine, would function in the same magazine, and thus required only a barrel change to change caliber.\nThe recent (early 2000's) Winchester Short Magnum, Winchester Super Short Magnum, and Remington Ultra Magnum and Remington Short Action Ultra Magnum families of", "labor-intensive to manufacture. Gradually over the next few years, AK-47 production increased until the extant SKS carbines in service were relegated primarily to non-infantry and to second-line troops. They remained in service in this fashion even as late as the 1980s, and possibly the early 1990s. To this day, the SKS carbine is used by some ceremonial Russian honor guards, much the same way the M14 Rifle is within the United States; it is far less ubiquitous than the AK-47 but both original Soviet SKS rifles and copies can still be found today in civilian hands as well as in", "from contacting the aluminum feed ramp section on M4 type rifles.\" This allows for a dramatic 300% increase in the number of rounds fired between stoppages. Service life AK-47 type rifles are made in dozens of countries, with \"quality ranging from finely engineered weapons to pieces of questionable workmanship.\" As a result, the AK-47 has a service/system life of approximately 6,000, to 10,000, to 15,000 rounds. The AK-47 was designed to be a cheap, simple, easy to manufacture assault rifle, perfectly matching Soviet military doctrine that treats equipment and weapons as disposable items. As units are often deployed without", "in stainless steel. When originally introduced Anacondas were plagued with poor accuracy, but changes to the barrels quickly corrected the problems to the point that Colt billed its new pistol as among the most accurate .44 Magnum revolvers in production. Anaconda revolvers were primarily marketed for sport enthusiast shooters and hunters, as they are too large for law enforcement general duty use or concealed-carry, although made-to-order limited production versions of the gun continued to be available from the Colt custom gun shop until approximately 2003. Features Originally chambered for the .44 Magnum cartridge, in 1993 the Anaconda began to", "than the .44. Nevertheless, the .44 Magnum still catalogs a greater variety of heavier bullet weight offerings which are more effective on larger game, and boasts a slight edge in power when using the heaviest factory loads, or if pushed to the edge by handloading (heavier bullets or bullets of different types). Marshall and Sanow called the .41 Magnum \"one of our most unappreciated calibers.\"", "parts are interchangeable, a shooter MUST take great caution to check for markings of 5.56×45mm on the barrel before attempting to fire 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition out of it.\nIn more practical terms, as of 2010 most AR-15 parts suppliers engineer their complete upper assemblies (not to be confused with stripped uppers where the barrel is not included) to support both calibers in order to satisfy market demand and prevent any potential problems. United States Military ammunition was packed exclusively in 20-round cartons from 1963 to 1966. In late 1966 the stripper clip and magazine-charging adapter were introduced and ammunition began being", "service, the Destroyer Carbine is prized as a collectors item due to its comparative rarity, as well as being a desirable target rifle due to favorable shooting characteristics such as minimal recoil and relatively inexpensive ammunition.\nWhile all rimless 9 mm caliber pistol cartridges will chamber in a Destroyer Carbine, and consequently will fire, it is extremely unsafe to use ammunition other than 9 x 23 mm Largo due to the dangers of excessive pressure. Some late-production experimental Destroyer Carbines were produced in other calibers such as .38 Auto or 9 mm Para and are even more highly sought after.\nThe magazines for", "as the regular full-sized rifles.\nCompared to submachine guns, carbines have a greater effective range and are capable of penetrating helmets and body armor when used with armor piercing ammunition. However, submachine guns are still used by military special forces and police SWAT teams for close quarters battle (CQB) because they are \"a pistol caliber weapon that's easy to control, and less likely to over-penetrate the target.\" Also, carbines are harder to maneuver in tight encounters where superior range and stopping power at distance are not great considerations.\nFiring the same ammunition as standard-issue rifles or pistols gives carbines the advantage of", "the military to upgrade older rifles. The gas cylinder is assigned the NATO Stock Number: NSN 1005-00-790-8766. Springfield Armory Springfield Armory, Inc. of Geneseo, Ill., produces a semi-automatic-only version of the M14 rifle. The standard rifle is known as the M1A. The company produces several variations of the basic rifle with different stocks, barrel weights, barrel lengths, and other optional features. The Springfield M1A and its model variants have been widely distributed in the U.S. civilian market and have seen use by various law enforcement agencies in the U.S. Springfield Armory, Inc. also produce the SOCOM series", "and use Picatinny rails which allow for the use of various scopes and sighting devices. The current United States Army and Air Force issue M4 Carbine comes with the M68 Close Combat Optic and Back-up Iron Sight. The United States Marine Corps uses the ACOG Rifle Combat Optic and the United States Navy uses EOTech Holographic Weapon Sight.\nThe AK-47 has a 41.5 cm (16.3 in) barrel and a 378mm (14.88 inches) sight radius. The AK-47 uses a notched rear tangent iron sight, it is adjustable and is calibrated in hundreds from 100 to 800 meters (100 to 1000 meters for AKM models). The", "made compact by shortening the barrel and/or stock. \"While the carbine's lighter weight and high rate of fire made it an excellent weapon for small-statured Asians, these guns lacked sufficient hitting power and penetration, and they were eventually outclassed by the AK-47 assault rifle.\"\nThe M1/M2/M3 carbines were the most heavily produced family of U.S. military weapons for several decades. They were used by every branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. British Army During World War II, the British SAS used the M1 and M1A1 carbines after 1943. The weapon was taken into use simply because a decision had been taken", "both of the M16 and AK-47 are still in wide international use today, though other automatic rifle designs have since been introduced. A smaller version of the M16A2, the M4 carbine, is widely used by U.S. and NATO tank and vehicle crews, airbornes, support staff, and in other scenarios where space is limited. The IMI Galil, an Israeli-designed weapon based on the action of the AK-47, is in use by Israel, Italy, Burma, the Philippines, Peru, and Colombia. Swiss Arms of Switzerland produces the SIG SG 550 assault rifle used by France, Chile, and Spain among others, and Steyr Mannlicher", "AK-102 Design Compared to the AK-101 and AK-103, which are full-size rifles of similar design, the AK-102, 104, and 105 feature shortened barrels that make them a middle ground between a full rifle and the more compact AKS-74U. Whereas the AK-10x rifles have longer barrels, full-length gas pistons, and solid, side-folding polymer stocks, the AKS-74U is shorter, and features a skeleton stock.\nThe rifle's receiver is made of stamped steel. The magazine is lighter, and more durable than older models, being made out of reinforced fiberglass. The butt stock is made of plastic, making it lighter, more durable, and it is", "similar Smith & Wesson revolvers. Because of these differences, Taurus has been able to keep costs relatively low. However, those same differences can make customization of the Model 85 more expensive. Taurus also makes a more powerful versions such as the Model 605 in .357 Magnum and the 9mm Parabellum Model 905.\nIn 1989, Smith & Wesson began to make a series of snubnosed models of the S&W Model 29, a large frame, six-shot, double-action revolver chambered for the .44 Magnum cartridge. The Backpacker with a 2.5\" barrel, and the Mountain Gun and the Trail Boss had 3\" barrels. These", "AK-74 or AR-15/M16/M4, and any look-alike arms even when chambered for rimfire cartridges (.22 LR). Obviously these must also be semi-automatic only. All handguns, including rimfire, are classed as category B. It is illegal to possess these category B weapons after expiry of a non-renewed specific authorisation: the arms must be disposed of (sold to a gun shop or else destroyed, for example).\nAir-guns including pistols are freely available to adults, as category D arms, provided that their energy level does not exceed 20 J (previously 10 J). Typical energy levels are 6 J for a target pistol and 7.5 J", "as it did not match the requirements standard of the army.\nIn September 2016 the Indian Army announced that it was launching a tender for 185,000 7.62×51mm-caliber assault rifles. The Indian Army in October 2016 announced that Excalibur rifles will be adopted as an interim assault rifle until a suitable replacement is found.\nOn June 2017, the Excalibur was announced to have failed tests due to concerns about quality control and ineffective firepower.\nOn July 2018, the Indian Army announced that plans to adopt the Excalibur will not proceed. Variants A Mark-1 variant of the rifle is manufactured and marketed to Indian law", "of both firearms and ammunition was soon phased out; it was designated as an 'inactive' cartridge by SAAMI in January 2005.\nThe .41 AE was doomed by circumstance to obscurity, but the concept of using a rebated rim to allow easy cartridge interchangeability was not lost. The .50 Action Express, developed by Magnum Research for the Desert Eagle pistol, uses a similar rebated rim that is the same diameter as the .44 Magnum. This allows a caliber change with replacement of just the barrel and magazine. Ballistics The .41 AE can be ballistically similar to the .40 S&W, to the", "enforcement and among civilian owners where similar size, space and/or power concerns may exist. Carbines, like rifles, can be single-shot, repeating-action, semi-automatic or select-fire/fully automatic, generally depending on the time period and intended market. Common historical examples include the Winchester Model 1892, Lee–Enfield \"Jungle Carbine\", SKS, M1 carbine (no relation to the larger M1 Garand) and M4 carbine (a more compact variant of the current M16 rifle). Modern U.S. civilian carbines include compact customizations of the AR-15, Ruger Mini-14, Beretta Cx4 Storm, Kel-Tec SUB-2000, bolt-action rifles generally falling under the specifications of a scout rifle, and aftermarket conversion kits for", "in Kosovo were also major users of the Type 56, with the vast majority of the weapons originating from People's Socialist Republic of Albania, which received Chinese support during much of the Cold War.\nIn the United Kingdom and United States, the Type-56 and its derivatives are frequently used in the filming of movies and television shows, standing in for Russian-made AK-47s due to their rarity among Kalashnikov style weapons. Type-56s are oftentimes visually modified to resemble other AK variants. In addition, versions of the Type-56 that have had their select fire ability removed (referred to as \"sporter\" rifles) are also", "than that of the Tabuk (or that of a standard AKM). The thickness of the M72's barrel exists to facilitate heat distribution via mass and cooling via surface area. Since the option to fire full-auto has been omitted (and it is not typical of eastern bloc long range precision rifles to use heavy barrels for accuracy) the Tabuk, like the SVD and the PSL, has a relatively light barrel.\nThe Tabuk differs from the M72 in some other ways. It has provision for mounting optics, though this is not an unusual accessory on Eastern Bloc weapons, and it has a skeletonized", "AK-47 but with the accuracy of the M16 and FAL. Several weapons were submitted for the lucrative deal of becoming the Israeli Army's standard-issue assault rifle; America offered the M16A1 and Stoner 63 series and Germany offered the HK33. The AK-47 design was also considered, but difficulty in procurement limited its viability.\nHowever, an indigenous design was offered by Uziel Gal, creator of the Uzi submachine gun, but was ultimately found too complex and unreliable for adoption. Another indigenous design was offered by Yisrael Galil. This rifle was based on the 7.62×39mm Valmet Rk 62. \"In fact, the first Galils were", "the magazine is removed, which increases the difficulty of removing the magazine. Fire is semi-automatic only, so the AK-47-type safety on the right side of the receiver has only 2 settings - 'safe' and 'fire'. The barrel has a tapered profile with a Dragunov-type combination slotted flash suppressor and foresight housing. A standard AKM bayonet can be fitted to the bayonet lug below the foresight. Like the Dragunov, but unlike the AK-47, the M76 features a 4-position (0, 1, 2, 3) operator-adjustable gas regulator enabling more propellant gas to be vented to the piston in marginal operating conditions. The '0'", "ACP (with the use of supplied moon clips due to the lack of a rim on the auto pistol cartridges). Trail guns All of the traits that make snubnosed revolvers ideal for concealed carry also make them excellent trail guns. So much so, that the .44 Magnum \"Smith and Wesson Trail Boss\" and \"Ruger Alaskan\" were specifically made for that purpose. They are also capable of using a wide range .44 Special and .44 Magnum ammunition, including snake shot. As a result, these large caliber snubnosed revolvers can provide effective defense from snakes, to wolves, to mountain lions, even large", "discovered in enemy hands far more often than the original Russian-made AK-47s or AKMs.\nWhen relations between China and North Vietnam crumbled in the 1970s and the Sino-Vietnamese War began, the Vietnamese government still possessed vast quantities of Type-56 rifles in its inventory. The People's Liberation Army still used the Type 56 as its standard weapon during this time as well. Thus, Chinese and Vietnamese forces fought each other using the same rifle.\nThe Type 56 was used extensively by Iranian forces during the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s, with Iran purchasing large quantities of weapons from China for its armed forces." ]

[ "Memories enter the brain first as short term memory, that is then transformed into a long-term memory. \nThis is evident because the majority of short-term memories that we experience are lost before they ever make it into what we will call \"long-term\" storage. \n\nWhen alcohol is consumed it affects your ability to take short-term memories and transform them into long-term memories. \n\nThis is why you only may remember small bits and pieces of the night, these are the select short-term memories that were allowed to settle into long-term ones without the interruption of alcohol. As the level of alcohol drops, the number of memories that make it into \"long-term' storage increases." ]

[ "it.\" This man must have had two souls, one for his sober state, and one for him when drunk.\nResearch shows that individuals are less likely to remember information learned while intoxicated when they are once again sober. However, information learned or memories created while intoxicated are most effectively retrieved when the individual is in a similar state of intoxication.\nAlcoholism can enhance state-dependent memory as well. In a study comparing the state-dependent memory effects of alcohol on both subjects with alcoholism and subjects without alcoholism, researchers found that the alcoholic subjects showed greater effects for state-dependent memory on tasks of", "been a focus on whether these difficulties extend to memory for future intentions. Rendell et al. (2009) found that impairments in time-based prospective memory existed in both current and former users of methamphetamine. Alcohol Research has shown that heavy alcohol use clearly leads to deficits in memory. Less is known about the effects of alcohol on day-to-day memory function, specifically, prospective memory, remembering to do things at some future point in time. The results of a study conducted by Heffernan et al. (2010) suggest that binge drinking in the teenage years leads to impairments in everyday prospective memory. A study", "and Garry (2002) found that participants who believed they had consumed alcohol showed results of the misinformation effect on recall tasks. The same was true of participants under the influence of hypnosis. Other Most obviously, leading questions and narrative accounts can change episodic memories and thereby affect witness' responses to questions about the original event. Additionally, witnesses are more likely to be swayed by misinformation when they are suffering from alcohol withdrawal or sleep deprivation, when interviewers are firm as opposed to friendly, and when participants experience repeated questioning about the event. Arousal after learning Arousal induced after learning", "drink drive after binge drinking. Another common risk is a blackout (alcohol-related amnesia), which can cause shame, guilt, embarrassment, harm to personal relationships, injury or death, and is also associated with the loss of personal belongings.\nExtreme binge drinking can lead to brain damage faster and more severely than chronic drinking (alcoholism). The neurotoxic insults are due to very large amounts of glutamate which are released and over-stimulate the brain as a binge finishes. This results in excitotoxicity, a process which damages or kills neurons (brain cells). Each binge drinking episode immediately insults the brain; repeat episodes result in accumulating harm.", "general supramodal mechanisms of memory. Alcohol Studies have shown that there is an effect of alcohol on visual memory. In a recent study visual working memory and its neutral correlates was assessed in university students who partake in binge drinking, the intermittent consumption of large amounts of alcohol. The findings revealed that there may be binge-drinking related functional alteration in recognition working memory processes. This suggests that impaired prefrontal cortex function may occur at an early age in binge drinkers.\nAnother study conducted in 2004 examined the level of response to alcohol and brain response during visual working memory. This study", "recall and free association. This is not because alcohol better produces associations, but because the person with alcoholism lives a larger portion of their life under the influence of alcohol. This produces changes in cognition and so when the person with alcoholism drinks, the intoxication primes their brain towards certain associations made in similar states. Essentially, the intoxicated and sober states of the alcoholic are in fact, different from the intoxicated and sober states of the non-alcoholic person, whose body is not as used to processing such large amounts of the substance. For this reason, we see slightly larger effects", "they are not yet fully recovered from the alcohol they have consumed, indicating that the recovery rates do not coincide.\nThis thought process and brain function that is lost under the influence of alcohol is a very key element in regards to being able to drive safely, including \"making judgments in terms of traveling through intersections or changing lanes when driving.\" These essential driving skills are lost while a person is under the influence of alcohol. Personality traits Although situations differ and each person is unique, some common traits have been identified among drunk drivers. In the study \"personality traits", "becomes drunk is responsible for all such acts as flow from his having taken an excess of liquor. It may conflict with our doctrine that a man who does an act when unconscious does so without mens rea, but, according to our law, logic has here to give way to expediency, because, in practice, to allow drunkenness to be pleaded as an excuse would lead to a state of affairs repulsive to the community. It would follow that the regular drunkard would be more immune from punishment than the sober man. This was in the mind of Damhouder when he", "4) the secretion of some hormones, especially those dependent on the pituitary gland, is controlled by neurotransmitter systems in the brain. Alcohol Alcohol is a depressant, the effects of which may vary according to dosage amount, frequency, and chronicity. As a member of the sedative-hypnotic class, at the lowest doses, the individual feels relaxed and less anxious. In quiet settings, the user may feel drowsy, but in settings with increased sensory stimulation, individuals may feel uninhibited and more confident. High doses of alcohol rapidly consumed may produce amnesia for the events that occur during intoxication. Other effects include reduced coordination,", "to working memory, visuospatial skills, and can cause an abnormal personality as well as affective disorders to develop. Binge drinking is associated with individuals reporting fair to poor health compared to non-binge drinking individuals and which may progressively worsen over time. Alcohol also causes impairment in a person's critical thinking. A person's ability to reason in stressful situations is compromised, and they seem very inattentive to what is going on around them. Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain.", "its functions of integrating and control, processes related to judgment and behavior occur in a disorganized fashion and the proper operation of behavioral tasks becomes disrupted.\" In all actuality alcohol weakens a variety of skills that are necessary to perform everyday tasks.\nOne of the main effects of alcohol is severely impairing a person's ability to shift attention from one thing to another, \"without significantly impairing sensory motor functions.\" This indicates that people who are intoxicated are not able to properly shift their attention without affecting the senses. People that are intoxicated also have a much more narrow area of", "to the scene of the crime” to help witnesses remember details of a crime, or for explaining why going to a specific location such as a residence or community setting, may lead to becoming flooded with memories of things that happened in that context. Recall can also depend on state-dependency, or the conditions of one's internal environment, at both the time of the event and of recall. For example, if intoxicated at the time the memory actually occurred, recall for details of the event is greater when recalling while intoxicated. Associated with state-dependency, recall can also depend on mood-dependency, in", "looked at the neural correlated of the low level of response to alcohol using functional magnetic resonance imaging during a challenging visual memory task. The results were that young people who report having needed more alcohol to feel the effects showed higher levels of brain response during visual working memory, this suggests that the individual's capacity to adjust to cognitive processing decreases, they are less able to adjust cognitive processing to contextual demands. Dysfunction of visual memory Hallucinatory palinopsia, which is a dysfunction of visual memory, is caused by posterior visual pathway cortical lesions and seizures, most commonly in the", "lives of the alcoholics and accepting sobriety comes with its own challenges and understanding of their personality. Despite leaving alcohol and de-addicting themselves, most of their personalities are an embodiment of their drunkard selves. \nThe dry drunk is portrayed with feelings of profound depression and frustration and with the indecisive feeling of wanting a drink that they have given up. Several alcoholics drink for about 10-20 years before maintaining sobriety and get used to their personality and character traits that are embodied by their drunkard selves. During this phase of dry drunk, the addicts face restlessness, frustration, anger, impatience and", "found through the study that as the students became more drunk there was an increase in their mistakes \"and the recovery of the underlying cognitive impairments that lead to these errors is slower, and more closely tied to the actual blood alcohol concentration, than the more rapid reduction in participants' subjective feeling of drunkenness.\"\nThe participants believed that they were recovering from the adverse effects of alcohol much more quickly than they actually were. This feeling of perceived recovery is a plausible explanation of why so many people feel that they are able to safely operate a motor vehicle when", "that reinforce that I can't have alcohol. I got away from the one thing that kept me on the straight and narrow and that was my relationship with the Lord. That should always come first. Hopefully some good will come out of this. It just crossed my mind that night, 'Can I have a drink?' Obviously I can't and this reinforces that. Since that night, I have not had another thought like that. I know it's something I shouldn't do because it leads to other things.\nHamilton also admitted he had very little memory of the night after getting drunk, and", "the craic. I miss the joy of it all. The headbanging stupidity, the loveliness, the craziness of it. I miss it terribly.\" He recalls blackouts that he would fill in upon returning to sobriety. \"Well, [the memories] stopped coming back. But when I drank, I would go, 'Oh, I remember now.'\" Psychologists call it state-dependent learning. \"That was frightening. I remember thinking, 'Beware, Billy boy. Beware. All is not well. Do something.'\" Regarding the decision he made to stay sober: \"If [Pamela] goes away, I'm on my own. There's nothing. There's only me and it. So the choice becomes very", "in motion, which is one of the main reasons an intoxicated person may vomit. The person has this feeling due to impairments in vision and equilibrioception. Diplopia (double vision) or polyplopia are common, as well as the symptoms of motion sickness and vertigo. Causes Ingesting a great deal of alcohol in a short amount of time causes alcohol to quickly enter the bloodstream.\nMixing alcohol with normal soft drinks, rather than diet drinks delays the dizzying effects of alcohol because the sugary mixture slows the emptying of the stomach, so that drunkenness occurs less rapidly.\nThe dizzying effects of alcohol upset the", "drinkers who do not report mixing alcohol with energy drinks to report being taken advantage of sexually, to report taking advantage of someone else sexually, and to report riding with a driver who was under the influence of alcohol, according to the CDC. Research has also noted that the extreme levels of alcohol and caffeine in the large serving beverages creates a \"wide-awake drunk\" that makes it impossible for people to comprehend how intoxicated they actually are and allows them to consume far more alcohol than they otherwise would be able to without passing out from intoxication.\nAs of November", "by Heffernan and O'Neill (2011) further investigated the effect has alcohol on time-based prospective memory and concluded that binge drinking was associated with significantly reduced performance on time-based tasks. Disease and disorders There has been an increase in interest of studying prospective memory deficiencies in individuals with disease or disorder; because daily life largely relies on previously planned intentions a lack thereof would cause major issues for an affected individual. It has been found that many diseases and disorders have negative impacts on prospective memory; the effects extend from mild cognitive impairment to dementia. Parkinson's disease A study by Costa", "least in part the blocking effect of ethanol excitotoxicity and the effect of alcohol in essential tremor and other movement disorders, but this remains speculative. Perceived recovery rate A direct effect of alcohol on a person's brain is an overestimation of how quickly their body is recovering from the effects of alcohol. A study, discussed in the article \"Why drunk drivers may get behind the wheel\", was done with college students in which the students were tested with \"a hidden maze learning task as their BAC [Blood Alcohol Content] both rose and fell over an 8-hour period.\" The researchers", "the user's emotional disposition prior to alcoholic consumption was negative. In these cases, the individual is drinking to cope and is shown to have less control over his/her own use. Alcohol mediates negative feelings by their suppression but also encourages the habituated continuance of positive emotion. Recovering alcoholics often report that the reason for relapse is often related to the impulse to compensate for negative feelings, resulting in a motivation to cope and therefore drink. Evolutionary Mismatch Despite being harmful, drugs such as nicotine, cocaine, alcohol, THC, and opium artificially stimulate the emotions and neural circuits involved in the mesolimbic", "can also lead to profound disturbances of sleep with vivid dreams. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with NREM stage 3 and 4 sleep as well as suppression of REM sleep and REM sleep fragmentation. During withdrawal REM sleep is typically exaggerated as part of a rebound effect. Mental health effects High rates of major depressive disorder occur in heavy drinkers and those who abuse alcohol. Whether it is more true that major depressive disorder causes self-medicating alcohol abuse, or the increased incidence of the disorder in alcohol abusers is caused by the drinking, is not known though some evidence suggests", "Alcohol-related brain damage Alcohol-related brain damage alters both the structure and function of the brain as a result of the direct neurotoxic effects of alcohol intoxication or acute alcohol withdrawal. Increased alcohol intake is associated with damage to brain regions including the frontal lobe, limbic system, and cerebellum, with widespread cerebral atrophy, or brain shrinkage caused by neuron degeneration. This damage can be seen on neuroimaging scans.\nFrontal lobe damage becomes the most prominent as alcoholics age and can lead to impaired neuropsychological performance in areas such as problem solving, good judgement, and goal-directed behaviors. Impaired emotional processing results from damage", "system to use for determining the effects of an observed drug. Alcohol While the effects of Alcohol have been studied immensely, even with respect to memory, there is limited research examining the effects of alcohol on procedural memory. Research conducted by Pitel A. L. et al. suggests that alcoholism impairs the ability to acquire semantic concepts. In this study, while semantic concepts were understood, procedural memory was often not automated. A potential reason for this finding is that poor learning strategies are used by alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics. Cocaine It is evident that long-term Cocaine abuse alters brain structures. Research", "due to the direct toxic effects of alcohol; alcohol withdrawal, nutritional deficiency, electrolyte disturbances, and liver damage are also believed to contribute to alcohol-related brain damage. Cognition and dementia Excessive alcohol intake is associated with impaired prospective memory. This impaired cognitive ability leads to increased failure to carry out an intended task at a later date, for example, forgetting to lock the door or to post a letter on time. The higher the volume of alcohol consumed and the longer consumed, the more severe the impairments. One of the organs most sensitive to the toxic effects of chronic alcohol consumption", "of alcohol consumption and from periods of alcohol withdrawal. Aging Normal aging, although not responsible for causing memory disorders, is associated with a decline in cognitive and neural systems including memory (long-term and working memory). Many factors such as genetics and neural degeneration have a part in causing memory disorders. In order to diagnose Alzheimer's disease and dementia early, researchers are trying to find biological markers that can predict these diseases in younger adults. One such marker is a beta-amyloid deposit which is a protein that deposits on the brain as we age. Although 20-33% of healthy elderly adults have", "a fragmentary blackout within the last year) recalled fewer narrative details after a 30-minute delay, but there were no significant interaction effects. The next day participants were called and tested on their narrative recall and cued recall and the results were that those who consumed alcohol showed poorer 30-minute delay recall and next-day recall than those who did not consume alcohol, but there were no significant effects on cued recall of details. Their study also revealed that those who were FB+ and consumed alcohol also performed worse on contextual recall than the other participants.\nAlcohol impairs delayed and next-day", "narrative recall, but not next-day cued recall which suggests that information is available in memory but is temporarily inaccessible. Those with a history of fragmentary blackouts also performed worse on delayed recall than those with no prior blackouts. Neuroimaging shows that cued recall and free recall are associated with differential neural activation in distinct neural networks: sensory and conceptual. Together, these findings suggest that the differential effects of alcohol on free and cued recalls may be a result of substance altering neural activity in conceptual rather than sensory networks. Prior blackout experiences also appear to be", "Dry drunk Dry drunk is a informal expression which describes an alcoholic or former alcoholic who no longer drinks but otherwise maintains the same behavior patterns of an alcoholic. They may have many different emotions during the period of them becoming sober.\nThe objective of groups such as Narcotics Anonymous (NA) and Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is not just to help their members stop abusing drugs and alcohol. It is acknowledged in these programs that addiction is more systemic than a \"bad habit\" and is fundamentally caused by self-centeredness. Long term membership in Alcoholics Anonymous has been found to reform pathological" ]

[ "Your ears are sensitive through a wide ride of volumes. When it is very quiet, you hear faint noises you are unaccustomed to, which can be disconcerting. Background noise hides those sounds with ones more familiar to you, restoring your comfort level.", "I have had kids in my house for a lot of years, and it is rarely quiet, ever... So, when it is, and i am alone, it is disconcerting, unfamiliar. i do not feel scared, it just doesn't feel right. I usually put some music on and do my thing :)", "I think people have a psychological dislike of silence. Because \"true silence\" is something that is actually hard to achieve. \n\nI recall reading somewhere that there exist some actual, acoustically soundproof rooms, that are so quiet that it's been known to actually make some people extremely uncomfortable if left in there for long periods of time.\n\nI also read an interview with a police interrogator once, who said one of the most powerful \"tricks of the trade\" is to just sit in an interrogation room with a suspect, and not say a word. Eventually, they will start talking, since, in his experience, people hate silence and need to fill the void with their own voice.", "Keeps your imagination from working overtime trying to decipher every weird piece of background noise it picks up. \n\n\"FUCKING DRACULA!!!! Oh wait, no, that's the water heater turning on.\"", "It tricks your brain into thinking you are with friends, which makes you feel like someone is less likely to sneak up on you or otherwise try to hurt you.", "I agree with all the stuff that has been said about background noise being the normal.\n\nBut I think it goes even deeper than that and this deep-seated fear harkens back to the says in when humans lived in the wilderness and when something was too quiet, a predator may have scared off other animals and is stalking you surreptitiously.\n\nYou know, \"clever girl\" and all that stuff too.", "It's not about feel safer, it's the fact that many of us are unaccustomed to silence. We feel awkward, unsafe, and even scared when everything is all quiet. Because when everything is quiet we think more. And nobody wants to think anymore" ]

[ "to music when running errands alone or turning on the television when at home, even if it is just for background noise. Using noise to interrupt the silence of isolated situations can often be a great help for people suffering from autophobia.\nHowever, it is important to remember that just because a person may feel alone at times does not mean that they have autophobia. Most people feel alone and secluded at times; this is not an unusual phenomenon. Only when the fear of being alone begins to interrupt how a person lives their daily life does the idea of being", "a collection of songs based around the way such noise and interaction affects those living in cities. In an interview with The Quietus leading up to album's release, Holter stated that, \"We live in a very loud world now. I myself am not the child coming of age – I don't think! – and I'm not grumpy about the loudness, but I'm curious about it. And it's very easy to place a character in today's world who is disenchanted with it and running away, because loudness can be claustrophobic.\" \nThe songs on the album explore this concept in different", "sporting events, car racing, woodworking, pubs, people's activities on the street, etc.\nSound propagation outdoors is subject to meteorological effects (e.g. wind, temperature) that affect the distance, speed, and direction with which environmental noise travels from a source to a listener. Environmental noise and health effects Noise and quality of life are correlated. The increase of environmental noise, especially for those living near railways and airports, has created conflict. Getting adequate and quality sleep is difficult for those who live in areas of high noise exposure. When the body is at rest, noise stimuli is continually being presented in the", "noise which many people find too much of a distraction: suddenly, legendary artists are in the room with you.”", "understand language. Hospital noise, at any volume level, is credited with being the primary cause of sleep deprivation, a contributing factor in delirium, and a risk factor for errors. The current pressure to reduce noise at night has been mistakenly understood to mean undue quiet at night when patients most need cues that people are around them and available if they need help. Just s lighting must be designed to serve both day and night, so much the auditory environment be designed to support activity,cognition, rest, and sleep.\nAdding to the above, patients need positive visual and auditory", "close proximity to other houses meant that they had to keep the amount of noise generated to a minimum. They had been assured that the house had not previously been served with noise violations of any kind, but after they had finished recording drums and many of the guitar parts, they learned that they had the volume set too high when working on the bass guitar tracks; law enforcement came to the door and forced them to take their work elsewhere because they were shaking neighboring houses with the noise they were generating. The band did so with no objection,", "Communication noise Psychological noise Psychological noise results from preconceived notions we bring to conversations, such as racial stereotypes, reputations, biases, and assumptions. When we come into a conversation with ideas about what the other person is going to say and why, we can easily become blinded to their original message. Most of the time psychological noise is impossible to free ourselves from, and we must simply strive to recognize that it exists and take those distractions into account when we converse with others. Environmental Noise Environmental noise is the summary of noise pollution from outside, caused by transport, industrial and", "make me realise I'm just a total outcast. I just can't really talk to anyone without feeling stupid.\" and \"Sometimes I just want to run home and never come out of my bedroom again\".\nMultiple songs from Lonerism also feature ambient sounds recorded by Parker on his dictaphone, which Parker explained \"I obsessively record sounds wherever I am. Like, if I'm at a train station, I'll record the trains or a megaphone talking. I love ambient sounds. For me it's like taking photos. I love the idea of recording a collection or a library of weird sounds of stuff.\" An example", "in quieter environments than in noisier ones. Oliver Sacks' patient, Mrs. O'C, reported being in an \"ocean of sound\" despite being in a quiet room due to a small thrombosis or infarction in her right temporal lobe. After treatment, Mrs. O'C was relinquished of her musical experience but said that, \"I do miss the old songs. Now, with lots of them, I can't even recall them. It was like being given back a forgotten bit of my childhood again.\" Sacks also reported another elderly woman, Mrs. O'M, who had a mild case of deafness and reported hearing musical pieces. When", "discovered between noise and psychological effects such as annoyance, psychiatric disorders, and effects on psychosocial well-being. Exposure to intense levels of noise can cause personality changes and violent reactions. Noise has also been shown to be a factor that attributed to violent reactions. The psychological impacts of noise also include an addiction to loud music. This was researched in a study where non-professional musicians were found to have loudness addictions more often than non-musician control subjects.\nPsychological health effects from noise include depression and anxiety. Individuals who have hearing loss, including noise induced hearing loss, may have their symptoms alleviated", "his philosophy is that ambient noise coming from ones surrounding is psychologically and physically damaging. His book Sound Health: The Music and Sounds that Make us Whole he commented that a combination of the decibels in the noises around us can combine to harm the body even in the home, and that noise from our neighbours can harm individuals even if their own homes are not producing too much noise. In 2014 Halpern appeared in the documentary, The Business of Disease produced by Sonia Barrett, he shared his insights about the healing effect of sound and the negative effects of", "not funded by the federal government in part because of the disagreements in establishing causal links between sounds and health risks, since the effect of noise is often psychological and also, because it leaves no singular tangible trace of damage on the human body. For instance, hearing loss could be attributed to a variety of factors including age, rather than solely due to excessive exposure to noise. A state or local government is able to regulate indoor residential noise, however, such as when excessive noise from within a home causes disturbances to nearby residences. Effects on canines While people are", "listen to music at high levels for many hours per day. Such listening habits may result in temporary or permanent hearing loss, tinnitus, and difficulties understanding speech in noisy environments.\nThe World Health Organization warns that increasing use of headphones and earphones puts 1.1 billion teenagers and young adults at risk of hearing loss due to unsafe use of personal audio devices. Many smartphones and personal media players are sold with earphones that do a poor job of blocking ambient noise, leading some users to turn up the volume to the maximum level to drown out street noise. People listening to their", "to noise in learning environments experienced trouble with word discrimination, as well as various cognitive developmental delays. In particular, the writing learning impairment dysgraphia is commonly associated with environmental stressors in the classroom.\nHigh noise levels have also been known to damage the physical health of small children. Children from noisy residences often have a heart rate that is significantly higher (by 2 beats/min on average) than those of children from quieter homes. Prevention A hearing protection device (HPD) is an ear protection device worn in or over the ears while exposed to hazardous noise to help prevent noise-induced hearing", "planting. Noise pollution Large amounts of noise pollution not only lead to lower property values and high frustration, they can be damaging to human hearing and health. In the study “Noise exposure and public health,” they argue that exposure to continual noise is a public health problem. They cite examples of the detriment of continual noise on humans to include: “hearing impairment, hypertension and ischemic heart disease, annoyance, sleep disturbance, and decreased school performance.” Since most roofs or vacant lots consist of hard flat surfaces that reflect sound waves instead of absorbing them, adding plants that can absorb these waves", "of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London. Annoyance Sudden impulse noises are typically perceived as more bothersome than noise from traffic of equal volume. Annoyance effects of noise are minimally affected by demographics, but fear of the noise source and sensitivity to noise both strongly affect the 'annoyance' of a noise. Sound levels as low as 40 dB(A) can generate noise complaints and the lower threshold for noise producing sleep disturbance is 45 dB(A) or lower.\nOther factors that affect the 'annoyance level' of sound include beliefs about noise prevention and the importance of the", "78 surface noise which many people find too much of a distraction: suddenly, legendary artists are in the room with you.”", "noise on a daily basis, they may be exposed to noise sources such as firearms, music, power tools, sports, and noisy toys. All of these encounters with noise cumulatively increases their risk for developing Noise-induced hearing loss. With NIHL being a fully preventable ailment, providing children with this type of education has the potential to reduce future incidence of this condition. There are multiple organizations in existence that provide educators with the appropriate material to teach this topic; teachers simply need to be proactive about accessing them. Below are examples of hearing conservation programs that have been designed specifically for", "Personal listening devices Although research is limited, it suggests that increased exposure to loud noise through personal listening devices is a risk factor for noise induced hearing loss. More than half of people are exposed to sound through music exposure on personal devices greater than recommended levels. Research suggests stronger correlations between extended duration or elevated usage of personal listening devices and hearing loss. Hearing conservation programs Workers in general industry who are exposed to noise levels above 85 dBA are required by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to be in a hearing conservation program (HCP), which includes", "headphones and ear plugs help to achieve better noise isolation from ambient sounds, which is particularly helpful for people suffering from insomnia or other sleeping disorders, for whom sounds such as cars honking and snoring impact their ability to sleep. For that reason, noise-cancelling sleep headphones and ear plugs are designed to cater to this segment of patients.", "on the negative effects of sound on human beings, as in exposure to environmental noise. Noise has been shown to correlate with health-related problems like stress, reduced sleep and cardiovascular disease. More recently however, it has also been shown that some sounds, like sounds of nature and music, can have positive effects on health. While the negative effects of sound has been widely acknowledged by organizations like EU (END 2002/49) and WHO (Burden of noise disease), the positive effects have as yet received less attention. The positive effects of nature sounds can be acknowledged in everyday planning of urban and", "Noise control Noise control or noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce the impact of that noise, whether outdoors or indoors. Overview The main areas of noise mitigation or abatement are: transportation noise control, architectural design, urban planning through zoning codes, and occupational noise control. Roadway noise and aircraft noise are the most pervasive sources of environmental noise. Social activities may generate noise levels that consistently affect the health of populations residing in or occupying areas, both indoor and outdoor, near entertainment venues that feature amplified sounds and music that present significant challenges", "and comfortable. An intrusion, a sound that is not familiar (e.g. a squeaking door or floorboard, a breaking window) alerts the dweller of the home to the potential danger.\nDeciphering, the second level, describes detecting patterns when interpreting sounds. An example of this level is that of a child waiting for the sound of his mother's return home. In this scenario the child is waiting to pick up on sound cues (e.g. jingling keys, the turn of the doorknob, etc.) that will mark his mother's approach. \nUnderstanding, the third level of listening, means knowing how what one says will affect another.", "if they listen to loud music over a period of time. It also affects businesses running around that area. Due to high sound level, customers cannot listen to the salespersons properly and they are being driven away. Congestion Besides, street performances create crowd and make the road difficult to cross. Since 2000, Sai Yeung Choi Street South has adopted the pedestrian street scheme due to the heavy pedestrians and motorist traffic. However, the current situation violates the original intention of setting up the pedestrian street scheme. At present, the street is closed to vehicles from 4pm to 10pm from Monday", "Environmental noise Environmental noise is an accumulation of noise pollution that occurs outside. This noise can be caused by transport, industrial, and recreational activities.\nNoise is frequently described as 'unwanted sound'. Within this context, environmental noise is generally present in some form in all areas of human, animal, or environmental activity. The effects in humans of exposure to environmental noise may vary from emotional to physiological and psychological. \nNoise at low levels is not necessarily harmful. Environmental noise can also convey a sense of liveliness in an area, which can be desirable. However, the adverse effects of noise exposure (i.e. noise", "environment. The body responds to these sounds which can negatively affect sleep. \nHigh exposure to environmental noise can play a role in cardiovascular disease. Noise can raise blood pressure, change heart rate, and release stress hormones. Consistent changes in these health stats can lead to risks for hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and even more serious events such as a stroke or myocardial infarction. United States The Noise Control Act of 1972 established a U.S. national policy to promote an environment for all Americans to be free from noise that jeopardizes their health and welfare. In the past, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)", "Noise measurement In acoustics, noise measurement can be for the purpose of measuring environmental noise. Applications include monitoring of construction sites, aircraft noise, road traffic noise, entertainment venues and neighborhood noise.\nThe word \"noise\" means any \"unwanted sound\". Environmental noise monitoring is the measurement of noise in an outdoor environment caused by transport (e.g. motor vehicles, aircraft, and trains), industry (e.g. machines) and recreational activities (e.g. music). The laws and limits governing environmental noise monitoring differ from country to country.\nAt the very least, noise may be annoying or displeasing or may disrupt the activity or balance of human or animal life,", "hear music, which is most likely due to a genetic defect, the rest of an amusic's brain remains normal. The only effect is on the ability to tell different notes apart due to the separation of two key areas in the brain. Most sufferers of amusia describe music as unpleasant. Others simply refer to it as noise and find it annoying. This can have social implications because amusics often try to avoid music, which in many social situations is not an option. In China and other countries where tonal languages are spoken, amusia may have a much more pronounced social", "more we traveled, the more we became convinced that sounds and styles arise from specific environments, and you can only truly understand them when you go where they came from. Of course, you can enjoy music without hearing it in its native setting, but we kept finding that we had never fully experienced a recording or felt it to the depth of our souls until we listened to it in its home.\" Editing Dan Gitlin, the senior editor on the films, developed a pacing for the series in collaboration with director Bernard MacMahon to complement the leisurely speaking pace of", "noise comes out of nowhere. Listening to it loud in headphones can almost be painful.\" – Dusted Magazine review of Songs\nStelzer himself seemed to agree. He steadily began moving away from live improvisation and venturing more into studio-based composition. \"At first, my published works were simply unvarnished recordings of live improvisations using tape players, but I was never 100% happy with those. As I listened to them, I'd notice that I was mentally filling in the gaps of what should have been fuller sound, more stereo separation, clearer dynamic range, tighter construction... By the time I made the \"Mincing" ]

[ "When the water ends up in the oceans, it slows down the cycling a lot. Water in aquifers (the stores under the ground that we access when we use wells) and water on Earth's surface are the cheapest to use. We have been either polluting these (surface) or using them too fast for new water to filter in. We have also allowed a lot of water to go to the ocean(storm water runoff from developed areas) , rather than slowly go into the aquifers through the ground. So the result is we are using aquifer water faster than they are getting refilled. When that water is depleted, all water will become more expensive. We will still have it, but it will either be salty, polluted, or far from where it needs to be, and all of the fixes for this cost money.\nSorry if this isn't too coherent, I haven't finished my first cup of coffee for the day.", "> the water goes through the sewers and is cleaned and returned to the water supply, right?\n\nProbably not. I'm my city there is no treatment at all, just a pipe 200m (656ft) long that goes into the ocean. Other cities have various levels of treatment before dumping into the ocean or river. I think it's rare for a city to have enough treatment to make the water drinkable again.", "We aren't necessarily \"losing\" freshwater. We are simply using the limited supply we have at a greater rate than nature replenishes it.", "In a typical case, water that is \"cleaned\" by municipal treatment facilities is clean enough to be released back in rivers or the sea. It's not clean enough to be used directly. For example, read [this] (_URL_0_) about how Las Vegas gets its fresh water from Lake Mead, but treated water is not put straight back in to the lake. Instead, it is released in to something called the [Las Vegas Wash], a river / wetland complex where natural processes work on the water over time, and impurities are broken down or filtered out. \n\nWhich is fine if you have created a lake to supply you, but the situation in California is different. Much more fresh water is used than the natural sources can supply. So e.g. the Colorado River has basically stopped flowing by the time it reaches the Arizona/California border, and Lake Mead is largely to blame. The \"water table\" under parts of California is being drained more quickly than it's being replenished, making it harder to find fresh water.", "We have a major problem with this in Florida. As we draw more and more freshwater from the aquifer, the amount of rain and time needed to \"refill\" the aquifer is insufficient. As freshwater levels fall in the aquifer, seawater filters in to fill the space. This process was especially bad in and around the Tampa area, where they finally had to build a desalination plant on Tampa bay in order to meet the needs of the population. As Florida continues to grow, we will continue to see the gradual encroachment of seawater into the aquifer, eventually leaving it completely unuseable.", "If you live somewhere you depend on rainwater filling a tank for water then as long as your tank is big enough and it rains often enough and you don't overuse water you are fine.\nBut throw one thing out, too small a tank, too little rain, too much water used... you got a problem. No problem, just build a real big tank and be careful about useage and it'll rain eventually...\nThen you have some people move in, water useage goes up 600% instantly, you can't afford another tank and it's still not raining.\n\nTake that to the city and everyone on mains supply water is just sharing a big tank. City gets too big, wastes water or it just doesn't rain for ages and the whole city has a supply problem.\n\nThe cycle of water was providing excess water to use in places it was collected, that isn't the case everywhere now. The weather can't provide enough rain in some places.\n\nMore people and industry using more water all the time. There is still more fresh water than needed for all the people, but not necessarily where the people are." ]

[ "nearly everywhere, but until actual scarcity hits, people tend to take access to freshwater for granted. Water conservation There are several ways to reduce the use of water. For example, most irrigation systems waste water; typically, only between 35% and 50% of water withdrawn for irrigated agriculture ever reaches the crops. Most soaks into unlined canals, leaks out of pipes, or evaporates before reaching (or after being applied to) the fields. Swales and cisterns can be used to catch and store excess rainwater.\nWater should be used more efficiently in industry, which should use a closed water cycle if possible. Also,", "minimum streamflow, especially preserving and restoring instream water allocations. Fresh water is an important natural resource necessary for the survival of all ecosystems. The use of water by humans for activities such as irrigation and industrial applications can have adverse impacts on down-stream ecosystems.\nFresh water withdrawal is the quantity of water removed from available sources for use in any purpose, excluding evaporation losses.\nWater drawn off is not necessarily entirely consumed and some portion may be returned for further use downstream. Water pollution Pollution from human activity, including oil spills and also presents a problem for freshwater resources. The largest petroleum", "sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world's wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now", "during water recessions would allow surface water to retain better levels required for sustainable aquatic life. By reducing ground water pumping, the surface water supplies will be able to maintain their levels, as they recharge from direct precipitation, surface runoff, etc.", "a global water crisis, farmers will have to make strides to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.\nSuccessful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can", "to potable reuse.\nReclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using freshwater supplies can be a water-saving measure. When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources, it can still have benefits to ecosystems, improving streamflow, nourishing plant life and recharging aquifers, as part of the natural water cycle.\nWastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation, especially in arid countries. Reusing wastewater as part of sustainable water management allows water to remain as an alternative water source for human activities. This can reduce scarcity and alleviate pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies. De facto wastewater reuse", "The issue of the depletion of fresh water can be met by increased efforts in water management. While water management systems are often flexible, adaptation to new hydrologic conditions may be very costly. Preventative approaches are necessary to avoid high costs of inefficiency and the need for rehabilitation of water supplies, and innovations to decrease overall demand may be important in planning water sustainability.\nWater supply systems, as they exist now, were based on the assumptions of the current climate, and built to accommodate existing river flows and flood frequencies. Reservoirs are operated based on past hydrologic records,", "monsoonal deluges and floods cannot easily be used. As time advances, water is becoming scarcer and having access to clean, safe, drinking water is limited among countries. At present only about 0.08 percent of all the world's fresh water is exploited by mankind in ever increasing demand for sanitation, drinking, manufacturing, leisure and agriculture. Due to the small percentage of water remaining, optimizing the fresh water we have left from natural resources has been a continuous difficulty in several locations worldwide.\nMuch effort in water resource management is directed at optimizing the use of water and in minimizing the environmental", "Water Act\nIn a January 2012 U.S. National Research Council report, a committee of independent experts found that expanding the reuse of municipal wastewater for irrigation, industrial uses, and drinking water augmentation could significantly increase the United States' total available water resources. The committee noted that a portfolio of treatment options is available to mitigate water quality issues in reclaimed water. The report also includes a risk analysis that suggests the risk of exposure to certain microbial and chemical contaminants from drinking reclaimed water is not any higher than the risk from drinking water from current water treatment systems—and in some", "could be gained by way of additional irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, hydropower generation, navigational facilities etc. Irrigation By linking the rivers, vast amount of land areas which will not otherwise be irrigated and are unusable for agriculture become fertile. Flood prevention During heavy rainy seasons some areas can experience heavy floods while other areas might be experiencing drought like situations. With network of rivers this problem can be greatly avoided by channeling excess water to areas that are not experiencing a flood or are dry. Generation of electricity With new canals built, feasibility of new dams to generate", "this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.\nFresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.\nThe increase in the world population and the increase in per capita water use puts increasing strains on the finite resources availability of clean fresh water. The World Bank adds that the response by freshwater ecosystems to a changing climate can be described in terms of three interrelated components: water quality, water quantity or volume, and water timing. A change in one often leads to shifts in", "of green manures, mulching, and recycling of crop residues and animal manure increases the water holding capacity of soils and their ability to absorb water during torrential rains\", which is a way to optimize the use of rainfall and irrigation during dry periods in the season. Water Reuse Water shortage has become an increasingly difficult problem to manage. More than 40% of the world's population live in a region where the demand for water exceeds its supply. The imbalance between supply and demand, along with persisting issues such as climate change and population growth, has made water reuse a necessary", "Le sourcier qui fait jaillir l’eau du désert.\nOnly aquifers that are renewable can reasonably be exploited because fossil water must be preserved for future generations, according to Alain Gachet. However, they represent together, by far, the largest freshwater deposit on the planet. There is more fresh water hidden underground than visible on the lakes, rivers and glaciers. Up to thirty times more according to NASA estimations.\nAlain Gachet stated in article published in The Independent that \"over a billion people have no easy access to drinking water and that 1.8 million children die each year from diseases linked to drinking bad", "the others as well. Water pollution and subsequent eutrophication also reduces the availability of fresh water.\nMany areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability (or water scarcity). Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain. Minimum streamflow An important concern for hydrological ecosystems is securing", "the more it will enable alternative water sources, such as desalination to bring water into urban areas from greater distances, such as desalinated seawater often requiring energy-intensive production and transport methods. Countries, food, water and energy industries, as well as other users can agree that the increasing use of more water, energy and land resources (food) have a great potential to face issues with environmental deterioration and even resource scarcity, as we can already see taking place in some parts of the developing world. The unbroken links between these sectors continues to demand well-integrated plans to protect food and water", "rates are often flat rates that are not linked to consumption, thus offering no incentive to conserve water. Water reuse Reuse of reclaimed water is an increasingly common response to water scarcity in many parts of the United States. Reclaimed water is being reused directly for various non-potable uses in the United States, including urban landscape irrigation of parks, school yards, highway medians and golf courses; fire protection; commercial uses such as vehicle washing; industrial reuse such as cooling water, boiler water and process water; environmental and recreational uses such as the creation or restoration of wetlands; as well as", "sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much fresh water is needed for each consumer’s needs. According to J. Allan, \"there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and groundwater and on flows to which water is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the", "research, the three natural water bodies are struggling for their existence with encroachments on their lands and natural channels. Agencies responsible have tried to create artificial water bodies to compensate, but the efforts fail due to unpredictable rain and water flow patterns leading to deployment of water pumps to fight the situation.\nIn 2012 Punjab & Haryana High court banned ground water usage for construction activity, and NGT has recently reprimanded authorities for drain concretization.", "for water in the country is outstripping supply, leading to serious water shortages and unsustainable drawal of ground water in many parts of the country. Whereas we increase the amount of water that is effectively available, the real solution lies in increasing the efficiency of water use. At present, almost 80% of our water is used in agriculture, and it is used very inefficiently. Water use in agriculture can be cut to half with known technology, e.g., by switching from flood irrigation of paddy to SRI. Water availability can be improved by treating sewage water before it enters our fresh", "in aquifers may cause permanent compaction (subsidence) that cannot be renewed. 97.5% of the water on the Earth is salt water, and 3% is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction (0.008%) present above ground or in the air.\nWater pollution is one of the main concerns regarding water resources. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry. Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants (which use water for cooling), ore", "as a result of acute water scarcity (production of 2,300 m³ per day). The process configuration based on multi-barrier concept and includes the following treatment processes: sand filtration, UF, two-stage RO, and permeate disinfected by ultraviolet light (UV). U.S. The leaders in use of reclaimed water in the U.S. are Florida and California.\nIn a January 2012 U.S. National Research Council report, a committee of independent experts found that expanding the reuse of municipal wastewater for irrigation, industrial uses, and drinking water augmentation could significantly increase the United States’ total available water resources.\nOne example is Orange County which is located in", "applies to any resource that can be harvested faster than it can be replaced. Like peak oil, peak water is inevitable given the rate of extraction of certain water systems. A current argument is that growing populations and demands for water will inevitably lead to non-renewable use of water resources. Water demand Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world, and as the world population continues to rise, many more areas are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.\nAgriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.\nAgriculture, industrialization and urbanization all serve to increase water consumption. India", "water more effectively saves money and mitigates unnecessary subsidence.\nMadera Irrigation District reported that they were able to restore 2,500 acre-feet of water in 2017 to aquifers by releasing unused irrigation water onto flood land available to them. They reported that some growers also released excess water allotted to them on flood lands to help restore aquifers. This practice mitigates overutilization of surface water.\nGovernor Jerry Brown of California also imposed restrictions on unnecessary water usage during the California drought that began in 2012. Measures included drought-tolerant landscaping, rebate programs for purchasing water efficient appliances, and setting a statewide goal of 25%", "Water Statutes(United States) Conserved Water Statutes are state policies that were enacted by California, Montana, Washington, and Oregon to conserve water and allocated water resources to meet the needs of increasing demand for water in the dry lands where irrigation is or was occurring. Conserved Water Statutes helps the states to dismiss the disincentives to conserve water and can do so without damaging pre-existing water rights. Because any extra amount of water after applying water to a beneficiaries of the pre-existing water policies does not belong to the appropriators, such a condition creates an incentive to use as much water", "Farm water Farm water, also known as agricultural water, is water committed for use in the production of food and fiber. On average, 80 percent of the fresh water withdrawn from rivers and groundwater is used to produce food and other agricultural products. Farm water may include water used in the irrigation of crops or the watering of livestock.\nWater is one of the most fundamental parts of the global economy. It has been shown that in areas without healthy water resources or sanitation services, economic growth cannot be sustained. Without access to clean water, nearly every industry would suffer, most", "environmental degradation in the watercourse and riparian strip. What is \"wasted\" is the community's supply of water that was captured, stored, transported and treated to drinking quality standards. Efficient use of water saves the expense of water supply provision and leaves more fresh water in lakes, rivers and aquifers for other users and also for supporting ecosystems. A concept that is closely related to water wasting is \"water-use efficiency.\" Water use is considered inefficient if the same purpose of its use can be accomplished with less water. Technical efficiency derives from engineering practice where it is typically used to describe", "canals, lakes or rivers for their water needs.\nA clean water supply—in particular, water that is not polluted with fecal matter from lack of sanitation—is the single most important determinant of public health. Destruction of water supply and/or sanitation infrastructure after major catastrophes (earthquakes, floods, war, etc.) poses the immediate threat of severe epidemics of waterborne diseases, several of which can be life-threatening. Technical overview Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater (aquifers), surface water (lakes and rivers), and the sea through desalination. The water treatment steps include, in most cases, purification, disinfection", "can be viewed as an extension of capitalist and market tendencies into new spaces and social relations. Karl Marx termed this phenomenon, \"primitive accumulation\". For this reason there remains serious doubt as to whether commodification of water can help improve access to freshwater supplies and conserve water as a resource. Origins of commodification of water Water is a basic need of life and at present an estimated one billion people do not have access to safe drinking water, and even more have inadequate sanitation. Global institutions, including the UN, warn of the impact of a growing global population and the", "to halve the proportion of untreated wastewater and also to increase the recycling and safe reuse of water across the globe. After appropriate treatment, wastewater can be used for a variety of purposes. Industry, for example, can reuse water in cooling towers and agriculture can reuse water for irrigation.\nAn example activity for 2017 was the Wikipedia edit-a-thon organized by members of the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance on 19–21 March 2017. The purpose of the activity was to improve water and sanitation related content on Wikipedia just ahead of World Water Day. The goal was to improve the quantity and quality of", "environment is an important step in the sustainability of water resources. Attempts to create sustainable freshwater systems have been seen on a national level in countries such as Australia, and such commitment to the environment could set a model for the rest of the world. Overview Water is an essential resource for all life on the planet. Of the water resources on Earth only three percent of it is fresh and two-thirds of the freshwater is locked up in ice caps and glaciers. Of the remaining one percent, a fifth is in remote, inaccessible areas and much seasonal rainfall in" ]

[ "A lot of it is because the group tries to make its fans into a \"community\" (Juggalos). Like, fans of a band like, say, the Black Keys, are just people who happen to like the Black Keys. But ICP specifically encourages fans, \"Hey, dress up like us, be like us, be part of something,\" and then the fans encourage each other to do it too. People like that. They like feeling like they're part of a group. It's the same kind of thing with Lady Gaga and her \"Little Monsters,\" just a different type of music.", "ICP seems to be really popular in weird suburbs where there isn't shit else to do except all the things that a true juggalo does (not sure what that means). But Keego Harbor, Pontiac, and Del Ray in Michigan fit that description pretty well.", "They formed a community for societies rejects(or at least people that feel they are). Very little of it actually has to do with their music though.", "Because there are a lot of followers in the world who desperately need something to belong to, no matter how lame.", "They really play off of kids that don't feel like they belong. Sounds noble, and it might be if they didn't saturate their market with so much merchandise." ]

[ "are fans of the hip hop group Insane Clown Posse. Members often have tattoos and wear face paint. The FBI has classified juggalos as a \"loosely organized hybrid gang\", and in 2011, the Justice Department's Gang Task Force said group members were \"forming more organized subsets and engaging in more gang-like criminal activity\".\nJason Webber, an organizer of the march and publicist for Insane Clown Posse's record label Psychopathic Records, said the government's labeling \"exposed law-abiding Juggalos to harassment and discrimination by police, employers and others\". March supporters claimed they were a nonviolent group who should not be compared to gangs", "Cards series. These stories each offer a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\" Insane Clown Posse has a dedicated following, often referred to by the group as Juggalos and Juggalettes.\nJohn Utsler left the group in 1992, and Insane Clown Posse has since been composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler, who perform under the respective personas of the murderous, wicked clowns Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo perform a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore, and is known for its dark, violent lyrics and elaborate live", "that follows mimics and idolizes the music group, Insane Clown Posse. The music encourages and condones extreme acts of violence, which some Juggalos carry out. Juggalo members paint their faces black and white, dress in black clothing, attend raves together that often end violently, and consider themselves a family.\"\nHowever, some law enforcement officers have been firm in their assertion that Juggalos are a criminal group. Police watch commander Jay Mackanin of Citrus Heights has stated that, \"Juggalos are a gang. I know sometimes they say they're not, but they are.\"\nKelly Snyder, a former Drug Enforcement Administration officer who tracks Juggalo", "Juggalo: Insane Clown Posse, Their Fans, and the World They Made About the book According to Miller's website, the book focuses on its dedicated fans, aka juggalos, who've been questionably labeled a gang by the F.B.I.. Here is a snippet of the book's description: \"The FBI is certain this family is dangerous. Come see how the FBI has again failed to shoot straight and enter the world of ICP, Juggalos and their endeavor to live free.\" About the Author Miller, a journalist and Edgar-nominated author, previously covered Insane Clown Posse in his Detroit Rock City (book) and various magazine features,", "gang called the Juggalo Killers, who knocked her unconscious before carving the letters \"JK\" into her chest, because they wanted to be the only group wearing Insane Clown Posse merchandise in their territory.\nIn 2012, a Juggalo gang member, who was wanted for violating probation, was placed on New Mexico's most wanted list.\nJuggalos in Oregon have been reported to have extorted homeless and homosexual individuals on the street with the threat of beatings.\nIn August 2013, a Juggalo street gang member was arrested on charges of attempted murder, battery with a deadly weapon and possession of a controlled substance for allegedly attacking", "are criminals and gang members, he does not believe that Juggalos as a whole constitute a gang.\nIn January 2014 Insane Clown Posse along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan filed suit again against the FBI. The suit aimed to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any \"criminal intelligence information\" about Juggalos destroyed. The suit was dismissed in July 2014, ruling that that band and its fans lack standing to bring the suit. The ACLU has stated that it intends to appeal the dismissal.\nIn September 2015, the U.S. Court of Appeals for", "Clown (comics) Publication history The first Clown first appeared in The Incredible Hulk #3 (September 1962), and was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. Half-brother A new Clown appeared in Brand New Day as one of the villains in the bar. He was later sighted as a member of Hood's crime syndicate. Later, the Clown is contacted by Zodiac and Death Reaper, who offer him a spot on their rogue band of criminals. Together, they attack the Human Torch, hijack the Red Ronin to attack Times Square, and cause Norman Osborn a large amount of consternation. Clown, along with", "new name: Insane Clown Posse. Upon returning home that night, Bruce had a dream in which spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him—an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group's Joker's Cards series. These stories each offer a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\" Insane Clown Posse has a dedicated following, often referred to by the group as Juggalos and Juggalettes.\nJohn Utsler left the group about a month before the release of Carnival of Carnage and Insane Clown Posse has since", "been composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler, who perform under the respective personas of the murderous, wicked clowns Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope. The duo performs a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore, and is known for its dark, violent lyrics and elaborate live performances. Insane Clown Posse has earned two platinum and five gold albums. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the entire catalog of the group has sold 6.5 million units in the United States and Canada as of April 2007. Golden Goldies (1995) Golden Goldies was a comical group whose lyrics focused solely on gold.", "Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks. The group's manager Alex Abbiss extended Bruce and Utsler's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims, stating that \"It's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about. If anyone knows anything at all about ICP, then you know that they have never, ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bullshit\".\nOn October 21, 2006, Insane Clown Posse performed at one of twenty benefit shows organized by Myspace as part of the \"Rock for Darfur\" campaign to raise awareness", "on non-gang-related Juggalos. Both Juggalo gang affiliates and nonviolent Juggalos believe in the Juggalo \"family\", however, some nonviolent Juggalos do not believe that any gang related activity should be associated with the Juggalo lifestyle. Public and artist reactions The Insane Clown Posse filed a lawsuit against the FBI about the gang-listing. In December 2012, ICP agreed to withdraw their involvement as plaintiffs.\nPsychopathic Records launched the website juggalosfightback.com for fans to submit stories about unfair treatment by law enforcement. ICP hopes to use these stories in their legal battle to declassify Juggalos as a gang.\nThe classification of Juggalos as a criminal", "be releasing a sideshow EP for The Mighty Death Pop! in 2013. The EP is titled House Of Wax set to be released on November 25, 2014 packaged inside The First Six. 2013–14: Continued legal troubles Insane Clown Posse sued the FBI, whose National Gang Intelligence Center listed Juggalos as \"a loosely organized hybrid gang\" in a 2011 report. The report states that Juggalos are \"recognized as a gang in only four states... law enforcement officials in at least 21 states have identified criminal Juggalo sub-sets\". The report also noted that New Mexico was seeing a lot of Juggalo gang", "to wrestle today in Juggalo Championship Wrestling as well as in various independent promotions.\nInsane Clown Posse gained fame for being both professional musicians and professional wrestlers. Overall, they are two-time JCW Tag Team Champions. Additionally, Bruce is a one-time JCW Tag Team Champion with 2 Tuff Tony, and Utsler is a one-time JCW Heavyweight Champion. Bruce and Utsler are also founding members of the Juggalo World Order.\nIn addition they were largely involved in Backyard Wrestling: Don't Try This at Home, where most of the wrestlers in the game were members of JCW.", "asked a judge to dismiss the lawsuit against them.\nIn an interview given in 2013, Shaggy 2 Dope of Insane Clown Posse addressed the Juggalo gang classification and the impending FBI lawsuit. He stated that at first he believed that the classification of Juggalos was \"pretty dope\" because it would afford the band a tougher image, but later changed his mind after realizing the negative repercussions of being labeled a gang, such as gang enhancements for Juggalos who commit crimes. He also expressed concern about innocent Juggalos being targeted in \"Shithole, Nebraska\" by MS-13 members. He argued that while some Juggalos", "Insane Clown Posse 1985–94: Early history Joseph Bruce (Violent J) and Joseph Utsler (Shaggy 2 Dope) met in Oak Park, a suburb on the north border of Detroit, Michigan. Along with Utsler's brother, John, and friend, Lacy, they wrestled in backyard rings that they had built themselves. They also listened to hip hop music, including 3rd Bass, Beastie Boys, N.W.A and local rappers like Awesome Dre. In 1989, Joseph Bruce, as Jagged Joe, Joseph Utsler, as Kangol Joe, and John Utsler, as Master J, released the single titled \"Party at the Top of the Hill\" under the name of JJ", "a friend of the duo, Insane Clown Posse attended several shows. The group hung out backstage with their friends, and also began talking to and smoking with Robinson, eventually befriending him. Juggalo Championship Wrestling (1999–2012) In 1997, Robinson wrestled for Insane Clown Posse at the event ICP's Strangle-Mania Live. Two years later, he, 2 Tuff Tony, and Mad Man Pondo wrestled at the Dan Curtis Memorial, an independent wrestling booker who had recently worked for Insane Clown Posse. Several days after the event, Tony, Robinson, and Pondo were booked to wrestle for Insane Clown Posse's first Juggalo Championshit Wrestling show.", "their stupidity\". Spin likened Insane Clown Posse's stage act to \"a sort of circus karaoke\" and portrayed the group's fans as overweight suburbanites. On the group's website, Bruce responded to the article by stating, \"I could give a fuck less\".\nAfter a show in Indianapolis, Insane Clown Posse's tour bus stopped at a Waffle House in Greenfield, Indiana. When a customer began to harass Spaniolo and Bruce, a fight broke out between the customer and all of the bands' members. Months later on June 4, 1998, Bruce and Utsler pleaded guilty to misdemeanor disorderly conduct charges (reduced from battery) in an", "Posse. On September 25, Mike Awesome defeated Insane Clown Posse in a Handicap Hardcore match. Juggalo Championship Wrestling (1999–2006) On December 19, 1999, Bruce and Utsler created their own wrestling promotion, Juggalo Championshit Wrestling (now known as Juggalo Championship Wrestling). That night, the duo defeated the team of two Doink the Clowns to become the first ever JCW Tag Team Champions. The event was taped and released as JCW, Volume 1. Commentary was provided by Bruce and Utsler under their \"3D\" and \"Gweedo\" announcing personas. In 2000, Insane Clown Posse was involved in a rivalry with The Rainbow Coalition (Big", "by taking bumps. Heyman also favored the idea of using Insane Clown Posse, because it was unlikely that anyone knew of the relationship the group had with Van Dam and Sabu. Heyman presented his idea to Bruce and Utsler, who agreed to participate. Insane Clown Posse opened the ECW program by performing songs and exciting the crowd. Then Van Dam and Sabu, the main villains at the time, attacked Bruce and Utsler. The top fan favorite, The Sandman, came in and saved them by chasing away Van Dam and Sabu with his signature Singapore cane. ICP's Strangle-Mania Live (1997) Being", "Los Psycho Circus History Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) has a long history of using clown based ring characters ever since the company was founded in 1992, most famously the group known as Los Payasos (Spanish for \"The Clowns\") that existed until 1999. AAA later tried to promote other clown trios such as Payasos del Mal (\"Evil Clowns\") in 2007. It was not until AAA took the wrestler who had worked as Aliens, Kronus (son of Brazo de Plata) and a third wrestler whose previous identity has not been revealed and turned them into Los Psycho Circus. Aliens became", "dark characters, complete with statements about the clowns \"rejoicing in the pain of others\" and \"Violence without measure\", a fabricated profile to help enhance their \"evil\" characters.\nThe team made their debut on December 14, 2007 during a show in Chilpancingo, Guerrero where they defeated Real Fuerza Aérea (Aero Star, Super Fly and Pegasso). Los Psycho Circus was physically larger than most of the AAA wrestlers and soon established themselves as a dominant force in the ring, booked to easily defeat a series of low card teams. While Los Psycho Circus was booked as Rudos (bad guys) they faced both tecnico", "in an interview with faygoluvers.net, Insane Clown Posse announced that they are cutting ties with Twiztid and Majik Ninja Entertainment, as they have repeatedly declined invites to the Juggalo March On Washington, and the alternative to not march, going on a Wizard of the Hood Tour, which they also declined. Also in doing so, Insane Clown Posse stated that Psychopathic Records will stop reaching out to Twiztid and Majik Ninja Entertainment for Juggalo Day and the Gathering of the Juggalos. Also during the interview it was announced that new music will come from Insane Clown Posse, DJ Clay, Big Hoodoo,", "their plans, and the final concept instead featured Insane Clown Posse performing actions which Joseph Bruce later described as \"[Some of] the stupidest thing[s] I had ever heard of.\" Because the group and the label were disappointed with the video, it was not publicly released at the time, although a snippet of it later appeared on Stranglemania in 1996 and finally the full video was released on Psychopathic: The Videos in 2007. Legacy Ringmaster's popularity enabled Insane Clown Posse to sell out larger nightclubs across their hometown of Detroit, Michigan such as St. Andrews Hall and the State Theatre. Because", "gang was ridiculed by the technology magazine Wired in a November 2011 article, with journalist Spencer Ackerman referring to previous scandals involving FBI harassment of Muslim-Americans.\nOn January 8, 2014, Insane Clown Posse along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan filed suit again against the FBI. The suit aims to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any \"criminal intelligence information\" about Juggalos destroyed. Gathering of the Juggalos The Gathering of the Juggalos (The Gathering or GOTJ) is an annual festival put on by Psychopathic Records, featuring performances by the entire label as well", "The Ringmaster (album) Background Following a dream by group member Joseph Bruce in which \"spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him\", Insane Clown Posse created the mythology of the Dark Carnival. The Carnival, a metaphoric limbo in which the lives of the dead await to be judged, was planned to be elaborated through a series of stories called Joker's Cards, each of which offers a specific lesson designed to change the \"evil ways\" of listeners before \"the end consumes us all.\"\nFollowing the release of the first Joker's Card, Carnival of Carnage, the group began to build a local following.", "\"Juggalo Street Fight\". Insane Clown Posse won against the team of Glen Gilbertti and Kid Kash on February 18. Two weeks later, Insane Clown Posse announced that they would take part in a \"Dark Carnival Match\" the next week against Glen Gilbertti and any partner he chooses. The following week, Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony took on Glen Gilbertti, Kid Kash, and David Young. \"The Alpha Male\" Monty Brown made his TNA return, and cost Insane Clown Posse and 2 Tuff Tony the match. During their stint in TNA, Insane Clown Posse brought the company its largest paying", "a cyclist with two meat cleavers in northeast Las Vegas, calling the man a \"snitch\".\nAlso in 2013, a Juggalo member in Washington state allegedly stabbed a boy at a birthday party after being mocked for his Juggalo affiliation. Rivalries and alliances with other street and prison gangs The National Gang Intelligence Center has noted a high number of Juggalo sets with ties to the Los Angeles-based Bloods gang, although the reason why Juggalos align themselves with Bloods sets remains unclear. In at least one case, the gangs aligned because they share the same gang color (red). Bloods and Juggalos", "all artists from Majik Ninja Entertainment were removed from the 2017 Juggalo Day Show and that a new lineup would be announced soon.\nOn July 21, 2018 at the 2018 Gathering of the Juggalos, Violent J announced at the Insane Clown Posse seminar that “We will never reunite with Twiztid. Ever.\" They also stated that Dark Lotus will not continue and that there won't be any disses towards them. These statements, along with various other factors involving both Insane Clown Posse and Twiztid, confirmed the end of the supergroup.\nTwiztid and Blaze Ya Dead Homie will occasionally perform their parts from popular", "became the company's logo.\nInner City Posse released their first professionally recorded album, Dog Beats, on the label later that year. Shortly after, the group underwent a change in style, look, and name to become Insane Clown Posse, and created the Dark Carnival concept that would be continued by much of the label's other artists for years to come. Esham and Kid Rock were paid to appear on the debut \"Insane Clown Posse\" album to increase the album's marketability. The group and their label began to gain moderate popularity in the Detroit area following the releases of Carnival of Carnage and", "'petal' of the lotus,\" and it was announced that there would be six members. After switching between two different \"sixth members,\" Marz and Anybody Killa, Dark Lotus decided to keep the group to only five. On January 19, 2017 via an interview with faygoluvers.net, Insane Clown Posse announced that the group disbanded. Psychopathic Rydas (1999–present) Psychopathic Rydas formed in 1999, and consists of Psychopathic Records-associated rappers performing under alternate stage names in the style of mainstream gangsta rap. The group's current lineup consists of Bruce (Bullet), Utsler (Full Clip), Methric (Foe Foe), Spaniolo (Lil' Shank), Rouleau (Cell Block) and David" ]

[ "The gist of it is to lift weights and eat a **lot** of food. A program like Stronglifts is great for beginners. \n\nProtein powder isn't magic, it's just a cheap and easy source of protein. Most people find it easier to drink a protein shake than to eat a bunch of steak. It's probably healthier than other sources of protein because of the amino acids it contains, specifically L-cysteine. You should definitely use it.", "You should read the wiki over at /r/fitness \n\nBut in short:\n\n1. Lift heavy weights\n\n2. Eat a lot, specifically protein\n\n3. Sleep a lot\n\n4. Get big" ]

[ "it is ideal to get as close as possible. Dirty bulking \"Dirty bulking\" is the process of eating at a massive caloric surplus, without trying to figure out the exact amount of ingested macronutrients (carbs, fats, and proteins). Weightlifters who are attempting to gain mass quickly with no aesthetic concerns often choose to use the \"dirty bulk\" method. Weight training Intensive weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair of these", "Its simplicity, small size and light weight make it a useful item in a survival kit.", "Worsted Weight According to the Craft Yarn Council, the term \"Worsted Weight\", also known as \"Afghan\", \"Aran\", or simply \"Medium\", refers to a particular weight of yarn that produces a gauge of 16–20 stitches per 4 inches of stockinette, and is best knitted with 4.5mm to 5.5mm needles (US size 7–9).", "as little gluten and dairy as possible. He eats a lot of vegetables to stay healthy and give his body all the essential nutrients. For him it is important to eat enough, for which he tries to eat at least six meals a day.\nLeg muscles are important to take advantage of everything in the path of the pumping speed, to complete the whole way down. The torso and upper body are also important in the beginning, when it is important to be fast. If you are the fastest in the beginning you have a good chance to win because", "SlimFast Effectiveness There is a lack of high quality evidence on the effectiveness of the diet, although it appears to function no better than behavioral counseling. History SlimFast was started in 1977 as a product line of the Thompson Medical Company, founded in the 1940s by S. Daniel Abraham. Thompson Medical also sold the controversial weight loss dietary supplement Dexatrim. In 1987, Abraham took the brand private, and it was acquired by Unilever in 2000. In 2014, Unilever sold SlimFast to Kainos Capital. After the sale, KSF Acquisition invested with Kainos Capital in order to take responsibility for the SlimFast", "recommendations suggest that bodybuilders should consume 25–30% of protein per total calorie intake to further their goal of maintaining and improving their body composition. This is a widely debated topic, with many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day is ideal, some suggesting that less is sufficient, while others recommending 1.5, 2, or more. It is believed that protein needs to be consumed frequently throughout the day, especially during/after a workout, and before sleep. There is also some debate concerning the best type of protein to take. Chicken, turkey, beef, pork, fish, eggs and dairy", "a Healthier Generation has set a standard in hopes of pressuring fast food companies to make recommended healthier adjustments. Food-contact paper packaging Fast food often comes in wrappers coated with polyfluoroalkyl phosphate esters (PAPs) to prevent grease from leaking through them. These compounds are able to migrate from the wrappers into the packaged food. Upon ingestion, PAPs are subsequently biotransformed into perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs), compounds which have long attracted attention due to their detrimental health effects in rodents and their unusually long half-lives in humans. While epidemiological evidence has not demonstrated causal links between PFCAs and these health problems", "be safe to eat (i.e., it couldn't be poisonous or otherwise inedible), it had to be a genuine food item (i.e., not something that is safe to eat but otherwise not considered 'food'), and it had to be relatively easy to obtain in a typical North American city. LoadingReadyLIVE has also featured eating challenges.\nDaily Drop was a feature on The Escapist, made by LoadingReadyRun. It was filmed in the basement of the Victoria Event Centre. It consists of approximately 2-minute-long clips of objects falling in, as recorded by a high-speed camera, and impacting the test area floor. A new installment", "Tough Guy Competition Tough Guy claims to be the world's most demanding one-day survival ordeal.\nFirst staged in 1987, the Tough Guy Challenge is held on a 600-acre (2.42 square km) farm in Perton, Staffordshire, near Wolverhampton, England, and is organised by Billy Wilson (using the pseudonym \"Mr. Mouse\"). It has been described as \"the toughest race in the world\", with up to one-third of the starters failing to finish in a typical year.\nAfter 27 stagings of the winter event, Wilson still claimed nobody had ever finished the course according to his extremely demanding rules. The race, and its summer equivalent,", "foods are high in protein, as are some nuts, seeds, beans, and lentils. Casein or whey are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. Whey protein is the type of protein contained in many popular brands of protein supplements and is preferred by many bodybuilders because of its high Biological Value (BV) and quick absorption rates. Whey protein also has a bigger effect than casein on insulin levels, triggering about double the amount of insulin release. That effect is somewhat overcome by combining casein and whey. Bodybuilders are usually thought to require protein with a higher BV than", " His ability to eat so much food without gaining weight is attributed to a very rare and implausibly high metabolism. He once claimed that he weighed 300 pounds after a meal, although he is usually portrayed as slim and healthy.\nJughead's special abilities concerning food extend to being able to identify food in a sealed can by smell, and being able to detect the slightest flaws in food preparation by taste. As such, he is a respected food critic, as well as a gourmet chef himself. One time, when he sought out Miss Grundy's help with his creative", "Master Cleanse Master Cleanse is a modified juice fast that permits no food, substituting tea and lemonade made with maple syrup and cayenne pepper. The diet was developed by Stanley Burroughs, who initially marketed it in the 1940s, and revived it his 1976 book The Master Cleanser. Proponents claim that the diet tones, reduces and cleanses the body, allowing the body to heal itself. There is no evidence that the diet removes any toxins or that it achieves anything beyond temporary weight loss, followed by rapidly regaining the lost weight.\nThough unlikely to be harmful over the short term, Master", "could be traded for at least five American Meals Ready to Eat.\nThe vegetable cheese omelet MRE, Recipe No. 4, introduced in 2005, is generally considered the worst ever. Soldiers serving in Iraq dubbed it the \"Vomelet\", both for its appearance and taste. It was discontinued in 2009. Variants and similar rations The MRE has led to the creation of several similar field rations.\nAircrew Build to Order Meal Module (ABOMM) are a special variant consisting of repacking existing MRE food elements into a form that provides military flight crews and tank operators with a meal designed to be eaten on the", "Her management company writes that she \"literally gets to the bottom of some of the country's worst eaters.\" Nutritional advice McKeith's advice is based on both standard and non-standard medicine, including common sense tips, such as avoiding shopping when hungry, eating fruit and vegetables instead of cakes or buns, and favouring fresh fish over processed products such as fish-fingers. She recommends a detox diet in which the \"top 12 toxic terrors to avoid\" are: smoking; caffeine; alcohol; chocolate and sweet snacks; pub snacks such as crisps, nuts, and pork scratchings; processed meat; white bread, white pasta, white rice; products containing", "buy better clothes and Harry and Casey begin to train them in the parts they're to play – principally that of the \"stall,\" or the members of the team who will provide distraction in order for Harry to get into the mark and make the \"dip\".\nHarry also inculcates them into the group's modus operandi and operations. The team travels \"first-class – everything the best … the best food, the best clothes, the best hotels\". In this way they are able to blend into and appear as the classes they are trying to pickpocket. Sandy, being physically attractive, gives the team", "to overeat, and promoting a healthy digestive system.\nThe disadvantages include excessive flatulence in the first few weeks and having to eat food that is harder work to chew and swallow. Some people also express a dislike of the texture of such a high fibre diet. The dieter will need to consume more water than usual to prevent constipation.\nNevertheless, the diet is very effective when followed faithfully and remains a popular choice of diet.\nIn 2006 Audrey Eyton published \"F2\", a revised version of the F-plan written in the light of subsequent medical discoveries, which claims to be faster and more effective", "reduction in chronic disease risk, enhanced immunity, maximal physical and mental performance, increased longevity and permanent weight loss.\"\nThe diet advocates eating five times a day, with 3 meals and 2 snacks, and includes eating proteins, carbohydrates - those with a lower glycemic index are considered more favorable, and fats (monounsaturated fats are considered healthier) in a caloric ratio of 30%-40%-30%. The hand is used as the mnemonic tool; five fingers for five times a day, with no more than five hours between meals. The size and thickness of the palm are used to measure protein while two big", "seen at Chick-fil-A, Burger King, and KFC. Chipotle uses aluminum meal lids that are made from 95% recycled material, but they do not have postconsumer recycling, so the lids that are left on-site are landfilled.\nThere are lots of healthy damages on the human body while eating fast food products. It would be proper to know how fast food has a negative impact on human health. The researchers found that if a person eats fast foods more than a once a week, they may gain a significant amount of fat in their body. Also, there is a debate over proceeded food", "carrying a 45-pound pack in under 45 minutes. Aerobic fitness and the time it takes to reach a safety zone are highly correlated.", "quick freezing, fire fighting, oil solidifying and have been found to be safe for experimentation by middle school students wearing appropriate personal protective equipment such as gloves and safety glasses. A standard block weighing approximately 30 kg (66 lb) covered in a taped paper wrapping is most common. These are commonly used in shipping, because they sublime relatively slowly due to a low ratio of surface area to volume. Pellets are around 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter and can be bagged easily. This form is suited to small scale use, for example at grocery stores and laboratories where it is stored in a", "he is capable of contributing goals in set-pieces, and is good in the air and able to deal with high balls into the box. Although he is far from the quickest and his strength isn’t particularly impressive considering his size.", "Smart Ones Overview and history The Smart Ones brand was launched by the H.J Heinz Company in 1992 as a sub-brand of the Weight Watchers line of frozen entrées and desserts. At the time, Heinz owned Weight Watchers International, known for its well-known weight-loss program and services. At launch, the Smart Ones line was notable for containing only \"ONE gram of fat\". Later, the meal offerings were expanded significantly and are no longer limited to only one gram of fat.\nIn 1999, Heinz sold Weight Watchers International but retained a license to use the Weight Watchers trademarks in connection", "Muscle in 6 Weeks (1989), was also the first product offered by IronMind. It presents the classic 20-rep squat routine, a routine best known for helping people bulk up in a short period of time. The book is currently in its eighteenth printing (in English) and has been translated into German.\nAs a photographer and editor-in-chief for IronMind’s quarterly journal MILO (launched in 1993), Strossen flies over 100,000 miles a year to cover strength-sport events around the world. MILO is the only American bodybuilding or weightlifting magazine to receive media accreditation to cover weightlifting at the 1996, 2000, 2004 and the", "stands for fiber which is a non-digestible part of carbohydrates and helps people feel full. The F-Factor Diet does not require users to cut out fat, carbs, or alcohol.\nF-Factor also provides nutritional counseling services to users including in-office, mobile app, and phone consults. It also has its own brand of food and recipes. In 2018, it launched its own line of all-natural fiber-rich products. Reception The F-Factor Diet book received a positive review in Publishers Weekly which concluded \"Zuckerbrot's sensible, educational approach and easy-to-follow diet plan make this book worthwhile.\"", "weight if they follow it, though I don’t think that the diet is capable of all the claims in the book.\" Low Dog also warns about \"the very limited number of vegetables to choose from,\" though in fact apart from starchy vegetables such as potatoes the slow-carb diet allows free choice in vegetables.\nU.S. News quoted Scott Kahan (codirector of the George Washington University Weight Management Program) describing it \"as another cockamamie fad diet\" and expressing doubts about its sustainability.\nThe New York Times review stated \"it's among the craziest, most breathless things I’ve ever read, and I’ve read Klaus Kinski, Dan", "short but spirited. He's a fast runner and a good pitcher. His small size allows him to get into places where the other two boys won't fit. Putting him at the head of the team will make them walk faster.\nMax (マックス) (in green; age 12) – He is the largest and strongest of the three. He likes to eat, but also likes to play soccer and swim. He is also a good boxer. He also can lift up heavy objects.\nJack (ジャック) (in blue and red; age 12) – He is the smartest of the three. He's good with his hands.", "linear weighers, or volumetric feeders), granules such as coffee granules and products such as loose tea can be weighed on today’s multiheads.\nFragile products\nWeighers with more shallow angles of descent and various cushioned inserts have made it possible to pack delicate and brittle items such as hand-made chocolates and gourmet biscuits.\nComplex products\nUsing mix-weighing combined with a distribution system tailored to deliver separate components into a tray, a ready meal can be assembled with just the right quantities of, say, rice, meat and vegetables in the appropriate compartments.", "Ben Smith (CrossFit) Diet As a competitor, Smith maintains a high carbohydrate and protein diet by eating mostly whole foods, although he has not utilized the paleo diet that had been popular in the CrossFit community. The majority of his calories comes from milk, eggs, sweet potatoes, and bacon. He supplements his diet with protein powders. He occasionally breaks the diet on weekends with pizza, ice cream, and burritos. Personal life Ben Smith was raised in Chesapeake, Virginia, with his two brothers, Alec and Dane. He was a baseball player for the Great Bridge High School Wildcats from 2004 to", "lack of physicality,. Injuries hampered his career. Physical As of 2009, Spies could power clean 135 kg, dead-lift 240 kg, bench-press 165 kg and do pull-ups with a 50 kg weight between his legs. He could jump 1.4m onto a raised platform and had a body-fat percentage of 6.5.", "careful. Also, it means that they are lacking of information of alternatives, time to search or calculate, and reasonable thinking. This is exactly what many businesses try to make people, spending more money without rationality. Techniques Three representative techniques of hunger marketing are described below; Limited stock, time limit and special discounts. Limited stock Limited stock is the most representative technique of hunger marketing. It is also one of the strongest causes, which affects consumers directly and most powerfully. Many companies have not supplied their items adequately. Because it is hard for consumers to get and buy the product, they" ]

[ "I believe it has something to do with the rate at which heat from your body is transferred to the material. Your body is hotter than both the fabric and the spoon, which are at the same temperature, but the spoon conducts the heat at a faster rate and so you feel it as being colder. Please correct me if I am wrong or missing some details.", "Metal is a good heat conductor. It is able to suck heat from your fingers very well.\n\nMost fabrics are poor heat conductors. They don't do a good job at sucking heat from your fingers. As a side note, this is one reason fabrics are useful in clothing and blankets.", "Ok little Evan, the first thing to realize is that you are actually very warm compared to the rest of the house. Remember when we checked your temperature? Your body is actually at about 98 degrees. That is this many pennies (show pennies) of heat.\n\nThe house is kept at about 70 degrees. We can see that on the thermostat which controls how warm the house is, but only mommies and daddies know how to use this. That is only this many pennies of heat.\n\nIt turns out that everything likes to be at the same temperature as everything else. This is like when we take some hot water and mix it with cold water. You see how we get regular room temperature water?\n\nWell your body is constantly making pennies of heat (add a few to the Evan pile) and constantly losing some to the air and everything you touch (take some away) and this keeps you at that 98 number. \n\nNow when you touch wood or blankets, it is actually at that 70 penny mark from sitting in the room for so long. It is not very good at taking or giving pennies from things so it takes a long time for it to take one penny from you. Metal on the other hand is very good at taking and giving pennies of heat. So that spoon is taking pennies from your body's heat much quicker than the wood. This is why it feels cold. You are actually feeling the heat pennies leave your body.\n\nYou don't have to worry though, because your body actually has millions of pennies of heat and not just 98. So the heat you lose to the spoon is easily made up by your body. If you hold the spoon for awhile though, it no longer feels cold because it is now at the same temperature of your body." ]

[ "thicker barrier between the atmosphere and aluminum base metal. Considerations When selecting metal furniture, consider coat and finish, ensuring the surface is powder coated—which does not need maintenance—and the finish is not just painted onto the furniture but baked into the metal. Also, consider your climate. For example, if you live in a rainy area, you will want furniture with heavy waterproofing and light enough to carry indoors. For hot climates, consider that aluminum retains heat, so you can not use it until it cools down. Misconceptions Often people consider metal furniture with being uncomfortable, as images of \"metal\" conjure", "5% to 95%). At the top end of the range, moisture may increase the conductivity of permeable insulators leading to malfunction. Too low humidity may make materials brittle. A particular danger to electronic items, regardless of the stated operating humidity range, is condensation. When an electronic item is moved from a cold place (e.g. garage, car, shed, an air conditioned space in the tropics) to a warm humid place (house, outside tropics), condensation may coat circuit boards and other insulators, leading to short circuit inside the equipment. Such short circuits may cause substantial permanent damage if the equipment is powered", "in the case of particularly valuable items in the chambers with nitrogen or argon. Copper or copper alloy objects with active corrosion up to 35% RH. Shelves in the storerooms must be of stainless steel or chlorine and acetate free plastic or powder coated steel. Wood and wood based products(Particle board, plywood) must be avoided. Also do not use rubber, felt or wool .When you are handling metal objects,always wear clean cotton gloves . Lighting levels must be kept below 300 lux (up to 150 lux in case of lacquered or painted objects,up to 50 lux in case of objects", "and cold metal formed by this heat-affected zone causes extremely rapid cooling when quenched. When combined with the stresses formed, this creates a very brittle zone between the hard and softer metal, which usually makes this method unsuitable for swords or tools that may be subjected to shear and impact stresses. Induction hardening Induction hardening is a surface hardening technique which uses induction coils to provide a very rapid means of heating the metal. With induction heating, the steel can be heated very quickly to red-hot at the surface, before the heat can penetrate any distance into the metal. The", "and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like anti-flash white paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.\nActual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture", "room temperature, while cast iron does not possess sufficient plasticity for any forging operation even when hot. This property is of importance in forming, shaping and extruding operations on metals. Most metals are rendered plastic by heating and hence shaped hot. Slip systems Crystalline materials contain uniform planes of atoms organized with long-range order. Planes may slip past each other along their close-packed directions, as is shown on the slip systems page. The result is a permanent change of shape within the crystal and plastic deformation. The presence of dislocations increases the likelihood of planes. Reversible plasticity On the", "product among end consumers. \nLike other polyester fabrics, Coolmax is flammable and has a relatively low melting point (~255 °C), giving clothes made from it a tendency to melt and fuse to the wearer's skin when exposed to high heat. This has led to Coolmax and other polyesters (along with acrylic and rayon) being restricted or banned in certain high-fire-risk applications, such as firefighting and front-line combat.", "damaging to the finished goods. If the garment is worn, it wears out quickly and is highly susceptible to perspiration, salt, and tears; if stored away it becomes brittle and breaks. The method of storage—cold/dark, etc., has no influence on these factors. One readily sees examples of this damage in antique American \"Crazy Quilts\" where the silk fibres have disintegrated while the cotton and wool fibres remain in good condition, even after 100 years.\nThis practice was widespread in the 19th century and decreased somewhat in the 20th, but is still used to some extent. An alternative is", "paper, make areas with \"heat-sensitive\" substrate in contact with them to become darker.", "keep this uniformity within the metal, it is cooled instantly. This prevents the molecules from moving around and causing tension in the structure of the metal. Unlike ferrous metals—which must be cooled slowly to anneal—copper can be cooled slowly in air or quickly by quenching in water.", "material comes from it having many partially filled states and much state delocalization.\nMetals are good electrical conductors and have many partially filled states with energies near their Fermi level.\nInsulators, by contrast, have few partially filled states, their Fermi levels sit within band gaps with few energy states to occupy.\nImportantly, an insulator can be made to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote some electrons across the band gap, inducing partially filled states in both the band of states beneath the band gap (valence band) and the band of states above the band gap (conduction band).\nAn (intrinsic) semiconductor", "noting that if metal is combined with organic materials, relative humidity should not be below 45%. Archaeological objects must be stored in rooms (or plastic boxes) with very low relative humidity, or in the case of particularly valuable items in the chambers with nitrogen or argon. Copper or copper alloy objects with active corrosion up to 35% RH. Iron objects with active corrosion 12-15% RH. Shelves in the storerooms must be of stainless steel or chlorine and acetate free plastic or powder coated steel. Wood and wood-based products (Particle board, plywood) must be avoided. Also do not use rubber, felt", "then it must be turned in the right direction to dry outside (plastic layer).\nPVC clothing should never be ironed. This type of clothing is made of heat sensitive plastics and which may melt under the iron, and high temperatures should be avoided from any source, such as flames, dryers, and cigarettes. The fumes from burning or smoking PVC plastic are dangerous.\nDifferent coloured PVC garments, especially white, should be stored separately from each other, otherwise staining may occur. PVC clothing is best stored hanging in a garment bag away from other clothing.\nThe fabric used for PVC clothes is typically plastic-coated polyester.", "when stored at RH less than 20%. Shelves in the storerooms must be of stainless steel or chlorine and acetate free plastic or powder coated steel. Wood and wood based products(Particle board, plywood) must be avoided. Rubber, felt or wool are also discouraged. When handling metal objects, the use of cotton gloves is recommended to avoid salts and oils from skin coming in contact with the object as these can be corrosive. Physical forces can cause distortions, scratches and abrasions if the object is not stored or moved carefully. Metal objects may contain small parts such as bolts", " As the Polyamide material starts to cool down it also starts to shrink. Continuous injection pressure is therefore applied to the cavity, even after its initial fill. This is done in order to compensate for the shrinkage that naturally occurs when the Polyamide material goes from liquid to solid (i.e. hot to cold). The Polyamide temperature is not too hot for the electronics and does not re-melt or re-flow the solder. This is simply because the relative cold mold-set will absorb the brunt of the heat, thereby reducing the temperature that a circuit board may see.", "and more stable. This is due to the vacuum itself. Because of the sealed chamber, the dielectric constant remains the same over a wider range of operating conditions. With air variable capacitors, the air moving around the plates may change the value slightly; often it is not much but in some applications it is enough to cause undesirable effects.\nVacuum variable capacitors are generally more expensive than air variable capacitors. This is primarily due to their design and the materials used. Although most use copper and glass, some may use other materials such as ceramics and metals such as gold and", "a metal is cooled very quickly, the insoluble atoms may not be able to migrate out of the solution in time. This is called a \"diffusionless transformation.\" When the crystal matrix changes to its low temperature arrangement, the atoms of the solute become trapped within the lattice. The trapped atoms prevent the crystal matrix from completely changing into its low temperature allotrope, creating shearing stresses within the lattice. When some alloys are cooled quickly, such as steel, the martensite transformation hardens the metal, while in others, like aluminum, the alloy becomes softer. Effects of composition The specific composition of an", "room temperature; have relatively low densities; are poor electrical and thermal conductors; have relatively high ionisation energies and electronegativities; form acidic oxides; and are found naturally in uncombined states in large amounts.\nSome nonmetals (C, black P, S and Se) are brittle solids at room temperature (although each of these also have malleable, pliable or ductile allotropes).\nFrom left to right in the periodic table, the nonmetals can be subdivided into the reactive nonmetals which, being nearest to the metalloids, show some incipient metallic character, and the monatomic noble gases, which are almost completely inert. Anomalous properties Within each category, elements can", "one place, it can soon be smelled in the entire room, but a simple calculation shows that this can't be due to diffusion. Convective motion persists in the room because of the temperature [inhomogeneity]. If ink is dropped in water, one usually observes an inhomogeneous evolution of the spatial distribution, which clearly indicates convection (caused, in particular, by this dropping).\nIn contrast, heat conduction through solid media is an everyday occurrence (e.g. a metal spoon partly immersed in a hot liquid). This explains why the diffusion of heat was explained mathematically before the diffusion of mass.", "colder surrounding surfaces (ceiling, walls, furniture.) which absorb heat and reflects all non absorbed heat to yet other still cooler surfaces. The cycle of radiation, absorption and reflection starts slowly and slows down slowly nearing set point temperatures and ceases to take place once equilibrium is reached all-round. A floor thermostat or a room thermostat or combination controls the floor on/off. In the process of radiant heating a thin layer of air which is in touch with the warmed surfaces also absorbs some heat and this creates a little convection (air circulation). Contrary to belief people are not heated by", "which add novelty effects to the end cloth. Stainless steel and other metal fibers are used in communication lines such as telephone lines and cable television lines. Stainless steel fibers are also used in carpets. They are dispersed throughout the carpet with other fibers so they are not detected. The presence of the fibers helps to conduct electricity so that the static shock is reduced. These types of carpets are often used in computer-use areas where risks of electrostatic discharge are much greater. Other uses include tire cord, missile nose cones, work clothing such as protective suits, space suits, and", "seen at relatively low temperatures for some materials. Plastics and low-melting-temperature metals, including many solders, can begin to creep at room temperature, as can be seen markedly in old lead hot-water pipes. Glacier flow is an example of creep processes in ice. Stages In the initial stage, or primary creep, or transient creep, the strain rate is relatively high, but decreases with increasing time and strain due to a process analogous to work hardening at lower temperatures. For instance, the dislocation density increases and, in many materials, a dislocation subgrain structure is formed and the cell size decreases with strain.", "water held in the air as related to how much could be held in fully saturated air. The possible amount of moisture held at a given time is directly related to temperature; warm air holds more humidity than cold. Collecting institutions aim to keep the RH constant in exhibitions and storage areas because many organic objects expand and contract as both temperature and RH change. Furniture will swell and stick with high moisture, but may crack or shrink if there is too little. “Rapidly fluctuating temperature and relative humidity compound all of these effects.” High humidity may accelerate mold", "a protective layer known as a patina and is typically found on copper and bronze roofing, architectural elements, statues and bells. Storage and handling Proper handling, storage, and treatment can help prevent deterioration of silver objects. Metals are best conserved when stored in an even and low humidity atmosphere, ideally at 40% relative humidity or lower. Silver tends to corrode easily when stored in damp, moist locations such as a basement because it will accelerate tarnishing. Some storage boxes contain materials, such as wood, acidic paper, rubber, and adhesives, that can off-gas corrosive materials. Conservators wear nitrile gloves when", "are light weight, stiffness, and lack of coloration (due to absence of ringing). Exotic materials like Kevlar and magnesium are light and stiff, but can have ringing problems, depending on their fabrication and design. Materials like paper (including coated paper cones) and various polymers will generally ring less than metal diaphragms, but can be heavier and not as stiff. There have been good and bad woofers made with every type of cone material. Almost every kind of material has been used for cones, from glass fiber, bamboo fiber, to expanded aluminum honeycomb sandwiches, and mica-loaded plastic cones. Frame design The", "in the room. Thermal (longwave) radiation travels at the speed of light, in straight lines. It can be reflected. People, equipment, and surfaces in buildings will warm up if they absorb thermal radiation, but the radiation does not noticeably heat up the air it is traveling through. This means heat will flow from objects, occupants, equipment, and lights in a space to a cooled surface as long as their temperatures are warmer than that of the cooled surface and they are within the direct or indirect line of sight of the cooled surface. Some heat is also removed by convection", "they char instead of melting when exposed to flame. When a fabric melts onto skin it is difficult to remove, unlike a material that chars. Nomex is used for fire-resistant clothing. Wool is a good all-around fabric. Cotton and linen are best for hot weather and worst for cold, wet weather. Synthetics can be about the same as wool in the winter; many of them are fire hazards. Fabrics can be treated to help reduce their disadvantages.\nDown is the lightest thermal-insulating material and compresses the most. Synthetics are next best. Wool is heavier than down and synthetics, and does", "of building has become warmer, the roof space has become colder, with high performance insulation and roofing membranes leading to a cold roof space.\nWhen the warm, moist air from below rises into the cold roof space; condensation begins as the air temperature drops to the ‘dew point’ or as the warm air comes into contact with any of the cold surfaces in the roof.\n\nMost building materials are permeable to water vapour; brick, concrete, plaster, wood and insulation all can fall victim to interstitial condensation, this is why UK Building Regulations require roofs to be ventilated, either by the use of", "weaker and less chemically stable than fibreglass but because it is cheap is gaining market share. Polyester mat is primarily used with the more flexible modified-bitumen felt products. Asbestos mat was the first inorganic base material but was outlawed in the 1980s for health reasons but is still in use on some buildings. Inorganic felts are lighter, more tear-resistant, more fire-resistant, and do not absorb water. Another type of felt paper is perforated for use in built-up roofing and is not for use as a water-resistant underlay.\nHeavier material is typically used for underlayment of longer-lived roof materials in order to", "Room temperature Colloquially, room temperature is the range of air temperatures that most people prefer for indoor settings, which feel comfortable when wearing typical indoor clothing. Human comfort can extend beyond this range depending on humidity, air circulation and other factors. In certain fields, like science and engineering, and within a particular context, room temperature can mean different agreed-on ranges. In contrast, ambient temperature is the actual temperature of the air (or other medium and surroundings) in any particular place, as measured by a thermometer. It may be very different from usual room temperature, for example an unheated room in" ]

[ "Kitties talk among themselves, just like humans. They may not make a sound, but they do communicate ... and follow each other around.\n\nSeriously: you can/should check out [Alley Cat Allies](_URL_0_) for all sorts of info about hungry kitty visitors.", "I think they hang out together and the others smell it on the first one's breath. They are not dumb. They will follow the first one hoping to find salami too.", "Quite likely they followed the scent trail. Smelling other cats plus food without things like decay likely indicates that the first cat got food there and didn't die from the experience.", "Cats flock to where other cats go, they can tell by scent (cats after eating and drinking may urinate and defecate near the area) and their noses are no doubt keen enough to pick up on the smell of food that the other cat may have left on the floor (through saliva, dropping food, cats themselves are clean but they can sure be messy eaters!). A cat's scent isn't that much worse than a dog's, having 80 million receptors versus a dog's of 300 million, humans having around only 5 million.\n\nHumans to that extent have the same behaviour. When you're on vacation in a faraway country, always eat from the market stands where a lot of the natives tend to flock. They know what stand serves good food, while the stands with few to no customers probably serve food of questionable quality." ]

[ "out, there is no sign of the cats: they'd apparently eaten each other up in their jealous fury. Then, the old man notices one skinny cat hiding in a patch of tall grass. It had survived because it didn't consider itself pretty, so the other cats hadn't attacked it. The couple take the cat into their home, feed it and bathe it, watching it grow sleek and beautiful as the days pass: exactly the kind of cat they wanted. Legacy Wanda Gag pioneered the double-page spread in this book. Writer and reviewer Anita Silvey explained, \"She used both pages to", "cat, Seventoes is afraid of dogs. After Grandfathers’ refusal, Benjamin takes the puppy to Sammy, who had previously mentioned that he would like to keep the dog if Benjamin's grandfather wouldn’t let him. Benjamin then started back for home, angry that he wasn’t allowed to keep the dog. When he arrived home, he saw Seventoes sitting on the ledge of the well. In his anger, he shoved Seventoes into the well. Benjamin watched Seventoes disappear under the water and was shocked when he realizes what he had done. Remorseful, he runs into the house and confesses to his grandfather and", "Kid-E-Cats Plot Three little kittens live in a little town. Cookie, Pudding and their little sister Candy, as any kids, like to play, eat sweets and investigate about things around them. Every day their inquisitive mind leads the three kittens to new adventures. With wise advice of their caring parents, the kittens solve all the problems and everything always ends well. With their friends Cupcake, Chase, Boris, Smudge, Mustard, Bow, Raisin and Dart, they have very fun and interesting times. \nMany other cats live in the town. They all have different ways of doing things but it always comes to", "a cat, nor is there any evidence the cat existed. Later, when Linda and Brian attempt to buy a refrigerator she discovers she neglected to make the first payment but isn't overly concerned. The following week, after she once again neglects to pay on time, their dog disappears and again none of the family remembers ever owning a dog. Then, Linda's car breaks down and she needs a mechanic and since she only has twelve dollars in cash she uses her credit card. As a result of using her card again while still delinquent, Linda's three children disappear. Of course,", "the cat to leave a long trail of paw prints in the living room. Tom throws Jerry down the laundry chute into the basement and quickly cleans the room. As he does so, a coal truck arrives at the house to make a delivery, and Jerry uses a rope to pull the truck's delivery chute up to the living room window, causing the house to flood with coal. When Mammy returns from shopping and discovers this, she blames Tom, who flees. As he runs, Mammy throws lumps of coal at him, one of which knocks him out.", "cat to lose much of his fur and giving the mice the chance to take a cupcake from the fridge.\nRalph and Ned finally have everything ready for Alice. Alice is flattered by Ralph's surprise. Unfortunately, Ned put firecrackers instead of candles on the cupcake. After passing it to and fro, Ralph and Ned push the cupcake in the cat's face through Ralph's front door, causing the cat to fly on to the ceiling light, leaving him dazed.", "from the pieces of other cats.\nTraveling across the desert, they are brought to a house by the smell of food, and are invited inside by a man. They are fed, and when full the man attempts to turn them into soup, attacking them with a pair of scissors. He ends up falling into the cauldron, Nyatta cuts him into pieces with the scissors and the cats escape. Wandering further across the desert dehydrated, Nyatta digs and finds an elephant made of water, which cools them off and travels with them, though the elephant eventually evaporates from the heat. God accidentally", "the animal had performed the desired response they were allowed to escape and were also given a reward, usually food. Thorndike primarily used cats in his puzzle boxes. When the cats were put into the cages they would wander restlessly and meow, but they did not know how to escape. Eventually, the cats would step on the switch on the floor by chance, and the door would open. To see if the cats could learn through observation, he had them observe other animals escaping from the box. He would then compare the times of those who got to observe", "Farm cat The farm cat, also known as a barn cat, is a domestic cat, usually of mixed breed, that lives primarily out-of-doors, in a feral or semi-feral condition on agricultural properties, usually sheltering in outbuildings. They eat assorted vermin such as rodents and other small animals that live in or around outbuildings and farm fields. The need for the farm cat may have been the original reason cats were domesticated, to keep rodents from consuming or contaminating grain crops stored for later human consumption. They are still commonly kept for their effectiveness at controlling undesired vermin", "supplementary food, cats will exterminate much of the local rodent population and move on, leaving only a temporary void. However, one concern with providing supplemental outdoor feed is that it can attract skunks, raccoons and other vermin.\nFarm cats originate from a variety of sources. Sometimes, farm cat populations are spontaneously established when abandoned or stray animals, uninvited by humans, move into areas where prey is available, such as haystacks or farm outbuildings that contain stored crops or livestock fodder. In other cases, property owners obtain and release a few cats specifically for rodent control. Some animal", "The Cat Came Back (1936 film) Plot A curious kitten leaves her family to play with an equally curious little mouse from across the hall, despite both being told by their mothers how bad the other's family is. Mama Mouse warns her kids to stay away from cats, while Mama Cat tells her kids to attack all mice. The kitten and mouse sneak out of their lessons and listen to some records together as an excuse to get in some hot 1930s tunes and dance around. While dancing, they accidentally fall down a drain into the sewer. The little kitten", "Dried cat In some European cultures it was customary to place the dried or desiccated body of a cat inside the walls of a newly built home to ward off evil spirits or as a good luck charm. It was believed that the cats had a sixth sense and that putting a cat in the wall was a blood sacrifice so the animal could use psychic abilities to find and ward off unwanted spirits. Although some accounts claim the cats were walled in alive, examination of recovered specimens indicates post-mortem concealment in most cases. Origins In the British Isles, as", "them.\nThe two cats decide they need to get out of the fire so they run through the window into the Twoleg nest. They think it is some kind of nightmare though they know the Twolegs are happy there they never want to go there again.\nRavenpaw and Barley sleep outside of the barn. On a hunting expedition the next day, Barley finds a dead rabbit that neither Ravenpaw nor Barley killed. When they go to the barn, they find Willie, Tess, Pounce and Snapper on the wood below the roof. Ravenpaw greets them warmly. Then, the three cats attack the chickens.", "to get out of the puzzle box to get to the food. Although the cats ate the food after they escaped the box, Thorndike learned that the cats attempted to escape the box without the reward of food. Thorndike used the rewards of food and freedom to stimulate the reward system of the cats. Thorndike used this to see how the cats learned to escape the box. Addiction ΔFosB (DeltaFosB) – a gene transcription factor – overexpression in the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens is the crucial common factor among virtually all forms of addiction (i.e., behavioral", "the time the kids and the Cat return to the house with the lock, an enraged Larry suddenly cuts them off and orders them inside the house. Conrad tries to warn him, but he simply can't be bothered to believe him. He then immediately sneezes uncontrollably due to his allergic reaction to the Cat, who takes advantage of this and scares him away, only for the house to fall apart in a paper-like fashion, with Larry falling into a gooey abyss. A huge mess spills from the unlocked crate and engulfs the house, resulting in a surreal dimension-like landscape where", "to Bucky all cats have 6, the sixth being knowing which humans are afraid of them or dislike them so they can sit on their laps) that allows him to detect food from up to several meters away (though he doesn't bother detecting fruit or vegetables). His name is a portmanteau of 'food' and 'radar'. Oreo Oreo is a friend and love interest of Satchel's from his puppy days, but over the years she seems to have lost interest in him. She has the fur patterns of a Border Collie, has black and white fur, and wears a collar with", "The Cat's Out Plot The family cat is let out for the night and encounters much hardship. He catches a bird singing atop the weathervane of the roof, but it flies off, pulling the cat and weathervane from the roof and knocking the cat out. The cat then has a vision of giant birds bullying him and from then on everything seems to come to life and torment him, including giant spiders and trees. Home video The short was released on the 2006 Walt Disney Treasures DVD box set More Silly Symphonies.", "who lived in the shed with the dogs. The cats lived in nesting boxes in the opposite corner of the shed from the dogs. Yellow Man greeted the dogs every morning and was curious of them. Marcy The wife of George. She and George find Squirrel and Bone on the side of the highway and take them home. Marcy wants to keep the dogs, and George doesn't allow her to. Marcy feeds them and cleans up their messes, hoping that they will become tame pets. George The husband of Marcy. He and Marcy find Squirrel and Bone on the side", "ultimately dropped from the television network.\nCats were sometimes eaten as a famine food during harsh winters, poor harvests, and wartime. Cat gained notoriety as \"roof rabbit\" in Central Europe's hard times during and between World War I and World War II.\nCat consumption was a stereotype attributed to Vincenzans in Vicenza, Italy.\nAccording to the British Butchers' Advocate, Dressed Poultry and the Food Merchant of 1904, \"Just before Christmas it is common for a group of young men in northern Italy to kill some cats, skin them and soak them in water for two or three days. They are cooked with great", "well as in northern Europe and North America, the dried or mummified bodies of cats are frequently found concealed within structures and are believed to have been placed there to bring good luck or to protect the building and its occupants from harm. The North American instances are strongly associated with European households and are most often found in buildings where shoes and witch bottles are also concealed. In some cases, the animals are found deliberately posed as if in the midst of attack. In other cases, they are accompanied by dried rats, mice, or birds.\nHistorian Ian Evans stated in", "area to house the chickens, ducks, peacocks, geese, etc., was constructed to house these animals safely.\nFor years the cats available for adoption were housed in one of the dog kennels. So in 1981 a room in the old farmhouse was converted to a cat room where cats and kittens could play freely.\nAnyone who visited HSHC in the 1980s and early 90s knew there were many times when the front office was full of people and animals. It was impossible to hear the phone and at times, was dangerous with too many animals entering and exiting this confined space. In 1994", "and the hare went to the water. When they came to the spring, they asked the cat: \"What are you?\" — \"I am a man\", said the cat. \"What is that on your shoulder?\", asks the fox. \"A rifle\", says the cat. The fox and the hare were very frightened, but since they knew it was a cat, afterwards the three of them went together to cook meat. The pig hid behind a bunch of trees and, pushing out its ears, slept, and the cat was warming itself by the fire.\nThe pig was moving its ears. Since the cat saw", "A Street Cat Named Bob (film) Plot James Bowen is a homeless man and former heroin addict, living on the streets of London down to his last bits of change. After a life threatening drug-related incident, his support worker Val, in an attempt to get him off the street, gets him into a council flat and prescribes him methadone. On his first night in his flat, James discovers a cat rifling through his food. Assuming the cat had escaped from somewhere, James tries to return the cat to his real owners. After letting him go, the same evening the cat", "like yet. She currently divides her time between London, Crete, and Vancouver.\nHer favourite cat was an \"extraordinarily intelligent and wonderful white cat\" who was kidnapped one day by vivisectionists, which broke Sellers' heart. Other favorite cats include Medico, a purebred Siamese, and Monsieur, a tabby.", "place. The cat goes into Ralph's house through a grate. Ralph and Ned cautiously enter the house thinking their wives are sleeping soundly. Ralph greets \"Alice\" and grabs her new fur coat, ripping a piece of fur off the cat. In response the cat slices Ralph. Ned tries to talk with \"Trixie\", but the cat massacres Ned. Both mice march in to confront their \"wives\", but the cat beats them up and the two mice go to sleep at the park to get away from their \"aggressive wives\".\nAlice and Trixie return from the movies to Ralph's house cautiously entering, but", "Kitty Kornered Plot The neighborhood's cat owners all (literally) throw their cats out for the night. Porky Pig attempts to do the same, but his four cats (a tall black and white lisping cat (Sylvester), a medium-sized tabby named Gerald, a diminutive kitten named Pedro, and a dumb drunkard cat named Jose) attempt to turn the tables and throw him out into the snow. Porky states that he's starting to hate pussycats. Porky bangs on the door, demanding to be let in, but the cats pop out of the door and proclaim in unison, \"Milkman, keep those bottles quiet!\", and", "After a quick run around the block, the cat and canary wind up back outside of the house, where a now gigantic bulldog appears before them. The cat runs away in fear as the bulldog tosses the bottle of plant growth food down the chimney, where it rolls out of the fireplace and straight to the mouse inside the house. The dog leaps over the house and chases the cat into the city.\nThe mouse in the house takes a few sips of plant food, instantly ballooning to gigantic size. The dog chases the cat to the city, only for the", "their litters to survive and protect themselves by taking some small animal for the kittens to play with for practicing. Korat cats can remember their owner. If they see a stranger they might scare or make a noise, but they will run to their owner and play with them.", "also have policies halting or limiting adoption of black cats immediately prior to Halloween for fear that the animals will be tortured, or used as \"living decorations\" for the holiday and then abandoned. Rabbits are sometimes treated in the same manner prior to Easter as well, though they are rarely found in regular shelters since they are considered \"exotic\" (anything not a dog or cat). Another popular fad is using a small dog, pretty white Persian kitten or other small pet as a fashion accessory to \"complement an outfit\". Such animals may end up discarded, abandoned, or", "first four years of a cat's life but it is primarily observed during the first two months of life when cats are introduced into new homes is most common. Theories explaining why this behavior becomes active during this time suggest that early weaning and stress as a consequence of separation from the mother and litter-mates and exposure to a new environment are to blame. Eating wool or other substances may be a soothing mechanism that cats develops to cope with the changes. Pica is also observed predominately during 6–8 months of a cat's life when territorial and sexual behaviors" ]

[ "There is essentially no infrastructure to deal with snowfall in southern states because it happens so rarely. Roads are not salted or plowed so they are covered in ice, and nobody has snow tires or much experience driving in snow. It is sort of like how everyone up north has trouble with a little heat wave where it gets over 100 F; nobody has A/C and are not acclimated to heat so it is a problem.", "Why does the Northeast (rightfully) freak out over a category one hurricane?", "People don't have experience driving in snow. Their vehicles are not equipped to safely drive in the snow. The city/state doesn't have plows & gravel/salt to clear the roads and make them safe.", "I'm a Vermonter and was down in New Jersey during a snow storm. Everyone kept slamming on their brakes and skidding all over the place. Also, they weren't leaving space in front of them so whenever someone stopped they all slammed into each other. We could have driven back to Vermont without any problem, but because so many cars on the highway were careening all over the place we had to stop and get a motel room. If you drive slowly, don't slam on your brakes, and leave lots of room between you and the other cars you should be alright. Unless it is really icy, and you are on a hill - then you usually start to slide backwards. Now that's scary.", "Even 3 inches, if left unplowed, is undriveable without special equipment or vehicles. Southern states don't have plows.", "Because they have no experience driving in it and little to no equipment to deal with it." ]

[ "Northern and Midwest United States. Factors such as warm temperatures and lack of Precipitation increases their range. Cold temperatures, major precipitation, and unsuitable environmental conditions are factors that will stop migration to continue more north. In late summer, cold fronts start to appear sending cues for them to leave. As they leave they get caught up in these fronts which carry them south to southwest to their overwintering range. Winter Due to their inability to tolerate the cold winter temperatures they must migrate south. Adults overwinter on hosts in the pine and mixed hardwood forests along the Gulf of Mexico", "full. Because the mountains are so tall, storm clouds may get stuck even as the rest of the storm moves onward, leading to snowstorms and freezing temperatures year-round. In extreme conditions, these storm cells might endanger hikers by means of strong winds, fog, snow, and rain that can potentially make hiking nearly impossible. On the eastern sides of the mountains, air warms as it drops, producing Chinook winds, considerably lower precipitation, and less forested landscapes. Because of these conditions, temperatures on the western sides of mountains are steady, whereas temperatures on the eastern flanks fluctuate wildly.\nGoat Rocks obtained its name", "some highways.\nInsulation by the very heavy northeastern snow led to major damage to major roads by potholes, as liquid water was able to erode the tar more effectively. February In February, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois Kentucky, and West Virginia saw their coldest February since record-keeping began. Severe cold still covered areas from the Northeast and Midwest. Schools began to close because of the extreme cold. Homeless people had a hard time finding shelter, causing some deaths. Snow and blowing wind created dangerous wind chills. Due to blowing snow, ice, and severe cold, semi trucks had their deliveries delayed. Some locations saw", "northward due to intense early-winter storms. In the Great Lakes states, cold Arctic air in winter crossing the relatively warmer lake waters can result in frequent and sometimes very heavy lake-effect snow, especially on the eastern and southern shores of the Great Lakes (for example, in western Michigan's Lower Peninsula and in the Buffalo, NY area). Cities in this area include Minneapolis, MN, Omaha, NE, Sioux Falls, SD, Fargo, ND, Chicago, IL, Cleveland, OH, Buffalo, NY, Albany, NY, Boston, MA, Concord, NH and Augusta, ME. As one travels from east to west across Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota, average", "snowmelt-filled rivers to flow toward the Pacific Ocean on the west side of the divide and the Atlantic Ocean on the east side. Because of weather patterns, more snow falls on the west side, providing more water there. However, most of the state's population is on the east side.\nTransmountain diversions have solved some of this disparity. The Colorado-Big Thompson Project brings water from the Colorado River Basin to the Front Range of Colorado, primarily in the northeastern corner of the state. The Fryingpan-Arkansas Project brings water from the Fryingpan River Basin to the southeastern corner. Though originally designed primarily for", "months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. The North Cascades Highway east of Washington Pass has the distinction of being among the top areas in the United States for most avalanche paths per mile of highway.", "precipitation, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, spires, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the", "but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences.\nThe history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates back millions", "cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences.\nThe history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates back", "part because the Okanagan is relatively warmer than the Prairies, and because of the additional number of precipitation-catching mountain ranges between Kelowna and Calgary. When the Chinook brings snow to the coast during a period of coastal cold, bright but chilly weather in the interior will give way to a slushy melting of snow, more due to the warm spell than because of rain.\nThe resulting outflow wind is more or less the opposite of British Columbia / Pacific Northwest Chinook. These are called a squamish in certain areas, rooted in the direction of such winds coming down out of Howe", "little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. The North Cascades Highway east of Washington Pass has the distinction of being among the top areas in the United State for most avalanche paths per mile of highway. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences.\nThe", "usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. The North Cascades Highway east of Washington Pass has the distinction of being among the top areas in the United States for most avalanche paths per mile of highway.", "but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. The mountain and climate support a small unnamed glacier on the north slope below the steep walls of the north face. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks and ridges, deep glacial valleys, and granite spires. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and", "South Carolina and Florida, also causing some damage.\nThe storms were followed by frigid arctic air from the polar vortex, resulting in below-seasonal temperatures for the first half of March. Early - Mid-March winter storm North Dakota, South Dakota and parts of Wyoming were hit hard with heavy snow and strong winds, resulting in near-zero visibility and highway closures. Over a foot of snow (30 cm) fell near Elk Mountain, Wyoming. As the storm tracked eastward, several cities in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions were affected by a mix of heavy snow, freezing rain/sleet and straight rain with wind gusts in", "due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks and ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions in", "cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions", "due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions in this", "due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions in this", "due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions in this", "due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions in this", "due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions in this", "or a lack of heat or air conditioning.\nInclement weather that causes cancellation or delay is more likely in regions that are less able to handle the situation. Snow days are less common in more northern areas of the United States that are used to heavy winter snowfall, because municipalities are well equipped to clear roads and remove snow. In areas less accustomed to snow—such as Atlanta, Dallas, Memphis, or Chattanooga—even small snowfalls of an inch or two may render roads unsafe.\nIn most areas, schools include extra days in their calendar as \"built-in\" snow days which allow a school to get", "due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences.\nThe history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates back millions of", "cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, spires, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences.\nThe history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates", "cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, spires, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences.\nThe history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates", "but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, spires, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences.\nThe history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates back", "due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks and ridges, deep glacial valleys, and granite spires. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the", "causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall onto the Cascades. As a result, the west side of the Cascades experiences high precipitation, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger.", "but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer. Because of maritime influence, snow tends to be wet and heavy, resulting in high avalanche danger, particularly on the steep western meadow-covered slopes that are above treeline. Geology The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks and ridges, deep glacial valleys, and granite spires.\n Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to various", "of pre-Christmas storms hit the nation, including the normally rainy BC Pacific coast. United States In the United States, there is often—but not always—snow on the ground at Christmas in the northern states, except in the Pacific Northwest, with Alaska the most likely to see snow on the ground at Christmas. In the contiguous United States, the highest probabilities are in the Upper Midwest and parts of northern New England, along with higher elevations of the Rockies. Some of the least likely white Christmases that have happened include the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm, which brought the first white Christmas in" ]

[ "It's a quote from Monty Python and the Holy Grail. The \"strange woman lying in pond\" is the Lady of the Lake from the Arthurian legend.\n\n_URL_0_", "It is talking about the legend of King Authur, whereby the Lady of the Lake bequeathed unto him a sword that proved he was to be the rightful King.\n\nThe peasant is saying that a system of government shouldn't be determined by strange lake spirits and magic swords. If anything it is a jab at monarchy, not democracy.\n\nHe actually talks about implementing a more democratic form of government (with elected representatives).", "Others have pointed out that it's a quote from *Monty Python and the Holy Grail*, and that it is a summary of a part of the legend of King Arthur.\n\nBut the reason you're seeing it more at the moment is because the line was quoted in reference to the current political turmoil in the UK following the \"Brexit\" referendum and the resignation of the Prime Minister. The Conservative Party is now looking for a new leader, who will then be the next Prime Minister, but the leadership contest has been a bit... surprising. In particular, it was assumed that Boris Johnson would get the job. But at the very last moment -- literally minutes before Boris was due to announce his candidacy -- Michael Gove, who until then had always supported Boris, simply announced *his* candidacy and trashed Boris in the process, at which point Boris withdrew. Accusations have been flying back and forth, and it's left people guessing what this will mean for the other candidates (which candidate will Boris's supporters support?).\n\nAs journalists and political commentators are trying to make sense of everything that has happened -- who had what plans and who betrayed whom when -- some of them have suggested that the current process (which, remember, will decide who is going to be the next Prime Minister with the task of negotiating Britain's exit from the EU) is as stupid and chaotic as, well, strange women lying in ponds distributing swords.", "It's a line from Monty Python and the Holy Grail. King Arthur is the main character, and the legend is he was made king when he was chosen to remove Excalibur by the lady of the lake. In the movie, he runs across a character who mocks the monarchy by using modern political sentiments and that line comes out when arthur tries to justify himself.", "It's a quote from the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail, and isn't a comment on democracy at all, but on monarchies. The woman in the pond refers to the lady of the lake from the legend of King Arthur who gives the sword excalibur to Arthur.", "It's a quote from Monty Python and the holy grail.\n\nIn the King Arthur myth, King Arthur recieved his sword from a female water spirit thingy." ]

[ "Queen of Swords The Queen of Swords is a card in the Suit of Swords, part of the Minor Arcana set of the Tarot. Tarot cards are used throughout much of Europe to play tarot card games.\nIn English-speaking countries, where the games are largely unknown, Tarot cards came to be utilized primarily for divinatory purposes.", "spurred Three Legs of Man. Function The sword is the symbol of the Tynwald, which is said to be the oldest continuous parliament in the world. The sword signifies the duty of the Sovereign of the Isle of Man, who through the Tynwald, is bound to protect and defend the Manx people from their foes. Without the sword, the Tynwald cannot be deemed to be properly constituted. The sword is used at the Tynwald Day sitting at St Johns, and is carried in front of the Lieutenant Governor in a procession. It is also used whenever the Tynwald sits in", "heads being worn or presented as trophy heads are on painted cylinder vases of the Late Classic period and usually involve the Hero Twins or some type of Creation myth. In the South West of Mexico In Oaxaca there are various pre-Columbian figures in which high-ranking characters, warriors and ball players wear ritual and military paraphernalia, holding inverted heads with their loose, long hair hanging down. One of these figures can be seen in the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington. Javier Urcid writes that these trophies may have been \"soft parts of decapitated heads turned into relics", "Two of Swords Two of Swords is a Minor Arcana tarot card.\nTarot cards are used throughout much of Europe to play tarot card games.\nIn English-speaking countries, where the games are largely unknown, Tarot cards came to be utilized primarily for divinatory purposes. Divination usage A female figure sits blindfolded, as she calmly balances two swords across her shoulders. Behind her is a large body of water and above her is the moon.\nThe woman's seated position, in combination with the crescent moon, recalls the High Priestess card, and we find a link as well in this card's representation of the characteristic", "sword play which follows the plot of the Invisible Mistress. This plot derives from the myth of Cupid and Psyche but inverts the role of the protagonists. In the plot, and in the Spanish play, it is the man’s curiosity which leads him to meet and fall in love with the invisible woman; that is, with a woman who is either hidden, veiled or encountered in the dark. The Invisible Mistress plot is already found in Italian novelle by Masuccio and Bandello. As is common in the cloak and sword plays, it is the woman, in this case the widow", "The Sword of Paros Plot Far away and long ago in the kingdom of Paros, legend says that one can wield the sacred sword of the true ruler of Paros. According to this legend, in time of war, a single person will come forward, who can brandish this weapon and lead the country towards the future. This prophecy also asserts that the true ruler, who will carry Paros to a future of light and prosperity, is neither man nor woman, while the one who will wield the sword wrongfully, and so destroy Paros forever, is neither man nor woman.\nUnfortunately, in", "ceremonial, and there was no mention of their playing any part in the incident—the men were arrested on suspicion of trespass, not carrying knives. Scotland Similar provisions exist in Scots law with section 49 of the Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995 making it an offence to possess a bladed or pointed article in a public place. A defence exists under s.49(5)(b) of the act for pointed or bladed articles carried for religious reasons. Section 49A of the same act creates the offence of possessing a bladed or pointed article in a school, with s.49A(4)(c) again creating a defence when", "swords to protect the \"King\"; a young boy of 10 to 15 years old, whose face is partially covered, holding a rose in his mouth. The King and his groomsmen are dressed in feminine costumes, while all the other riders wear masculine clothing. After riding through the village for a few hours, sometimes exchanging witticisms with the crowd, the participants return home then, later in the evening, meet at the \"King's House\" for music and dancing. Origins It has been celebrated in largely its current form since 1808, but its origins are unclear. A possible source are the Easter processions", "with their swords. The Tyrant dies. The Old King is restored to his throne. The Old Queen enters, disguised as a humble nursemaid. The Old King asks her name, and she removes her disguise. The Old King rejoices and orders the burial of Tymethes' remains.", "of life,\" holds an empty scabbard in one hand. With his other hand, as if providing instruction, he points to his unsheathed sword, held by the naked young man at his side.\nWhen the U.S. government selected sculptors to create figures for the U.S. Custom House in New York City, each of which was to represent an historic seafaring power, Jaegers won the commission to create the one for Germany, which he planned as \"an armed female figure, leaning on an antique shield, inscribed 'Kiel.'\" Following the U.S. declaration of war on Germany in 1917, Secretary of the Treasury McAdoo asked", "A Mother (sculpture) Description The sculpture depicts a kneeling woman with naked torso and three small children. The woman leans forward and her arms are pushed backwards to shield the children that clings to her back. History Hans Pedersen-Dan and Johanne Pedersen-Dan married in 1892. The couple had no children but adopted a girl, Rigmor. Dan-Pedersen created A Mother in 1908. The sculpture was directly inspired by Rigmor's biological mother, who is portrayed with her three remaining children. The Pedersen-Dan Family took over Hvidovre Rytterskole in 1912. They lived in the building until 1936.", "kingdoms are ruled by kings which are: the evil Onii King (the one who issued the challenge in the first place and the leader of a group of demons called Oniis), the drunken King Duvroc (who uses his skill with liquor as a form of fighting), the obese King Shiskebaboo (who uses his obesity to fight back), the riddling Omelet King (a weakling that has his men do all the work while he cowers on his toilet), The TV-obsessed TV Dinnah, the tall Long Sauvage (who is, in reality, a pygmy), and the giant eraser man King Jumbo Champloon (the", "invisible and usurp the throne, a plot device which reappeared in numerous myths and works of fiction throughout history. The earliest story, related by Herodotus in the 5th century BC, has Candaules betrayed and executed by his wife, Nyssia, in a cautionary tale against pride and possession. Herodotus' tale of Candaules, Gyges and the naked queen According to Herodotus in The Histories, Candaules believed his wife to be the most beautiful woman on Earth. Herodotus does not name the queen but later artists and writers have called her Nyssia. \nCandaules often told his favourite bodyguard, Gyges, how beautiful the queen", "to be benevolent enough to tolerate jokes at his own expense.\nIrish tales depict the Dagda as a figure of power, armed with a club. In Dorset there is a famous outline of an ithyphallic giant known as the Cerne Abbas Giant with a club cut into the chalky soil. While this was probably produced in relatively modern times (English Civil War era), it was long thought to be a representation of the Dagda. This has been called into question by recent studies which show that there may have been a representation of what looks like a large drapery hanging from", "Story So Far…\nSince ancient times, man has waged war with each other in pursuit of land, resources, and superiority over fellow man. Swords and magic are commonplace and with each passing year comes sharper swords and more potent magic. Fighters, archers, and wizards lay siege to enemy castles where citizens hide in fear. The entire world was engulfed in constant warfare.\nIn an effort to put an end to the wars, King Kamin, ruler of the most prosperous country in the land, commissioned his subjects to create a weapon of terrible destruction. The weapon was to be named \"Mech\", the ancient", "family (see below). The Low King acts as a final court of appeal in disputes. Pratchett also states that dwarfs love to argue, especially with their Low King.\nThe primary weapon other than bread products (see below) in dwarf culture is the axe, which is often used even when the frequently confined spaces of tunnels make them impractical. A traditional dwarfish axe is multifunctional; one side is a pickaxe used for prospecting, and the other side is a battle axe used if someone tries to stop them. Axes are so important culturally that dwarfish Ankh-Morpork City Watch members are allowed", "the 12,000 women in the palace were those who wrestled and others who fought with sword and shield. During the Navaratri festival, wrestlers from around the empire would come to the capital in Karnataka to compete in front of the king, as described by the Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes.\nThen the wrestlers begin their play. Their wrestling does not seem like ours, but there are blows (given), so severe as to break teeth, and put out eyes, and disfigure faces, so much so that here and there men are carried off speechless by their friends; they give one another fine falls", "King of Swords King of Swords is a card used in Latin suited playing cards which include tarot decks. It is part of what tarot card readers call the \"Minor Arcana\".\nTarot cards are used throughout much of Europe to play Tarot card games.\nIn English-speaking countries, where the games are largely unknown, Tarot cards came to be utilized primarily for divinatory purposes. Divination usage The King of Swords card from the Minor Arcana is often used to depict a mature man with sound intellectual understanding and reasoning. This card depicts a man who is strong-hearted, decisive, and intellectually oriented. \nThe King", "Sisters of the Sword Sisters of the Sword is a historical fiction series written under the pseudonym Maya Snow. The first two books were written by Helen Hart. Sisters of the Sword 1: The Warrior’s Path was the first book in the series published in June 2008. Sisters of the Sword 2: Blade’s Edge (also released as Chasing the Secret) was published in 2009. Sisters of the Sword 3: Walking Through Fire (also released as Journey Through Fire) was published June 2009. A fourth installment, Crushing the Stone was released in June 2012.\nSisters of the Sword tells the tale of", "Trophy of arms A trophy or trophy of arms in art and architecture is a real or depicted artistically assembled display of weaponry and other militaria, often captured from a defeated enemy, as an ornament designed for the purpose of triumphalist display by a victor or as a show of military prowess by a monarch. Similar decorative vertical arrangements of hunting accessories, musical instruments or other objects are also commonly referred to as trophies.\nThe term comes from the ancient Greek Tropaion and Roman equivalent Tropaeum, military victories which were commemorated with a display of actual captured arms, armour and standards.", "the general is unfinished, either because the sculptors awaited a model to work from, or they had produced the work speculatively with no specific commission. The general and his wife are also each shown twice on the lid frieze, together holding each other's hands at the centre, and singly at the ends, again with unfinished faces. Pairs of figures of an older man and a woman stand beneath trophies at either end of the main face, uninvolved in the battle. These are at the same scale as the general, and all other the battling figures are smaller; indeed,", "Statue menhir A statue menhir is a type of carved standing stone created during the later European Neolithic.\nThe statues consist of a vertical slab or pillar with a stylised design of a human figure cut into it, sometimes with hints of clothing or weapons visible. Locations They are most commonly found in southern and western France, Catalonia, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy and the Alps. A group from the Iron Age also is known in Liguria and Lunigiana.\nThere are two in Guernsey, La Gran' Mère du Chimquière ('the Grandmother of the Cemetery'), a highly detailed example in the churchyard of Parish of", "a diviner for Han Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BCE); \"head and feet in different places\" (tóuzúyìchù 頭足異凥) is a fixed expression for beheaded persons. The Zhen'gao translator Thomas E. Smith describes Wei Huacun as employing \"graveyard humor\", such as the name for mica powder, yunsan (云散, lit. \"disperse like clouds\") with san (散 also meaning \"scatter; vanish; (TCM) powdered medicine\"), which is a pun for \"vanishing powder\" (2013: 300).\nThe Shangqing classic Jianjing (劍巠, Sword Scripture) compares several shijie alchemical preparations and says the lingwan (靈丸, Numinous Bolus) elixir is the only one that permits the adept to return home without", "servants and minstrel played by musicians. The purpose of the ceremony was to claim victory against the enemy that was being fought, which was represented by images of men with spears and drawn swords.\nThe third plot is a scenery that contains a triumphant march of spears. Leading the march walks the unarmed captive. In the third frieze, the main character is the king again, sitting on the throne, with a sack in his hand, a disk symbolizing the sun on his head to emphasize his divine origin. In front of him, there is an image of a strategist and the", "A Woman's War Synopsis A melodrama about a housemaid who bears her employer's illegitimate daughter. The daughter visits her father on his deathbed, unable to tell him she is his daughter.", "knife, celurit which is the most common peasant weapon and in some areas and also the attribute of traditional male attire. In such cases, the avenger usually prepares the celurit in advance in an event of dueling by casting special spells on the weapon.\nSometimes in the \"battle of honor\" are involved several people from each side - relatives and friends of the offender and the offended, and then it turns into a bloodbath. Such massive bloodshed have repeatedly occurred in Madura even in the 21st century. The most famous incident in recent years, a mass carok occurred on 13 July", "eponymous makers of paired swords (Birrell 1993, 221-224 and 303). Gan-jiang was the male, Mo-xie female (eponymously both swords and smiths). The Gan-jiang and Mo-xie swords were sometimes said to have been forged from the liver and kidneys of a metal-eating hare residing in the Kunlun Mountains (Eberhard 1986, 281-282, sub \"Sword\"). Note that just because these swords may be encountered in mythology does not mean that they never existed historically. Demon-slaying weapons Some of the weapons most commonly wielded against demons were made of peach-wood, such as the either actually made or made according to mythology peach-wood bows actually", "you buckle on the sword Taia, are drawn by fine steeds like Xianli, set up phoenix banners blazoned with kingfisher feathers, and employ drums of sacred lizard skin. Not one of these various precious things is a product native to Qin, and yet Your Majesty takes joy in them. Why? If something must be a product of Qin before it can be acceptable, then no night-shining jewels [夜光之璧] would adorn the court chambers, no vessels of rhinoceros horn or elephant tusk would amuse and delight you, no women of Zheng and Wey would throng the harem, and no fine horses", "sword. This event is not mentioned in historical records or the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, but is propagated through mass media such as operas and storytelling. In popular culture Diaochan appears a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. She also appears in the manga series Souten Kouro. In the card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a Legendary Creature card called \"Diaochan, Artful Beauty\". She also appears as a character in Total War: Three Kingdoms.\nNotable actresses who have portrayed Diaochan in films and television series include: Violet Koo in Diao Chan", "Eight of Swords Eight of Swords is a Minor Arcana tarot card. Tarot cards are used throughout much of Europe to play Tarot card games.\nIn English-speaking countries, where the games are largely unknown, Tarot cards came to be utilized primarily for divinatory purposes. Divination usage A woman is tied and blindfolded within a cage of swords. This is the \"damned if you do, damned if you don't,\" card. The Querent is in a situation where they're afraid to move. If they move, they'll get cut. However, the ropes that bind them and the blindfold over their eyes are their own" ]

[ "The condition is called aphthous stomatitis, or commonly, canker sores. They are NOT inflamed tastebuds. Rather, they are small ulcers (areas of inflamed, healing tissue) that are characteristically painful and confined to the mucosa (soft tissue) of the mouth (including surface of the tongue) by definition. There is no cure, but many over-the-counter drugs are sold that can mitigate the pain caused by them.\n\nThis question is by no means explained (moderators, hello?). Rather, the pathogenesis (how it develops) of an aphthous sore is still unknown. I couldn't believe it, but apparently this is an area of relatively active research. [This](_URL_1_) recent review article provides some nice context.\n\n[This question](_URL_0_) has been asked many times before. Doing a quick look-over, answers have been repeatedly unscientific and certainly not in any real laymen-speak.", "In my experience after getting them from eating a lot of Sour Patch Kids, I clean my mouth real well and that helps a bit." ]

[ "the dorsum of the tongue in persons taking long term corticosteroids or antibiotics, but occasionally it can occur after only a few days of using a topical antibiotic. This is usually termed \"antibiotic sore mouth\", \"antibiotic sore tongue\", or \"antibiotic-induced stomatitis\" because it is commonly painful as well as red.\nChronic erythematous candidiasis is more usually associated with denture wearing (see denture-related stomatitis). Hyperplastic This variant is also sometimes termed \"plaque-like candidiasis\" or \"nodular candidiasis\". The most common appearance of hyperplastic candidiasis is a persistent white plaque that does not rub off. The lesion may be rough or nodular in", "to stool as an indicator of bacterial dysbiosis in systemic disease.\" Another example is tertiary syphilis, where changes to teeth can occur. Syphilis infection can be associated with longitudinal furrows of the tongue. Tongue Mineral and vitamin deficiencies can cause the tongue to appear beefy red and feel sore. Those deficiencies are iron, folate, and vitamin B12. A hairy tongue may be an indication of Epstein Barr virus infection and is usually seen in those infected with HIV. Other systemic diseases that can cause the tongue to form aphthous ulcers are: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, Behcet's Syndrome,", "the tongue, affecting some of the tiny bumps on the tongue known as the fungiform papillae, what we commonly call the \"taste buds.\" \nTLP is a harmless problem. These bumps can become notably red or white and are quite tender for up to several days. While the cause of TLP is not known with certainty, most experts feel that local accidental trauma (rubbing, scraping or biting) is a major factor; however, contact reactions to things like certain foods have also been suggested. Lie bumps are not contagious and the discomfort is relatively minor. Typically these lesions heal within a few", "occurs because of effects on taste buds that are mostly located in the tongue. Sometimes, only partial recovery of taste occurs. Common complaints are of food tasting too sweet or too bitter or of a continuous metallic taste. Complications Sores or ulcerations can become infected by virus, bacteria or fungus. Pain and loss of taste perception makes it more difficult to eat, which leads to weight loss. Ulcers may act as a site for local infection and a portal of entry for oral flora that, in some instances, may cause septicaemia (especially in immunosuppressed patients). Therefore, oral mucositis can be", "tongue cleaner to scrape or brush the lingual tonsils (tongue tonsils).\nThere has been one reported case where a woman possibly had infective endocarditis from bacteremia following the use of a tongue cleaner. Individuals with previous infective endocarditis and high-risk cardiac valves may be at a higher risk from bacteremia. History Ayurveda, the practice of traditional Indian medicine, recommends tongue cleaning as part of one's daily hygiene regimen, to remove the toxic debris, known as Ama. Tongue cleaning has existed in Ayurvedic practice since ancient times, using tongue scrapers made from copper, silver, gold, tin or brass. In modern time, plastic", "are sometimes termed \"kissing lesions\" because they approximate when the tongue is in contact with the palate. Denture wearing Denture wearing and poor denture hygiene, particularly wearing the denture continually rather than removing it during sleep, is another risk factor for both candidal carriage and oral candidiasis. Dentures provide a relative acidic, moist and anaerobic environment because the mucosa covered by the denture is sheltered from oxygen and saliva. Loose, poorly fitting dentures may also cause minor trauma to the mucosa, which is thought to increase the permeability of the mucosa and increase the ability of C. albicans to invade", "management team, which typically includes medical practitioners, clinical pharmacists, clinical psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners.\nSugar (sucrose) when taken by mouth reduces pain in newborn babies undergoing some medical procedures (a lancing of the heel, venipuncture, and intramuscular injections). Sugar does not remove pain from circumcision, and it is unknown if sugar reduces pain for other procedures.\nSugar did not affect pain-related electrical activity in the brains of newborns one second after the heel lance procedure. Sweet liquid by mouth moderately reduces the rate and duration of crying caused by immunization injection in children between one and twelve", "for acid-creating bacteria in the mouth.\nChewy and sticky foods (such as candy, cookies, potato chips, and crackers) tend to adhere to teeth longer. However, dried fruits such as raisins and fresh fruit such as apples and bananas disappear from the mouth quickly, and do not appear to be a risk factor. Consumers are not good at guessing which foods stick around in the mouth.\nFor children, the American Dental Association and the European Academy of Paediatric Dentistry recommend limiting the frequency of consumption of drinks with sugar, and not giving baby bottles to infants during sleep (see earlier discussion). Parents", "does not always equal the back of the tongue as an origin of halitosis, however a \"white tongue\" is thought to be a sign of halitosis. In oral medicine generally, a white tongue is considered a sign of several medical conditions. Patients with periodontal disease were shown to have sixfold prevalence of tongue coating compared with normal subjects. Halitosis patients were also shown to have significantly higher bacterial loads in this region compared to individuals without halitosis. Gums Gingival crevices are the small grooves between teeth and gums, and they are present in health, although they may become inflamed when", "Saltine cracker challenge The saltine cracker challenge or saltine challenge is a food challenge or competition in which a person has 60 seconds in which to eat six saltine soda crackers without drinking anything.\nAlthough the challenge may sound trivial, it is actually very difficult because the crackers quickly exhaust the saliva in the mouth. Even though six saltines can fit in one's mouth at the same time, and a minute is plenty of time to chew, the resulting mass of crumbs is still difficult to swallow with a dry mouth. The individual challenge The challenge is generally given as eating", "to dental caries. Heavy or frequent consumption of high-sugar foods, especially lollipops, sugary cough drops, and other sugar-based candies that stay in the mouth for a long time, increases the risk of tooth decay. Candies that also contain enamel-dissolving acids, such as acid drops, increase the risk. Cleaning the teeth and mouth shortly after eating any type of sugary food, and allowing several hours to pass between eating such foods, reduces the risk and improves oral health.\nHowever, frequent consumption of fruits and fruit juice, which contain both acid and sugars, may be a more significant factor in", "and B vitamins may cause depapillation of the tongue. Papillitis/hypertrophy Papillitis refers to inflammation of the papillae, and sometimes the term hypertrophy is used interchangeably.\nIn foliate papillitis the foliate papillae appear swollen. This may occur due to mechanical irritation, or as a reaction to an upper respiratory tract infection. Other sources state that foliate papilitis refers to inflammation of the lingual tonsil, which is lymphoid tissue. Etymology The term lingual is derived from the Latin word lingua meaning \"tongue\" or \"speech\". Papilla is from Latin, meaning \"nipple\".\nVallate (pronounced \\ˈva-ˌlāt\\) is from the Latin word vallum (rampart, wall), and means \"having", "25% of the population in varying degrees. Tongue The most common location for mouth-related halitosis is the tongue. Tongue bacteria produce malodorous compounds and fatty acids, and account for 80 to 90% of all cases of mouth-related bad breath. Large quantities of naturally occurring bacteria are often found on the posterior dorsum of the tongue, where they are relatively undisturbed by normal activity. This part of the tongue is relatively dry and poorly cleansed, and the convoluted microbial structure of the tongue dorsum provides an ideal habitat for anaerobic bacteria, which flourish under a continually-forming tongue coating of food debris,", "halitosis after the mouth. According to one report, approximately 3% of halitosis cases were related to the tonsils. Conditions of the tonsils which may be associated with halitosis include chronic caseous tonsillitis (cheese-like material can be exuded from the tonsillar crypt orifi), tonsillolithiasis (tonsil stones), and less commonly peritonsillar abscess, actinomycosis, fungating malignancies, chondroid choristoma and inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor. Esophagus The lower esophageal sphincter, which is the valve between the stomach and the esophagus, may not close properly due to a hiatal hernia or GERD, allowing acid to enter the esophagus and gases to escape to the mouth. A Zenker's", "mouthwashes may make dry mouth and halitosis worse since it dries out the mouth. Soreness, ulceration and redness may sometimes occur (e.g. aphthous stomatitis, allergic contact stomatitis) if the person is allergic or sensitive to mouthwash ingredients such as preservatives, coloring, flavors and fragrances. Such effects might be reduced or eliminated by diluting the mouthwash with water, using a different mouthwash (e.g. salt water), or foregoing mouthwash entirely.\nPrescription mouthwashes are used prior to and after oral surgery procedures such as tooth extraction or to treat the pain associated with mucositis caused by radiation therapy or chemotherapy. They are also prescribed", "if careful periodontal examination is not carried out.\nFactors indicating infection include movement of fluid in the tissues during palpation (fluctuance), swollen lymph nodes in the neck, and fever with an oral temperature more than 37.7 °C. Prevention Since most toothache is the result of plaque-related diseases, such as tooth decay and periodontal disease, the majority of cases could be prevented by avoidance of a cariogenic diet and maintenance of good oral hygiene. That is, reduction in the number times that refined sugars are consumed per day and brushing the teeth twice a day with fluoride toothpaste and interdental cleaning. Regular visits", "Periodontal abscess Signs and symptoms The main symptom is pain, which often suddenly appears, and is made worse by biting on the involved tooth, which may feel raised and prominent in the bite. The tooth may be mobile, and the lesion may contribute to destruction of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. The pain is deep and throbbing. The oral mucosa covering an early periodontal abscess appears erythematous (red), swollen and painful to touch. The surface may be shiny due to stretching of the mucosa over the abscess. Before pus has formed, the lesion will not be fluctuant, and there", "White sponge nevus Signs and symptoms It presents itself in the mouth, most frequently as a thick, bilateral, symmetrical white plaques with a spongy, corrugated or velvety texture. Most usually, the lesions are on the buccal mucosa, but sometimes on the labial mucosa, alveolar ridge, floor of the mouth, ventral surface of the tongue or soft palate. The gingival margin and dorsum of the tongue are almost never affected. Less commonly, sites outside the mouth are affected, including the nasal, esophageal, laryngeal, anal and genital mucosae. It usually is present from birth, or develops during childhood. Rarely, the lesions may", "speaking and eating, but this is not permanent. \nPiercers often recommend drinking cold beverages and sucking on crushed ice to help reduce the swelling. Some people find that taking Ibuprofen or similar anti-inflammatory drugs can greatly reduce the swelling associated with a tongue piercing. It is advisable not to drink alcohol, smoke or eat spicy food until the piercing is at least partially healed (around two weeks), and alcohol-free mouthwash should be used after eating or smoking.\nAfter the swelling calms down, a period of mild tongue and oral mucosa irritation can follow, sometimes discouraging the recently pierced person from", "orally, which contains a small amount of iodine-131, amounting to perhaps less than a grain of salt. A 2-hour fast of no food prior to and for 1 hour after ingesting the pill is required. This low dose of radioiodine is typically tolerated by individuals otherwise allergic to iodine (such as those unable to tolerate contrast mediums containing larger doses of iodine such as used in CT scan, intravenous pyelogram (IVP), and similar imaging diagnostic procedures). Excess radioiodine that does not get absorbed into the thyroid gland is eliminated by the body in urine. Some people with hyperthyroidism may experience", "disease, dental caries (cavities or tooth decay) or plaque accumulated on the teeth. In addition, degradation of oral debris by microorganisms produce organosulfur compounds (volatile sulphur compounds) on the posterior (rear) of the tongue. Aesthetics The tongue is normally pink in appearance. It may acquire a white or colored coating due to diet, reduced salivary flow, reduced oral hygiene or tongue anatomy. The thickness of the tongue coating can also vary. Tongue cleaning can reduce this coating to make it cleaner and to help return it to its natural pink color. Dental caries and periodontal disease The tongue surface can", "consumption of salt; Avoid mouldy cereals (grains) or pulses (legumes). It has been found that high levels of salt content can increase the risk of stomach cancer. According to the report, “Most people in the United States currently consume more than 2,400 mg.” Although most foods have a high salt content they may not taste “salty” to the consumer, further increasing the risk of stomach cancer. It is recommended that sodium levels in canned goods be checked before purchase. Sodium levels should also be checked in cereals and frozen meals.\nDietary supplements: Aim to meet nutritional needs through diet alone\nBreastfeeding (Special", "tend to be advised about 6 times per day, especially after meals to remove food from the socket. Sodium lauryl sulfate (foaming agent) Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is used as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products including many mouthwashes. Some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains SLS, since the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthrinse. Sucralfate Sucralfate is a mucosal coating agent, composed of an aluminum salt of sulfated sucrose. It is not recommended", "added to it, a necessary nutrient that promotes thyroid function. Some canned foods, notably soups or packaged broths, tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the food longer. Historically salt has long been used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water excretion. Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety. Bitter Bitterness is a sensation often considered unpleasant characterized by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweetened dark chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter. Umami Umami, the Japanese word for delicious, is the least known in Western popular culture", "involves the placement of rounded ice chips in the mouth, which cools the oral tissues and causes vasoconstriction. This decreases blood flow to the region and, hence, also restricts the amounts of the chemotherapy drugs delivered to the tissues. Treatment Treatment of mucositis is mainly supportive. Oral hygiene is the mainstay of treatment; patients are encouraged to clean their mouth every four hours and at bedtime, more often if the mucositis becomes worse.\nWater-soluble jellies can be used to lubricate the mouth. Salt mouthwash can soothe the pain and keep food particles clear so as to avoid infection. Patients are also", "0.1% to 0.2% recommended for mouth-rinse solutions with a duration of at least 30 seconds. Such mouthwash also has a number of adverse effects including damage to the mouth lining, tooth discoloration, tartar build-up, and impaired taste. Extrinsic tooth staining occurs when chlorhexidine rinse has been used for 4 weeks or longer.\nMouthwashes containing chlorhexidine which stain teeth less than the classic solution have been developed, many of which contain chelated zinc.\nUsing chlorhexidine as a supplement to everyday mechanical oral hygiene procedures for 4 to 6 weeks and 6 months leads to a moderate reduction in gingivitis compared to placebo, control", "would not allow the back of the mouth to be accessed by fluoride splints or trays. Some may also experience difficulty tolerating toothpastes and mouthwashes for a while due to altered taste and mucosal ulceration.\nIt is also very important that the patient maintains a high level of motivation in taking care of their oral hygiene, and attending dental appointments where a dental practitioner will be able to monitor them during and after radiotherapy. Oral preparations prescribed to aid sore or dry mouth should be fully understood by patients to avoid any preparations which can cause damage to the teeth. Any", "to use toothpaste that contains fluoride as this has proved to be the most efficient in fighting oral infections and tooth decay. Flossing must be done at least once a day, as well because it is helpful in preventing oral problems by removing the plaque between the teeth, which is not removed when brushing.\nDiabetic patients must get professional dental cleanings every six months. In cases when dental surgery is needed, it is necessary to take some special precautions such as adjusting diabetes medication or taking antibiotics to prevent infection. Looking for early signs of gum disease (redness, swelling, bleeding gums)", "intermaxillary gland, which produces secretions that make the tongue sticky. It may also have been present in zatrachydids.", "is why regular brushing is encouraged. A high-sugar diet encourages the formation of plaque. Sugar (fermentable carbohydrates), is converted into acid by the plaque. The acid then causes the breakdown of the adjacent tooth, eventually leading to tooth decay.\nIf plaque is left on a subgingival (under the gum) surface undisturbed, not only is there an increased risk of tooth decay, but it will also go on to irritate the gums and make them appear red and swollen. Some bleeding may be noticed during tooth brushing or flossing. These are the signs of inflammation which indicate poor gum health (gingivitis). Calculus" ]

[ "Swear words come from things we consider taboo or distasteful. In English-speaking society, we have a lot of taboos surrounding sex, even in this day and age. We also put a very high level of importance on hygiene, so words relating to waste and where they come from are also taboo. \n\nCertain words automatically make your brain think of a subject in a more intense way than others. A colloquial term vs a scientific one. This is true for pretty much anything, even if it isn't a swearword -- sweat vs perspiration, for example. When it's a topic that's taboo, that word becomes a swear. When it isn't, it moves back into innocuous territory.", "They aren't *all* related to those things.\n\nHowever, Western cultures have had a long history of taboo related to bodily functions and sexuality as a whole, which is likely why the words related to these concepts were considered vulgar and some became profanity." ]

[ "are insulted. This category is so strong it is usually frowned upon even by people who would make casual or even regular use of the profanities above.\nBestemmiare (\"swearing\") is a misdemeanor in Italian law, but the law is seldom enforced. However, it is still considered a strong social taboo at least on television. For example, anyone caught uttering bestemmie in the Italian Big Brother (Grande Fratello) \"must be immediately expelled\" because they offend \"millions of believers\". Uttering bestemmie is widely seen as a vice and is often listed together with smoking, drinking and substance abuse. Legal status Until 1999, uttering", "for the Journal of Medical Ethics. Notable philosophical views Roache's theory of swearing examines why swearwords (including non-slurs and non-religious swearwords) are so powerful. She proposes that swearwords have a unique linguistic role, coupled to a unique emotional role. According to Roache, swearing obtains its power because of speaker inferences: when someone swears, she knows her audience will find it offensive, and the swearer knows the audience knows she knows that the audience will find it offensive, and so on, a process termed offence escalation. Speakers and listeners who belong to the same cultural and linguistic community will", "swear word) to form a euphemism is known as taboo deformation, or a minced oath. In American English, words that are unacceptable on television, such as fuck, may be represented by deformations such as freak, even in children's cartoons. Feck is a minced oath originating in Hiberno-English and popularised outside of Ireland by the British sitcom Father Ted. Some examples of rhyming slang may serve the same purpose: to call a person a berk sounds less offensive than to call a person a cunt, though berk is short for Berkeley Hunt, which rhymes with cunt.\nBureaucracies frequently spawn euphemisms intentionally, as", "Maledictology Maledictology (from Latin maledicere, \"to say [something] (dicere) bad (male)\" and Greek logia, \"study of\") is a branch of psychology that does research into cursing and swearing. It is influenced by American psychologist Timothy Jay (Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts) and the philologist and researcher in swearwords Reinhold Aman (California). They assume that swearing is part of human life and can even act as a passive self-defense, since it prevents palpable argument.", "for the subject of the sentence).\nEmphatic exclamations, not aimed to insult but to express strong emotion, often include words for sexual relations (e.g. ¡joder! \"fuck!\", ¡chingados! \"fuckers!\") or to excretions or sexual organs (¡mierda! \"shit!\", ¡coño! \"pussy!\"). Sexual taboo words that describe a masculine sexuality may be used in a positive sense (e.g. cabrón \"male goat\", gallo \"rooster\", cerdo \"pig\"). References to sexual acts The following words are indicative of a variety of sexual acts, especially sexual intercourse and masturbation, though mostly limited to specific geographic regions. Chingar chingar—originating from the Basque verb txingartu, meaning \"to burn with coal\" or", "profanity users appear less trustworthy, less sociable, and less educated. The more swearing messages one expresses that violate respondent's expectations in workplaces, the more negative evaluations the respondent will generate about the speaker's incompetency. These traits are likely to appear as fixed among profanity users. Moreover, the content of the swearing messages also poses great impact on the extent of expectancy violations in formal work settings. The verbal messages include words related to sex, excretion and profaneness. Research found that respondents experience highest level of surprise about the swearing with sexual expressions. Thus their expectations are more likely to", "replacing English swear words with French ones. Some anglophone Canadians euphemistically use the Québécois sacres (i.e., religious words such as sacrament as expletives) rather than swearing in English. False anglicisms There is a particular form of Franglish which consists in the adoption of English words with alternative meanings to their usage in actual English.\nThese are words like forcing ('a scramble', 'a rush', 'a strong effort'), or bronzing ('a tan', 'the act of sunbathing'), made by adding the English ending -ing to a verb from French (e.g. forcer 'to force' or bronzer 'to tan') to form a new noun. These are", "a face-to-face practice, or believe that it is a humiliating or unclean practice; that it is humiliating or unclean are opinions that are, at least in some cases, connected with the symbolism attached to different parts of the body. Opposite these views, people also believe that oral sex \"is one of the most intimate behaviors that a couple can engage in because it requires total trust and vulnerability.\"\nWhile commonly believed that lesbian sexual practices involve cunnilingus for all women who have sex with women (WSW), some have an aversion to cunnilingus due to not liking the experience or psychological or", "meaning of blasphemous profanity, are part of the ancient tradition of the comic cults which laughed and scoffed at the deity or deities: an example of this would be Lucian's \"Dialogues of the Gods\" satire. English In English, swear words and curse words tend to have Germanic, rather than Latin etymology \"Shit\" has a Germanic root, as, likely, does \"fuck\". The more technical alternatives are often Latin in origin, such as \"defecate\" or \"excrete\" and \"fornicate\" or \"copulate\" respectively. Because of this, profanity is sometimes referred to colloquially as \"Anglo-Saxon\". This is not always the case. For", "Polish profanity The Polish language, like most others, has swear words and profanity. Some words aren't always seen as very insulting, however, there are others that are considered by some greatly offensive and rude. Words that might be considered most derogatory based on multiple sources, are not necessarily a general and have not been decided upon in a more definite manner. There are different types of swearing (as coined by Steven Pinker): abusive, cathartic, dysphemistic, emphatic and idiomatic. The Polish language uses all types of swearing mentioned. Research has shown that \"Polish people hear profanity more often in a public", "and in some cases more varied among the former, that the matter has been described to her as people viewing sexual acts relating to virginity loss as \"acts that correspond to your sexual orientation,\" which suggests the following: \"So if you're a gay male, you're supposed to have anal sex because that's what gay men do. And if you're a gay woman, then you're supposed to have oral sex, because that's what gay women do. And so those become, like markers, for when virginity is lost.\"\nThe concept of \"technical virginity\" or sexual abstinence through oral sex is popular among teenagers.", "(for shit), and \"bushwa\" (for bullshit).\nMany languages have such expressions. In the English language, nearly all profanities have minced variants. Formation Common methods of forming a minced oath are rhyme and alliteration. Thus the word bloody (which itself may be an elision of \"By Our Lady\"—referring to the Virgin Mary) can become blooming, or ruddy. Alliterative minced oaths such as darn for damn allow a speaker to begin to say the prohibited word and then change to a more acceptable expression. In rhyming slang, rhyming euphemisms are often truncated so that the rhyme is eliminated; prick became Hampton Wick and", "is common among many workplaces. Swearing has been identified functionally as one of several ways to express emotion in response to workplace stress, to convey verbal aggression, or to engage in deviant workplace behavior (Johnson, 2012). In formal work settings, people have much stronger feelings that their expectations are violated by swearing than in casual occasions. Expletives are more prevalent in unstructured conversations than in more structured, task-oriented ones (Johnson, 2012). The use of profanity has been shown to influence the perceptions of speakers. It may also have emotional impact on the user and the audience. Research has shown that", "Slander of Women Act 1891 Slander imputing unchastity or adultery to a female This section provides that in an action for slander (\"words spoken and published\"), brought by a female plaintiff in respect of words that impute unchastity or adultery to her, it is not necessary for her to allege or prove that she has suffered special damage.\nThe word \"unchastity\" is not confined to unchastity with a man. To call a woman a \"lesbian\" is to impute \"unchastity\" to her.\nHowever, the section then provides that in an action for slander made actionable by that section, a plaintiff may not be", "couples are more likely to consider a woman's dislike of cunnilingus as a problem than heterosexual couples are, and it is common for them to seek therapy to overcome inhibitions regarding it.\nOral sex is also commonly used as a means of preserving virginity, especially among heterosexual pairings; this is sometimes termed technical virginity (which additionally includes anal sex, mutual masturbation and other non-penetrative sex acts, but excludes penile-vaginal sex). The concept of \"technical virginity\" or sexual abstinence through oral sex is particularly popular among teenagers. By contrast, lesbian pairings commonly consider oral sex or fingering as resulting in virginity loss,", "or unclean practice; that it is humiliating or unclean are opinions that are, in some cases, connected with the symbolism attached to different parts of the body.\nSexual inhibitions among female same-sex sexual relationships have also been studied. The belief that all women who have sex with women engage in oral sex (i.e., cunnilingus) is a misconception; some lesbian or bisexual women dislike cunnilingus due to not liking the experience or due to psychological or social factors, such as finding it unclean. Other lesbian or bisexual women believe that it is a necessity or largely defines lesbian sexual activity. Lesbian couples", "derogatory words for women and their speech patterns. Some of these include names such as \"slut\", \"whore\", and \"easy lay\", along with speech patterns such as \"gossiping\", \"whining\", and \"bitching\". When it comes to words connoting promiscuity, there are fewer male-specific terms and the ones that do exist are seen in a positive/sexual light. These include words such as \"stud\", \"player\", and \"pimp\" (p. 465). Kramarae suggests these harmful words shape our reality. She believes that \"words constantly ignored may eventually come to be unspoken and perhaps even unthought\". This can lead women to doubt themselves and the intentions of", "notes New York Times author Natalie Angier. Angier also notes that swearing is a widespread but perhaps underappreciated anger management technique; that \"Men generally curse more than women, unless said women are in a sorority, and that university provosts swear more than librarians or the staff members of the university day care center\". Swearing over time may gain roots as a habit with involuntary utterance of obscene words or socially inappropriate and derogatory remarks. This has been referred to as coprolalia, which is an occasional characteristic of tic disorders.\nKeele University researchers Stephens, Atkins, and Kingston found that swearing relieves the", "\"their slanderous tongues are so short, that the time wherein they have lavished out their words freely hath been so long, and they know we cannot catch hold of them to pull them out, and they think we will not write to reprove their lying lips.\" Anger tries to answer some general male charges against the looseness of women's moral, arguing that men's own \"filthy lust\" causes them to \"invent\" an idea of women's lascivious nature. Above all, as the counter argument to the Surfeiter's account that women seduce men only to make the men's lives miserable, Anger proposes her", "Sexual profanity Sexual profanity in Sinhalese is regarded highly taboo in Sinhalese speaking society, and are not supposed to be written down in any form, in any venue. These terms are collectively called කුණු හරුප (kuṇu harupa) in Sinhalese which literally means 'dirty/rotten utterings'. It is difficult and nearly impossible to find references to Sinhalese profanity. Definitions of such are not found in any public domain literature in the Internet or outside of Internet, apart from occasional un-moderated talk page or a blog in the internet, or graffiti and scribbles found in public toilets.", "to be a sex object\", or because its use in film and television, as a tool of sexual manipulation, exploits contemporary culture's \"fetish for adult sexuality wrapped in adolescent packages\".\nOther commentators questioned the purpose of critiquing the use of the speech pattern, asserting that \"picking at the vocal quirks of your own gender is just as much of a nuisance as harping on the bodies that belong to them\". Phonetician Mark Liberman wrote that it was not clear that the discussion about \"sexy baby voice\" referred to a specific speech style rather than just a \"long list\" of vocal features", "at least since the early nineteenth century. In those languages, the term is also often current vernacular (not just legal, unlike in other cultures) and a formal way of referring to any practice of anal penetration; the word sex is commonly associated with consent and pleasure with regard to all involved parties and often avoids directly mentioning two common aspects of social taboo—human sexuality and the anus—without a shunning or archaic connotation to its use.\nIn modern German, the word Sodomie has no connotation of anal or oral sex and specifically refers to bestiality. The same goes for the Polish sodomia.", "as discriminatory, and in some jurisdictions they have been struck down by courts, usually on the basis that they discriminated against women.\nThe term adultery, rather than extramarital sex, implies a moral condemnation of the act; as such it is usually not a neutral term because it carries an implied judgment that the act is wrong.\nAdultery refers to sexual relations which are not officially legitimized; for example it does not refer to having sexual intercourse with multiple partners in the case of polygamy (when a man is married to more than one wife at a time, called polygyny; or when a", "the distinction between sex and gender advocated by some anthropologists difficult. In some contexts, German has adopted the English loan-word gender to achieve this distinction. Sometimes 'Geschlechtsidentität' is used as gender (although it literally means gender identity) and 'Geschlecht' as sex (translation of Judith Butler's Gender Trouble). More common is the use of modifiers: biologisches Geschlecht for sex, Geschlechtsidentität for gender identity and Geschlechterrolle for gender role etc. U.S. media Media criticism is a reflection of the gender inequality in society through print, advertisements, television and music. Media influences and reinforces the idea of The Beauty Myth as discussed", "\"Whom callest thou\nqueine, skabde bitch?\" (\"Who are you calling a whore, you miserable bitch?\").\nBitch remained a strong insult through the nineteenth century. The entry in Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (1785) reads:\nA she dog, or doggess; the most offensive appellation\nthat can be given to an English woman, even more\nprovoking than that of whore, as may be gathered from the\nregular Billinsgate or St Giles answer--\"I may be a\nwhore, but can't be a bitch.\"\nThroughout the word's evolution into the nineteenth century, it became gradually less offensive. The Oxford English Dictionary in the nineteenth century described the insult as “strictly a", "Testament was not against sex before marriage. The discussion turns on two Greek words — moicheia (μοιχεία, adultery) and porneia (πορνεία, fornication, see also pornography). The first word is restricted to contexts involving sexual betrayal of a spouse; however, the second word is used as a generic term for illegitimate sexual activity. Elsewhere in 1 Corinthians, incest, homosexual intercourse (according to some interpretations) and prostitution are all explicitly forbidden by name (however, the Septuagint uses \"porneia\" to refer to male temple prostitution). Paul is preaching about activities based on sexual prohibitions in Leviticus, in the context of achieving holiness. The", "regard cunnilingus and other forms of oral sex as unnatural because the practices do not result in reproduction. Some cultures attach symbolism to different parts of the body, leading some people to believe that cunnilingus is ritually unclean or humiliating.\nWhile commonly believed that lesbian sexual practices involve cunnilingus for all women who have sex with women, some lesbian or bisexual women dislike cunnilingus due to not liking the experience or due to psychological or social factors, such as regarding it as unclean. Other lesbian or bisexual women believe that it is a necessity or largely defines lesbian sexual activity. Lesbian", "Minced oath A minced oath is a euphemistic expression formed by misspelling, mispronouncing, or replacing a part of a profane, blasphemous, or taboo term to reduce the original term's objectionable characteristics. Some examples include \"gosh\" (for God), \"crumbs\" (for Christ), \"crikey\" (for Christ kill me), \"for crying out loud\" (for Christ's sake), \"darn\" or \"dang\" (for damn), \"doggone\" or \"gosh darn\" (for goddamn), \"cor blimey\" (for \"God blind me\"), \"heck\" (for hell), \"gee\", \"jeez\", \"jeepers\", or \"Jiminy Cricket\" (for Jesus Christ), \"feck\", \"fudge\", \"frick\", \"fork\", \"flip\" or \"eff\" (for fuck), \"coot\" (for cunt), \"sharlookey\", \"shoot\", \"shivers\", \"sweet\", \"shucks\", or \"sugar\"", "unanimously agreed upon its complete prohibition. Those few jurists who permits masturbation in different cases, they distinguish between those who masturbate out of necessity and those who have these means yet still masturbate to gratify their lust. Oral sex In Islam, oral sex between a husband and wife is considered \"Makruh Tahrimi\" or highly undesirable by some Islamic jurists when the act is defined as mouth and tongue coming in contact with the genitals. The reason behind considering this act as not recommended is manifold, the foremost being the issue of modesty, purification (Taharat) and cleanliness.\nThe most common argument states", "homosexual slang: terms such as an-an and uring are used to describe it. Other names for sexual acts and positions have their histories rooted in Spanish: cunnilingus is referred to as brotsa (from brocha), while fellatio is tsupa (from chupar). Male masturbation can be referred to as jakol, salsal, bato or bati; descriptions of female masturbation typically employ the verb mag-finger (\"to finger oneself\")." ]

[ "They don't...They will sit on plastic eggs. The hen eventually gives up and deserts the nest and will try again...Yeah,the eggs rot if something like a squirrel, or another bird does not eat them before they go bad.\n\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "birds respond to the accidental loss of eggs by laying a replacement egg. Others will stop laying based on the apparent size of the clutch. According to whether they respond to addition, removal, or both addition and removal of eggs, birds are classified as determinate layers (number of eggs laid is predetermined and do not respond to change) or as indeterminate layers. In general birds, birds with small clutch size tended to be indeterminate. Predation Many animals feed on eggs. For example, the principal predators of the black oystercatcher's eggs include raccoons, skunks, mink, river and sea otters, gulls, crows", "flight by sallying from perches. They build nests on tree branches. The half-saucer shaped nest is made from hardened saliva interspersed with feathers, mosses and/ or flakes of tree bark. The single egg is reportedly attached to nest surface with saliva. Owing to the fragile nature of the nest, it is attached only on one side to the branch. Thus, the bird does not sit directly on the nest for incubation. Similarly, it is also reported that the parent birds brooded by perching on the branch above the nest and fluffing their breast feathers out to cover it.\nBoth sexes help", "presence, since its shyness and dense woodland habitat make it difficult to see. Feeding This bird feeds on the ground, taking mainly plant food, supplemented by insects when breeding. Breeding The nest is on the ground, and 3–6 eggs is the normal clutch size. The female incubates the eggs and cares for the chicks alone, as is typical with gamebirds.", "seen their eggs, for I have not been able to discover where they lay. But I have never seen but one little one alone with them, and, if any one tried to approach it, they would bite him very severely. These birds live on seeds and leaves of trees, which they pick up on the ground. They have a gizzard larger than the fist, and what is surprising is that there is found in it a stone of the size of a henn's egg, of oval shape, a little flattened, although this animal cannot swallow anything larger than a small", "in the nest of lapa or signal-feather. By close observation, Mr. Whinney, the scientist of the expedition, discovered that whenever the mother-bird left the nest in search of food she always decorated her home with one of her wing feathers which served as a signal to her mate that she would return shortly, which she invariably did. Skeptics have said that it would be impossible to lay a square egg. To which the author is justly entitled to say: 'The camera never lies.'\"\nThe name \"Fatu-liva\" probably derives from the real island of Fatu Hiva, sometimes spelled Fatu Iva. The name", "and feathers. The number in the clutch is often very large, as many as 18, but five to twelve is more common. Clutch size is smaller when birds start laying later, and is also lower when the density of competitors is higher. Second broods tend to have smaller clutches. Insularity also affects clutch size, with great tits on offshore islands laying smaller clutches with larger eggs than mainland birds. The eggs are white with red spots. The female undertakes all incubation duties, and is fed by the male during incubation. The bird is a close sitter, hissing when disturbed. The", "Bird egg Bird eggs are laid by the females and incubated for a time that varies according to the species; a single young hatches from each egg. Average clutch sizes range from one (as in condors) to about seventeen (the grey partridge). Clutch size may vary latitudinally within a species. Some birds lay eggs even when the eggs have not been fertilized; it is not uncommon for pet owners to find their lone bird nesting on a clutch of infertile eggs, which are sometimes called wind-eggs.\nBird eggs are a special kind of dinosaur egg. Colors The default color of vertebrate", "birds for flight. Plantigrade locomotion Most birds, except loons and grebes, are digitigrade, not plantigrade. Also, chicks in the nest can use the entire foot (toes and tarsometatarsus) with the heel on the ground.\nLoons tend to walk this way because their legs and pelvis are highly specialized for swimming. They have a narrow pelvis, which moves the attachment point of the femur to the rear, and their tibiotarsus is much longer than the femur. This shifts the feet (toes) behind the center of mass of the loon body. They walk usually by pushing themselves on their breasts; larger loons cannot", "birds become quite territorial of boundaries when breeding, chasing other birds away from the area and making loud vocalisations. The female bird will stay in the nest during incubation, and the male will bring her food. Clutch size is between 2-9 eggs, and once the eggs hatch both the male and the female adult birds will share parental care of the offspring. When provided with nest boxes, the species has a high rate of chick mortality, though it is unclear why this may be the case.", "eggs have an oval shape, with one end rounded and the other more pointed. This shape results from the egg being forced through the oviduct. Muscles contract the oviduct behind the egg, pushing it forward. The egg's wall is still shapeable, and the pointed end develops at the back. Long, pointy eggs are an incidental consequence of having a streamlined body typical of birds with strong flying abilities; flight narrows the oviduct, which changes the type of egg a bird can lay. Cliff-nesting birds often have highly conical eggs. They are less likely to roll off, tending instead to roll", "choose a clean Place, gather together some Palm-Leaves for that purpose, and heap them up a foot and a half high from the Ground, on which they sit. They never lay but one Egg, which is much bigger than that of a Goose. The Male and Female both cover it in their turns, and the young is not hatch'd till at seven Weeks' end: All the while they are sitting upon it, or are bringing up their young one, which is not able to provide itself in several Months, they will not suffer any other Bird of their Species to", "scrape in the ground where it usually lays four, ovoido-conical eggs. These are yellowish-brown dappled irregularly with dark blotches and spots. The nest is difficult to find as the eggs are well-camouflaged. But the parent birds give away the presence of the nest by mounting into the air and flying in circles, uttering distress cries. The chicks are able to leave the nest almost as soon as they have hatched. They are difficult to detect because their downy plumage is well-camouflaged and they \"freeze\" when alarmed. A parent bird sometimes feigns a leg injury to draw intruders away from its", "well-hidden, generally unlined scrape and a clutch is normally some 6 to 12 eggs which the female incubates for 26 to 28 days. Nests containing larger numbers of eggs are generally believed to be the result of more than one hen using the nest; eggs are large and an incubating bird could not realistically cover significantly more than a normal clutch.\nDomestic birds at least, are notable for producing very thick-shelled eggs that are reduced to fragments as the young birds (known as keets among bird breeders) hatch, rather than leaving two large sections and small chips where the keet has", "excavate. Most burrows incline upward before the nesting chamber is reached. Three or four clutches of three to six round, white eggs are placed on a litter of fish bones and disgorged pellets. Feeding The bird has regular perches or stands from which it fishes. These are usually low over the water. It sits upright, its tail pointed downwards. It drops suddenly with a splash and usually returns at once with a struggling captive. Large food items are beaten on a bough or rail; small fish and insects are promptly swallowed. A fish is usually lifted and carried by its", "clutch size is two or three, but it is not rare to consist of either one or four eggs. Adults are known to wet themselves and shake off water over the eggs when arriving at the nest. Both female and male incubate the eggs for a period of about three weeks, and both parents tend the semiprecocial young. Young birds can fly at age four weeks. After formation of the new families, groupings of birds may appear at lacustrine settings in proximity to the coast. Late-season nesting may be renests or the result of late arrivals. In any case, the", "Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the chicks. Egg laying is staggered at one-day intervals so that if food is short only the older larger nestlings get fed. The chicks are naked, blind and helpless when they hatch, and stand on their heels, unlike any adult bird. Feeding The small Ceyx and Ispidina species feed mainly on insects and spiders, but also take tadpoles, frogs and mayfly nymphs from puddles. They will flycatch, and their red bills are flattened to assist in the capture of insects. The Alcedo kingfishers are typically fish-eaters with black bills, but will also take", "like certain modern birds, with their heads tucked under their arms. This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds. Reproductive biology When laying eggs, female birds grow a special type of bone in their limbs. This medullary bone forms as a calcium-rich layer inside the hard outer bone, and is used as a calcium source to make eggshells. The presence of endosteally derived bone tissues lining the interior marrow cavities of portions of a Tyrannosaurus rex specimen's hind limb suggested that T. rex used similar reproductive strategies, and revealed that the", "they move off into the undergrowth and seldom take to the wing, especially when the group includes chicks. The birds sometimes freeze and crouch. The diet includes fallen nuts of Araucaria and other trees, the berries of pokeweed and other plants and probably invertebrates. At night these birds roost well off the ground in trees. They are monogamous and breeding takes place between August and November. The nest is built on the ground with a side entrance and a roof of dead leaves. About four white eggs are laid which soon become discoloured. The female incubates the clutch, which hatch", "the female to lay her eggs in. The male and female alternate to sit on the eggs with the female doing duty in the day and the male in the night. Some birds can lay up to 100 eggs during the breeding season with an egg being laid every one or two days. During this period the male ostriches become very aggressive protecting both the female and the eggs.", "because it is noted for sitting in one spot for a long period of time. Food It feeds on insects caught in flight, and on spiders on vegetation. While sitting in its canopy, they prey by following after them, and then by beating them against a branch before they consume it. Some of the jacamars will also eat small vertebrates like lizards. Reproduction It breeds from March to May or June. Its nest is a chamber made of a termite tree, at a height between 3 and 15 m (10 and 49 ft).\nThese birds will burr holes in arboreal termitaria 3-15 meter", "on the ground during the daytime, making it difficult to spot. It hunts exclusively on the ground, feeding on insects, small mammals and lizards. Breeding It nests on the ground, lining a scrape with grasses, feathers, pebbles and twigs. The female typically lays two eggs, and males and females rear the offspring together, with both bringing food back to the nest. The birds will defend the nest and adopt a defensive pose with wings spread and tail cocked and will even peck an intruder. Sometimes they will fake injuries to lead predators away from the nest. Distribution The spotted thick-knee", "at the larger end. The female incubates and broods the eggs, but both sexes feed the nestlings and remove fecal sacs, although the female does the majority of caring for the young. The young birds are fed insects, with flies making up much of the regurgitated material according to one study. The incubation period is 13 days, followed by a fledging period of 13 days. The parent birds feed the fledglings for around two weeks after they leave the nest, but the young do not remain long in the parents' territory. The young are independent within 40 days of egg-laying.\nParent", "Caprimulgiformes Reproduction Caprimulgiform birds typically lay small clutches: frogmouths and potoos lay only one egg, with exceptions such as the Australian Tawny Frogmouth which lay two to three and Marbled Frogmouth which lay one to two; nightjars one or two, and the Oilbird usually three. With the exception of the Oilbird, which nests colonially in tree hollows, caprimulgiform birds do not build a nest but lay their egg or eggs directly onto the ground or branches. Both parents usually incubate, and for camouflage the semialtricial chicks, covered with down at hatching but immobile, are often coloured white like the eggs.\nLittle", "fruit or small inedible object back and forth several times until one eats it (if it is a fruit). After this they may copulate. So that many birds can nest in places with good food supplies, a pair does not defend a territory—perhaps the reason waxwings have no true song—but a bird may attack intruders, perhaps to guard its mate. Both birds gather nest materials, but the female does most of the construction, usually on a horizontal limb or in a crotch well away from the tree trunk, at any height. She makes a loose, bulky nest of", "nest which is then cared for by the father.\nThe eggs are laid in pairs, as shown by the discovery of two Macroolithus eggs simultaneously within the mother, and the pairing of eggs within nests. This shows that oviraptorosaurs had two functional oviducts (unlike birds, which have only one), and would produce two eggs at a time. Also, the relatively large size of the eggs indicates that a female could not lay more than one pair at a time. Parataxonomy In the basic-type and morphotype scheme for eggshell classification (which is now typically disused), elongatoolithids are of the Ornithoid basic type", "from overhead to make a canopy, hiding it from view. When leaving the nest to feed, she slips quietly into the water and submerges, not surfacing until she is well away from it.\nClutch size is unknown: as many as 10 eggs have been counted in a nest, but it seems likely that this is the result of dump nesting: three or four eggs are considered more likely. In most cases, only one duckling survives, sometimes two. They are able to swim and dive within a few days, after which they probably leave the nest. Young stay close to the mother", "exception of the short trips to forage, drink, and collect nesting material carried out by the non-incubating bird. After the first week, the non-incubating bird spends less time in the colony, although the eggs are never left unattended. After a few hours of incubation, this bird sometimes takes a break to stretch, preen itself, rearrange nest material, or turn the eggs. The eggs hatch in the order in which they were laid, with an interval of a few days between when each egg hatches.\nThe chicks hatch altricial, unable to move, and weigh an average of 62 grams (2.2 oz). They are", "or in protective foam as with the Coast foam-nest treefrog, Chiromantis xerampelina. Bird eggs Bird eggs are laid by females and incubated for a time that varies according to the species; a single young hatches from each egg. Average clutch sizes range from one (as in condors) to about 17 (the grey partridge). Some birds lay eggs even when not fertilized (e.g. hens); it is not uncommon for pet owners to find their lone bird nesting on a clutch of unfertilized eggs, which are sometimes called wind-eggs. Colors The default color of vertebrate eggs is the white of the calcium", "8% is shell. Incubation is begun as soon as the first egg is laid, so they hatch asynchronously. If a clutch is lost (to predation or flooding, for example) before the young hatch, the red-throated loon usually lays a second clutch, generally in a new nest. The young birds are precocial: upon hatching, they are downy and mobile, with open eyes. Both parents feed them small aquatic invertebrates initially, then small fish for 38–48 days. Parents will perform distraction displays to lure predators away from the nest and young. Ornithologists disagree as to whether adults carry young on their backs while", "pleats, and can restrict or enhance fluid flow into the tissue to make them more or less rigid. Each pouch can hold one or two chicks.\nIt is unknown whether other finfoots share this trait, as it does not persist in prepared skins and would be difficult to spot even in fresh specimens unless one knew to seek it out.\nSince no other species of bird have been found that have pouches, it is difficult to say how this evolved; however, in Jacanas, a tropical wading bird found in the same habitat as finfeet in which males also provide most of the" ]

[ "> isn't employment rate supposed to reflect how many people are voluntarily employed compared to unvoluntarily employed?\n\nIf you consider those who need the money to live but if they didn't wouldn't work as \"involuntarily employed\" and not part of the employment rate, then your employment pool would be near zero and almost everyone working would be involuntarily employed.\n\nThe employment rate is a measure of how many people who are trying to find work can find work. This isn't perfect because maybe if unemployment is high some people stop looking, but it at least weeds out those who could never be employed by available jobs.\n\nIf more people feel they need to work in order to have a comfortable income for their family unit then your labor pool expands. If you make sitting at home more viable for collecting income then your labor pool can be expected to shrink.\n\n > So, by that account, that means that between 1945 and 1960 employment rates were judged by how many first earners were employed. And now, they seem to be judged by how many first as well as second earners are employed. \n\nWomen aren't \"second-earners\", Jesus Christ that is sexist. If you have a woman and a man earning in a family then you just have two earners and perhaps they could get by with one or the other income. Neither needs to be primary and secondary.\n\n > Wouldn't that just mean that the involuntarily unemployed has more, rather than less job opportunities? Wouldn't that reduce the pressure on the labor market?\n\nMore people working means the labor market has more to choose from. But it isn't like you can just double up on the labor market from both sides, squeezing the supply of labor to raise wages to secure labor and also taxing them to support basic income to nonworkers. Prices will skyrocket and foreign investment will plummet.\n\nWe don't even have to do crazy math or speculate about how these tendencies will balance out in the end. There is a basic principle at work: People working creates value. If there are more people in your economy working to create value then there is more value to go around.\n\nWe might argue that one hypothetical economy has everyone employed at low wages and buying products at low prices, vs a second economy where only one person is employed at a ridiculously high wage while everyone else is paid a low wage through taxes, buying products at ridiculously high prices. I would argue that whatever voodoo magic you propose to make the low wage entitlements capable of purchasing the high cost products would never work, but it is difficult to prove that one way or another. What is obvious is that if everyone but the one guy is sitting around not doing work then *shit isn't getting done*." ]

[ "theory used to explain long-term effects of previous unemployment, where short-term increases in unemployment become permanent and lead to higher levels of unemployment in the long-run.\nIn efficiency wage models, workers are paid at levels that maximize productivity instead of clearing the market. For example, in developing countries, firms might pay more than a market rate to ensure their workers can afford enough nutrition to be productive. Firms might also pay higher wages to increase loyalty and morale, possibly leading to better productivity. Firms can also pay higher than market wages to forestall shirking. Shirking models were particularly influential.Carl Shapiro and", "take into account the social cost of the unemployment they help to create.\nOne criticism of this and other flavours of the efficiency wage hypothesis is that more sophisticated employment contracts can under certain conditions reduce or eliminate involuntary unemployment. Lazear (1979, 1981) demonstrates the use of seniority wages to solve the incentive problem, where initially workers are paid less than their marginal productivity, and as they work effectively over time within the firm, earnings increase until they exceed marginal productivity. The upward tilt in the age-earnings profile here provides the incentive to avoid shirking, and the present value of wages", "unemployment rate, which is the majority of the income of low-income people, thus helping to reduce the income gap of the whole society.\nFor each market entity, the impact of monetary policy is not evenly distributed. Different policy instruments will have different effects, which may aggravate or narrow the income gap. Some studies have found that expansionary monetary policy will increase the income gap, but other studies have shown that expansionary monetary policy can narrow the gap. In the long run, income distribution is mainly determined by a number of other, \"actual\" variables, such as technological innovation making the production process", "entails a decline in labor market participation and an increase in unemployment. Job search effort In the model just presented, we found that the minimum wage always increases unemployment. This result does not necessarily hold when the search effort of workers in endogenous.\nConsider a model where the intensity of the job search is designated by the scalar , which can be interpreted as the amount of time and/or intensity of the effort devoted to search. Assume that the arrival rate of job offers is and that the wage distribution is degenerated to a single wage . Denote to be the cost", "drives up job search effort and, therefore, the job finding rate. Additionally, the unemployment rate at equilibrium is given by:\nA hike in the wage, which increases the search effort and the job finding rate, decreases the unemployment rate. So it is possible that a hike in the minimum wage may, by boosting the search effort of job seekers, boost employment. Taken in sum with the previous section, the minimum wage in labor markets with frictions can improve employment and decrease the unemployment rate when it is sufficiently low. However, a high minimum wage is detrimental to employment and increases the unemployment rate. Card", "to attain a lower unemployment rate but would pay for it with higher inflation rates. In essence, in this view, the meaning of “full employment” is really nothing but a matter of opinion based on how the benefits of lowering the unemployment rate compare to the costs of raising the inflation rate.\nThough their theory had been proposed by the Keynesian economist Abba Lerner several years before (Lerner 1951, Chapter 15), it was the work of Milton Friedman, leader of the monetarist school of economics, and Edmund Phelps that ended the popularity of this concept of full employment. In 1968, Friedman", "theory of unemployment, special interests may also benefit: some employers may expect that employees with no fear of losing their jobs will not work as hard, or will demand increased wages and benefit. According to this theory, unemployment may promote general labour productivity and profitability by increasing employers' rationale for their monopsony-like power (and profits).\nOptimal unemployment has also been defended as an environmental tool to brake the constantly accelerated growth of the GDP to maintain levels sustainable in the context of resource constraints and environmental impacts. However the tool of denying jobs to willing workers seems a blunt instrument for", "channel For wage-income or fixed-income earners, expansionary monetary policy will reduce the purchasing power of their income; the quality of life will decline. The income level of floating-income earners will change with inflation, or those who depend on the nominal return on assets, will be less affected. Especially for profit takers, inflation leads to a decline in real wages but profits will rise and profit takers benefit. Financial participation channel Inflation reduces the debt burden and skews income distribution from creditors to debtors. Inflation will benefit people who have the opportunity and the ability to increase their debt. Similarly, as", "demand for labour and increase their demand for capital. This can reduce employment opportunities for those looking for work in the labour market and result in employed workers being made redundant. This will cause an increase in unemployment. New economics of the minimum wage Overtime many economists have conducted empirical studies to try and determine the real life implications of a minimum wage on the labour market. This has led to disagreements between economists on whether a higher minimum wage does reduce employment as different studies have come to different conclusions. These inconsistent results occur due to differences in methodologies,", "effect: since workers are earning more, they may not want to work as much today and in future periods. However, given the pro-cyclical nature of labor, it seems that the above substitution effect dominates this income effect.\nOverall, the basic RBC model predicts that given a temporary shock, output, consumption, investment and labor all rise above their long-term trends and hence formulate into a positive deviation. Furthermore, since more investment means more capital is available for the future, a short-lived shock may have an impact in the future. That is, above-trend behavior may persist for some time even after the shock", "the economy since it results in a better allocation of resources. However, if the search takes too long and mismatches are too frequent, the economy suffers, since some work will not get done. Therefore, governments will seek ways to reduce unnecessary frictional unemployment.\nFrictional unemployment is related to and compatible with the concept of full employment. At full employment the unemployment rate will be positive because of the inevitable presence of frictional unemployment.\nThe frictions in the labor market are sometimes illustrated graphically with a Beveridge curve, a downward-sloping, convex curve that shows a fixed relationship between the unemployment rate on one", "dismissed out of hand) and the putative reductions in income inequality are almost certainly being overstated. Let’s examine total incomes first. Labour demand curves slope down: everything else being equal, higher wages reduce the quantity of labour employers demand. And fewer people with jobs means less total income. If the theoretical point is clear — and I’m not aware of a compelling theoretical argument suggesting that employers will react to higher minimum wage by hiring more workers — the empirical evidence is not.\nOther Canadian economists have supported minimum wage increases. David Green, a professor and director at the Vancouver School", "workers. However, since the weakness of self-employment produces relatively less labour productivity compared to bigger businesses, it could also contribute to the weak wage growth so that fiscal policies to secure the growth need to be conducted for long-term growth.\nAdditionally, an unequal wage growth exits in Britain since the wage growth of highest-earning of 10 per cent employee jobs has increased more than the average wage growth in 2018. This is because more part-time jobs in high-paid occupations such as managers became available to workers. The employees in the fifth percentile (the bottom of the income distribution) have been experiencing", "basic income is the belief that automation is creating an increasingly unstable labor market. Rifkin in his book The End of Work, argued not only that the labor market is less stable but also that automation would reduce the total demand for workers in future.\nLabor leader, Andy Stern, endorsed basic income for many of the same reasons as the technology entrepreneurs.\nThe Economic Security Project (backed in part by Chis Hughes) has begun funding basic income projects around the United States.\n2020 Democratic presidential candidate Andrew Yang has a version of Universal Basic Income, rebranded as the \"Freedom Dividend,\" as the central", "job finding rate . A hike in the minimum wage degrades the profitability of a job, so firms post fewer vacancies and the job finding rate falls off. Now let's rewrite to be:\nUsing the relationship between the wage and labor market tightness to eliminate the wage from the last equation gives us:\nIf we maximize in this equation, with respect to the labor market tightness, we find that:\nwhere is the elasticity of the matching function:\nThis result shows that the expected utility of unemployed workers is maximized when the minimum wage is set at a level that corresponds to the wage", "hiring decisions. Then, in times of an economic upturn, recovery, or \"boom\", the affected workers will not share in the prosperity, remaining unemployed for long periods (e.g., over 52 weeks). This makes unemployment \"structural\", i.e., extremely difficult to reduce simply by increasing the aggregate demand for products and labor without causing increased inflation. That is, it is possible that a ratchet effect in unemployment rates exists, so a short-term rise in unemployment rates tends to persist. For example, traditional anti-inflationary policy (the use of recession to fight inflation) leads to a permanently higher \"natural\" rate of unemployment (more scientifically", "all, raising the average wages in trading partner countries, and a focus on education.\nEconomist Joseph Stiglitz wrote in 2012 that moving money from the bottom to the top of the income spectrum through income inequality lowers consumption, and therefore economic growth and job creation. Higher-income individuals consume a smaller proportion of their income than do lower-income individuals; those at the top save 15–25% of their income, while those at the bottom spend all of their income. This can reduce the tax revenue the government collects, raising the deficit relative to an economy with more income equality. Reducing fractional reserve", "cyclical unemployment: if an economy suffers from long-lasting low aggregate demand, it means that many of the unemployed become disheartened, while their skills (including job-searching skills) become \"rusty\" and obsolete. Problems with debt may lead to homelessness and a fall into the vicious circle of poverty. This means that they may not fit the job vacancies that are created when the economy recovers. The implication is that sustained high demand may lower structural unemployment. This theory of persistence in structural unemployment has been referred to as an example of path dependence or \"hysteresis.\" Debates There has been considerable debate over", "and the increase political attention to the issue of inequality brought on by movements such as Occupy and the 99 Percent, brought new interest to basic income, which was furthered by influence from basic income trials conducted in Namibia and Indian and petition drives (citizens initiatives) for basic income in Switzerland and the European Union.\nDiscussion has picked up every year to the point where mainstream political actors are regularly talking about basic income for the first time since the 1970s.\nA small amount of third-wave basic income support has come from the right of center, it appeals to people who think", "Since each firm pays more than market clearing wages, the aggregated labor market fails to clear. This creates a pool of unemployed laborers and adds to the expense of getting fired. Workers not only risk a lower wage, they risk being stuck in the pool of unemployed. Keeping wages above market clearing levels creates a serious disincentive to shirk that makes workers more efficient even though it leaves some willing workers unemployed. New growth theory Following research on the neoclassical growth model in the 1950s and 1960s, little work on economic growth occurred until 1985. Papers by Paul Romer were", "as a student and also ensure savings for retirement. Coupled with the idea of average lifetime income, the consumption smoothing element of the PIH predicts that transitory changes in income will have only a small effect on consumption. Only longer-lasting changes in income will have a large effect on spending.\nA consumer's permanent income is determined by their assets: physical (property), financial (shares, bonds) and human (education and experience). These influence the consumer's ability to earn income. The consumer can then make an estimation of anticipated lifetime income. A worker saves only if they expect that their long-term average income, i.e.", "wages has been rising since the 1980s. Equitable growth While acknowledging the central role economic growth can potentially play in human development, poverty reduction and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, it is becoming widely understood amongst the development community that special efforts must be made to ensure poorer sections of society are able to participate in economic growth. The effect of economic growth on poverty reduction – the growth elasticity of poverty – can depend on the existing level of inequality. For instance, with low inequality a country with a growth rate of 2% per head and 40%", "the supply of money, which should reduce interest rates, which in turn should lead to an increase in non-governmental spending. Full unemployment In demand-based theory, it is possible to abolish cyclical unemployment by increasing the aggregate demand for products and workers. However, eventually the economy hits an \"inflation barrier\" imposed by the four other kinds of unemployment to the extent that they exist. Historical experience suggests that low unemployment affects inflation in the short term but not the long term. In the long term, the velocity of money supply measures such as the MZM (\"money zero maturity\", representing cash and", "sector. Brzeziński (2011) notes that the rise in poverty in late 1990s and early 2000s can be attributed to stagnant wages and pensions, and growing unemployment, and its subsequent decline, to economic growth and welfare policies. Income inequality Since fall of communism in Poland in 1990, income inequality has substantially increased. This has been caused by rising prosperity and to a lesser extent, impoverishment. Rutkowski (1998) notes that \"those who have gained from income changes are outnumbered by those who have lost. However, while the gains have been significant, the losses have been relatively small.\" Those who have gained the", "wage growth; by contrast, firms benefit due to such youths relatively lower entry wages and a strong drop in their parents' wage growth. Research on minimum wages As part of his research in labour economics, Kramarz has investigated the economics of minimum wages. For example, together with several co-authors, he found that minimum wages in Europe between the mid-1960s and mid-1990s have only caused higher unemployment if they kept the wages of low-wage jobs from decreasing, are relatively small for young people (relative to average earnings) when compared to the U.S., and don't appear to have reduced employment, except possibly", "are getting employed had not been included in the unemployed category. To achieve high wage growth in the United States, it depends on how the businesses creates competitiveness in labour market and encourage those people to work for the purpose of boosting high labour productivity to result in high wage growth.\nAlthough minimum wage law has been applied in many states to increase wage growth, this has not been an effective solution to improve the growth due to the increasing living costs. Also, the unequal wage growth in the income distributions is identified as one of the major reasons of the", "will change to the same extent in wage units. \nWe can then analyse its effect from the diagram, in which we see that an increase in M̂ shifts r̂ to the left, pushing Î upwards and leading to an increase in total income (and employment) whose size depends on the gradients of all 3 demand functions. If we look at the change in income as a function of the upwards shift of the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital (blue curve), we see that as the level of investment is increased by one unit, the income must adjust so", "however, they challenge the long term viability of the theory by suggesting that it could be a race to the bottom. Middle income trap The Middle Income Trap theory explains the tendencies of export-oriented or profit-led economies. It suggests that an economy that focuses on the exportation of goods as a source of growth or has a comparative advantage in the manufacture of a good will ultimately lose its competitive edge in the manufacturing of that good because wages will be on an upward trend. When wages are increased, the economy will no longer be able to sustain the comparative", "low-priced goods even while local employment rates rise to full employment.\n Full employment cannot be achieved because workers would shirk, if they were not threatened with the possibility of unemployment. The curve for the no-shirking condition (labeled NSC) goes to infinity at full employment as a result. The inflation-fighting benefits to the entire economy arising from a presumed optimum level of unemployment have been studied extensively. The Shapiro–Stiglitz model suggests that wages are not bid down sufficiently to ever reach 0% unemployment. This occurs because employers know that when wages decrease, workers will shirk and expend less effort. Employers avoid", "say that income rises can change the ratio of demand for goods and services (tradable and non-tradable sectors). This is because services tend to be superior goods, which are consumed proportionately more heavily at higher incomes.\nA shift in preferences at the microeconomic level, caused by an income effect can change the make-up of the consumer price index to include proportionately more expenditure on services. This alone may shift the consumer price index, and might make the non-trade sector look relatively less productive than it had been when demand was lower; if service quality (rather than quantity) follows diminishing returns to" ]

[ "Windows is built for multitasking. The 'Set Priority' feature is intended for managing what processes have a higher priority for resources (CPU) than other processes.\n\nApplications set to normal will go 50-50 on the resources with other running applications (when demanding resources).\n\nIt's better practice to close all resource demanding background applications while using another resource demanding application.\n\nIf your CPU is a bottleneck in gaming, setting the game process to 'High' may help. Though if nothing in the background is demanding a lot of resources while playing, you probably won't notice a difference. Do not use 'Realtime' as it could starve out other critical system processes and stop responding to input.\n\n--------------\n\nSince there is apparently a lot of 5 year olds in this thread:\n\nImagine you have a lego set with a limited number of legos. You want to build 3 separate objects but there aren't enough lego pieces for all 3. So you determine that **1** of the objects will get **High** priority over the other ones and get as many lego pieces it needs (as long as it needs less than the total amount of lego pieces). The other **2** lego objects you decide are **Normal** priority and will split the remaining lego pieces half-and-half. \n\nThe **2 Normal** priority lego objects don't get enough lego pieces to be fully functional, but the **1 High** priority lego object does.\n\nNow, if you didn't have enough lego pieces for even the **1 High** priority lego object, it too would be incomplete and not fully functional.\n\n-----------------\n\n* Lego objects = Applications\n* Your priority determination = Windows\n* Lego pieces = CPU resources", "Think about it this way, your computer is fast enough to do \"X\" calculations per second. Let's call it 100, just for ease of the example here (but obviously it is much more than that). If your computer needs to do more calculations than it has speed for, it has to decide what to put \"on hold\" and what to actually work on.\n\nExample, you have a bunch of things running, and they take the following amount of calculations-per-second.\nComputer's clock 5 (realtime)\nWindows explorer 10 (normal)\nFirefox 15 (normal)\nSteam 30 (normal)\nGrand Theft Auto 50 (normal)\n\nYour clock is set to \"real time\" meaning it will always get enough calculations if it can. This is good, because otherwise your clock would be wrong every time your computer slowed down.\n\nSo if you're playing Grand Theft Auto, the system is demanding 110 calculations, but it only has 100 to go around. So your game will slow down a bit, and so will firefox, and so will windows. But if you had set GTA to \"high\" priority, it would instead give it all the calculations it needs to run fine, and then make windows and firefox run slower, which is fine since you're not using them when playing a video game.", "You really don't need to mess with it at all. Windows does a pretty good job of balancing things already, without messing with settings. If your computer is running slowly, it's probably either because you've got too many things open or because your computer simply can't handle the single program you have open.\n\nIf you must know, what happens in Windows (and most other modern OSs) is that programs take turns using the processor. Setting a program to a higher priority means it gets to cut in line, and setting it lower likewise means it gets skipped if a higher priority process is waiting. Of course, if a higher priority program doesn't need the processor at the moment, then the lower priority programs get to run.\n\nIf you have a certain program that you just want to run in the background and you don't care if it freezes for a while or anything, you can set it to lower priority. However, be very careful setting programs to higher priority because that can cause your whole computer to freeze up if the program freezes. The only process I've ever set to a higher priority was windows explorer itself.", "TLDR: Don't mess with it.\n\nLong version: If you have a CPU-intensive program running in the background, such as Folding @ Home, it is worth pushing it down, so that it doesn't mess with other programs. But most of software like that pushes itself down the priority list, you don't have to do anything.\n\nMost of the time, when laypeople mess with priorities, the result is worse. Heck, I've seen professionals messing with it, with less than ideal results. You have to know really well what you're doing." ]

[ "enables the managers to \"...manipulate and decompose high level effects. They must then assign lesser effects as objectives for subordinates to achieve. The intention is that subordinates' actions will cumulatively achieve the overall effects desired\". In other words, the focus shifts from being a scriptwriter for tasks to instead being a designer of behaviours. In some cases, this can make the task of the manager significantly less arduous. Meaningfulness of tasks Effects-based operations and the notion of a \"whole task\", combined with adaptability and responsible autonomy, have additional advantages for those at work in the organization. This is because", "leveling requires delaying tasks until resources are available. In more complex environments, resources could be allocated across multiple, concurrent projects thus requiring the process of resource leveling to be performed at company level.\nIn either definition, leveling could result in a later project finish date if the tasks affected are in the critical path.\nResource leveling is also useful in the world of maintenance management. Many organizations have maintenance backlogs. These backlogs consist of work orders. In a \"planned state\" these work orders have estimates such as 2 electricians for 8 hours. These work orders have other attributes such as report date,", "them to finish promptly (for example, they might be a batch job or another non-interactive activity). Similarly, a high priority task has a high priority because it is more likely to be subject to strict time constraints—it may be providing data to an interactive user, or acting subject to realtime response guarantees. Because priority inversion results in the execution of a lower priority task blocking the high priority task, it can lead to reduced system responsiveness, or even the violation of response time guarantees.\nA similar problem called deadline interchange can occur within earliest deadline first scheduling (EDF).", "Resource leveling In project management, resource levelling is defined by A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) as \"A technique in which start and finish dates are adjusted based on resource limitation with the goal of balancing demand for resources with the available supply.\" Resource leveling problem could be formulated as an optimization problem. The problem could be solved by different optimization algorithms such as exact algorithms or meta-heuristic methods.\n\nWhen performing project planning activities, the manager will attempt to schedule certain tasks simultaneously. When more resources such as machines or people are needed than are", "Effort management Applications Effort management is useful for processes and strategies that seek to focus on activities instead of other areas like project management especially if new activities are integrated into the process. For example, in software development, effort management breaks activities down to appropriate granularity level so that it leads to manageable activity sets. If used in the management of supply chain, it can be deployed in the planning, implementation, and regulation of functions related to supply chain in order to induce value creation. In the academic field, effort management is used to improve the educational achievement of learners.", "Performance improvement Performance improvement is measuring the output of a particular business process or procedure, then modifying the process or procedure to increase the output, increase efficiency, or increase the effectiveness of the process or procedure.\nIn organizational development, performance improvement is organizational change in which the managers and governing body of an organization put into place and manage a program which measures the current level of performance of the organization and then generates ideas for modifying organizational behavior and infrastructure which are put into place to achieve higher output.\nPerformance improvement can be applied to either individual performance such as an", "that the greatest improvements come early in the process. Levels of optimization Optimization can occur at a number of levels. Typically the higher levels have greater impact, and are harder to change later on in a project, requiring significant changes or a complete rewrite if they need to be changed. Thus optimization can typically proceed via refinement from higher to lower, with initial gains being larger and achieved with less work, and later gains being smaller and requiring more work. However, in some cases overall performance depends on performance of very low-level portions of a program, and small changes at", "interrelated decisions. It is selection of missions, objectives and \"translation of knowledge into action.\" A planned performance brings better results compared to an unplanned one. A manager's job is planning, monitoring and controlling. Planning and goal setting are important traits of an organization. It is done at all levels of the organization. Planning includes the plan, the thought process, action, and implementation. Planning gives more power over the future. Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. This bridges the gap from where the organization is to", "to be adjusted repeatedly through computer simulations until the closed-loop system performs or compromises as desired.\nSome processes have a degree of nonlinearity and so parameters that work well at full-load conditions don't work when the process is starting up from no-load; this can be corrected by gain scheduling (using different parameters in different operating regions). Optimal behavior The optimal behavior on a process change or setpoint change varies depending on the application.\nTwo basic requirements are regulation (disturbance rejection – staying at a given setpoint) and command tracking (implementing setpoint changes) – these refer to how well the controlled variable tracks the desired", "application's Reduce function once for each unique key in the sorted order. The Reduce can iterate through the values that are associated with that key and produce zero or more outputs.\nIn the word count example, the Reduce function takes the input values, sums them and generates a single output of the word and the final sum. Output writer The Output Writer writes the output of the Reduce to the stable storage. Performance considerations MapReduce programs are not guaranteed to be fast. The main benefit of this programming model is to exploit the optimized shuffle operation of the platform, and only", "available, or perhaps a specific person is needed in both tasks, the tasks will have to be rescheduled concurrently or even sequentially to manage the constraint. Project planning resource leveling is the process of resolving these conflicts. It can also be used to balance the workload of primary resources over the course of the project[s], usually at the expense of one of the traditional triple constraints (time, cost, scope).\nWhen using specially designed project software, leveling typically means resolving conflicts or over allocations in the project plan by allowing the software to calculate delays and update tasks automatically. Project management software", "due to an increasing need to automate high-volume decisions across the enterprise and to impart precision, consistency, and agility in the decision-making process\". Decision management is implemented \"via the use of rule-based systems and analytic models for enabling high-volume, automated decision making\".\nOrganizations seek to improve the value created through each decision by deploying software solutions (generally developed using BRMS and predictive analytics technology) that better manage the tradeoffs between precision or accuracy, consistency, agility, speed or decision latency, and cost of decision-making within organizations. The concept of decision yield, for instance, focuses on all five key attributes of decision-making: more", "more resources, use Effort-Driven Scheduling for simple schedule compression. Automatically adjust task durations as resources are added or subtracted, while keeping the total work for a task constant.\nImage Columns\nUse Image Columns to add pictures of task items, staff, resources, designs, progress photos, etc, directly into column cells. Images automatically scale as thumbnails to match row heights and display as larger images when you hover over them.\nAssignment Contouring\nChoose from eight built-in work contours or customize your own for the ultimate ease and flexibility in resource scheduling. Assignment contouring enables you to quickly re-distribute your resources' efforts on a task for those", "an alternative to requirement lists, Agile Software Development uses User stories to suggest requirements in everyday language. Measurable goals Best practices take the composed list of requirements merely as clues and repeatedly ask \"why?\" until the actual business purposes are discovered. Stakeholders and developers can then devise tests to measure what level of each goal has been achieved thus far. Such goals change more slowly than the long list of specific but unmeasured requirements. Once a small set of critical, measured goals has been established, rapid prototyping and short iterative development phases may proceed to deliver actual stakeholder value", "measurements, the final step is how to improve the system and maintain its effectiveness. Therefore, implementing the improvements is a key activity to examine the processes and improve the flow of the management system.\nAn organisation determines which part of processes must be improved and modified. It analyses how each process influences a set of activities and applies the improvements to some parts of system. The purpose of implementation is to operate its business strategically and to deliver sufficient resources. In effect, the process based management results in outputs that satisfy their customers and develop the business itself.", "to increase efficiency, productivity, and profitability . Performance management guidelines stipulate clearly the activities and outcomes by which employees and teams are evaluated during performance appraisal. \nTo apply performance management principles, a commitment analysis is completed first to create a mission statement for each job. The mission statement is a job definition in terms of purpose, customers, product, and scope. This analysis is used to determine the continuous key objectives and performance standards for each job position.\nFollowing the commitment analysis is the work analysis of a particular job in terms of the reporting structure and job description. If a job", "performance, effectiveness, and productivity are value judgments. Organizational goal relevance Another key feature of job performance is that it has to be goal relevant. Performance must be directed toward organizational goals that are relevant to the job or role. Therefore, performance does not include activities where effort is expended toward achieving peripheral goals. For example, the effort put toward the goal of getting to work in the shortest amount of time is not performance (except where it is concerned with avoiding lateness). Types Another way to divide up performance is in terms of task and contextual (citizenship and counterproductive) behaviors.", "parameters control things such as the maximum and the minimum number of worker threads, various timeouts, etc. A command-line management interface allows these parameters to be modified, and new VCL scripts to be compiled, loaded and activated, without restarting the accelerator.\nIn order to reduce the number of system calls in the fast path to a minimum, log data is stored in shared memory, and the task of monitoring, filtering, formatting and writing log data to disk is delegated to a separate application. Performance While Varnish is designed to reduce contention between threads to a minimum, its authors claim that", "priority, asset operational requirements, and safety concerns. These same organizations have a need to create weekly schedules. Resource-leveling can take the \"work demand\" and balance it against the resource pool availability for the given week. The goal is to create this weekly schedule in advance of performing the work. Without resource-leveling the organization (planner, scheduler, supervisor) is most likely performing subjective selection. For the most part, when it comes to maintenance scheduling, there is less, if any, task interdependence, and therefore less need to calculate critical path and total float.\nThe chart shows the number of people involved in a project", "Performance management Application Performance management for business is defined as a \"strategic and integrated approach to increase the effectiveness of companies by improving the performance of the people who work in them and by developing the capabilities of teams and individual contributors.\" \nPerformance management principles are used most often in the workplace and can be applied wherever people interact with their environments to produce desired effects—schools, churches, community meetings, sports teams, health settings, governmental agencies, social events, and even political settings. \nManagers use performance management to align company goals with the goals of teams and employees in an effort", "duty is managing available marketing resources to create a more effective future. For this, they need make judgments about risk and uncertainty of a project and its impact on the company in short term and long term. To assist marketing executives in making effective marketing decisions, an EIS can be applied. EIS provides sales forecasting, which can allow the market executive to compare sales forecast with past sales. EIS also offers an approach to product price, which is found in venture analysis. The market executive can evaluate pricing as related to competition along with the relationship of product quality with", "is dependent on the cognitive process used to make the critical decisions that determine the outcome. Three Performance Shaping Factors (PSFs) – Operator Experience, Stress Level, and Quality of Operator/Plant Interface - also influence the average (median) time taken to perform the task. Combining these factors enables “response-time” curves to be calibrated and compared to the available time to perform the task. Using these curves, the analyst can then estimate the likelihood that an operator will take the correct action, as required by a given stimulus (e.g. pressure warning signal), within the available time window. The relationship between these normalised", "management Adaptive management is based on the concept that predicting future influences/disturbance to an ecosystem is limited and unclear. Therefore, the goal of adaptive management is to manage the ecosystem so it maintains the greatest amount of ecological integrity, but also to utilize management practices that have the ability to change based on new experience and insights.\nAdaptive management aims to identify uncertainties in the management of an ecosystem while using hypothesis testing to further understand the system. In this regard, adaptive management encourages learning from the outcomes of previously implemented management strategies. Ecosystem managers form hypotheses about", "targeted decisions (precision); in the same way, over and over again (consistency); while being able to adapt \"on-the-fly\" (business agility) while reducing cost and improving speed, is an overall metric for how well an organization is making a particular decision.\nOrganizations are adopting decision management technology and approaches because they need a higher return from previous infrastructure investments, are dealing with increasing business decision complexity, face competitive pressure for more sophisticated decisions and because increasingly short windows of competitive advantage means that the speed of business is outpacing speed of information technology to react.\nOther terms used include \"intelligent process automation\" (where", "that subset share the same significance in their history of changes; that allows project leaders to compare the relative progress of single parts of a project to the project as whole, which allows project leaders to identify individual items that lag or lead in progress toward better functionality or performance. For this reason, baseline identification, monitoring, and retrieval are critical to the success of configuration management. Once retrieved, the baseline may be compared to a particular configuration or another baseline.\nMost baselines are established at a fixed point in time and serve to continue to reference that point (identification of state).", "Scheduling (computing) Goals A scheduler may aim at one or more of many goals, for example: \nmaximizing throughput (the total amount of work completed per time unit); \nminimizing wait time \n(time from work becoming ready until the first point it begins execution); \nminimizing latency or response time (time from work becoming ready until it is finished in case of batch activity,\nor until the system responds and hands the first output to the user in case of interactive activity);\nor maximizing fairness (equal CPU time to each process, or more generally appropriate times according to the priority and workload of each", "Needs analysis Objectives of needs analysis The objective of a user needs analysis is to define the audience, identify user goals, set usability objectives, identify design constraints and define functional specifications. Several methods of research inform a user needs analysis, including Task Analysis and Surveys. \nUser needs analysis is important because the interface design will be based on this information. Faulty assumptions or goals (about users) will lead to a faulty design that is difficult to fix once in place.", "as intelligence levels and attention seeking, with the relationship of the external space such as weather forecasts and task difficulty. Aspects of control become a significant factor in how a manager justifies a decision made. Managers will use the relationship between internal and external factors to describe why they made a decision to a single point of view. Managers may justify their actions by explaining that this was out of their personal control of the event, or they could believe that the decision could not be controlled by anyone else. Research suggests that \"the type of attribution made by an", "measurement Focusing on software quality metrics is a good way to maintain track of how well a project is performing. Management processes Globalization and complex supply chains, along with greater physical distance between higher management and the production-floor employees often requires a change in management methodologies, as inspection and feedback may not be as direct and frequent as in internal processes. This often requires the assimilation of new communication methods such as voice over IP, instant messaging, and Issue tracking systems, new time management methods such as time tracking software, and new cost- and schedule-assessment tools such as cost estimation", "to be adjusted continuously: This is when the use of specialized tools quickly brings out their advantage. These tools (see External links below) are project management tools in their own right with an emphasis on the ability to present the time schedule as time–distance diagram. Activities can be edited using project management terminology plus all drawing attributes for the activity's shape. Special features allow dependency links (with lags), complex scaling, access conflict detection, resource-dependent progress, and more. Most often, such tools provide various interfaces to other project management software, at least to import and export activity information. Complex systems (such" ]

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[ "8 December 2006, Súmate announced that their count and audits of the final election results matched the official count of the Venezuelan National Electoral Council, that showed a landslide victory for Hugo Chávez, highlighting that \"balloting was not clean, transparent or reliable.\" Machado said the Government had stacked the odds against the opposition in the pre-election period, including \"a climate of collective intimidation\" due to the use of fingerprint-reading machines and an unaudited register of voters, and that if irregularities had been corrected, they could have impacted the final result. She clarified that the impact could not be assessed,", "2017 Venezuelan regional elections Delayed elections Controversy arose surrounding on whether the election would be held or not since the government-leaning National Electoral Council (CNE) had not determined a date only two months ahead of the expected election date in December 2016, when the mandates of the governors of the 23 states of the country expired, with some believing that this is due to the belief that if elections were held, the ruling party, United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), would suffer one of its largest losses in over a decade. Luis Emilio Rondón, rector of the National Electoral Council", "National Elections Council\" said Carter, while Gaviria added that the OAS electoral observation mission's members had \"found no element of fraud in the process\". Directing his remarks at opposition figures who made claims of \"widespread fraud\" in the voting, Carter called on all Venezuelans to \"accept the results and work together for the future\". The Carter Center \"concluded the results were accurate.\"\nThe U.S. Department of State accepted that the results of the subsequent audit were \"consistent with the results announced by (Venezuela's) National Electoral Council.\" John Maisto, U.S. Permanent Representative to the Organization of American States, added that the", "2013 Venezuelan presidential election protests The 2013 Venezuelan political crisis refers to the events occurred after the presidential elections of the same year, mostly protests in response of the electoral result in which Nicolás Maduro the Great Patriotic Pole (GPP) is elected as President of Venezuela. Presidential elections After the presidential elections on 14 April 2013, opposition leader Capriles rejected the bulletin issued by the National Electoral Electoral (CNE) and ask for a recount of the 100% of the votes, because his campaign command reported at least 3,500 irregularities during the electoral process, petition that was joined by CNE rector", "Morales.\nThe elections were widely disputed both within Venezuela and in the broader international community. In January 2019, the National Assembly declared the results of the election invalid, and invoked clauses of the 1999 Venezuelan Constitution to install National Assembly Speaker Juan Guaidó as acting president, precipitating the 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis. Maduro's supporters refused to acknowledge the move, and Guaidó was placed under arrest for a short time (the details of which are under dispute). Several international organizations and independent countries have lined up to support either side of the conflict, and the former Supreme Tribunal of Justice of", "Bolivarian government stating there was a participation of 3,162,400 voters, though some observing the primaries noticed a large decrease of voters to less than 1 million participating, or about 10% of PSUV members. Conduct Leading up to the elections, serious issues have been raised about its fairness and credibility. On 10 October 2015, Brazil pulled out of a UNASUR electoral mission to observe the Venezuelan election over what it said a lack of guarantees by the socialist government and its veto of the choice to head the delegation. In a statement on 10 November 2015, Secretary General of the Organization", "24-hour general strike. 2017 Venezuelan Constituent Assembly election Despite opposition efforts, the 2017 Venezuelan Constituent Assembly election was held on 30 July 2017. The majority of those elected into the 2017 Constituent Assembly of Venezuela were loyal to the Bolivarian government due to the opposition boycott of the election. More than 40 countries condemned the elections, and raised concerns of Venezuela turning into a dictatorship.\nTibisay Lucena, president of the National Electoral Council, announced that 8,089,230 persons voted, with a 41.53% turnout though the voting machine company Smartmatic stated that the number of votes were manipulated by at least one million", "an extensive report concluded that the elections were \"fair, transparent and without serious irregularities\". Carter Center praised \"the civic spirit of the elections\" and hoped that \"other Latin American nations will follow Venezuela's example in the future\".\nA study conducted by Ezequiel Zamora (former vicepresident of the CNE), Freddy Malpica (former rector of the Universidad Simón Bolívar), Guillermo Salas (USB professor), Jorge Tamayo (UCV professor), Ramiro Esparragoza (UCV professor), four statistics experts and three computer engineers concluded in January 2007 that the 2006 Presidential elections presented \"important statistical inconsistencies, despite the fact that the opposition candidate recognized the results\". They", "April 2017.\nThe process and results of the May 2018 Venezuelan presidential election were widely disputed. The opposition-majority National Assembly declared Maduro's presidency illegitimate on the day of his second inauguration, citing the 1999 Constitution of Venezuela enacted under Hugo Chávez, Maduro's predecessor. The body declared that his reelection was invalid, and declared its president, Juan Guaidó, to be acting president of the country. The pro-Maduro Supreme Tribunal of Justice said the National Assembly's declaration was unconstitutional. Since January there has been a presidential crisis in Venezuela.", "Next Venezuelan presidential election Background Since 2010, Venezuela has been suffering a socioeconomic crisis under Nicolás Maduro and briefly under his predecessor Hugo Chávez as rampant crime, hyperinflation and shortages diminish the quality of life. As a result of discontent with the government, the opposition was elected to hold the majority in the National Assembly for the first time since 1999 following the 2015 parliamentary election. After the election, the lame duck National Assembly—consisting of Bolivarian officials—filled the Supreme Tribunal of Justice, the highest court in Venezuela, with Maduro allies. The tribunal stripped three opposition lawmakers of their National Assembly", "initially as interim President, before narrowly winning the 2013 Venezuelan presidential election. 2013 On April 14, 2013 elections were held between Nicolás Maduro and Henrique Capriles Radonski, opposition leader and co founder of the political party, Primero Justicia. The Venezuelan elections forces announced that Maduro won with 50.8 percent of the vote, the smallest presidential win margin since the 1968 election. Opposition forces argued that Henrique Capriles Radonski actually won by close to 300,000 votes and proposed evidence of voter fraud. Capriles demanded a recount that in June reaffirmed Maduro as the victor. These results sparked subsequent demonstrations and protests", "1968 Venezuelan general election Background The election was shaped by the split in AD. Luis Beltrán Prieto Figueroa, then President of the Venezuelan Senate and President of AD, won the AD primary election (held in 1967). His nomination was overturned in favor of Gonzalo Barrios by the Rómulo Betancourt faction of AD, which considered Prieto Figueroa too left-wing. Prieto Figueroa and a substantial number of his supporters then split from AD and formed a new party: the Movimiento Electoral del Pueblo (\"People's Electoral Movement\" - MEP). Ultimately, Prieto finished fourth, but his 719,000 votes far exceeded the 32,900-vote gap between", "polls when during the 2013 Venezuelan presidential election, Nicolas Maduro narrowly won the election with 50.6% of the vote, ahead of the 49.1% of candidate Henrique Capriles Radonski, surprisingly close compared to previous elections in the country. The opposition's defeat in the 8 December 2013 municipal elections, which it had framed as a 'plebiscite' on Maduro's presidency, would later ignite an internal debate over strategy. Moderate opposition leaders Henrique Capriles and Henri Falcón argued for 'unity' and dialogue with the government, and attended meetings held by the President to discuss cooperation among the country's mayors and governors. Other opposition leaders,", "operations in its native country in March 2018, stating that they could not guarantee the validity of election results through its machines.\nThe election was mainly observed by allies of the Venezuelan government after many international bodies decided that there were no democratic guarantees in the country; the United Nations declined the invitation to monitor the election, after members of the opposition asked the UN not to send observers. On 23 March 2018 a United Nations official informed that the organization would not offer electoral assistance in the elections, without explaining the motives. Spokesperson Farhan Haq stated that a letter was", "2006 Venezuelan presidential election International observers Four organisations were given permission to send official election observers to monitor the elections: Carter Center, European Union, Mercosur and Organization of American States.\nA fifth organisation was refused permission: Cortes Generales (Spanish parliament). Primary election Civil society organization Súmate recommended procedures for a primary, to be held on 13 August 2006, to choose the opposition candidate for the December 2006 presidential elections. Teodoro Petkoff, a Chávez critic, said that Súmate's procedure was authoritarian, comparing it to the Carmona Decree. Nine other candidates agreed to the terms for holding a primary, confirming their", "by the Venezuelan government antidemocratic. Remaining member governments representing countries from the Lima Group, including Brazil, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, and Saint Lucia, denounced the elections in a joint statement through declarations made by the organization.\nMeanwhile, the governments of Antigua and Barbuda, Bolivia, Cuba, Nicaragua, North Korea and Russia reacted to the call for elections positively, showing support for the process and demanded that there be no intervention. Domestic The opposition-led National Assembly of Venezuela rejected the results, calling them an \"electoral farce\". The Democratic Unity Roundtable opposition coalition formalized their dismissal of the electoral results on a legislative", "Assembly of Venezuela was sworn in on 5 January 2019. Between the May 2018 presidential election and Maduro's inauguration, there were calls to establish a transitional government.\nMaduro's new six-year term did not begin until 10 January 2019, when he took his official oath at a public ceremony in Caracas in front of the \nVenezuelan Supreme Court. The ceremony was attended by spectators such as Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega and Bolivian president Evo Morales. \nThe elections were widely disputed both within Venezuela and in the broader international community. In January 2019, the National Assembly declared the results of the election invalid,", "was described as an attempt \"to sideline and leapfrog the incoming opposition-controlled National Assembly\" and that such actions could possibly lead to more instability and polarization in Venezuela for the future. International Venezuelan bonds grew across the board about one to three cents after the announcement of MUD's victory in the elections, with one researcher at Exotix brokerage stating, \"It's better than we expected. Polls suggested a victory but whether that translated into seats was another question. Also, (the government) seem to have accepted the result\".\nMauricio Macri, president-elect of Argentina, had announced that he would request to remove Venezuela from", "2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election Background Since the 1999 Constitutional Assembly elections, the National Assembly was dominated by alliances supportive of President Hugo Chávez. In the 2005 parliamentary elections, most opposition parties decided to withdraw, resulting in all seats being won by the Fifth Republic Movement and other parties supportive of Chávez. For the 2010 elections, an alliance of opposition parties was formed by the Democratic Unity Roundtable to contest the elections, and managed to win 64 seats. The PSUV, which was an alliance formed by Chávez from the Fifth Republic Movement and a number of smaller parties, won 96 seats,", "the \"hurried announcement ... has seriously affected the warranty of the universal vote for the new voters and Venezuelans abroad\", concluding that the election would not meet \"the minimal conditions needed for the realization of free, fair and reliable elections in Venezuela\".\nOn 8 February, the European Parliament, with 480 votes in favor, 51 against, and 70 abstentions, adopted a resolution demanding sanctions against President Nicolás Maduro, Vice President Tareck el Aissami, and other officials, considering them \"responsible for the aggravation of the crisis. The European Union, through the European Parliament, also ruled that it would not recognize the 20 May elections", "typically for computerised and manual voting systems). It concluded: \"[The] Venezuelan opposition has statistical evidence to reject the official results given by the CNE. The irregularities detected were observed consistently in numerous voting centers and the magnitude of the irregularities imply that the official results do not reflect the intention of voters with statistical confidence.\" They estimated that 56.4% had voted yes to recall Chavez, as opposed to the official result of 41%.\nThe presence of systemic election fraud was also supported by six analyses in a special section in the November 2011 issue of Statistical Science. Raquel Prado and Bruno", "21 July 2017, creating a de jure Supreme Tribunal of Justice separate from the Bolivarian government. 2018 opposition parties prohibition in presidential election On 23 January 2018, the Constituent National Assembly ordered the presidential elections should be scheduled in 2018 and before 30 April. Several Venezuelan NGOs, such as Foro Penal Venezolano, Súmate, Voto Joven, the Venezuelan Electoral Observatory and the Citizen Electoral Network, expressed their concern over the irregularities of the electoral schedule, including the lack of the Constituent Assembly's competencies to summon the elections, impeding participation of opposition political parties, and the lack of time for standard electoral", "of Venezuela, it was later suggested to move ahead the elections into October 2017. A month before the elections, 15 October 2017 was selected as the date for regional elections.\nIn recent years Ana Díaz has been giving conferences and forums focused on the areas of democracy and authentic elections in the United States, Honduras, Nicaragua, Peru, Ecuador, Italy, Colombia, Costa Rica and Spain.\nAna Díaz was an independent observer on the Ecuadorian general election in February 2017. She said about falsifications and fraud on the elections. Her opinion were criticized by the National Electoral Council of Ecuador. At the end of", "resolution that asks the Venezuelan government to reconsider the announcement of the presidential elections and to present a new electoral schedule to make possible the performance of elections with all the guarantees needed. The 19 countries that supported the resolution were Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saint Lucia, the United States, and Uruguay. Following a meeting held on 10 May, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) published a document stating that the process did not meet international standards, that the CNE electoral body was biased and that", "Responses to the 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis During the 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis concerning who is the legitimate President of Venezuela, reactions and responses to the crisis have been divided.\nOn 10 January 2019, Venezuela's opposition-majority National Assembly declared that incumbent Nicolás Maduro's 2018 reelection was invalid, and its president, Juan Guaidó, said that he was prepared to assume the acting presidency. On 23 January 2019, Guaidó declared that he was acting president during a rally in Caracas and took the presidential oath.\nMaduro's government has accused the United States of organizing a coup d'état to remove him and take control", "2000 Venezuelan general election Electoral system Representatives in the National Assembly were elected under a mixed member proportional representation, with 60% elected in single seat districts and the remainder by closed party lists.", "of the votes against the opposition's candidate Henrique Capriles Radonski who had 49.12% of the votes. The Democratic Unity Roundtable contested his election as fraud and as a violation of the constitution. However, the Supreme Court of Venezuela ruled that under Venezuela's Constitution, Nicolás Maduro is the legitimate president and was invested as such by the Venezuelan National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional). 2018 presidential campaign Maduro won the 2018 election with 67.8% of the vote. The result was denounced as fraudulent by most neighboring countries, including Argentina, Nieto's Mexico, Chile, Colombia, Brazil, Canada and the United States, as well as organizations", "voting systems were Windows based and only randomized data, the technician was able to download a simple software that could place Windows files in order. Following this revelation, voter turnout dropped substantially with only 25% of registered Venezuelans voting and opposition parties withdrawing from the election. This resulted in Hugo Chávez's party, as well as his allied parties, to control 100% of Venezuela's National Assembly. Alleged affiliations with government Affiliations with Bolivarian government politicians raised suspicions, with instances of an interior vice minister, Morris Loyo Arnáez, being hired to lobby for Smartmatic contracts and with the company paying for the", "individuals have disputed the Center’s endorsement of the electoral process in the Venezuelan recall referendum of 2004. Fox News' Doug Schoen told Michael Barone of U.S. News and World Report, \"Our internal sourcing tells us that there was fraud in the Venezuelan central commission. There are widespread reports of irregularities and evidence of fraud, many of them ably recorded by Mary Anastasia O'Grady in The Wall Street Journal last week. Carter is untroubled by any of this, and declares that Chavez won 'fair and square.'\" The Carter Center looked into the allegations and released a paper and statistical analysis reaffirming", "1988 Venezuelan general election Background Democratic Action President Jaime Lusinchi backed Octavio Lepage to succeed him as the party's candidate for the election, but in a primary election the party chose Carlos Andrés Pérez, (previously president from 1973 to 1978)." ]

[ "Most of his money would come from Youtube views and advertising. Having as many views as Pewdipie gets would certainly net you a lot of money from Youtube.", "Youtube gets paid by advertisers to show their adverts.\n\nYoutubers can 'monetize' their videos by making them show ads before the vid, or little banner ads at the bottom while they're playing, and based on how long an ad is viewed for Youtube gets paid, and they then pass a slice of that onto the youtubers on a scale called CPM which (bizarrely) is the cost per 1000 views an ad gets. Pewdiepie gets over 70 million views a week. \n\n_If_ the CPM was **one cent** and assume that half his views get invalidated by people using AdBlock, he'd still get $350 per week. \n\nAs it stands however, the CPM is anything between about $1.50 and about $3.30 \n\nSo, that $350 per week I came up with? Yeah, multiply that by anything between 150 and 330. \n\n$4M is quite possible. \n\n**EDIT** \n\nI used one cent as a simple example. **The CPM is NOT ONE CENT, it is at least $1.50 or more**.", "Not trying to be a dick here but why is he so popular, see maybe dozen videos and a few I want my time back from watching them.", "Hey guys,\n\nAdam Buckley gives a pretty good explanation to how much Youtubers can typically expect to make. \nSpoiler alert; not much! \n\n_URL_0_", "well in the last month alone, he has uploaded 54 videos.\n\nlets say on average thats 50 per month, thats 600 videos a year. \n\nthose 54 vids, have got 175.66 million views already (and that proablly a little lower, as numbers wont update every second)\n\nso lets say thats 175million per month, thats 2.1 billion a year! in views! \n\n\n[now this site](_URL_1_) (has crappy pop up ads.. sorry) says he made $400 from 25k views. ($395.28 from 23636 views) \n\n25,000 views = 400 USD ---- 1 view = 0.016 cents (actual is 0.0167236)\n\nhe goes on to explain that differnt youtubers can charge differnet amounts, i would guess pewdiepie can charge lots more then he can. \n\nnow lets combine the fee of 0.016 per view with pewds 175 million a month, or 2.1 billion a year. (lets call it 2billion flat) \n\nmonth = $2.8 million\n\nyear = $33.6 million \n\nnow lets remove 3/4 of that, to allow for people skipping ads, no clicking them, or using adblocker ect. \n\nthats still $8.4million USD... which is more then the suggested $4million." ]

[ "March 3, 2015, Pebble Time became the most funded Kickstarter ever with nearly $14 million funded, while having 24 days left in its campaign. At the end of the funding, March 27, 2015, Pebble Time received pledges of $20,338,986 from 78,471 backers. Pebble 2 Pebble 2, the company's 3rd generation smartwatch, launched on Kickstarter on May 24, 2016 with an offer period of 36 days at discounted introductory pricing, and shipment of the new models anticipated in the October–November 2016 timeframe. Among the new features was a heart rate monitor (On +HR models), microphone, and water resistance rated for 30m", "worth $5.585 million over five years. It included a signing bonus of $1.175 million and salaries of $510,000 in 2007, $700,000 in 2008, $1 million in 2009, $1.1 million in 2010, and $1.1 million in 2011.\nIn 2007, Jones broke the Rams record for highest punting average in a single season, punting 78 times for a 47.2-yard punting average. The previous record of 45.5-yard punting average lasted 45 years after being set in 1962 by Danny Villanueva. In 2008, he became the first NFL punter to average at least 50 yards per punt since Sammy Baugh in 1940. He was voted", "of attendance for three years is $250,412.", "by local restaurants, charity casino, silent auction, and raffle. 1,200 attendees are expected to generate $200,000.", "for about five weekends, it officially made over $32,772,492 domestically", "2000, and earned $5,012,867 in its opening weekend on 1,489 screens, ranking #7 in the weekend of October 13, 2000 ultimately grossing $13,113,041 in the United States. It was later released in the United Kingdom on July 6, 2001, and went on to gross $9,731,250 in international profits.", "US and Canada, bringing its five-day opening to $48.3 million. By comparison, Meet the Fockers made $46.1 million on the same weekend in 2004 for a five-day total of $70.5 million. As of April 9, 2011, Little Fockers grossed $148.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $161 million from other countries around the world, for a worldwide total of $309.4 million. Home media Little Fockers was released on DVD and Blu-ray on April 5, 2011.", "career earnings stood as the highest all-time online career total. His largest payout was $235,592 for a 3rd-place finish in the 2404-player $1000+60 on 28–29 March 2011 Full Tilt Poker - $1K Monday $2 Million Tournament. His largest online wins were the 2,700-player $240+16 on 14 March 2010 Full Tilt Poker - The Sunday Brawl for $109,620 and the 20-player $5000+200 on 9 March 2008 winner-take-all PokerStars - Sunday $5,200 Freezeout for $100,000.\nAs of June 2016 he became a poker ambassador and team member of Team 888poker.\nIn 2018, Chris Moorman crossed the symbolic milestone of $15 million in online earnings.", "exceed 60,000 and probably is near 100,000 and the utmost sum they can earn per week, on a fair average working diligently from six (am) till eight (pm), allowing out of that time an hour and a half for meals, is only 4 s., even if the loom be their own, but if they have to hire the loom, they pay 10d. a week for it, and they must also buy shuttles etc, and keep the loom in repair. Great numbers cannot earn two shillings and six pence, three shillings or three shillings and sixpence per week.\"\nExtract from the", "a two-day total of $44.2 million, and on Friday, it expanded to almost all countries, earning $46.2 million for a three-day total of $92.1 million. On its five-day opening weekend as a whole, it earned a then-record $260.4 million from 18,210 screens in more than 100 territories, in all which it reached first place at the box office. The record debut was surpassed later in the same summer season by Deathly Hallows Part 2. Earnings originating from 3-D showings accounted for 66% of the weekend gross, which was a much greater share than in North America. Its highest-grossing countries during", "become third biggest grosser of 2014, collecting £131,463 in United Kingdom, $582,672 in United States and Canada, $500,000 in Gulf and $145,487 in Australia. Its first weekend total of $1,760,000 is equivalent to ₹ 109 million nett.", "($99 for the first 200), effectively pre-ordering the $150 Pebble at a discounted price. Within two hours of going live, the project had met its $100,000 goal, and within six days, the project had become the most funded project in the history of Kickstarter to that point, raising over $4.7 million with 30 days left in the campaign.\nOn May 10, 2012, Pebble Technology announced they were limiting the number of pre-orders. On May 18, 2012, funding closed with $10,266,845 pledged by 68,929 people. At the time, the product held the world record for the most money raised for a Kickstarter project.", "coming from EPT/UKIPT festival.\nAs for 2015, his total live earnings exceed more than $790,000.", "that the development could be worth more than £3.5 million ($4.6 million) a year to the local economy. Recognition and honors Downing was ranked 23 on rock magazine Hit Parader's list of 100 greatest metal guitarists.", "on February 25, 2005, grossed $2,386 in the opening weekend. Final domestic grossing is $3,252.", "it made $36,993, passing its goal, which was $25,000.", "of £95,000 or over, with the total raised to be a maximum of £5.27m.", "2018, it has generated over $700,000 in earnings.", "reached 1.23 million, a five-year high, the DGBAS report said. While only 0.8 out of every 100 local residents earned NT$2 million or more last year, the number of those in this \"rich men's club\" increased by 11,308, or 12.5 percent, from the year-earlier level. Meanwhile, 7,072 more people had annual incomes of less than NT$200,000 than in 2007, a 0.5 percent year-on-year rise. It marked the second consecutive year that the number of people in the lowest income-earning group increased.\nNoting that the growing gap between rich and poor is a general world trend, a DGBAS official said Taiwan was", "$14.1 million on its opening day, debuting at first place in all of them. It expanded in an additional 42 countries on December 17, generating $58.6 million for a two-day international total of $72.7 million, reaching first place in all 44 markets. It grossed a total of $129.5 million in three days after adding $56.8 million on its third day, topped the daily box office in all countries except for South Korea and Vietnam where it was the second, and set a new midnight record in the United Kingdom with $3.6 million. It broke opening day records in the UK, Ireland and Malta ($14.3 million), Germany ($7.1 million),", "as of December 31, 2007 were $5,981,822.", "been turning a profit since 1939. In 1972, the Washington Post reported that the course grossed $100,000, while rent to the National Park Service was just $10,000. In 1975, The Leoffler family said it lost $300,000 to $500,000 in the 35 years it ran the course (about $8,600 to $14,300 a year), and Langston City Golf Corp. (which took over the lease in 1974) said it lost $50,000 on the course in just a year. (At the time, it was estimated about 125 to 200 golfers used the course each day.) In 1981, the Washington Post claimed that the", "Jaxx. He hit .304 with 11 home runs and 25 runs batted in. His season was shortened due to a broken ankle suffered during the season. In 2006, his season began poorly, as he hit .222 in June and slugged only .343, but soon after he broke out of his slump to end with a batting average of .282, on-base percentage of .341, and slugging percentage of .451. Pie played 55 games of the 2007 season with the Iowa Cubs.\nPie was a highly touted young prospect, and put on the fast-track to reach the big-league club, although he did not", "the seventeen day gross to $83,247,655. In its fourth weekend, it dropped to fifth place with $10,884,825, a drop of 22% from the last weekend, for an average of $3,435 from 3,169 theaters, and bringing the 24-day tally to $96,886,687. In its fifth weekend (President's Day weekend), it dropped to sixth place, making another $10,983,319 over the three-day span, actually increasing 1%, for an average of $3,704 from 2,965 theaters, and bringing the 31-day total to $109,787,819, having broken the $100 million mark on Friday February 13. Over the four-day President's Day weekend, it made $13,574,027 for an average of", "four days, grossing ₩6.91 billion (US$6.37 million). At the end of its run, it grossed a total of ₩17,361,815,332 (US$14,958,245) on 2,192,525 admissions.", "He and his family live in a riverside estate with a $200,000 annual property tax bill. Murphy also owns homes in Berlin and Italy.\nIn 2016 Murphy released five years' worth of federal tax returns. In 2014 he earned about $6 million, paid about $2 million in taxes for an effective tax rate of 34%, and directly or indirectly donated 24% of his income to charity. The returns for the other years showed effective tax rates ranging between 32% and 39%. Murphy's charitable donations during these five years averaged about $980,000 a year. Due to his wealth and the complicated nature", "ranked third in the nation in revenue for 2013. The industry trade publication of record said the restaurant had $26.7 million in revenues in 2013, serving 600,000 meals. Only Tao Asian Bistro in Las Vegas with $64.6 million in revenues and Joe's Stone Crab in Miami, with $35.3 million in revenues, ranked higher.\nIn July 2019, Clyde's Restaurant Group was acquired by Graham Holdings. About the restaurant Old Ebbitt Grill has four bars: the Old Bar, which is part of the Main Dining Room and features the mounted game trophies, the Oyster Bar to the right of the entry foyer,", "but this has led to millions of dollars in monthly revenue for King. In 2014, Candy Crush Saga players spent over $1.33 billion on in-app purchases. This is a decline from the previous year, since in the second half of 2013 players spent over $1.04 billion. By 2015, the monthly revenue was estimated at $120 million, but with declining players purchasing in-game items, down to 2% by 2016, that revenue has dropped to just over $53 million per month. Again, by the end of October 2018, the monthly revenue rose to $128 million.\nFive years after its release on mobile, the", "went on to sell 1,618,891 units, which translated to revenue of $26,578,576.", "crore mark in three weeks, and collected ₨ 43.5 crore in four weeks. For the total gross, it crossed ₨ 60 crore worldwide in its fifth weekend. After the tenth weekend, it crossed ₨ 50 crore mark nationwide. It has collected ₨ 53 crore till 4 April 2019 locally, and ₨ 17 crore from overseas, with a total gross crossing ₨ 70 crore. Critical reception Aamna Haider Isani wrote to Something Haute \"it is brilliant in the first half albeit wasted in the second half, which is lost to the unnecessary social message\". Omair Alavi of Brandsynario rated it 3.5 stars out of 5 and said" ]

[ "Straight in, stick to the top, two o clock (yes always) until about the second bend in your fingers, if you've hit your knuckles that's way too far. It all generally feels the same to you but it has sort of an interesting texture. So I know perhaps you've always been told to do the \"Come here\" motion but it's actually okay to be a little bit rougher than that, nearly all the nerves are located outside and in the clitoris. So use your dominant hand for entry and place the other hand palm down thumb towards you, gently but firmly across the lower pelvis. Use your two fingers with dominant hand to move entire fore arm in a controlled vibration sort of motion. Check with female on pressure and intensity. Use clitoral stimulation at your discretion. Hope that makes sense!" ]

[ "Hubble Deep Field The Hubble Deep Field (HDF) is an image of a small region in the constellation Ursa Major, constructed from a series of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope. It covers an area about 2.6 arcminutes on a side, about one 24-millionth of the whole sky, which is equivalent in angular size to a tennis ball at a distance of 100 metres. The image was assembled from 342 separate exposures taken with the Space Telescope's Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 over ten consecutive days between December 18 and 28, 1995.\nThe field is so small that only a few", "men's singles in luge being 1,365 meters (4,478 ft) and for men's doubles and women's singles being 1,065 meters (3,494 ft). The track has 16 turns and contains 24 photocells for timekeeping. The track has a vertical drop of 112 meters (367 ft) for the entire course, with an average eight percent and maximum fifteen percent grade. The start is located at 384 meters (1,260 ft) above mean sea level. It allows for a maximum speed of 130 kilometres per hour (81 mph) and has a spectator capacity is 10,000. After the Olympics, the track has been used for the FIBT World Championships 1995 in", "Austrian Sea). Observation and exploration Mare Imbrium is visible to the naked eye from Earth. In the traditional 'Man in the Moon' image seen on the Moon in Western folklore, Mare Imbrium forms the man's right eye. Luna 17 On 17 November 1970 at 03:47 Universal Time, the Soviet spacecraft Luna 17 made a soft landing in the mare, at latitude 38.28 N, and longitude 35.00 W. Luna 17 carried Lunokhod 1, the first rover to be deployed on the Moon. Lunokhod 1, a remote-controlled rover, was successfully deployed and undertook a mission lasting several months. Apollo 15 In 1971,", "they have minimal trunk control, their hips tend to be a bit lower in the water and they have leg drag. They either start in the water or start from a sitting dive position. They use their hands to make turns.\nA study comparing the performance of athletics competitors at the 1984 Summer Paralympics found there was little significant difference in performance times between women in 1A (SP1, SP2), 1B (SP3), and 1C (SP3, SP4) in the 25m breaststroke. It found there was little significant difference in performance times between women in 1A, and 1C in the 25m backstroke.", "aiming eye and had to remodel her shooting style to compensate, developing a stance with her head tilted back to make best use of her working eye.\nAt the 2008 Summer Paralympics, held in Beijing, China, she won a bronze medal in the women's individual compound event. Having been defeated by fellow British competitor Danielle Brown in the semifinal with a score of 113-105, Clarke beat Turkey's Gulbin Su in the bronze playoff to win the medal.\nIn 2009, she won a gold medal in the team event and a silver in the individual at the World Championships held in the Czech", "A depression position finder measured the range to a distant target (such as a ship) by solving a right triangle in which the short side was the height of the instrument above mean low water; one angle was the constant right angle between the short side and the plane of the ocean, and the second angle was the depression angle from the horizontal of the instrument as it sighted down from a fire control tower or a base end station at the target. This was called the \"vertical base\" system of rangefinding. These calculations were built into the scales and", "leg drag. They either start in the water or start from a sitting dive position. They use their hands to make turns.\nA study of was done comparing the performance of athletics competitors at the 1984 Summer Paralympics. It found there was little significant difference in performance times between women in 1A (SP1, SP2), 1B (SP3), and 1C (SP3, SP4) in the 25m breaststroke. It found there was little significant difference in performance times between women in 1A, and 1C in the 25m backstroke. It found there was little significant difference in performance times between women in 1A,", "Libby Clegg Career history Clegg has a deteriorating eye condition known as Stargardt's Macular Dystrophy disease giving her only slight peripheral vision in her left eye – she is registered blind. Clegg runs with the aid of guide runner Chris Clarke.\nShe took up athletics aged 9, joining Macclesfield Harriers AC. She originally tried middle distance running and cross country before starting sprinting.\nIn 2006, she competed at the IPC World Championships, winning a silver medal in the T12 200 metres. This was followed by an appearance at the 2008 Summer Olympics, where she won a silver medal in the 100 metres.", "Extended Groth Strip The Extended Groth Strip is an image of a small region between the constellations of Ursa Major and Boötes, based on the results of a series of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope. It covers an area 70 arcminutes across and 10 arcminutes wide, which correlates to a patch of sky roughly the width of a finger stretched at arm's length. The image was assembled from over 500 separate exposures taken with the Space Telescope's Advanced Camera for Surveys at 63 different pointings, spread out over the course of one year from June 2004 to March 2005.", "first four and last five holes from the River course; in 1998 it was set at par 71 with a length of 6,412 yards (5,863 m). The same layout was used for the 2012 U.S. Women's Open, but extended by over 500 yards (460 m) and at par 72. The length for 2012 was 6,954 yards (6,359 m) at an approximate elevation of 650 feet (200 m) above sea level.", "Ali Brigginshaw Ali Brigginshaw (born 1 December 1989) is an Australian international rugby league player. She was woman of the match at the 2017 Women's Rugby League World Cup Final.\nBrigginshaw broke her right fibula in three places in 2015. During her recovery she took up Muay thai and boxing, she now is the national champion and reigning Australian Golden Gloves Novice A champion in the 69 kg category.\nIn June 2018, Brigginshaw, along with Brittany Breayley, Heather Ballinger, Teuila Fotu-Moala and Caitlyn Moran, were named as the five marquee players for the Brisbane Broncos women's team which will commence playing in the", "Cerberus (sonar) Cerberus is an ultrasound Diver Detection Sonar to detect submerged divers. Mod 1 was made by Qinetiq, in their underwater business division. It was unveiled at UDT 2003. The underwater division was sold to ATLAS ELEKTRONIK UK in 2009 and the Mod 2 version was developed by them. It is semi-intelligent and reportedly can detect an air-filled chest cavity underwater and let its operator tell whether the echo is from a man or something irrelevant such as a seal or dolphin, and to distinguish between: a shoal of fish; a ship's wake; a diver with an open-circuit scuba", "(453 m), an increase of 40 yards (37 m). Although not altered, the measurement angle of the dogleg was revised for hole #7, resulting in a new length of 371 yards (339 m), a reduction of 19 yards (17 m).", "Claudia (crater) Claudia is a small (700 meter) crater that defines the prime meridian of asteroid 4 Vesta in the coordinate system used by the Dawn mission team, NASA, and the IAU Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature, though it is not accepted by the IAU as a whole. It is located at 1.6°S and 4.0°W.\nClaudia was chosen because it is small, sharply defined, easy to find, and near the equator. The prime meridian runs 4° to the west. This results in a more logical set of mapping quadrants than the IAU coordinate system, which drifts over time due to an error", "Patsy Hankins Trophy The Patsy Hankins Trophy is an women's amateur golf competition on the model of the Ryder Cup, corresponding to the men's Bonallack Trophy. The competition opposes every two years a European team and a team representing Asia/Pacific, and the venue alternates between courses in Europe and Asia/Pacific. \nThe Trophy is named after Patsy Hankins (1945–2015), one of the most respected golf administrators New Zealand has produced. The first competition took place in 2016 at Vidago Palace Golf Course, Portugal. European Team selection The World Amateur Golf Rankings are used as the main reference for the selection process,", "the 1990s and 2000s, designing dozens of styles with heel heights of 120 mm (4.72 inches) and higher. The designer's professed goal has been to \"make a woman look sexy, beautiful, to make her legs look as long as [he] can\". While he does offer some lower-heeled styles, Louboutin is generally associated with his dressier evening-wear designs incorporating jeweled straps, bows, feathers, patent leather, red soles, and other similar decorative touches. He is most popularly known for the red leather soles on his high heel shoes, commonly referred to as \"sammy red soled shoes\".\nHis signature red soles were first created in 1993.", "Ringshine Ringshine is when sunlight is reflected by a planet's ring system onto the planet or onto the moons of the planet. This has been observed in many of the photos from the Cassini orbiter. Search for terrestrial planets Scientists at NASA's Navigator Program, which specializes in the detection of terrestrial planets, have backed the launch of a Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) mission. TPF would detect light reflected by planets orbiting stars to investigate whether they could harbor life. It would use advanced telescope technologies to look for life-marks in the light reflected from the planets, including water, oxygen and", "stroke she bettered the 36 hole score of 47 men including 4 major winners and matched the scores of 15 more men including 3 more major winners. This in itself was an utterly incredible achievement by a 14 year-old girl. At age 16, 2 years later she shot another round of 68 in the men's tour Sony open and bettered the 36 hole score of 18 men including 2 major winners and matched the score of 9 others including 1 major winner. She again played in the LPGA Kraft Nabisco Championship, finishing fourth. As part of the victorious U.S. team,", "85 lb for women) Sprint Chipper 1) 21 GHD situps with a MedBall, 2) 15 snatches (165 lb for men, 100 lb for women), 3) 9 burpees over a 6-foot wall The Cinco 1 3 rounds of 1) 5 deadlifts (405 lb for men, 265 lb for women), 2) 5 weighted pistol squats per leg (53 lb for men, 35 lb for women) Then, an 80-foot handstand walk The Cinco 2 3 rounds of 1) 5 muscle-ups, 2) 5 deficit handstand pushups Then, a 90-foot overhead walking lunge (160 lb barbell for men, 100 lb barbell for women)", "Orbit (anatomy) Structure The orbits are conical or four-sided pyramidal cavities, which open into the midline of the face and point back into the head. Each consists of a base, an apex and four walls. Openings There are two important foramina, or windows, two important fissures, or grooves, and one canal surrounding the globe in the orbit. There is a supraorbital foramen, an infraorbital foramen, a superior orbital fissure, an inferior orbital fissure and the optic canal, each of which contains structures that are crucial to normal eye functioning. The supraorbital foramen contains the supraorbital nerve, the first division of", "Mendeleev (crater) Description The nearly level interior of Mendeleev contains a number of smaller crater formations which have been given names. These form a rough pentagon formation that covers much of the interior floor. Along the western inner floor, the craters Bergman to the west-northwest and Moissan to the west just make contact with the western inner wall of Mendeleev. Together with Bergman, Fischer to the north-northeast and Richards in the north of Mendeleev form the northern side of the pentagon. The figure continues with Harden near Schuster, and Benedict just to the southeast of the midpoint of Mendeleev. The", "fecal containment systems worn under spandex trunks. The fecal containment device (FCD) was a bag attached directly to the body with an adhesive seal, and the urine collection device (UCD) had a condom-like sheath attached to a tube and pouch. Women joined the astronaut corps in 1978 and required devices with similar functions. However, the early attempts to design feminized versions of the male devices were unsuccessful. In the 1980s, NASA designed space diapers which were called Disposable Absorption Containment Trunks (DACTs). These addressed the women's needs since it was comfortable, manageable, and resistant to leaks. These diapers were", "GPS buoy A GPS buoy is a buoy equipped with a GPS receiver.\nIt is used for sea level and research search-and-rescue operations, among other applications.", "Long Jump F37/38 and finished 7th with a jump of 3.67m(+0.9). At the 2015 IPC Athletics World Championships, she competed in two throwing events and finished 7th in the Women's Discus F38 and 6th in the Women's Javelin F37. In 2016 she became the first Australian woman with a disability to model for a lingerie company after becoming the face of underwear brand ModiBodi. She competed in the 2016 Rio Paralympics, placing 5th in the F38 Shot put event and 8th in the F37 Discus event.\nAt the 2017 World Para Athletics Championships in London, England, she finished second in the", "Marina Zgurscaia Marina Zgurscaia (21 June 1989, Chisnau) is a Moldovan female sport shooter. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, she competed in the Women's 10 metre air pistol, finishing in 29th place.", "up to the organization's discretion to score using outside ring or inside ring scoring. Outside ring scoring measures what ring the hole breaks and measures accordingly. Inside ring scoring scores by determining whether the hole breaks the inside line of the bullseye. Types of three positions matches The International Shooting Sports Federation (ISSF) recognizes four three position events. Two of these events, both called 50 m Rifle, are shot in the Olympics, one for men, the other for women. The two Olympic events are shot with a rimfire rifle at 50m. The two three position events not in the", "the same course for longer. In 2005 it voted to give ladies full rights as members for the first time - ironic as it was originally the first club in the world to allow ladies to become members. Holes Its signature hole is thought by many to be the 15th, \"Redan\", a par-3 which starts with a blind tee-shot over a valley towards the green which is perched on a hill beyond and tilted away and to the left. The design of the hole has been copied on several newer courses around the world, particularly in Japan. One of the", "Paralympics in London, Hogan won a bronze medal in the Women's Javelin F46.\nShe was forced to withdraw from the 2015 IPC Athletics World Championships in Doha due to rupturing her anterior cruciate ligament whilst training for the Women's Javelin F47 event. She had previously ruptured her other knee.\nShe is coached by John Eden and is a Victorian Institute of Sport scholarship holder.\nShe represented Victoria in cricket at the U19 national championships as a spin bowler and plays golf.\nSince her knee surgery in early November 2015 Hogan successfully recovered from rehab and competed in the 2016 Rio Paralympics. She placed", "4 in the heel. Photographs taken during competitions reveal Ukhov uses 10 in the toe, none in the heel.\nUkhov's 2011 indoor season included three meets where he won and then attempted to set a world indoor record of 8 feet (2.44m).\nIn an interview for BBC News filmed in Moscow in early spring 2011, Ukhov admitted his difficulty of jumping in wet conditions without heel spikes and acknowledged this could be a liability at the 2012 Olympics in London. This concern did not materialise, though, with Ukhov winning Gold in London. Personal life Ukhov is 1.93 m tall (6 ft 4 in)", "U.S. Women's Mid-Amateur The U.S. Women's Mid-Amateur is one of thirteen United States Golf Association national championships. First played in 1987, it provides amateur women over the age of 25 an opportunity to compete for a national championship. Entrants must have a handicap index of 9.4 or lower.\nThe major amateur tournament in the U.S. for women, the U.S. Women's Amateur, is dominated by women under age 25, many with hopes of becoming tournament professionals.\nThe winner wins an invitation to the U.S. Women's Open, and if she will turn 50 by the time of the ensuing U.S. Senior Women's Open," ]

[ "Because there isn't nothing there.\n\nEvery spectrum is full of random noise from stars, radioactive decay, all sorts of things like that. It's just terrestrial broadcasts are so much stronger that it overwhelms the random noise. This is why when you start reaching the edge of the coverage area for the station you're listening to, it starts getting more and more static-ey and doesn't just go from \"fine\" to \"nothing.\"", "much of it is noise left behind from the big bang\n\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "data. Video noise In video and television, noise refers to the random dot pattern that is superimposed on the picture as a result of electronic noise, the 'snow' that is seen with poor (analog) television reception or on VHS tapes. Interference and static are other forms of noise, in the sense that they are unwanted, though not random, which can affect radio and television signals. Useful noise High levels of noise are almost always undesirable, but there are cases when a certain amount of noise is useful, for example to prevent discretization artifacts (color banding or posterization). Some noise also", "stations in other countries. Jamming is usually accomplished by a powerful transmitter which generates noise on the same frequency as the target transmitter. During wartime, militaries use jamming to interfere with enemies' tactical radio communication. Etymology The word \"radio\" is derived from the Latin word \"radius\", meaning \"spoke of a wheel, beam of light, ray\". It was first applied to communications in 1881 when, at the suggestion of French scientist Ernest Mercadier, Alexander Graham Bell adopted \"radiophone\" (meaning \"radiated sound\") as an alternate name for his photophone optical transmission system. However, this invention would not be widely adopted.\nFollowing", "turn on, enable or unmute the receiver's speaker audio stages. When the tone is present, the receiver is unmuted, when it is not present the receiver is silent.\nIn a communications receiver designed for CTCSS, a high-pass audio filter is supposed to block CTCSS tones (below 300 Hz) so they are not heard in the speaker. Since audio curves vary from one receiver to another, some radios may pass an audible level of the CTCSS tone to the speaker. Lower tone frequencies generally are less audible. If the magenta audio curve shown at right were plotted from a CTCSS-equipped receiver, it would", "be distinctly unsynchronized. This is because all analog receivers process analog signals faster than HD radios can process digital signals. The digital processing of analog signals in an HD radio delays them also. The resulting unmistakable \"reverb\" or echo effect from playing radios of both types in the same room or house can be annoying. It is more noticeable with simple voice transmission than with complex musical program content. (Multiple HD receivers of the same make and model, or multiple analog receivers in the same room or house, will not cause noticeable echo.)\nStations can transmit HD Radio through their existing", "personal medium we have, because the human voice is so expressive. It's a storytelling medium and we all need storytelling.\n... often times people think of radio as bringing information to people, kind of vertical. The unique strength of radio is a horizontal ... That's where people change their mind or modify their opinions perhaps or see other points of view.\nBecause radio is so flexible and personal, it will be here, as long as we continue to make it essential ... Our raw materials are ideas, culture, community, news and interesting people.\nthe only definition of 'broadcast' in 1901 [16 years before", "use in national emergency broadcast systems, but short range units on emergency vehicles can prove an effective means of alerting traffic to their presence, although is not able to alert pedestrians, non-RDS radio users, or drivers with their radios turned off.\nA new technology has been developed and is slowly becoming more popular with police. Called the Rumbler, it is a siren that emits a low frequency sound which can be felt. Motorists that may have loud music playing in their car, for example, may not hear the audible siren of a police car behind them, but will feel the vibrations", "interference by distant stations and varying atmospheric conditions that affect reception.\nIn the very high frequency band, greater than 30 megahertz, the Earth's atmosphere has less of an effect on the range of signals, and line-of-sight propagation becomes the principle mode. These higher frequencies permit the great bandwidth required for television broadcasting. Since natural and artificial noise sources are less present at these frequencies, high-quality audio transmission is possible, using frequency modulation. Radio broadcasting Radio broadcasting means transmission of audio (sound) to radio receivers belonging to a public audience. Analog audio is the earliest form of radio broadcast. AM", "throughout the system. Therefore, for transmitting the news, announcers with especially loud voices — known as stentors — were hired and instructed to speak as forcefully as possible into specially designed double-receivers.\nHome installations normally consisted of two earphone telephone receivers, connected to long, flexible wires. A subscriber could listen using both earphones, or, alternately, two persons could listen by each using a single earphone. A loud buzzer, strong enough to be heard throughout a room even when the subscriber's receivers were not currently being listened to, was used to draw attention to important announcements. The American author Thomas Denison, who", "in the back of the microphone pick up ambient noise. This is applied, out-of-phase, to the back of the microphone, effectively reducing or canceling any sound which is present both in front and back of the microphone. Ideally, only the voice present on the front side of the microphone goes out on the air.\nMany radios are equipped with transmitter time-out timers which limit the length of a transmission. A bane of push-to-talk systems is the stuck microphone: A radio locked on transmit, which disrupts communications on a two-way radio system. One example of this problem occurred in a car with", "World War I, when the development of amplitude modulation (AM) radiotelephony allowed sound (audio) to be transmitted by radio. In radiotelegraphy, information is transmitted by pulses of radio waves of two different lengths called \"dots\" and \"dashes\", which spell out text messages, usually in Morse code. In a manual system, the sending operator manipulates a switch called a telegraph key which turns the transmitter on and off, producing the pulses of radio waves. At the receiver the pulses are audible in the receiver's speaker as beeps, which are translated back to text by an operator who knows", "at the same time. The radio is normally in receive mode so the user can hear all other transmissions on the channel. When the user wants to talk he presses a \"push-to-talk\" button, which turns off the receiver and turns on the transmitter; when he releases the button the receiver is activated again. Multiple users on the channel must take turns talking. Other two-way radio systems operate in full-duplex mode, in which both parties can talk simultaneously. This requires either two separate radio channels or channel sharing methods such as time division duplex (TDD) to", "telephone line's changing the phase of the send audio before it returns, with varying shifts at different frequencies. The original and leakage audio are mixed at the console and combine in and out of phase at the various frequencies. When this occurs, the host sounds either hollow or tinny as the phase cancellation affects some frequencies more than others. Audio feedback can result from the acoustic coupling created when callers must be heard on a loudspeaker. When lines are conferenced and the gain around the loop of the multiple hybrids is greater than unity, feedback \"singing\" will be audible. If", "Live radio Live radio is radio broadcast without delay. Before the days of television, audiences listened to live dramas, comedies, quiz shows and concerts on the radio much the same way that they now do on television. Most talk radio is live radio where people can speak (anonymously) about their opinions and lives. Live radio is sound transmitted by radio waves, as the sound happens. Modern live radio is probably most used to broadcast sports but it is also used to transmit local news and traffic updates. Most radio that we listen to today is recorded music, and the days", "producing the \"continuous-wave\" signals needed to make audio transmissions. (Moretti's transmitter only approximated a true continuous-wave transmission, which limited sound quality, and reportedly when no audio was being sent, instead of silence the result was \"a terrible noise in the ears\"). The common practice at this time for \"modulating\" the transmission in order to encode sound was to insert a microphone in the aerial transmission line. This required a robust microphone that could handle strong electrical currents. In the fall of 1913, the Laeken experimenters began to employ a microphone that had been developed by Italian Giovanni Battista Marzi. Initial", "without a telephone. But, noticing a radio in the room, he uses his knowledge of radio to improvise a way to use it as a phone: the loudspeaker will double as a microphone if they swap the right wires back and forth each time he starts or finishes talking.\nHe reaches the telephone operator and tries to get a message sent to Upshaw's flight, but Jones's man on the flight finds a way to disable the aircraft radio, and contact is lost. Benton then has the operator contact his radio station, where it is almost time for The Fox. They patch", "Radio silence In telecommunications, radio silence or Emissions Control (EMCON) is a status in which all fixed or mobile radio stations in an area are asked to stop transmitting for safety or security reasons.\nThe term \"radio station\" may include anything capable of transmitting a radio signal. A single ship, aircraft, spacecraft, or group of them may also maintain radio silence. Amateur radio Wilderness Protocol The Wilderness Protocol recommends that those stations able to do so should monitor the primary (and secondary, if possible) frequency every three hours starting at 7 AM, local time, for 5 minutes starting at the top", "a ringing noise to alert its owner, while the user of the first phone hears a ringing noise in its earpiece. If the second phone is picked up, then the operators of the two units are able to talk to one another through them. If the phone is not picked up, the operator of the first phone continues to hear a ringing noise until they hang up their own phone.\nOne of the main struggles for Alexander Graham Bell and his team was to prove to non-English speakers that this new phenomenon \"worked in their language.\" It was a concept that", "than later transmission systems. An AM receiver detects amplitude variations in the radio waves at a particular frequency, then amplifies changes in the signal voltage to operate a loudspeaker or earphone. However, the simplicity of AM transmission also makes it vulnerable to \"static\" (radio noise, radio frequency interference) created by both natural atmospheric electrical activity such as lightning, and electrical and electronic equipment, including fluorescent lights, motors and vehicle ignition systems. In large urban centres, AM radio signals can be severely disrupted by metal structures and tall buildings. As a result, AM radio tends to do best in areas where", "Sound multiplex in broadcasting In broadcasting, sound multiplex is a method to deliver alternative audio feeds on television and radio channels. Usage This way, a television or radio channel can carry surround sound (like stereo or 5.1 surround sound), or alternative audio programming where an audio track in different language, alternative sports commentary, or audio description for people with visual impairment can be heard.", "interference. This allows a device containing two radios (such as a Wi-Fi access Point with two 5 GHz radios) to use any pair of channels regardless of separation. Adjacent channel interference consists of two main components. The signal on the transmit frequency, known as the blocker, may be so strong that it desensitizes a receiver listening on an adjacent channel. A strong, local transmitter also produces noise that spills over onto the adjacent channel. SIC may be used to reduce both the blocker and the noise that might otherwise prevent use of an adjacent channel. In-band full duplex Transmitting and receiving", "obsolete because television and radio have limited warning capability.\nAccording to a report in the Daily Telegraph, there were suggestions that the warning message would be recorded by Jill Dando, actress Joanna Lumley or Carol Vorderman.\n\nUnder the Broadcasting Act 1980, the government still has the legal right to take over editorial control of radio and television in the event of a national emergency. Also, the BBC agreement allows the government to ask the BBC to broadcast messages in an emergency:\n\"If it appears to any UK Government Minister that an emergency has arisen, that Minister may request that the BBC broadcast or", "the broadcasting of sound programmes to the public and today can be live streamed through a broadband connection or digitally transmitted into people's cars or homes. Despite being the oldest form of media transmission still being used, marketing via radio remains a popular and effective choice due to its relatively lower cost and convenience (radio exposure can occur during transit, at work, and during recreational activities). Due to the lack of a visual aspect, radio advertising attempts to create imagery in the consumers mind. Radio advertising is also extremely effective at reinforcing messages encountered in other channels (such as television).", "light shone on them. The receiver also wears a set of headphones through which white or pink noise (static) is played. The receiver is in this state of mild sensory deprivation for half an hour. During this time, a \"sender\" observes a randomly chosen target and tries to mentally send this information to the receiver. The receiver speaks out loud during the thirty minutes, describing what he or she can \"see\". This is recorded by the experimenter (who is blind to the target) either by recording onto tape or by taking notes, and is used to", "radio net operations, etc. Section 611 of ACP 125(F) details how to conduct radio checks using plain language. Examples of usage One of these reports, \"LOUD AND CLEAR\", is commonly used in television shows, movies, literature, and by radio operators, commonly without knowing the source or the rest of the standard reports (hence the much-reduced frequency with which the other combinations are used). For example:\nLOUD AND CLEAR means Excellent copy with no noise\nLOUD BUT DISTORTED means the signal strength is very strong but the audio is distorted.\nGOOD AND READABLE means Good copy with slight noise\nFAIR BUT READABLE means Fair copy,", "Push-to-talk History in two-way radio For example, an air traffic controller usually talks on one radio frequency to all aircraft under his/her supervision. Those under the same frequency can hear others' transmissions while using procedure words such as \"break\", \"break break\" to separate order during the conversation (ICAO doc 9432).\nIn doing so, they are aware of each other's actions and intentions, and do not hear any background noise from the ones who are not speaking. Similar considerations apply to police radio, the use of business band radios on construction sites, and other scenarios requiring coordination of several parties. Citizens Band", "programme to be not just about when and on what frequency one could listen to a given station on shortwave, but also about why one should listen.\nDuring the early 1980s, a time when international telephony was still of a potentially mediocre sound quality (making it unsuitable for shortwave broadcasts), Media Network went against the established wisdom and made extensive use of the telephone. Calls were made to the show's various contributors. On many occasions where telephone quality was deemed too poor for broadcast, a tape recording was made at both ends of the line, then the person with whom Marks", "These do not afford privacy or security, but serve only to reduce annoying interference by other users or other noise sources; a receiver with the tone squelch turned off will hear everything on the channel. GMRS/FRS radios offering CTCSS codes typically provide a choice of 38 tones, but the tone number and the tone frequencies used may vary from one manufacturer to another (or even within product lines of one manufacturer) and should not be assumed to be consistent (i.e. \"Tone 12\" in one set of radios may not be \"Tone 12\" in another). When a radio offers", "attempt to transmit on the same frequency will interfere with each other, causing garbled reception, so neither transmission may be received clearly. Interference with radio transmissions can not only have a large economic cost, it can be life threatening (for example, in the case of interference with emergency communications or air traffic control).\nTo prevent interference between different users, the emission of radio waves is strictly regulated by national laws, coordinated by an international body, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), which allocates bands in the radio spectrum for different uses. Radio transmitters must be licensed by governments, under a variety of", "propagating, like interrupting a spotlight's beam. For this reason, most systems are mounted overhead, like lighting. Military There has been speculation about military sonic weapons that emit highly-directional high-intensity sound; however, these devices do not use ultrasound, although sometimes thought to do so. WikiLeaks has published technical specifications of such sound weapons. Commercial advertising A sound signal can be aimed so that only a particular passer-by, or somebody very close, can hear it. In commercial applications, it can target sound to a single person without the peripheral sound and related noise of a loudspeaker. Personal audio It can be", "other land mobile radio services, multiple radios in a local area share a single frequency channel, but only one can transmit at a time. The radio is normally in receive mode to receive transmissions of other radios on the channel; when a user wants to talk they press a \"push to talk\" button on their radio, which turns on their transmitter. Users on a channel must take turns talking. Transmitter power is limited to 4 watts in the US and the EU, and CB radios have a range of about 3 to 20 miles, depending on terrain.\nMultiple countries" ]

[ "You can put metal in microwaves, which is a lot come with racks, you just can't put metal with sharp edges/points such as forks and aluminum foil. As for the interior, most microwaves have their interior painted to prevent these issues." ]

[ "(such as Starbucks novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell will burst off the object or melt.\nThe high electrical fields generated inside a microwave often can be illustrated by placing a radiometer or neon glow-bulb inside the cooking chamber, creating glowing plasma inside the low-pressure bulb of the device. Direct microwave exposure Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped", "inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard. Metal objects Any metal or conductive object placed into the microwave will act as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking.\nAny object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwaves is safe, see below), twist-ties", "heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards.\nAnother hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave will form. The energy is reflected back and forth", "added. The beryllium in such oxides is a serious chemical hazard if crushed then inhaled or ingested. In addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons should not be handled. This is a danger if the microwave oven becomes physically damaged, if the insulator cracks, or when the magnetron is opened and handled, yet not during normal usage.\nThe use of unmarked plastics for microwave cooking raises the issue of plasticizers leaching into the food, or the plastics chemically reacting to microwave energy, with by-products leaching into the food, suggesting that", "air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.\nThe effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against", "a more effective antenna, resulting in a longer lived spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air, some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy in large quantities.\nIt is possible for metal objects to be microwave-oven compatible, although experimentation by users is not encouraged. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and", "the air surrounding the sheet. Modern microwave ovens have been designed to prevent damage to the cavity magnetron tube from microwave energy reflection, and aluminium packages designed for microwave heating are available. Art and decoration Heavier foils made of aluminium are used for art, decoration, and crafts, especially in bright metallic colours. Metallic aluminium, normally silvery in colour, can be made to take on other colours through anodisation. Anodising creates an oxide layer on the aluminium surface that can accept coloured dyes or metallic salts, depending on the process used. In this way, aluminium is used to create an", "Microwave chemistry Microwave chemistry is the science of applying microwave radiation to chemical reactions. Microwaves act as high frequency electric fields and will generally heat any material containing mobile electric charges, such as polar molecules in a solvent or conducting ions in a solid. Polar solvents are heated as their component molecules are forced to rotate with the field and lose energy in collisions. Semiconducting and conducting samples heat when ions or electrons within them form an electric current and energy is lost due to the electrical resistance of the material. Microwave heating in the laboratory began to gain", "eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.\nProducts that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is", "Microwave welding Microwave welding is a plastic welding process that utilizes alternating electromagnetic fields in the microwave band to join thermoplastic base materials that are melted by the phenomenon of dielectric heating.", "1945 Percy Spencer, an engineer working on radar at Raytheon, noticed that microwave radiation from a magnetron oscillator melted a candy bar in his pocket. He investigated cooking with microwaves and invented the microwave oven, consisting of a magnetron feeding microwaves into a closed metal cavity containing food, which was patented by Raytheon on 8 October 1945. Due to their expense microwave ovens were initially used in institutional kitchens, but by 1986 roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned one. Microwave heating became widely used as an industrial process in industries such as plastics fabrication,", "stovetop cooking utensils.\nThe study of metallic elements and their alloys makes up a significant portion of the fields of solid-state chemistry, physics, materials science and engineering.\nMetallic solids are held together by a high density of shared, delocalized electrons, known as \"metallic bonding\". In a metal, atoms readily lose their outermost (\"valence\") electrons, forming positive ions. The free electrons are spread over the entire solid, which is held together firmly by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud. The large number of free electrons gives metals their high values of electrical and thermal conductivity. The free electrons also prevent", "of microwaves. This reduces attenuation of the propagating wave due to resistive losses affecting the accompanying eddy currents; the skin effect confines such eddy currents to a very thin surface layer of the waveguide structure. The skin effect itself isn't actually combatted in these cases, but the distribution of currents near the conductor's surface makes the use of precious metals (having a lower resistivity) practical. Although it has a lower conductivity than copper and silver, gold plating is also used, because unlike copper and silver, it does not corrode. A thin oxidized layer of copper or silver would have a", "to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be released which will provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance between them a three-dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home.\nThe second problem is due to food composition and geometry, and must be addressed by the cook, by arranging the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically testing and shielding any parts of the food that", "a \"Freedom Trash Can\", which included pots and pans. Metal Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need to conduct heat well, but also need to be chemically unreactive so that they do not alter the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another. Aluminium Aluminium is a lightweight metal with very good thermal conductivity.", "by a standard microwave oven; however some types of RFID tags, particularly those constructed to radiate using large metallic antennas (in particular RF tags and EPC tags), may catch fire if subjected to this process for too long (as would any metallic item inside a microwave oven). This simple method cannot safely be used to deactivate RFID features in electronic devices, or those implanted in living tissue, because of the risk of damage to the \"host\". However the time required is extremely short (a second or two of radiation) and the method works in many other non-electronic and inanimate items,", "Microwave Active Composition Microwave Active Composition is a brand of microwave-sensitive liquid chemicals sold by Atlanta Chemical Engineering LLC. The chemical undergoes color change if it interacts with intensive microwaves. There are two major types of microwave active compositions - reversible and irreversible. The reversible composition is colored liquid and when irradiated with microwaves losses its color. However it has the ability to revert to the original one in a short time after discontinuing the irradiation. The irreversible version of microwave active composition is white (transparent if coated) and transforms itself to colored one when makes contact with microwaves. It", "most materials undergo a combination of these two effects.\nNonmagnetic materials and electrical insulators such as plastics can be induction-welded by implanting them with metallic or ferromagnetic compounds, called susceptors, that absorb the electromagnetic energy from the induction coil, become hot, and lose their heat to the surrounding material by thermal conduction. \nPlastic can also be induction welded by embedding the plastic with electrically conductive fibers like metals or carbon fiber. Induced eddy currents resistively heat the embedded fibers which lose their heat to the surrounding plastic by conduction. Induction welding of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is commonly used in the", "is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. Heating and power application A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near 2.45 GHz (12 cm) through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.\nMicrowave heating is used in industrial processes", "cobalt in such a source is normally in the form of cobalt metal alloyed with some nickel to improve the mechanical properties of the radioactive metal. If such a source is abused, then the cobalt metal fragments do not tend to dissolve in water or become very mobile. If a cobalt or iridium source is lost at a ferrous metal scrapyard then it is often the case that the source will enter a furnace, the radioactive metal will melt and contaminate the steel from this furnace. In Mexico, some buildings have been demolished because of the level of cobalt-60 in", "microwave processes. The many industrial applications of microwave energy include drying of food products and industrial films, heating, such as in polyurethane foam production, melting, rendering, sterilising, and vulcanisation. In high-volume production the process is continuous necessitating openings to the microwave chamber where the product can be fed in and exit. Steps need to be taken to prevent unsafe levels of microwave radiation escaping from these apertures which are often large to accommodate the product. It is usual to line the product feed ducts with microwave absorbent material for this purpose. However, the absorbed microwaves have a heating effect and", "much lower melting temperatures, and the fact that plastics will burn if overheated. Many different methods have been devised for heating plastic to a weldable temperature without burning it. Ovens or electric heating tools can be used to melt the plastic. Ultrasonic, laser, or friction heating are other methods. Resistive metals may be implanted in the plastic, which respond to induction heating. Some plastics will begin to burn at temperatures lower than their glass transition, so welding can be performed by blowing a heated, inert gas onto the plastic, melting it while, at the same time, shielding it from oxygen.\nMany", "low resistance, to reduce the power consumed by the field coil, but more importantly to reduce the waste heat produced by ohmic heating. Excess heat in the windings is a common cause of failure. Owing to the increasing cost of copper, aluminium windings are increasingly used.\nAn even better material than copper, except for its high cost, would be silver as this has even lower resistivity. Silver has been used in rare cases. During World War II the Manhattan project to build the first atomic bomb used electromagnetic devices known as calutrons to enrich uranium. Thousands of tons of silver were", "A notoriously \"soft\" metal, aluminum tends to meld in the intense heat of the cutting zone before the chips can be evacuated. This causes the chips to congeal in the cutting zone, requiring downtime to clear the blockage and, often, replace the tool. Tests with customer shops showed that STREAKERS end mills' two- and three-flute design eliminate this clogging problem.\nIMCO's M7 Omega-6 end mills, introduced in 2000, were designed to resolve problems in achieving high surface finishes, especially in hard-to-machine materials. With these materials, from cast iron to titanium, the more balanced and frequent the contact between the cutting edges", "metal, usually aluminum, into complex shapes. They are fairly common in microwave assemblies for aerospace use, where precision transmission lines require complex metal shapes, in combination with hermetically sealed housings. Quantities tend to be small; sometimes only one unit of a custom design is required. Piece part costs are high, but there is little or no cost for custom tooling, and first-piece deliveries can take as little as half a day. The tool of choice is a numerically controlled vertical milling machine, with automatic translation of computer-aided design (CAD) files to toolpath command files. Molded plastic", "power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing. Commercial availability In 1947, Raytheon built the \"Radarange\", the first commercially available microwave oven. It was almost 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) tall, weighed 340 kilograms (750 lb) and cost about", "in contact with air or water (for example, sodium), which exacerbates this risk. Generally speaking, masses of combustible metals do not represent great fire risks because heat is conducted away from hot spots so efficiently that the heat of combustion cannot be maintained. In consequence, significant heat energy is required to ignite a contiguous mass of combustible metal. Generally, metal fires are a hazard when the metal is in the form of sawdust, machine shavings or other metal \"fines\", which combust more rapidly than larger blocks. Metal fires can be ignited by the same ignition sources that would start", "joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators.\nJewelry components, machine tools and some refrigeration and plumbing components are often assembled and repaired by the higher temperature silver soldering process. Small mechanical parts are often soldered or brazed as well. Soldering is also used to join lead came and copper foil in stained glass work.\nElectronic soldering connects electrical wiring and electronic components to printed circuit boards by utilizing a metallic alloy substance called solder. This special alloy is melted by using a soldering iron, a wave bath, or a specialized oven, as", "the steel used to make them. Also, some of the steel which was rendered radioactive in the Mexican event was used to make legs for 1400 tables. Source melting In the case of some high-value scrap metals it is possible to decontaminate the material, but this is best done long before the metal goes to a scrap yard. Ferrous scrap In the case of a caesium source being melted in an electric arc furnace used for steel scrap, it is more likely that the caesium will contaminate the fly ash or dust from the furnace, while radium is likely to", "metal with numerous familiar uses in everyday life. It is most often encountered in construction materials, in electrical devices, especially as the conductor in cables, and in tools and vessels for cooking and preserving food. Aluminium's lack of reactivity with food products makes it particularly useful for canning. Its high affinity for oxygen makes it a powerful reducing agent. Finely powdered pure aluminium oxidizes rapidly in air, generating a huge amount of heat in the process (burning at about 5500 °F or 3037 °C), leading to applications in welding and elsewhere that a large amount of heat is needed. Aluminium" ]

[ "There's a couple ways that traffic lights know there are cars there. \n\nThe first (and probably most common) is sensors under the road. They use coils of wire to detect when something magnetic (like the steel in a car) passes overhead. You can actually usually see them if you look at the lanes, there will sometimes be a 4ish by 6ish square that's visible from the surface.\n\nOther traffic lights use cameras to actually detect cars with image recognition, but there are still pretty rare and are generally put in to do double-duty as red-light cameras or traffic monitoring.\n\nThere's a few around that use infrared motion detectors (like motion lights or supermarket doors) but I actually haven't seen any in a while, they might be phased out.\n\nAs far as the boxes on top (and this is a guess) it may be part of a system emergency vehicles use. In some cities, emergency vehicles emit an infrared signal (like a remote control does) straight forward when they have their sirens on which will tell the light to turn that way green and all others red.", "The polygonal (usually) markings on the road at the intersection are electromagnets that detect when a car or bike is on them." ]

[ "not all \"streets\". \n“Road lighting”, as distinct from \"street lighting\", encompasses the lighting of all types of highway, public maintainable streets and roads. “Street lighting” is term-specific to “streets” – that is: to highways allowing direct access to buildings or spaces in built-up areas.\nTherefore, the conclusion drawn above, should be considered specific to \"streets\", lit with \"street lighting\". Roads that cannot clearly be defined as \"streets\" should not be presumed to have a speed limit of 30 m.p.h., where no speed limit sign is in place. \nBritish Standards on \"Road Lighting\" are contained in the following documents: BS EN13201-1-2004; BS", "lights that \"could have been mistaken for lights of unknown origin\", but in each case the movements of the lights and the data from their equipment could be easily explained as automobile headlights or small fires.", "the vehicle can be used at night; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver; white-colored reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car (and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing); and on some vehicles, additional lights (e.g., side marker lights) to increase the visibility of the car. Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. Some vehicles also have a trunk light and, more rarely, an engine", "The day/night system Every 13 minutes the lighting of the model is changed as day turns gradually into night. The night lighting lasts for 2 minutes. More than 500 000 LED lights in different colours were used to illuminate the model without creating shadows Movement of road vehicles The movement of the cars in the model is realistic. The cars and buses stop at traffic lights, bus stops and flashing signals, and they change speeds and bypass each other. The electrical energy for the automobiles is obtained remotely from underneath the model, so the cars themselves don't appear to have", "as they are only operable when the vehicle is travelling at less than 40 kilometres per hour (about 25 mph). Spot lights Police cars, emergency vehicles, and those competing in road rallies are sometimes equipped with an auxiliary lamp, sometimes called an alley light, in a swivel-mounted housing attached to one or both a-pillars, directable by a handle protruding through the pillar into the vehicle. Conspicuity, signal and identification lights Conspicuity devices are the lamps and reflectors that make a vehicle conspicuous and visible with respect to its presence, position, direction of travel, change in direction or deceleration. Such lamps may", "Automotive lighting The lighting system of a motor vehicle consists of lighting and signalling devices mounted or integrated to the front, rear, sides, and in some cases the top of a motor vehicle. This lights the roadway for the driver and increases the visibility of the vehicle, allowing other drivers and pedestrians to see a vehicle's presence, position, size, direction of travel, and the driver's intentions regarding direction and speed of travel. Emergency vehicles usually carry distinctive lighting equipment to warn drivers and indicate priority of movement in traffic. History Early road vehicles used fuelled lamps, before the availability of", "Causes The lights are believed by some to be from passing cars on the highway in the distance (which looks like small floating lights that flash off in the distance).\nSome believe that its caused by piezoelectricity from the constant stress that area underground quartz crystals are under. Gurdon sits above large amounts of quartz crystals and the New Madrid fault line.", "only as a deterrent to criminals but more importantly to allow people to see where they're going. The colour of streetlamp bulbs differ, but are generally white or yellow.\nTraffic lights or traffic signals usually include three colours: green indicates vehicles should proceed through an intersection; amber indicates vehicles should prepare to stop; and red indicates vehicles should not enter the intersection. They are generally mounted on poles or gantries or hung from wires.\nTraffic signs communicate road conditions to inform safe driver behaviours. Postings may specify aspects such as speed limits, intersection protocols, slippery road conditions or reduced visibility. Direction signs", "are no reliable sightings of the light in any location but directly west along the road and therefore explainable by the Route 66 connection. Robert Gannon, writing for Popular Mechanics Magazine, also claims that the Spooklights are headlights from Route 66, citing a test in which he flashed his headlights on Route 66 at a certain time and the Spooklights were reported to flash as well.\nOther explanations for the light's appearance include atmospheric gases being affected by electrical fields. A University of Arkansas professor studied the light in the 1960s and suggested that it was from a fixed object.\nIn 2014,", "road and scanning for passengers as they approach a bus stop. New York City Transit bus drivers, among others, are trained to step continuously on the right directional switch while servicing a bus stop, to signal other road users they are intentionally dwelling at the stop, allowing following buses to skip that stop. This method of signalling requires no special arrangements for self-cancellation or passing. Sequential turn signals Sequential turn signals are a feature on some cars wherein the turn-signal function is provided by multiple lit elements that illuminate sequentially rather than simultaneously: the innermost lamp lights and remains", "to poles (different from the radar guns carried by police officers) at intersections, which are often specifically chosen due to high numbers of crashes and/or red-light-running violations. In some case, cameras are built in with traffic lights. Red light camera systems typically employ two closely spaced inductive loops embedded in the pavement just before the limit line, to measure the speed of vehicles. Using the speed measured, the system predicts if a particular vehicle will not be able to stop before entering the intersection, and takes two photographs of the event. The first photo shows the vehicle just before it", "The vehicle's stock lighting may also be modified to add flashing and strobe effects. This can be done by adding electronics to the existing lighting system (for instance, to create a wig-wag), or by drilling holes in the reflectors of stock lighting and inserting flashing lights in those holes. Information matrix signs Some emergency vehicles use signs made up of a large number of light sources (usually LEDs), which can be programmed to display messages to other road users. This can be used to request other vehicles to pull over, indicate a special instruction, or just to display", "on a dashboard in modern vehicles are illuminated when the headlamps are turned on, and the intensity of light can be adjusted by the driver for comfort. Saab automobiles, for example, have an aircraft-style \"night panel\" function which shuts off all interior illumination save for the speedometer (unless attention is called to a critical situation on another gauge) to improve the driver's night vision. Emergency vehicle lights Emergency vehicles such as fire engines, ambulances, police cars, snow-removal vehicles and tow trucks are usually equipped with intense warning lights of particular colours. These may be motorised rotating beacons, xenon strobes, or", "the traffic signals. It may be a single light bulb visible to all, which flashes or stays on, or there may be a light aimed towards each direction from which traffic approaches the intersection. In the case of multiple notifier lights at a controllable intersection, they will either flash or stay on depending on the local configuration, to communicate to all drivers from which direction a preempting signal is being received. This informs regular drivers which direction may need to be cleared, and informs activating vehicle drivers if they have control of the light (especially important when more", "vehicle lights is largely standardised by longstanding convention. It was first codified in the 1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic and later specified in the 1968 United Nations Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. With some regional exceptions, lamps facing rearward must emit red light, lamps facing sideward and all turn signals must emit amber light, while lamps facing frontward must emit white or selective yellow light. No other colours are permitted except on emergency vehicles. Forward illumination Forward illumination is provided by high- (\"main\", \"full\", \"driving\") and low- (\"dip\", \"dipped\", \"passing\") beam headlamps, which may be augmented by auxiliary fog", "side mirrors of a vehicle, activated by the driver on one side of the vehicle at a time to advertise intent to turn or change lanes towards that side.\nElectric turn-signal lights date from as early as 1907. The modern flashing turn signal was patented in 1938 and later most major automobile manufacturers offered this feature. As of 2013 most countries require turn signals on all new vehicles that are driven on public roadways. Alternative systems of hand signals were used earlier, and remain common for bicycles. Hand signals are also sometimes used when regular vehicle lights are malfunctioning or for", "the safety chains. This feature allows sets of up to six cars to be formed.\nTwo headlights are mounted at the top of the car in the centre on driver's cab ends. There are no marker lights at the front; however, there are red marker lights for the rear located on the upper corners. There are metal steps up the side of the car to each door, but they are not used by passengers. They are illuminated by lights at night. All cars are air-conditioned. Refurbishment In the 2008/09 State Budget it was announced that five out of six of Adelaide's", "lights being noticed when not on.\nCommon places to mount such beacons include on or in the grill of the vehicle and on the front of the rear view mirrors, where they can gain maximum visibility. In the UK many emergency vehicles have lights on the side of the bonnet, which helps to warn oncoming traffic when pulling out of junctions. These lights are often strobe or LED types, as they have the lowest profile for purposes of attachment. Vehicle integral Sometimes, the existing lighting on a vehicle is modified to create warning beacons. In the case of", "located on the outside of the vehicle's side mirrors on the side where a vehicle is present. Noises may also sound if the driver engages the turn signal when there is a vehicle in the blind spot area. Blind spot monitoring technologies are equipped on most luxury vehicles and in recently produced vehicles. There are packages present to add blind spot monitoring to vehicles at the time of purchase. One inherent weakness of many of these systems is that they struggle to detect fast moving cars, motorcycles, or low riding cars. Lane departure warnings Lane departure warning systems are technologies", "A camera system could notice driver behavior such as brake lights and/or a turn signal. This could allow a following car to interpret a turn signal by an exit as not requiring the following car to slow down, as the leading car will exit. Multi-sensor systems could also take note of traffic signs/signals and not, e.g., violate a red light while following a vehicle that crossed before the signal changed. Predictive systems Predictive systems modify vehicle speed based on predictions of other vehicles' behavior. Such systems can make earlier, more moderate adjustments to the predicted behavior, improving safety and passenger", "placed not more than 200 yards apart”. Section 81 specifically makes it an offence for a person to drive a motor vehicle at a speed of more than 30 mph on a restricted road.\n\"Street lighting\" is further defined as follows:\nAs set out in paragraph 45, it is generally recognised that a ‘system’ of street lighting could be three or more lamps spaced not more than 183 metres apart. However, street lighting (for the purposes of determining whether or not a road is a restricted) is not necessarily limited to street lamps, but may extend to lighting provided by authorities or", "\"Padunkle\" upon spotting a car without headlights turned on at night, awarding the spotter double points. Padunkle is also known as a rear light being out.", "control surfaces and in cabin storage areas.\nMap lights are aimed at specific passenger positions and allow for reading without glare distraction to the driver. Some vehicles have \"approach lighting\" (puddle lights) in the exterior mirrors or lower edges of the doors, as well as interior lighting activated via key fob. Many cars have lights in the trunk (or boot), the engine compartment, and the glovebox and other storage compartments. Modern pickup trucks usually have one or more white cargo lights which illuminate the bed of the truck, often controlled in conjunction with the interior dome lighting.\nMost instruments and controls", "vehicles, making them more complex. These include air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Another trend is the replacement of physical knobs and switches by secondary controls with touchscreen controls such as BMW's iDrive and Ford's MyFord Touch. Another change is that while early cars' pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle, in the 2010s, cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls. Lighting Cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. These include headlights, which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users, so that", "bluish color. Most British road traffic lights are mounted vertically on a black rectangle with a white border (forming a \"sighting board\") and so dichromats can more easily look for the position of the light within the rectangle—top, middle or bottom. In the eastern provinces of Canada horizontally mounted traffic lights are generally differentiated by shape to facilitate identification for those with color blindness. In the United States, this is not done by shape but by position, as the red light is always on the left if the light is horizontal, or on top if the light is vertical. However,", "at the front of the car which can \"see\" 300 meters (984 ft) ahead. The display in the instrument cluster highlights humans with yellow markings. More importantly, the computer can determine if the person on the road moves in a way that could lead to a collision with the car. In that case the pedestrian is being marked in red color and the driver of the car receives an audible warning.\n2013 update added animal detection. and Pedestrian Marker Lights: As soon as a pedestrian is detected by the Night Vision Assistant in a critical range in front of the vehicle, individual", "to ensure that they are visible at all relevant angles, do not dazzle those who view them, and are suitably conspicuous in conditions ranging from full darkness to full direct sunlight. Side turn signals In most countries, cars must be equipped with side-mounted turn signal repeaters to make the turn indication visible laterally (i.e. to the sides of the vehicle) rather than just to the front and rear of the vehicle. These are permitted, but not required in the United States. As an alternative in both the United States and Canada, the front amber side marker lights may be wired", "to be determined whether autonomous vehicles will be required to carry lights, or what colors or patterns they might exhibit to warn off aggressive human drivers. Optical types The optical and mechanical characteristics of the lights used can have a significant effect on the look of the vehicle and how readily it gains attention in emergencies. Steady burning The simplest form of lighting is a steadily burning lamp. These may be white lights used on scene to enable emergency workers to see what they are doing, or they may be colored lights that advertise the emergency vehicle's presence. ", "Daytime running lamp A daytime running lamp (DRL, also daytime running light) is an automotive lighting and bicycle lighting device on the front of a roadgoing motor vehicle or bicycle, automatically switched on when the vehicle is in drive, emitting white, yellow, or amber light. Their job isn't to help the driver see the road but to help other road users see the vehicle. Implementations Depending on prevailing regulations and equipment, vehicles may implement the daytime-running light function by functionally turning on specific lamps, by operating low-beam headlamps or fog lamps at full or reduced intensity, by operating high-beam", "Destination sign A destination sign (North American English) or destination indicator/destination blind (British English) is a sign mounted on the front, side or rear of a public transport vehicle, such as a bus, tram/streetcar or light rail vehicle, that displays the vehicle's route number and destination, or the route's number and name on transit systems using route names. The main such sign, mounted on the front of the vehicle, usually located above (or at the top of) the windshield, is often called the headsign, most likely from the fact that these signs are located on the front, or head, end" ]

[ "Nothing is perfect. Even our bodies, the result of billions of years of evolution from the simplest single-celled life forms, begin to fail after awhile. All of the things that make our body run, our stomachs, hearts, brains, kidneys, will eventually stop working. But the main thing that causes people to age is their own DNA. All DNA has little bits on the end of it called telomeres. Every time DNA is copied (this happens every time cells divide) the telomeres get shorter and shorter. The good thing is that telomeres don't have anything important in them, so it's ok. But after the telomeres are gone, the important parts of the DNA start getting lost. This causes many bodily functions to slowly stop working like they are supposed to, and eventually stop working at all.", "Well, if the question is 'how' do people age, [u/jchitel](_URL_0_) summarized DNA damage and telomeres degradation. But if you are still wondering 'why' the aging process exists in the first place, that's an interesting question too. Because for some organisms, it isn't a problem at all, like [hydra](_URL_1_).\n\nIn biology, instead of saying aging, we use the term [senescence](_URL_2_) but they mean the same thing for this talk. And to be fair, there is still a lot of debate as to why aging exists. But the general idea is it's actually better for (most) species if they grow old and die. To use a metaphor, let's say your school is starting a soccer team and you join. But they only have a few soccer balls, so everyone is competing to use them. If you hog all the balls and practice a bunch, you'll be pretty good and have some fancy footwork, but no one else will get to play and will go do something else. So your team is smaller, but its also dangerous. What if you twist your ankle? Now no one will be able to play in the next game! It makes more sense to share resources, maybe you only get the soccer ball for a day, but you can also share your progress with the next guy who gets the ball. Maybe you discover how to drop kick it straight, and explain it to everyone else at practice. Now if any one guy gets hurt, there will be someone else who can kick it instead. So it's good to pass on information, but sometimes just having a new player join is good all by itself! Maybe Timmy has a pair of goalie gloves that let him catch even wet balls. Now that's pretty handy in a tough game, and there was no way you could do that, even if you played soccer for a long time. It makes sense that you will have a better team if you keep adding new players cause they will do and bring interesting new things...but this means other players have to leave the team.\n\nIt's the same for people aging. Old people have been playing for a long time, and they have a lot to pass on, but its very costly to keep bodies in perfect form. So costly that there would be less people around, and less new people too. If something random happens, it would easier to accidentally wipe out everyone! Its important to have lots of new people too, as interesting genetic things happen when you make a mix of two people, its the main way to make new things happen! And that's beautiful in a way, cause even though it'd be nice to live forever, people pass away to make sure there is enough stuff leftover for their kids (and their grandkids, and **their** kids!), and also so they can change, get better at living and pass that on to the next kids too. Biology is kind of funny like that, it reaches for perfection not by making one indestructible thing, but giving fragile things a way to improve.", "When we are born we have a certain amount of cells, over time those cells replace them self's with copies. So at any given point the oldest cell in our body is about 10 years old. When a cell is copied it uses the previous' cell's information, but it doesn't copy the information perfectly. So over time the copy gets weaker and weaker. As a result, things give out we get wear and tear, so to speak. \n\n**Now the ELI5 version.** We're like a word document being repeatedly photocopied. Except instead of using the original to make the copy we use the newest copy. And if you have ever made a photocopy of a photocopy loads of artefacts start to appear on the paper. over time the artefacts get bigger and the words become harder to read. To the point where the photocopy is useless. Our body's are the same but with our cells. \n\nThat is the reason for ageing. \nThings like wrinkles and senile dementia, are slightly different. Wrinkles are from gravity pulling at down on the muscles, and as the muscle cells replace with weaker cells this pull becomes more apparent. \nI don't know enough on dementia to make any comments, but I did see a post on the front page about \"brains become full\" so that might be a reason. \n\nDisclaimer: I'm an expert or even a scientist, a lot of what I've said i have read in various science papers. If anything I've said is wrong i am sorry", "Like you're 5. Maybe 10. \n\nImagine you print or draw a picture. That original has all the detail and is exactly as it was intended to be. Now copy it. Then copy the copy. Then copy the next copy. Do this over and over and look at your last copy. Over each copy, the imperfections your copier produces will continue to be amplified until you get to a point that it no longer even looks the same. The cells in your body are basically going through this. The copies become increasing crappy, to put it simply. Near the end, they don't even resemble the younger cells, just as a 100000000000th copy won't resemble the original.\n\nFor more tangible things like organs wearing out, or the body as a whole, think of the way other things wear out. A car can't run forever. It develops what we call \"wear and tear\" from every day usage. Sure, proper upkeep will slow the decline, but in the end everything stops working. Tires wear down, engines get clogged up, the interior fades. Eventually something will stop working completely. Some things can be repaired. But when multiple things start failing, the car is probably at the end of usefulness. The same is true with our bodies.\n\nObviously the human body has more complex mechanisms than a car or a copier. But this is ELI5. And that really is the gist of it.\n\nAlthough not strictly for 5 year olds, a really interesting thought is thinking about what life will be like once we implement organ replacement from stem cells/and or we manipulate the genes to slow down or stop replication wear and tear. This is probably all technology we will see within this century or sooner. Perhaps we won't age at all, or will age so slowly that we are likely to die by accidents before age matters." ]

[ "and proportion of older people in society. Population ageing has three possible causes: migration, longer life expectancy (decreased death rate) and decreased birth rate. Ageing has a significant impact on society. Young people tend to have fewer legal privileges (if they are below the age of majority), they are more likely to push for political and social change, to develop and adopt new technologies, and to need education. Older people have different requirements from society and government, and frequently have differing values as well, such as for property and pension rights.\nIn the 21st century, one of the most significant population", "of inactivity within older adults that may have significant ramifications on their health and well-being.\nWith attention to these hypotheses, research shows play and activity tend to decline with age which may result in negative outcomes such as social isolation, depression, and mobility issues. American studies found that only 24% of seniors took part in regular physical activity and only 42% use the internet for entertainment purposes. In comparison to other age groups, the elderly are more likely to experience a variety of barriers, such as difficulty with environmental hazards and accessibility related issues, that may hinder their abilities to execute", "sociocultural norms and legal systems. Reasons for age disparity Explanations for age disparity usually focus on either the rational choice model or the analysis of demographic trends in a society. The rational choice model suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread-winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men. This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labor force. The demographic trends are concerned with the sex ratio in the society, the marriage squeeze, and migration patterns. Another explanation concerns cultural values: the higher", "Age stratification Age structure Age stratification is not a fixed phenomena, but rather varies with the passage of time and between cultures and populations. Shifting age structure of a population changes the age stratification. As life expectancy has increased dramatically in the last two centuries, the age strata by which people are characterized has changed. With people living longer lives than ever before in more developed areas of the world, there is now a category of \"old-old\" people which refers to persons ages 85+. Changes in the age structure of populations affects the way in which they distribute resources, along", "the young and the old to be relatively disadvantaged. However, more recently, in the United States the tendency is for the young to be most disadvantaged. For example, poverty levels in the U.S. have been decreasing among people aged 65 and older since the early 1970s whereas the number of children under 18 in poverty has steadily risen. Sometimes, the elderly have had the opportunity to build their wealth throughout their lives, while younger people have the disadvantage of recently entering into or having not yet entered into the economic sphere. The larger contributor to this, however, is the increase", "median ages, a decline in the proportion of the population composed of children, and a rise in the proportion of the population composed of elderly. Population aging is widespread across the world. It is most advanced in the most highly developed countries, but it is growing faster in less developed regions, which means that older persons will be increasingly concentrated in the less developed regions of the world. The Oxford Institute of Population Ageing, however, concluded that population ageing has slowed considerably in Europe and will have the greatest future impact in Asia, especially as Asia is in stage five", "elderly population as the working-age population is shrinking and thus less able to support the elderly directly. Demographic transition and population ageing The process of population ageing is primarily determined by fertility and mortality rate. The proportions of elderly people are different across countries. For example, developing countries with limited access to healthcare and contraceptives, where populations have a high fertility rate, tend to have a lower proportion of older people. Medical advancements, industrial developments, and better knowledge of sanitation, which started in the 18th century in many developed countries, have caused a decline in mortality rates and an increase", "how we can improve policies in population ageing, however these ideas are yet to be concretely implemented perhaps due to many arguments for example that older people are only a small proportion of the population\nDue to the global ageing population phenomenon, many countries seem to be increasing the age for old age security from 60 to 65, to decrease the cost of the scheme of the GDP. Age Discrimination can be defined as \"the systematic and institutionalized denial of the rights of older people on the basis of their age by individuals, groups, organisations, and institutions\". Some of this abuse", "old age. The elderly are the product of physiological-biological deterioration, while functions and old age are derivatives of society and culture. There is no \"natural\" affinity between the former and the latter, it is only the human environment in which the elderly live that forces that affinity on them and on itself as though it were an inevitability. The differentiation which distinguishes between the two is similar to the differentiation between sex and gender, presenting the world of old age as one that is constructed of two circles, only partially congruent: the culture circle, defining old age in terms of", "and social policies The economic effects of an aging population are considerable. Older people have higher accumulated savings per head than younger people, but spend less on consumer goods. Depending on the age ranges at which the changes occur, an aging population may thus result in lower interest rates and the economic benefits of lower inflation. Because elderly people are more inflation averse, countries with more elderly tend to exhibit lower inflation rates . Some economists (Japan) see advantages in such changes, notably the opportunity to progress automation and technological development without causing unemployment. They emphasize a shift from GDP", "and patients. A number of health problems become more prevalent as people get older. These include mental health problems as well as physical health problems, especially dementia.\nIt has been estimated that population ageing only explains 0.2 percentage points of the annual growth rate in medical spending of 4.3% since 1970. In addition, certain reforms to the Medicare system in the United States decreased elderly spending on home health care by 12.5% per year between 1996 and 2000. Self-perception of ageing The beauty standards are constantly evolving over decades due to increased perception of esthetics. Because of that, the cosmeceutical industry", "aging hippies, still caught up in some kind of hipster lifestyle and trying to hang on to their youth by doing the same things that they did in their twenties. There are a lot of those people around, but I have a different way of looking at life these days: My version of growing older is not getting depressed or being in denial about it, but instead it’s 'Hey, we’ve survived!'\"", "20s or 30s and enrolls in college, where he or she performs particularly well and subsequently establishes a professional career. Adults A late blooming adult is a person who does not discover their talents and abilities until later than normally expected. In certain cases retirement may lead to this discovery.\nAlthough there is a common perception that intellectual development peaks in a young adult and then slowly declines with increasing age, this may be simplistic. Although the ability to form new memories and concepts may indeed diminish, the older person has the advantage of accumulated knowledge, associations between concepts, and mental", "in the United States don't see themselves as adults and are still in the process of obtaining an education, are unmarried, and are childless, most people in their thirties in the United States see themselves as adults, have settled on a career, are married, and have at least one child.\nCurrently, it is appropriate to define adolescence as the period spanning ages 10 to 18. This is because people in this age group in the United States typically live at home with their parents, are undergoing pubertal changes, attend middle schools or junior high schools, and are involved in a \"school-based", "with a shift in expectations from different age strata. For example, as Japan's population has dramatically aged - with individuals aged 65+ accounting for approximately 25% of the population - the country has found itself with an unfavorable dependency ratio. In an effort to avoid economic downfall, the expectations of young-old and middle-old people have changed. Elderly citizens are encouraged to put off retirement, and the elderly tech market is booming. Age discrimination Age is a major component of entry and exit for many parts of life – school, starting a family, retirement, etc. Shifting social status with age can", "perform. Every society manages people's ageing by allocating certain roles for different age groups. Age discrimination primarily occurs when age is used as an unfair criterion for allocating more or less resources. Scholars of age inequality have suggested that certain social organizations favor particular age inequalities. For instance, because of their emphasis on training and maintaining productive citizens, modern capitalist societies may dedicate disproportionate resources to training the young and maintaining the middle-aged worker to the detriment of the elderly and the retired (especially those already disadvantaged by income/wealth inequality).\nIn modern, technologically advanced societies, there is a tendency for both", "older than us, people who are 70 or 80 and they've got attitudes that don't have the deep peaks and valleys as someone who in adolescence who is faced with some things and they go, \"Fuck this, this sucks, how can we have any hope?\" These are people who been through the invention of the horseless carriage to the car to the TV set and are dealing with the internet. How do they view it? It's almost with disdain. This is the wisdom they can't give away, that is what I'm talking about and that youth doesn't have that timeline", "body; using blood transfusions, chemical enhancements, and hormone replacement therapy, as well as the standard devotion to physical sports, people maintain young, strong bodies for the duration of their lives, and do not present any physical indications of old age, even appearing young when they eventually expire from natural causes. Without these physical signs, it is virtually impossible to gauge a person's age based on appearance, and as a result, ageism is non-existent.\nAn unspecified number of persons live as \"savages\" and non-citizens in reservations which figure in sections of the novel, since as noted the creation of the World State", "as middle age. This time span has been defined as the time between ages 45 and 65 years old. Many changes may occur between young adulthood and this stage.\nThe body may slow down and the middle aged might become more sensitive to diet, substance abuse, stress, and rest. Chronic health problems can become an issue along with disability or disease. Approximately one centimeter of height may be lost per decade. Emotional responses and retrospection vary from person to person. Experiencing a sense of mortality, sadness, or loss is common at this age.\nThose in middle adulthood or middle age continue to", "power abroad to defend their interests. A more cautious climate could also herald slower economic growth, less entrepreneurship and reduced productivity in mature democracies. \nIt is also possible that ageing leads to lower inflation as elderly people are both inflation averse and politically powerful. However, some argue that older people in the developed world have much higher productivity, human capital and better health than their counterparts in developing countries, so the economic effects of population aging will be largely mitigated. Other branches of political demography Other areas in political demography address the political impact of skewed sex ratios (typically caused", "older adults opting to remain in the U.S. workforce, many studies have been done to investigate whether the older workers are at greater risk of occupational injury than their younger counterparts. Due to the physical declines associated with aging, older adults tend to exhibit losses in eyesight, hearing and physical strength. Data shows that older adults have low overall injury rates compared to all age groups, but are more likely to suffer from fatal and more severe occupational injuries. Of all fatal occupational injuries in 2005, older workers accounted for 26.4%, despite only comprising 16.4% of the workforce at the", "older people and the potential of research into the mechanisms of ageing to alleviate them. As one newspaper put it:\nAge Action Year will also see the provision of a foundation for co-ordinated research into ageing itself. This opens up exciting possibilities for everyone, because if we are to make old age a time of interest and healthy activity we have to know how to make people fit into later years, how to make the best use of available resources and how to gear our living throughout our lives so that we know how to make the best of our", "injury to older adults in the common household, therefore impacting upon their capability to successfully age in place. Among the greatest threats to an ability to age in place is falling. According to the CDC, falls are the leading cause of injurious death among older adults. Therefore, engagement in fall prevention is crucial to one's ability to age in place. Common features in an everyday household, such as a lack of support in the shower or bathroom, inadequate railings on the stairs, loose throw rugs, and obstructed pathways are all possible dangers to an older person. However, simple and low-cost", "a \"normal\" process of aging rather than a result of an apparent pathological process.\nThey are known to increase in frequency with age and the most common cause is age-related degeneration and, less frequently, sports injuries or trauma.\nSome risk factors such as increased age and height cannot be changed. Increased body mass index is also associated with tearing. Recurrent lifting and overhead motions are at risk for rotator cuff injury as well. This includes jobs that involve repetitive overhead work, such as carpenters, painters, custodians, and servers. People who play sports that involve overhead motions, such as swimming, volleyball, baseball, tennis,", "age.\nAccording to Arnett, the term \"young adulthood\" suggests that adulthood has already been reached, but most people in the emerging adulthood stage no longer consider themselves adolescents, but do not see themselves entirely as adults either. In the past, milestones such as finishing secondary school, finding a job, and marrying clearly marked the entrance to adulthood, but in modern, post-industrialized nations, as positions requiring a college degree have become more common and the average age of marriage has become older the length of time between leaving adolescence and reaching these milestones has been extended, delaying the age at which many", "among older women may be because sexual intercourse can become uncomfortable.\nOther factors for low SDD in older individuals may be illness. The effects on sexual ability and partaking in sexual intercourse can be influenced by illnesses such as arthritis, cardiovascular disease and diabetes, where these are co-morbid with age.\nAttitudes towards an individual's self and towards their sexual partner can too affect sexual behaviour and sexual desire. A negative view of sex in older men and women are common attitudes held. With regards to \"attitudes\" in culture, sex appeal factors in America tend to be placed on youthful appearances such as", "adults are important at treatment and support levels, as well as policy issues. The prevalence of suicide among older adults is higher than in any other age group. Depression Depression is one of the most common disorders that presents in old age and is comorbid with other physical and psychiatric conditions, perhaps due to the stress induced by these conditions. In older adults, depression presents as impairments already associated with age such as memory and psychomotor speed. Research indicates that higher levels of exercise can decrease the likelihood of depression in older adults even after taking into", "young people fully enter adulthood. If the years 18–25 are classified as \"young adulthood\", Arnett believes it is then difficult to find an appropriate term for the thirties. Emerging adults are still in the process of obtaining an education, are unmarried, and are childless. By age thirty, most of these individuals do see themselves as adults, based on the belief that they have more fully formed \"individualistic qualities of character\" such as self-responsibility, financial independence, and independence in decision-making. Arnett suggests that many of the individualistic characteristics associated with adult status correlate to, but are not dependent upon, the role", "likely to take into account their social context. For instance, adolescents show a tendency to display more emotion if they expect a sympathetic response from their peers.\nAdditionally, spontaneous use of cognitive emotion-regulation strategies increases during adolescence, which is evidenced both by self-report data and neural markers. Adulthood Social losses increase and health tends to decrease as people age. As people get older their motivation to seek emotional meaning in life through social ties tends to increase. Autonomic responsiveness decreases with age, and emotion-regulation skill tends to increase. Affective As people age, their affect – the way they react to emotions – changes,", "becoming smaller because of family planning and housing shortage. Other causes of decrease in practice are individualism, the loss of status of elderly, emigration of young people to cities and the independence of young people and women. To amplify this trend, the number of elderly people has increased fast.\nThe relationship between husband and wife came to be more emphasized, and the extended family less and less. Kinship ties between the husband and wife's families have become more bi-lateral and equal. The way respect to elders is expressed is also changing. Communication with elders tends to be become more reciprocal and" ]

[ "There's more than one way to measure cosmological distances.\n\nOne way is to use what's called the \"lookback distance.\" It's just the distance measured in units of time. If light from an galaxy has been in transit for a billion years, then you can quite accurately say that galaxy is a billion years away. (This is sometimes phrased as a billion *light years* for sake of clarity.)\n\nThe other way to measure distances is to imagine that you could somehow magically stop time and stretch a very long ruler across the distance you're measuring. This is called the *instantaneous proper distance.* It's used much less often, because it's not a *useful* number to calculate. You *can't* stop time or stretch a ruler across those kinds of distances, so the number you get from that kind of calculation is really only a particularly obscure type of trivia.\n\nSo the radius of the observable universe is both about 14 billion years and about 46 billion light-years. Both statements are equally true.\n\nWe know the age of the universe because we can look at the temperature of the sky and see how much it's cooled since the end of the Big Bang, and we can look at the rate of metric expansion and see how it relates to pressure.\n\nAnd you're thinking of metric expansion quite wrongly. It's not that there's a wall out there that's moving away from us. It's that *all distances in the universe* vary with time. Not because things move, but because the *geometry of the universe* is itself a function of time. Right now, it's estimated with quite a high degree of precision that all distances in the universe are increasing at about seventy kilometers per second per megaparsec.", "I'm sorry that I don't know how to answer your question, but I would like to post this here: _URL_0_\n\nSpace Engine, kind of like google Earth, but a map of the entire (known) Universe. I found out about it from r/TIL" ]

[ "Observable universe Size The comoving distance from Earth to the edge of the observable universe is about 14.26 gigaparsecs (46.5 billion light-years or 4.40×10²⁶ meters) in any direction. The observable universe is thus a sphere with a diameter of about 28.5 gigaparsecs (93 billion light-years or 8.8×10²⁶ meters). Assuming that space is roughly flat (in the sense of being a Euclidean space), this size corresponds to a comoving volume of about 1.22×10⁴ Gpc³ (4.22×10⁵ Gly³ or 3.57×10⁸⁰ m³).\nThe figures quoted above are distances now (in cosmological time), not distances at the time the light was emitted. For example, the cosmic microwave background radiation", "is 3 million light-years (919.8 kiloparsecs). As an example, the Milky Way is roughly 100,000–180,000 light-years in diameter, and the nearest sister galaxy to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light-years away.\nBecause we cannot observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe, it is unknown whether the size of the Universe in its totality is finite or infinite. Estimates for the total size of the universe, if finite, reach as high as megaparsecs, implied by one resolution of the No-Boundary Proposal. Age and expansion Astronomers calculate the age of the Universe by assuming", "observable universe is 46 billion light-years (14 billion parsecs), making the diameter of the observable universe about 93 billion light-years (28 billion parsecs). The distance the light from the edge of the observable universe has travelled is very close to the age of the Universe times the speed of light, 13.8 billion light-years (4.2×10⁹ pc), but this does not represent the distance at any given time because the edge of the observable universe and the Earth have since moved further apart. For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is 30,000 light-years (9,198 parsecs), and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies", "reveals to his assistant, the tale's narrator, that he has discovered that the visible universe at the largest scales corresponds to the microscopic universe at the smallest observed scales, the relations between universe's planets suns, and star cluster being identical to the relations of electrons, atomic nuclei, and molecules. Rather than explore the universe at their own scale, the professor intends to explore the worlds endlessly nested within matter itself, which he argues by induction, must go on to ever smaller levels, and claims to have invented a substance, that once-applied will cause an individual to perpetually shrink. His assistant", "as the Yadav et al. upper limit to the homogeneity scale, and has therefore been claimed to challenge our understanding of the universe on large scales.\nHowever, due to the existence of long-range correlations, it is known that structures can be found in the distribution of galaxies in the universe that extend over scales larger than the homogeneity scale. Dispute Seshadri Nadathur at the University of Bielefeld has conducted an even more comprehensive study of the Huge-LQG. After a more detailed study, he announced that contrary to the claim by Clowes about a large clustering, his new map has shown that", "and to the edge of the universe (about 73 million miles). The nested sphere model's distances to the Sun and planets differ significantly from modern measurements of the distances, and the size of the universe is now known to be inconceivably large and continuously expanding.\nAlbert Van Helden has suggested that from about 1250 until the 17th century, virtually all educated Europeans were familiar with the Ptolemaic model of \"nesting spheres and the cosmic dimensions derived from it\". Even following the adoption of Copernicus's heliocentric model of the universe, new versions of the celestial sphere model were introduced, with the", "the Great Wall, a structure measuring 600 million light years in length and 250 million light years in width. This is the second largest known super-structure in the universe. Huchra is also the namesake of Huchra's Lens, the gravitational lensing galaxy in front of the Einstein Cross quasar.", "in modern usage would be the total universe—all existing matter and space taken as a whole.\nUrantia is said to be located in a remote local universe named \"Nebadon,\" which itself is part of superuniverse number seven, \"Orvonton.\" The physical size of a local universe is not directly stated, but each is said to have up to 10 million inhabited worlds. History and future of the world The book's extensive teachings about the history of the world include its physical development about 4.5 billion years ago, the gradual changes in conditions that allowed life to develop, and long ages of organic", "to the size of the observable universe. Singh proposed corrected lyrics, though he used the value of 13.7 billion light years; accounting for expansion of the universe, the comoving distance to the edge of the observable universe is 46.5 billion light years. BBC Radio 4's Today programme brought Melua and Singh together in a radio studio where Melua recorded a tongue-in-cheek version of the song that had been written by Singh.\nIn 2006, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Design degree by the University of the West of England \"in recognition of Simon Singh's outstanding contribution to the public understanding", "a mass four million times greater than the Sun. As of March 2016, GN-z11 is the oldest and most distant observed galaxy with a comoving distance of 32 billion light-years from Earth, and observed as it existed just 400 million years after the Big Bang.\nResearch released in 2016 revised the number of galaxies in the observable universe from a previous estimate of 200 billion (2×10¹¹) to a suggested 2 trillion (2×10¹²) or more and, overall, as many as an estimated 1×10²⁴ stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth). Most of the galaxies are 1,000 to 100,000", "covered by seven layers — earth, water, fire, air, sky, the total energy and false ego — each ten times greater than the previous one. There are innumerable universes besides this one, and although they are unlimitedly large, they move about like atoms in You. Therefore You are called limitless (Bhagavata Purana 6.16.37)\nAnalogies to describe multiple universes also exist in the Puranic literature:\nBecause You are limitless, neither the lords of heaven nor even You(Vishnu ie dont speak for all of us) Yourself can ever reach the end of Your glories. The countless universes, each enveloped in its shell, are compelled", "universe. It is estimated that the Earth is made up of roughly 5.5 x 10⁵⁰ atoms; the number of atoms in the Milky Way Galaxy is approximately 5 x 10⁶⁸, and the number of atoms in the universe is estimated to be 3.5 x 10⁷⁹.\nHowever, the sequences programmed into the sign's controller suggested to some that the possible total was guided by one or more patterns (e.g., the same element—perhaps the bar below the W--would be lit in each of the nine units, working either left to right or right to left, followed by all nine instances of a second", "described above. In modern parlance it would be called a 'universe', or 'solar system'.\nA collection of one thousand solar systems are called a \"thousandfold minor world-system\" (culanika lokadhatu). Or small chiliocosm.\nA collection of 1,000 times 1,000 world-systems (one thousand squared) is a \"thousandfold to the second power middling world-system\" (dvisahassi majjhima lokadhatu). Or medium dichiliocosm.\nThe largest grouping, which consists of one thousand cubed world-systems, is called the \"tisahassi mahasassi lokadhatu\". Or great trichiliocosm.\nThe Tathagata, if he so wished, could effect his voice throughout a great trichiliocosm. He does so by suffusing the trichiliocosm with his radiance, at which point the", "nevertheless curved.\nSpatial geometry of this model is an unbounded hyperbolic space.\nThe entire universe is contained within a light cone, namely the future cone of the Big Bang. For any given moment t > 0 of coordinate time (assuming the Big Bang has t = 0), the entire universe is bounded by a sphere of radius exactly c t.\nThe apparent paradox of an infinite universe contained within a sphere is explained with length contraction: the galaxies farther away, which are travelling away from the observer the fastest, will appear thinner.\nThis model is essentially a degenerate FLRW for Ω = 0. It is", "many as an estimated 1×10²⁴ stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth). Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (10⁷) stars up to giants with one trillion (10¹²) stars. Between the larger structures are voids, which are typically 10–150 Mpc (33 million–490 million ly) in diameter. The Milky Way is in the Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is in the Laniakea Supercluster. This supercluster spans over 500 million light-years, while the Local Group spans over 10 million light-years. The Universe also has vast regions of relative emptiness; the largest", "universe is regarded as a composite of bounded spaces in an overlapping hemispherical structure, the total spaces are referred to as élú nà àlà. In one Igbo cosmological theory reported by W.R.G. Morton in the 1950s from an elder in Ibagwa Nike in northern Igboland, Chukwu sees that the sun travels across the world in the day time and then cuts into two in order for the moon to pass on a perpendicular route, and so the world is divided into four parts and four days. The quarterly division of the earth and the days makes the number four sacred", "Huge-LQG, the region where the two LQG's are located are different, or \"lumpy\", when compared to other regions in the universe with the same size and redshift. Second, because of their close locations, it has been suggested that the two structures are really a single structure in itself, and only connected by hidden intergalactic filament; however, no such evidence has been found.", "the Hubble limit.\nMore generally, the term \"Hubble volume\" can be applied to any region of space with a volume of order . \nHowever, the term is also frequently (but mistakenly) used as a synonym for the observable universe; the latter is larger than the Hubble volume. Relationship to age of the universe The Hubble length is 14.4 billion light years in the standard cosmological model, somewhat larger than times the age of the universe, 13.8 billion years. Hubble limit as an event horizon For objects at the Hubble limit the space between us and the object of", "or elements covering the universes are each ten times thicker than the one before, and all the universes clustered together appear like atoms in a huge combination (Bhagavata Purana 3.11.41)\nAnd who will search through the wide infinities of space to count the universes side by side, each containing its Brahma, its Vishnu, its Shiva? Who can count the Indras in them all--those Indras side by side, who reign at once in all the innumerable worlds; those others who passed away before them; or even the Indras who succeed each other in any given line, ascending to godly kingship, one by", "quantities such as the number of subatomic particles in the visible universe or the number of hypothetical possibilities in a chess game. Kasner used it to illustrate the difference between an unimaginably large number and infinity, and in this role it is sometimes used in teaching mathematics. To give a sense of how big a googol really is, the mass of an electron, just under 10⁻³⁰ kg, can be compared to the mass of the visible universe, estimated at between 10⁵⁰ and 10⁶⁰ kg. It is a ratio in the order of about 10⁸⁰ to 10⁹⁰, or only about one ten-billionth of", "Universe Apollo displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23% increase from the previous record-holder, Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig.\nThe world's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at the Oppama shipyard by Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd., named Seawise Giant. This ship was built with a capacity of 564,763 DWT, a length overall of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft). She had 46 tanks, 31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and at her full load draft, could not navigate the English Channel.\nSeawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991, and Knock Nevis in 2004", "quasar group, the Huge-LQG, was discovered, which was measured to be four billion light-years across, the largest known structure in the universe at that time. In November 2013, astronomers discovered the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, an even bigger structure twice as large as the former. It was defined by the mapping of gamma-ray bursts. End of Greatness The End of Greatness is an observational scale discovered at roughly 100 Mpc (roughly 300 million light-years) where the lumpiness seen in the large-scale structure of the universe is homogenized and isotropized in accordance with the Cosmological Principle. At this scale, no pseudo-random fractalness", "(WMAP), and Planck maps of the CMB, suggest that the Universe is infinite in extent with a finite age, as described by the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) models. These FLRW models thus support inflationary models and the standard model of cosmology, describing a flat, homogeneous universe presently dominated by dark matter and dark energy. Support of life The Universe may be fine-tuned; the Fine-tuned Universe hypothesis is the proposition that the conditions that allow the existence of observable life in the Universe can only occur when certain universal fundamental physical constants lie within a very narrow range of values, so that if", "edge or strange connectedness.\nRegardless of the overall shape of the universe, the question of what the universe is expanding into is one which does not require an answer according to the theories which describe the expansion; the way we define space in our universe in no way requires additional exterior space into which it can expand since an expansion of an infinite expanse can happen without changing the infinite extent of the expanse. All that is certain is that the manifold of space in which we live simply has the property that the distances between objects are getting larger as", "Large quasar group Prominent LQGs On January 11, 2013, the discovery of the Huge-LQG was announced by the University of Central Lancashire, as the largest known structure in the universe by that time. It comprises 74 quasars and has a minimum diameter of 1.4 billion light-years, but over 4 billion light-years at its widest point. According to researcher and author, Roger Clowes, the existence of structures with the size of LQGs was believed theoretically impossible. Cosmological structures had been believed to have a size limit of approximately 1.2 billion light-years.", "and about 1 billion light years wide, making it one of the largest and most exotic cosmic structures known in the observable universe. It was named U1.28 because of its average redshift of 1.28, and is located in the constellation of Leo. It was also notable because it is located in the ecliptic, the line where the Sun seems to travel in the entire year. It was 1.8 billion light-years away from the Huge-LQG, a group of 73 quasars discovered in 2012.\nIts proximity to the Huge-LQG has attracted the attention of scientists. First, because it was very close to the", "classification devised by the American astronomer William Wilson Morgan in 1958 for galaxies with an elliptical-shaped nucleus surrounded by an immense, diffuse, dustless, extended halo.\nNGC 4889 is far enough that its distance can be measured using redshift. With the redshift of 0.0266 as derived from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, and the Hubble constant as determined in 2013 by the ESA COBRAS/SAMBA/Planck Surveyor translates its distance of 94 Mpc (308 million light years) from Earth.\nNGC 4889 is probably the largest and the most massive galaxy out to the radius of 100 Mpc (326 million light years) of the Milky Way. The galaxy", "contrast to an elongated shape of a galaxy wall. Another name, Great GRB Wall, was proposed in a later paper. Characteristics The paper states that \"14 of the 31 GRBs are concentrated within 45 degrees of the sky\", which translates to the size of about 10 billion light-years (about 3 billion parsecs) in its longest dimension, which is approximately 1/9 (10.7%) of the diameter of the observable universe. However, the clustering contains 19 to 22 GRBs, and spans a length three times longer than the rest 14 GRBs. Indeed, the clustering crosses over 20 constellations and covers 125 degrees of", "known void measures 1.8 billion ly (550 Mpc) across.\nThe observable Universe is isotropic on scales significantly larger than superclusters, meaning that the statistical properties of the Universe are the same in all directions as observed from Earth. The Universe is bathed in highly isotropic microwave radiation that corresponds to a thermal equilibrium blackbody spectrum of roughly 2.72548 kelvins. The hypothesis that the large-scale Universe is homogeneous and isotropic is known as the cosmological principle. A Universe that is both homogeneous and isotropic looks the same from all vantage points and has no center. Dark energy An explanation for why the", "distance d, there are points that are of a distance at least d apart. A finite universe is a bounded metric space, where there is some distance d such that all points are within distance d of each other. The smallest such d is called the diameter of the universe, in which case the universe has a well-defined \"volume\" or \"scale.\" With or without boundary Assuming a finite universe, the universe can either have an edge or no edge. Many finite mathematical spaces, e.g., a disc, have an edge or boundary. Spaces that have an edge are difficult to treat," ]

[ "That means teachers would go home at 7 or 8pm, school buses would have to contend with commuter traffic, and students would be walking home in the dark most of the time.", "It's because when the times were setup it was to take into account farm jobs, not the modern 9-5 city jobs. That is also why summer vacation in America exists. A lot of the rest of the world does not do this as it is detrimental to learning.", "Because school hours aren't subject to market forces like work hours are." ]

[ "tutorial, although this is not normally the case.\nStudy periods often occur because of scheduling conflicts in the school timetable, when there is a mismatch between available students, teachers, subjects and classrooms.\nStudy periods are generally monitored by teachers or teacher's aides, who often encourage students to use this time to complete homework, catch up on missing assignments, or study for tests or quizzes. Sometimes, students also use periods to converse, make phone calls, text message, play video games, or otherwise socialize or pursue non-academic topics, though this is sometimes discouraged or forbidden. Periods in which such things are allowed are occasionally", "schedule repeats each week. Because of the small number of students in each class, all students share all their classes with all the other children in their grade, with the exception of the different levels of Spanish, Algebra, and Orchestra/Band.", "Before school, students have an extra block, 30-or-more minutes long, that may be used for self-study, watching Educational Broadcast System (EBS) broadcasts, or for personal or class administration. Beginning in 2008, students attended school from Monday to Friday, and had a half-day every 1st, 3rd, and 5th (calendar permitting) Saturday of the month. Saturday lessons usually included Club Activity (CA) lessons, where students could participate in extracurricular activities. However, these classes were also not used well either. Many schools have regular classes except having extracurricular activities because schools and parents want students to study more. However, from 2012 onwards, primary", "more time in schools is valuable, time is a resource that must be used well to realize its full potential.\nThe evidence that quantity of learning time is a key modulator of student performance is available using three units of analysis: individual student, school, and system. On the individual level, one set of researchers investigating classrooms in California in the 1970s found that differences in the amount of engaged learning time among students accounted for nine percent of differences in student outcomes in elementary grades, a strong association in the field of education. Later, a series of experiments by one researcher", "ways in which the time is used by educators and students is what actually matters for learning.\nIt is only common sense that if additional school time is not used for instructional activities or if additional instruction is poor in quality, it is unlikely to lead to achievement gains. ... Going further, we would suggest that instructional practices can be viewed as mediators of extended school time effects on students. That is, the effectiveness of instruction might determine whether extended school time has positive, negative, or no effects on student outcomes.\nThe National Center on Time & Learning has conducted research in", "scheduling system for grades 9–12 is one called block scheduling and is used throughout most of southern Maine's high schools. Rather than students taking all of their classes in a single day, classes are divided along a two-day cycle with four class 'blocks' in each day. This causes each class to meet for 80 minutes every two school days instead of 40 minutes every school day. The intent of this system is to allow teachers and students to be more thorough in each class meeting, with a smaller amount of time devoted every day to the transition between classes. The two alternating", "Courses like mathematics, foreign languages, and music may benefit from daily practice and suffer from a lack thereof.\nBlock scheduling can result in gaps of a day or days (or even weeks or months in some circumstances) where students are receiving no reinforcement of instruction in a specific subject like math or history, and critics say this results in retention problems and the need for more remedial review. Some observers similarly feel that summer vacation has a similar effect of interrupting the learning and retention process forcing a need to repeat material at the start of a new school year", "time for science, math, or portfolio completion.\nClasses are small, and a few classes meet in multi-disciplinary blocks of 90 minutes, rather than traditional 45 minute periods. For example, science and mathematics classes are often taught together as an integrated subject, as are English and Social Studies classes. The school believes that this fosters greater understanding and synthesis of the subjects. This has led to discussions about moving to a fully block schedule. However, after long discussion among students and staff, the school decided not to adopt the schedule proposed by the current principal, due to other problems in the proposed", "for lack of space, but now tradition). Thus, school starts for some groups (usually years I to IV and VIII) at 7:30 or 8:00 and ends at 12:00–14:30, while other groups (years V–VII) start at 11:00–13:30 and end at 17:00–19:30. Normally, a class lasts 50 minutes, followed by a 10-minute break (and sometimes one 20-minute break). From November until March, some schools reduce classes to 45 minutes and breaks to 5 minutes, for fear that 6:30 or 7:30 in the evening is a too late and a too dangerous hour to leave school during the dark. School days are Monday", "10pm. To cater for working adults with less time to study, individual subjects are assessed annually; thus a pass in a subject, once obtained, remains valid in following years. The course content, however, is identical with what is taught at a daytime school.", "schools to begin the instructional day in the 7 a.m. hour and end about seven hours later, around 2 p.m. Most sleep research suggests that morning classes should begin no earlier than 8:30 a.m. for middle and high school students.\nAdvocates of a return to later school start times argue that sleep and school hours should be viewed as a public health issue, citing evidence linking early school start times to widespread sleep deprivation among teenagers as well as a wide array of acute and chronic physical, psychological, and educational problems. Not only do students consistently get significantly more sleep on school nights when", "\"wait time,\" to measure the amount of time a teacher waits for a student to start answering a question and the amount of time a teacher waits once the student stops speaking before continuing the lesson or asking another question. Rowe found that a number of student outcomes improved when teachers waited longer for students to answer.\nRowe collected hundreds of recordings of classroom talk, and fed the sound from the tapes into a mechanical plotter to allow her to measure the lengths of pauses in conversation. This work found that teachers were waiting an average of less than a second", "week, the school days are longer than those at traditional schools to leave time for gym, cultural enrichment, and other activities. At the Catalyst Schools, the school week is 2,100 minutes, whereas the typical week at a Chicago Public Schools school is 1,500 minutes. The schools also work to make sure that students and their parents are prepared for the transition to high school by equipping them with practical life skills and helping them complete high school applications. After graduating from eighth grade at the Catalyst Schools, students are tracked for four years by the schools to assure that they", "the school days are 5 hours long, however, according to reports students learn for two hours and 40 minutes of those 5 hours. Thus, almost half of the school time is spent with children hanging \"out in class while they're supposed to be studying.\" Gender inequality Gender inequality for girls in the education system is not a significant issue in terms of participation. Attendance rates are slightly higher for girls between age 6-13 (87%) than for boys of the equivalent age (84%). As age increases, this difference becomes clearer as 40% of females aged 14–17 are enrolled and only 29%", "appears on each student's schedule, for example \"Introductory Algebra: 9:50-10:30 a.m.\" or \"Fine Arts 1:15-2:00 p.m.\" Engaged time Engaged time is also called time on task. During engaged time, students are participating actively in learning activities—asking and responding to questions, completing worksheets and exercises, preparing skits and presentations, etc. Instructional time Instructional time is what remains after routine classroom procedures are completed. That is to say, instructional time is the time wherein teaching and learning actually takes place. Teachers may spend two or three minutes taking attendance, for example, before their instruction begins. The time it takes for the teacher", "of relevant school hours is insufficient for the hard competition, regardless of the teachers' abilities. This leads to overworked students who take state school lessons from 08.15-14.00 at school, go home for lunch, continue for two or three hours in the cramming school and return to prepare the homework both for state school and \"frontistirio\". In the weekend, the students usually have lessons in the cramming school on Saturday morning and on Sunday morning revision tests, leaving them exhausted and with no free time. Greek students work very hard and also unhired teachers by the state find a way to", "given homework daily from the first year. Historically there has been no lunch hour, with children returning home to eat. However, due to a rise in the number of mothers in work, primary schools are increasingly offering pre-lesson and afternoon care.\nAs in Germany, secondary education consists of two main types of schools, attendance at which is based on a pupil's ability as determined by grades from the primary school. The Gymnasium caters for the more able children, in the final year of which the Matura examination is taken, which is a requirement for access to university. The Hauptschule prepares pupils", "determined a direct correlation between students' time spent studying a passage and their proficiency on a fact-based assessment, finding that the more time students spent studying the passage, the greater their performance in both the near term and after one week. An analysis of test scores in Illinois has validated that the more time individual students spent in reading and math class, the higher their scores in those subjects.\nAmong studies that have analyzed factors that contribute to differentials in student performance at the school level, learning time also emerges as one of the main correlates. One of the most pointed", "this results in a school day which ends before many other local secondary schools. Lessons are one hour long and followed by a 5-minute \"movement period\" to allow pupils sufficient time to reach their next classroom. These movement periods also occur after each break. Banding system The pupils are split into two bands, Stockton and Appleton. In years 7, 8 and 9 pupils typically have lessons with other members of their band.\nIn the GCSE years (10 & 11), two additional bands are introduced (independently of the original two), L and K. Pupils are split between the two bands for compulsory", "Period (school) A school period is a block of time allocated for lessons, classes in schools. They typically last between 30 and 60 minutes, with around 3-10 periods per school day. However, especially in higher education, there can be many more. Educators determine the number and length of these periods, and may even regulate how each period will be used. One common example of this practice is to designate at least one compulsory period a day for physical education. Study period Another special example of a middle school and high school period is the study period. In school or college,", "in scheduling as classes can be 40, 60, or 80 minutes long, as needed for one-to one, small group, large group, and laboratory instruction. Classes are taught in a similar format to many universities; students meet a large group lecture once per week and have small group recitations throughout the week. An average student has at least one or two full open mods (free periods) per day, that can be used for studying, interacting with teachers, eating lunch, or socializing.\nSince modular scheduling leaves students with a relatively large amount of unstructured time outside of classes, some schools also adopt open", "their secondary school education in the school will sit for two public examinations – PT3 and SPM.\nThe academic time spreads over 56 periods in a week. The school follow closely the one-hour period (optimum teaching and learning duration) in the timetable. The students are not put into fixed rooms according to classes. They move to teaching rooms from one subject to another. There is also no bell in between periods. The school implemented this system to eliminate boredom, improve time management skill and to keep the students active during academic hours. Class sizes are kept small. The teacher to student", "allow them to access the restricted floor. The school is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. The length of class varies depending on the time in which the House begins its session. Every weekday, except public holidays, Pages begin school at 6:45am. The only exception is for Pages that worked past 10 p.m. the evening prior. Class length varies from 12 to 50 minutes, depending on the daily schedule of the House of Representatives. Pages are usually dismissed from school an hour prior to the convening of the House. If", "their schools move to later start times, but later school hours have been consistently linked with improved school performance, reduced impulsiveness, and greater motivation, as well as with lower rates of depression, tardiness, truancy, and morning automobile accidents. Recent (2011) studies suggest that early school start times disproportionately hurt economically disadvantaged students and may even negatively impact future earning potential of students, offsetting any financial savings to the school system attributed to earlier hours. Shifted circadian rhythms and sleep deprivation Proponents of a return to later school hours cite abundant evidence that starting middle and high school before about 8:30", "the school time period were given punishments such as detention, expulsion or warnings. In doing so, children have been taught to limit the amount of time they spend online and focus more on their school lives along with other social activities. Nevertheless people in England have argued against this. Patsy Kane has stated, \"There's a fantastic range of apps now for revision—and the students are really motivated to use them.\" United States In the past, some United States schools installed mobile phone jammers prevent cell phones from working on campuses. However, the sale and use of jammers is illegal in", "in upper secondary, classes can commence at a later time.\nThe lessons are 45 minutes in length, with five-minute breaks in between to allow time for relocating to the next classroom or eating and drinking, for example. Lessons are taught in German or English; this depends on the teacher entirely. Hence, situations can arise when one has a particular subject in German one year and in English the next, or vice versa. However, the school tries very hard to decrease situations like this and is very open when it comes to language issues.\nThere is a fixed 15 minute break from 09:35", "school day (Monday through Friday). Students are not required to log in at any specific time or for any amount of time unless a live class session is scheduled. It is strongly suggested that families set a schedule and actively engage in school work for roughly five to seven hours a day. The flexible structure gives student the ability to participate in extracurricular activities such as traveling, sports, acting or dancing.\nStudents attend school by logging on to the school website, a Canvas-based learning management system, every Monday–Friday during the school year and complete the assignments by a specified deadline, which", "not be able to teach the same units the same way because of the classes readiness. At the beginning of the year and before new units it would be best to do a pre-assessment of the students to see what they know. The teachers should also give parents an evaluation in the beginning of the year because they know their child best. Planning and preparing for a class day is difficult, having these pre-assessments done will help you spend more time teaching students what they don't know and just refreshing them on what they do already do know. For example,", "the letter days, students schedules rotate and eliminate this issue by having a student have lab on a specific letter day.\nThe current system that the high school employs is not much different from the letter schedule, but is significantly shortened. This is similar to the college system and helps prepare those for college. The school now relies upon a 4-day schedule with a total of eight periods, two of which are dropped every day. This way, a student's schedule rotates through four different options, having class periods 1, 2, 3, and 4 in the morning block, and having periods 5,", "after 8 years (including kindergarten) of primary school, in which pupils study the same subjects as their German counterparts, with the addition of compulsory Ancient Greek, Latin and Klassieke Culturele Vorming (Classical Cultural Education), history of the Ancient Greek and Roman culture and literature. Schools have some freedom in choosing their specific curriculum, with for example Spanish, Philosophy and Technasium, a very technical and highly demanding course, being available as final exams. Usually schools will have all classes mandatory in switching combinations for the first three or so years (with the exception of Technasium which is a free choice from" ]

[ "I'll probably get another NO BLATANT SPECULATION response from the wannabe mod we have lurking here, but here's what I've found looking around for you: **Nobody actually 100% knows the scientific reason, but dog experts have been able to put together some good guesses based on what we know about dogs.** Many of them have actually been listed here, but I'll put them all together in one place for you:)\n\nPart one of the theory is that the dog simply feels SO much better once they've been washed. Not only are they clean, they also had to sit still like a good boy/girl for SO LONG while they got cleaned and now they've been set free again!\n\nThe reason why they often roll around or drag their heads on the ground (my dog does this - we call it the \"lawnmower\") could be two reasons. One, they're wet and they want to get dry. Shaking removes a huge amount of the water, but not all of it - Especially in their ears. It probably feels weird and they're trying to get it the heck out! The other reason is that they likely don't like smelling like \"not a dog\" (with all the shampoo). Dogs rely on their sense of smell WAY more than we do. And all that shampoo is probably very distracting! Rolling around may likely be them trying to get their smell back to neutral.\n\nAnd of course, if you associate games or fun activities with post-bathtime (my dogs LOVE being dried off with a towel), that likely makes them really excited too!:D\n\nEDIT: Sources: _URL_0_\n_URL_1_\n\nI can find more if these aren't good enough for the people posting snark rather than real answers.", "A bath is a time when dogs get much attention and get touched and scrubbed all over. A dog can become emotionally overwhelmed from this extreme attention. \n\nAlso, the situation of getting soaked to the skin is unusual for the dog, perhaps stressful, because their undercoat is an important protection to them. To get this undercoat wet \"against their will\" so to speak, while being restrained, can make them stress.\n\nThese things can combine to overexcite the dog. To discharge this overexcitement, the dog may go apeshit - running, shaking water off, frenzied actions.\nIn short, blowing off steam.", "This thread is just chock full of quirky personal anecdotes and guesses.", "Maybe it's a mix of not liking the scent the shampoo left on them, so the dog tries to get it off by frantically rubbing itself over everything. \n\nI used to own ferrets, and after their baths, they would try to stimulate their musk glands because they didn't smell like they thought they should. They would run around and go crazy as well. Either way, it's very entertaining.", "we used to play a game with my dog after she took a bath where we'd chase her around trying to throw a towel over her, which she LOVED. so every time she takes a bath now she gets so psyched at the end to run around and generally freak the fuck out.", "i think it's because they're cold. my dog used to go bat-shit crazy after baths, rubbing himself all over the rugs in my loft and running frantically from one end to to the other. my mom was visiting once and suggested i try blow-drying him. he now comes right to me as soon as he sees the blow dryer after a bath and sits calmly until i'm done making him warm and fluffy. seems like his happy normal self after - no crazy dog antics.", "For my dogs it was because they knew that as soon as they were dry they were now allowed on the bed, on the furniture and up in laps.", "It might have something to do with them losing their distinct smell after washing. My dog would often attempt to roll in gross stuff immediately following a bath. But it is most likely because they are just happy to be free from the personal hell that is getting a bath.", "We don't know for certain, but a good theory is that they are trying to dry themselves off (wet=cold and uncomfortable) along with replace their natural scent (rubbing themselves on and rolling around in their environment: floor, furniture, etc)", "My best guess is that there's water in their ears. My dog used to be super meek and mellow while he was in the bath, and then as soon as you let him out he acted like he lost his mind, running around in crazy eights and rolling around and shaking furiously whenever he stopped. He would also rub his ears on the carpet.\n\nMy best guess is the running is to get airflow in the ear canal." ]

[ "out of bed and find out what it is. To reassure herself, she reaches a hand toward the floor for the dog and is rewarded by a reassuring lick on her hand. The next morning when she wakes, she goes to the bathroom for a drink of water only to find her dead, mutilated dog hanging in the shower with his blood slowly dripping onto the tiles. On the shower wall, written in the dog's blood, are the words \"HUMANS CAN LICK, TOO.\"\nOther story variations feature a nearsighted old woman rather than a young girl. The fate of the dog", "when a dog is frightened. It is thought that this secretion leaves a signal to other dogs allowing them to recognize the source of the individual fecal deposit. This odor is also likely the signal being sampled when strange dogs investigate one another by sniffing out the anal area. Dogs' anal glands can become swollen and unable to drain naturally, sometimes requiring a visit to the veterinarian or groomer to express the built up liquid. Excessive licking and chewing of the area is one indication of this. Typically, these glands are expressed during routine professional grooming as a", "as bathing. But for most breeds, when not regularly bathed, even a dog who sheds very little or has little dander can trigger a reaction in a sensitive person. Effect of size Size may be a factor in determining hypoallergenicity. It is possible that the total body surface area of the dog is more indicative of reduced production of allergens than its breed.\nSmaller dogs will also leave fewer environmental pollutants containing dog dander and dog allergens (reduced fecal matter, urine and saliva). Small hairless dogs may be less likely to cause allergic reactions \"because it's so easy to bathe them", "So I came up with the name Dogg because a dog can do anything, and anything a dog does never comes as a real surprise; if he sleeps on the sofa, shits on the rug, pisses on the drapes, chews up your slippers, humps your mother-in-law's leg, jumps on your new clothes and licks your face, he's never gotten out of character. You understand what he did, you curse while making allowances for him but your love for him never diminishes. Commencing in 1970, I sung about sex, niggers, love, rednecks, war, peace, dead flies, home wreckers, Sly Stone, my", "of their dogs, which can lead to trouble. Some owners are unaware of \"dog language\" and inadvertently read signs of aggression where there are none. Still others ignore warning signs or mistakenly think that a stiff wagging tail means that a dog is friendly.\n\nSome people keep their dogs locked up in a crate during the week, only to unleash their dogs in a dog park on the weekend without proper exercise, creating issues; and still others allow dogs with illnesses or unvaccinated dogs to run alongside healthy dogs. Dogs who are shy or aggressive can learn to interact safely with", "and behavioural changes regulated by the dog's owners. Problematic behaviour It is common for problems to arise when dogs compulsively chase their tails. One case study described a dog who began to lose weight, demonstrated aggressive behaviour when its owner attempted to stop the chasing, and became uninterested in enjoyable daily activities, such as walks and eating. Another case study described a dog with similar symptoms but who also injured its tail and head while chasing its tail. Furthermore, with increased tail chasing behaviour, the injuries become more serious, such as fractures from the animals often banging into things while", "body, and a waterproof inner coat for insulation. In warm weather, dogs may have problems regulating their body temperature and may overheat. Their tails serve to protect their nose and feet from freezing when the dog is curled up to sleep. They also have a unique arrangement of blood vessels in their legs to help protect against frostbite.\nAppetite is a big part of choosing sled dogs; picky dogs off trail may be pickier on the trail. They are fed high-fat diets, and on the trail may eat oily salmon or blubbery sea mammals. Sled dogs also must not be overly", "and the dander falls off them.\" Dogs may leave behind urine, saliva and fecal matter as allergen sources. Dogs with access to the outdoors may introduce outdoor allergens such as mold and pollen with larger animals tracking in more of these allergens. It is well established that most individuals with dog allergy also suffer with additional environmental allergies. Individuals with dog allergy may also be at increased risk for human protein hypersensitivity with cross-reactivity of dog dander allergen and human seminal fluid. Expert recommendations Researchers have shown that frequently bathing dogs reduces the amount of allergen related protein on the", "catches them and they both retreat as if they have been scolded. \nFinally, after A. Flea sets off an explosion in his fur, the dog cannot stand it any longer. Yelping and dragging his posterior across the floor, at one point he stops briefly and says to viewers, \"Hey, I better cut this out. I may get to like it.\" Elmer advances and the dog, realizing a bath is imminent, brakes and slides to a halt. He begs not to be taken for the bath, but Elmer grabs him and begins dragging him toward the inevitable. Suddenly, the", "it needs to take on rough ocean waves and powerful tides. These dogs have huge lung capacity for swimming extremely long distances and a thick, oily, and waterproof double coat which protects them from the chill of icy waters. The double coat makes the dog hard to groom, and also causes a lot of shedding to occur. The droopy lips and jowls make the dog drool, especially in high heat.\nIn the water, the dog's massive webbed paws give it maximum propulsion. The swimming stroke is not an ordinary dog paddle. Unlike other dogs, the Newfoundland moves its limbs in a", "origin of kneading as a remnant instinct. Panting Unlike dogs, panting is a rare occurrence in cats, except in warm weather environments. Some cats may pant in response to anxiety, fear or excitement. It can also be caused by play, exercise, or stress from things like car rides. However, if panting is excessive or the cat appears in distress, it may be a symptom of a more serious condition, such as a nasal blockage, heartworm disease, head trauma, or drug poisoning. In many cases, feline panting, especially if accompanied by other symptoms, such as coughing or shallow breathing (dyspnea), is", "stayed low during sleep or during pain experience.\nThe most reliable and valid animal models developed are the canine (narcoleptic dogs) and the rodent (orexin-deficient mice) ones which helped investigating the narcolepsy and set the focus on the role of orexin in this disorder. Dog Dogs as well as other species like cats or horses can also exhibit spontaneous narcolepsy with similar symptoms as the one reported in humans. The attacks of cataplexy in dogs can involve partial or full collapse. Narcolepsy with cataplexy was identified in a few breeds like Labrador retrievers or Doberman pinschers where it was investigated the", "way early in their development and have persisted because these dogs are highly resistant to extinction. Examples Many stereotypies can be induced by confinement; for example, cats pace in zoo cages. Pregnant sows whose feed is restricted bite at their stalls' bars and chew without anything in their mouths. In laboratory rats and mice, grooming is the most common activity other than sleep, and grooming stereotypies have been used to investigate several animal models of anxiety and depression.\nExamples of stereotypical behaviours include pacing, rocking, swimming in circles, excessive sleeping, self-mutilation (including feather picking and excessive grooming), and mouthing cage bars.\nStereotypies", "but initially owners may only notice that their dog's bark sounds different, that their dog can't run as much as before, or that the dog has trouble in hot weather in unilateral cases because the unaffected side can compensate for the paralysed side. However most unilateral cases will eventually progress to include both sides of the larynx, a more serious problem with symptoms appearing more often. \nSigns are usually worse in hot and humid weather, during exercise, during times of stress or excitement, and in obese pets. Acute or late-stage symptoms are usually unmistakable and require immediate emergency", "chasing their tails, getting skin abrasions and infections from creating open wounds on the tail, and abrasions on the pads of their feet. The most serious cases can result in amputation or even euthanasia if other treatments are unsuccessful. Surveys from owners suggest that tail chasing diminishes quality of life for the dog and usually interferes with the relationship between dog and owner. OCD Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) in humans is characterized by the onset of intrusive, repetitive thoughts and urges (obsessions), that are typically eased through a certain behaviour (compulsions). In addition, it can present early in life or", "dioxide. As dogs have few sweat glands on their skin, this would explain the fact that they do not sweat, so the respiratory system also plays an important role in body thermoregulation.\nDogs are mammals with two large lungs and lobes, with a spongy appearance due to the presence of a system of delicate branches of the bronchioles in each lung, ending in closed, thin-walled chambers (the points of gas exchange) called alveoli.\nThe presence of a muscular structure, the diaphragm, exclusive of the mammals, divides the peritoneal cavity of the pleural cavity, besides assisting the ribs in the Inhale. Size Dogs", "to do with hunting behavior – when the prey is running, the dog attacks. Once the prey stops, the dog will stop too. We can often see this when dogs are chasing cats. This behavior, however, is used in several different situations. When you get angry and aggressive and appear threatening, the dog will often freeze and not move in order to help you calm down. Other times the dog may walk slowly, freeze, and then move slowly again. Very often a dog will stop and remain still when someone is approaching. Should a dog be in a conflict situation", "dogs become very panicky and start barking at the hills. Beauty then runs off into the hills. Chasing after her, Bobby finds her mutilated body. Frightened, he runs, falls, and knocks himself unconscious. \nBob walks back to Fred's Oasis to get help. As night falls, he finds Fred, who tells him about his son Jupiter. As a child, Jupiter killed the family's livestock and later murdered his sister. Fred attacked Jupiter with a tire iron and left him in the hills to die. However, Jupiter survived and had children with a depraved, alcoholic prostitute known as Mama. Together, they had", "as wolves, sometimes lift a leg and attempt to urinate even when their bladders are empty – this is known as a \"raised-leg display\", \"shadow-urination\", or \"pseudo-urination\". They typically mark their territory due to the presence of new stimuli or social triggers in a dog's environment, as well as out of anxiety. Marking behavior is present in both male and female dogs, and is especially pronounced in male dogs that have not been neutered.\nRaised-leg urination is the most significant form of scent marking in wolves, and is most frequent around the breeding season. Wolves urine-mark more frequently when they detect the", "their eyes can glaze over and go hard, followed by the dog snapping into alert mode before finally attacking. It appears to an outsider like an exaggerated form of aggression. Often a specific dog can have a certain trigger, such as the unexpected approach of people whilst he or she is sleeping.\nDr. Roger A. Mugford, to whom the term is attributed, identified that the problem starts on average at around seven and a half months old in English Springer Spaniels. However some of his research subjects showed signs at as early as three months and as late as two years.", "was due to bleach and salt. Whilst my elders discussed the fishing I asked these Northumberland salmon net men whether their dog was a Water-Dog or a Curly, airing my knowledge. They told me he was a Tweed Water Spaniel. This was a new one on me. I had a nasty suspicion my leg was being pulled. This dog looked like a brown Water Dog to me, certainly retrieverish, and not at all spanielly. I asked if he came from a trawler, and was told it came from Berwick.\"\nLinda P. Case, of the University of Illinois, speculated the Tweed Water", "the only reason they are unprofitable is because the sheep keep being attacked and stating that they will never have to leave. The manager drives off and stops on the side of the road to urinate, but before he can return to his car he is promptly attacked by a pack of wild dogs that viciously tear his flesh and drag him down the hill.\nLater that night the family is having a quiet evening. Sophie, who is in the shower, does not notice the shadow of a dog in the hall. When Carla and Henry go into the basement to", "can be placed just inside each ear before bathing to prevent excess water from entering in. After bathing, since it may be moist, pluck a few hairs inside the dog's ears to let air circulate through, preventing fungus from building. Training The Havanese is a toy dog. It is smart and can be easily trained. It is best to train this dog at a young age, because some habits will stick as they become older. However, training these dogs while they are older is still possible. Like many toy breeds, the Havanese can be difficult to housebreak. However, Havanese can", "Water dog A water dog is a type of gundog bred to flush and retrieve game from water. Water dogs are considered the progenitors of most modern retriever dog breeds. Description Water dogs are usually medium sized, active dogs, their most distinctive feature are their tight waterproof coats and their strong desire to swim. Traditionally many long haired water dogs breeds have their coats clipped with a bare midriff and hindquarters to assist in swimming by reducing drag, whilst retaining a long coat around their torso to prevent thermal shock when jumping into freezing water. This", "dog may lose hair, get bald spots, exhibit hot spots due to extreme irritation, and develop infections that result in smelly skin. Treatment and prevention Preventing and controlling flea infestations is a multi-step process. Prevention in the case of flea infestations can sometimes be difficult, but is the most effective way to ensure the dog will not get reinfected. Controlling flea infestations implies not only the pet has been cured and the fleas living on it are killed, but also that the environment in which the pet lives is free of these parasites. Of all these, removing the fleas", "most will bark when confronted with strange situations, and some will bay (also referred to as \"speaking\", \"giving tongue\", or \"opening\") when they catch the scent of potential quarry. They also generally get along well with cats and other dogs. They are not too demanding with regard to exercise; their inbred stamina means they do not easily tire when exercised, but they also do not need to be worked to exhaustion before they will rest. Regular exercise helps ward off the weight gain to which the breed is prone. Health The typical longevity of beagles is 12–15 years, which is", "The dog may yawn when someone bends over him, when you sound angry, when there is yelling and quarreling in the family, when the dog is at the vet's office, when someone is walking directly at the dog, when the dog is excited with happiness and anticipation – for instance by the door when you are about to go for a walk, when you ask the dog to do something he doesn´t feel like doing, when your training sessions are too long and the dog gets tired, when you have said NO for doing something you disapprove of, and in", "be engaged in activity within sight of a human partner. This is not a breed to be left alone for long periods of time, indoors or out.\nAs water dogs, the PWD's retrieving instinct is strong, which also gives some dogs tugging and chewing tendencies. A PWD will commonly jump as a greeting. Owners may choose to limit this behavior. Some PWDs may walk, hop, or \"dance\" on their hind legs when greeting or when excited. Some PWDs will stand upright at kitchen counters and tables, especially if they smell food above them. This habit is known as \"counter surfing\" and", "people suspect Greyhounds consider the house to be an extension of their crate, and thus will not voluntarily urinate or defecate indoors except in exigent circumstances, such as severe intestinal upset. \nGreyhounds enjoy resting on beds and sofas, often sleeping or dozing 16 hours a day or more. They often \"dig up\" their bedding materials like blankets to create a pile that can cushion their deep rib cage, which can make it difficult for them to get comfortable. Particularly common in sleeping among Greyhounds is the so-called \"roach\" or \"cockroach\" sleeping position, in which a Greyhound will roll onto his/her", "desensitization, anti-anxiety medications, and Dog Appeasing Pheromone, a synthetic analogue of a hormone secreted by nursing canine mothers.\nStudies have also shown that cats can be afraid of thunderstorms. Whilst it is less common, cats have been known to hide under a table or behind a couch during a thunderstorm.\nGenerally if any animal is anxious during a thunderstorm or any similar, practically harmless event (e.g. fireworks display), it is advised to simply continue behaving normally, instead of attempting to comfort animals. Showing fearlessness is, arguably, the best method to \"cure\" the anxiety." ]

[ "Warsaw was under Nazi rule. People didn't like that, especially the Jews living in the ghetto. People were purposely starved, killed in the streets. The Polish Underground State was formed - a resistance paramilitary which was made of several groups that wanted to liberate Poland (and save Jews). \n\nSome folks with radios learned that the Red Army was coming. And the Reds hate the Nazis. And the Polish Resistance thought \"Hey! If we fight the Nazis from within - and the Reds help out - we'll totally fuck the Nazi shit up!\" \n\nThe Resistance started fighting - but the Red Army never came to help them. Those dudes camped outside the city. The Poles fought the Nazis for two months, much of the city was in ashes, and Churchill was all like \"HEY STALIN, COME HELP OUR POLISH ALLIES!\" and Stalin was kinda like, \"I don't want to risk my dudes quite yet..\"\n\nThat's the Warsaw Uprising.", "The Warsaw Uprising was a bloody battle in World War II, between Nazi forces and Polish resistance. The Polish resistance, fighting to expel the Nazis from Warsaw and establish their own sovereignty, took up arms and attempted to fight.\n\nThe uprising was supposed to be timed for the advance of the Red Army to the east. As they approached the border though, the Red Army stopped short, leaving the resistance to defend themselves without little help. While Winston Churchill lobbied for support of the Resistance, there was no help from the Soviets, and there was little help beyond some supply drops from Americans. Many believe that Stalin purposefully left the resistance to be stranded and crushed so that his own puppet regime could take power in Poland.\n\nWithin a little while, Most of Warsaw was destroyed, with some estimates saying that up to 85% of the city was destroyed by a combo of the earlier war damage and by Nazi forces systematically going block by block, leveling everything. Hundreds of thousands of Polish were executed, and almost 20,000 Resistance members died.", "Thanks for the answers guys they were very insightful.", "if you're interested, this book is one of the definitive source on the Warsaw Uprising, and a fantastic (if sometimes ponderous) read:\n\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "forces, and the underground urged Warsaw inhabitants to ignore it. Fearing that the city would be turned into ruins and share the fate of Stalingrad and Kiev, General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski ordered Operation Tempest to be started in Warsaw, which resulted in the Warsaw Uprising that lasted from August through September.\nAfter the Uprising, during which the Soviets troops had arrived near the Vistula, the Germans razed the city to the ground and continued the construction of concrete bunkers that were to defend Festung Warschau against the Red Army for four months. However, when the Soviets finally crossed the Vistula on 17", "Wola massacre Massacre The Warsaw Uprising broke out on 1 August 1944. During the first few days the Polish resistance managed to liberate most of Warsaw on the left bank of the river Vistula (an uprising also broke out in the district of Praga on the right bank but was quickly suppressed by the Germans). Two days after the start of the fighting, SS General Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski was placed in command of all German forces in Warsaw. Following direct orders from SS-Reichsfűhrer Heinrich Himmler to suppress the uprising without mercy, his strategy was to include the use of", "summer of 1944 it initiated Operation Tempest, of which the Warsaw Uprising that begun on 1 August 1944 is the best known operation. The objective was to drive the Germans from the city and help with the larger fight against the Axis powers. Secondary motives were to liberate Warsaw before the Soviets, to underscore Polish sovereignty by empowering the Polish Underground State before the Soviet-backed Polish Committee of National Liberation could assume control. A lack of Allied support and Stalin's reluctance to allow the 1st Army to help their fellow countrymen take the city led to the uprising's failure and", "Żniwiarz Group Course of combat in Warsaw Uprising The place of concentration of the Żniwiarz Group at the hour \"W\" were areas in Mikołaj Górka Street, Józef Sułkowski Street and the Park Promyka in the officer quarter of Żoliborz. About 13:50 soldiers who transported weapons from stores in Wespazjana Kochowskiego Street fired the first shots in the Warsaw Uprising. Although the soldiers won the skirmish, it did not prevent the insurgents from reaching the gathering place. The target of the Żniwiarz Group was German positions in Krasińskiego street and areas of Plac Grunwaldzki.\nUpon arriving, the Group soldiers were attacked in", "and chimney sweeps. They drove a horse and cart around Warsaw, supplying arms to resistance groups and bringing in food from the countryside.\nOn 19 April Jewish resistance groups began the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Bryks and Černý helped to smuggle weapons and food to the rebels. The Germans crushed the ghetto uprising on 16 May.\nA fortnight later Bryks and Černý were lodging with a Polish widow, Mrs Błaszkiewiczowá, who had two young children and lived in a village several kilometres outside Warsaw. A collaborator told the German authorities, so on 2 June 1943 the Gestapo surrounded Mrs Błaszkiewiczowá's house and arrested", "Army arrived. Thus, on 1 August 1944, as the Red Army was nearing the city, the Warsaw Uprising began.\nThe armed struggle, planned to last 48 hours, continued for 63 days, until 2 October. Eventually, the Home Army fighters and civilians assisting them were forced to capitulate. They were transported to PoW camps in Germany, while the entire civilian population was expelled.\nThe Nazis then essentially demolished Warsaw. Hitler, ignoring the agreed terms of the capitulation, ordered the entire city razed to the ground and the library and museum collections taken to Germany or burned. Monuments and government buildings were blown up", "additional deportations to Treblinka.\nThe first ghetto uprising is believed to have occurred in 1942 the small town of Łachwa in the Polesie Voivodship (see Lakhva Ghetto).\nThe final destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto came four months later after the crushing one of the most heroic and tragic battles of the war, Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, led by Mordechaj Anielewicz. Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, which was reverberated throughout Poland and the rest of the world as an example of courage and defiance, was followed by other failed Ghetto uprisings in Nazi occupied Poland. Some of the survivors of Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, still held in", "Massacre at 111 Marszałkowska Street in Warsaw The massacre at 111 Marszałkowska Street - a crime against the civilian population of Warsaw committed by the Germans during the Warsaw Uprising. On August 3, 1944, next to the \"Pod Światełkami\" tavern, the crew of a German armoured car shot about 30-44 Polish civilians - residents of tenement houses on Marszałkowska Street No. 109, 111, 113. The massacre During the first days of August 1944, the section of Marszałkowska Street enclosed by Chmielna and Złota Streets was not overtaken by major insurgent fights. On August 3rd, around 11:00 a.m., a German armored", "on the central-Eastern Front. On 1 August 1944, the Armia Krajowa (the Polish Home Army) launched the Warsaw Uprising. A column of Totenkopf Tiger tanks were caught up in the fighting, and several were lost. The Totenkopf itself was not involved in the suppression of the uprising, instead guarding the front lines, and fighting off several Red Army probe attacks into the city's eastern suburbs.\nIn several battles near the town of Modlin in mid-August, the Totenkopf, fighting alongside the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking and the Hermann Göring Panzer Division destroyed the Soviet 3rd Tank Corps. The terrain around Modlin", "The rebels then turned to the main city arsenal, capturing it after a brief struggle. The following day, armed Polish civilians forced the Russian troops to withdraw north of Warsaw. This incident is sometimes called the Warsaw Uprising or the November Night. (Polish: Noc listopadowa). Postscript Adam Czartoryski remarked that the war with Russia, precipitated by the rising of young patriots in November 1830, came either too early or too late. Puzyrewski argued, that the rising should have been initiated in 1828 when Russia was experiencing reverses in Turkey and was least able to spare substantial forces for war with", "the military commanders of the Polish army were focusing most of their efforts on preparation of a future all-national uprising against Germany. Finally the plans for Operation Tempest were prepared and on 1 August 1944, the Warsaw Uprising started. The Uprising was an armed struggle by the Polish Home Army to liberate Warsaw from German occupation and Nazi rule.\nDespite the fact that Polish and later Royal Air Force (RAF) planes flew missions over Warsaw dropping supplies from 4 August on, the United States Army Air Force (USAAF) planes did not join the operation. The Allies specifically requested the use of", "the German collapse and the entry of the Soviets appeared imminent, and the AK, led by Bór-Komorowski, launched the Warsaw Uprising on 1 August. The insurgents' equipment and supplies would suffice for only several days of fighting and the uprising was planned to last no longer than that. On 3 August Mikołajczyk, conferring with Stalin in Moscow, announced an upcoming \"freeing of Warsaw any day now\" and asked for military help. Stalin promised help for the insurgents, but noted that the Soviet armies were still separated from Warsaw by powerful and thus far undefeated concentrations of enemy troops.\nIn Warsaw, the", "Warsaw Uprising. On the first day of fighting, he was trapped weaponless with around 30 other soldiers in a hospital building on Koszykowa street after the weaponry supply had been mistakenly directed somewhere else. While evacuating the unit, Karpiński's group was caught under heavy fire, which resulted in most of the evacuees dead. Karpiński himself was shot with a 9mm caliber gun - a bullet was stuck in his backbone but he survived. Found next day by the hospital's nurses, he received treatment but remained paralyzed. Released from hospital after the Uprising's collapse, he rejoined his family in Pruszków but", "Aftermath of the Warsaw Uprising People hiding in the remnants Some people were hiding in the remnants of the city, e.g. Władysław Szpilman, who later wrote his memoir The Pianist, filmed by Roman Polanski (The Pianist, 2002). They became known as the Robinson Crusoes of Warsaw. The legacy Due to lack of cooperation and often the active aggressive moves on the part of the Soviets and several other factors, Warsaw Uprising and Operation Tempest failed in their primary goal—to free part of Polish territories, so that a government loyal to Polish government in exile could be established there instead of", "Battle of Muranów Square The Battle of Muranów Square was a battle between the Jewish Military Union (ŻZW) and Third Reich troops which took place during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising on April 19–22, 1943. The fighting between the German pacification forces under Jürgen Stroop, which were destroying the ghetto, and the Jewish insurgent forces of ŻZW, under Paweł Frenkel, took place in the now non-existent Muranów Square.\nAccording to the accounts of two soldiers of the Security Corps - Władysław Zajdler and Henryk Iwański - the fighting was resumed on 27–28 April 1943 and a Polish unit of the Security Corps", "Polish underground outside the Ghetto came through the sewers that still linked it with the rest of Warsaw. On the morning of May 10, Edelman and his few remaining comrades escaped through the sewers and made their way to the non-Ghetto part of Warsaw to find safety among their Polish compatriots. At this point the Uprising was over and the fate of those fighters who had remained behind is unknown.\nAfter World War II, the Ghetto Uprising was sometimes given as an unusual instance of active Jewish resistance in the face of the horror perpetrated by the Germans. However, Marek never", "Ghetto Action Action Ghetto (pol. Akcja Getto) - code name for the armed actions of the Polish Underground State during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising aimed at helping the insurgents. The name was given to a series of combat actions carried out by the Home Army during the uprising between 19 April 1943 and May 16, 1943. Background The right-wing faction Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (ŻZW) which was founded by former Polish officers, was larger, more established and had closer ties with the Polish resistance, making it better equipped. Zimmerman describes the arm supplies for the uprising as \"limited but real\". Specifically,", "Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski launched the Polish Home Army insurrection on 1 August 1944 in an attempt to seize Warsaw from the Germans before it was overrun by the Red Army. They managed to occupy large areas of downtown Warsaw but failed to secure the four bridges over the Vistula and were therefore unable to hold the eastern suburbs of the city. With the Red Army stalled on the Vistula, German counterattacks and insurrection suppression operations lead to the Polish Home Army (as well as the city) being systematically destroyed. The plight of the Poles captured the imagination of", "Kraków Uprising (1944) The Kraków Uprising was a planned but never realized uprising of the Polish Resistance against the German occupation in the city of Kraków during World War II. Background The summer of 1944 was a busy time for the Home Army (Armia Krajowa) – the biggest underground organization of German-occupied Poland. The Red Army was mercilessly pushing the Wehrmacht towards the west, and the headquarters of AK decided to launch Operation Tempest (Plan Burza): a series of local uprisings, whose purpose was to seize control of cities and areas where German forces were preparing their defence against the", "Fragments of the ghetto walls in Warsaw Fragments of the ghetto walls in Warsaw are fragments of the walls between properties or the walls of pre-war buildings marking the border between the Warsaw Ghetto and the \"Aryan\" part of the city after November 16, 1940.\nThe total length of the ghetto wall in 1940 was about 18 km. After the end of World War II, the freestanding walls of the Jewish district, which survived the Ghetto Uprising and the Warsaw Uprising, were largely demolished. Few fragments of the walls running between the properties have been preserved, as well as the walls of", "the leaflet published in May 1943 in a circulation of 25,000. by Council for Aid to Jews calling for help to Jews.\nWarsaw Ghetto Uprising started on [April 19], 1943, when the German forces attempted to enter territory of Warsaw Ghetto. On the same day, after reports of shooting in the ghetto, the commander of the patrols of the Cpt. Józef Pszenny \"Chwacki\" ordered an alarm for a previously created 55-man group, which in the strength of three platoons at 18 o'clock got into the vicinity of the wall on Bonifraterska Street in Warsaw. The aim of diversionary and sapper divisions", "Andrzej Romocki Wola and Starówka The Zośka Battalion fought in the most difficult areas of Warsaw throughout the uprising. At the beginning of August 1944, Zośka was stationed in the Wola district, where, after early successes by the insurgents, which included the liberation of 350 Jews from the Gęsiówka concentration camp, the Germans launched their first major counter-offensive of the uprising (and also committed some of their worst atrocities - the Wola massacre). After 11 August, when Wola fell, Romocki and the entire Zośka Battalion relocated to Warsaw Old Town (\"Starówka\" or \"Stare Miasto\" in Polish), where they fought valiantly", "Verbrennungskommando Warschau Background During the Warsaw Uprising, Polish civilians were indiscriminately killed by the Germans and their Ukrainian and Russian collaborators in punitive mass executions, the most notorious of which took place in Wola, Ochota and in Warsaw's Old Town, based on the explicit orders of Heinrich Himmler, who said: \"Every inhabitant of Warsaw is to be shot. Prisoners will not be taken; the town is to be razed to the ground.\"\nMost of the atrocities were committed by troops under the command of SS men Oskar Dirlewanger, Heinrich Reinefarth, and Bronislav Kaminski.\nBetween 8 and 23 August 1944, the Germans organised", "January 1945 – after the beginning of the Vistula–Oder Offensive of the Red Army – Soviet troops and Polish troops of the First Polish Army entered the ruins of Warsaw, and liberated Warsaw's suburbs from German occupation. The city was swiftly taken by the Soviet Army, which rapidly advanced towards Łódź, as German forces regrouped at a more westward position. 1945–1989: Warsaw during the People's Republic In 1945, after the bombings, revolts, fighting, and demolition had ended, most of Warsaw lay in ruins.\nAfter World War II, the \"Bricks for Warsaw\" campaign was initiated, and large prefabricated housing projects were erected in Warsaw", "insurgents in eastern Poland fought back on July 22, 1942. The Łachwa Ghetto revolt erupted on September 3. On October 14, 1942, the Mizocz Ghetto followed suit. The Warsaw Ghetto firefight of January 18, 1943, led to the largest Jewish uprising of World War II launched on April 19, 1943. On June 25, the Jews of the Częstochowa Ghetto rose up. At Treblinka, the Sonderkommando prisoners armed with stolen weapons attacked the guards on August 2, 1943. A day later, the Będzin and Sosnowiec ghetto revolts broke out. On August 16, the Białystok Ghetto uprising erupted. The revolt in Sobibór", "Kniefall von Warschau The term Kniefall von Warschau, also referred to as Warschauer Kniefall, (both German for \"Warsaw genuflection\") refers to a gesture of humility and penance by West German Chancellor Willy Brandt towards the victims of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Incident The event took place on December 7, 1970, in Warsaw, Poland (which was then part of the Eastern Bloc), during a visit to a monument to the German occupation-era Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. After laying down a wreath, Brandt, very surprisingly, and to all appearances spontaneously, knelt. He remained silently in that position for a short time (half a", "the capital and Praga was maintained by privately run ferries and, in the winter, over the ice. Finally, in 1791, during the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski, Praga was attached to Warsaw as a borough.\nThe Battle of Praga, or Battle of Warsaw of 1794, was a Russian assault during the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794. It was followed by a massacre in which over 20,000 inhabitants of the Praga district lost their lives.\nUnlike the western parts of Warsaw, Praga remained relatively untouched during World War II and in the postwar period of reconstruction, the capital was home to many ministries and", "Massacre at Bracka Street in Warsaw Massacre on Bracka Street - a series of murders, arson and other serious violations of the wartime law committed by soldiers of the German Wehrmacht during attempts to unblock the section of Jerozolimskie Avenue held by the insurgents in Warsaw.\nDuring the fights conducted on August 3-4, 1944, the soldiers of the 4th East Prussian Grenadier Regiment repeatedly used Polish civilians as \"living shields\", shielding the tanks' attacks on the insurgent barricades. They also committed a number of murders of prisoners of war and residents of houses on Bracka Street and Jerozolimskie Avenue. The number", "underground in the uprising was many times confirmed by a report of the German commander Jürgen Stroop, who wrote: \n\"When we invaded the Ghetto for the first time, the Jews and the Polish bandits succeeded in repelling the participating units, including tanks and armored cars, by a well-prepared concentration of fire. (...) The main Jewish battle group, mixed with Polish bandits, had already retired during the first and second day to the so-called Muranowski Square. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. Its plan was to hold the Ghetto by every means in order to prevent", "the ghetto, providing contact with the outside and allowing smuggling of arms into the ghetto. Warsaw Ghetto Uprising During the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ŻZW is said to have had about 400 well-armed fighters grouped in 11 units. ŻZW fought together with AK fighters in Muranowska Street (4 units under Frenkel). Dawid M. Apfelbaum took position in Miła Street. Heniek Federbusz group organized a strong pocket of resistance in a house near Zamenhoff Street. Jan Pika unit took position in Miła Street, while unit of Leizer Staniewicz fought in the Nalewki, Gęsia Street and Franciszkańska street. Dawid Berliński's group took position" ]

[ "This is a really good question, you should probably chuck it over onto /r/AskHistorians, they'd be more likely to have an actual, factual answer.\n\nEDIT: Someone has already asked it over there, the best answer last year came from /u/rosemary85 and goes as follows:\n > No. The Latin words for numbers are fairly similar to those in modern Romance languages (unus, duo, tres, quattuor, quinque, sex, septem, octo, novem, decem, etc).\nThe Latin for 94 is quattuor et nonaginta, literally \"four and ninety\", or alternatively nonaginta et quattuor.\nThe exceptions are that the Latin for 18 and 19 are duodeviginti and undeviginti, literally \"twenty minus two\" and \"twenty minus one\". But as you can see, this has nothing at all to do with how the numerals were written.\nI should perhaps note that the Romans very often wrote IIII and VIIII rather than IV and IX for \"four\" and \"nine\", XXXX rather than XL for \"forty\", etc. I don't have statistics at my fingertips, but I believe the IIII/XXXX forms were actually more common than the IV/XL forms that are preferred nowadays.\n\n[See here for the rest of the comments.](_URL_0_)" ]

[ "the Greeks. It is unclear if the Romans first derived their numerical system directly from the Greek precedent or from Etruscan numerals used by the Etruscan civilization centered in what is now Tuscany, central Italy.\nUsing calculation, Romans were adept at both instigating and detecting financial fraud, as well as managing taxes for the treasury. Siculus Flaccus, one of the Roman gromatici (i.e. land surveyor), wrote the Categories of Fields, which aided Roman surveyors in measuring the surface areas of allotted lands and territories. Aside from managing trade and taxes, the Romans also regularly applied mathematics to solve problems in engineering,", "History of ancient numeral systems Numeral systems have progressed from the use of tally marks, more than 40,000 years ago, through to the use of sets of glyphs to efficiently represent any conceivable number. Pre-history The first method of counting has been argued to be counting on fingers. This evolved into sign language for the hand-to-eye-to-elbow communication of numbers which, while not writing, gave way to written numbers.\nTallies made by carving notches in wood, bone, and stone were used for at least forty thousand years. These tally marks may have been used for counting elapsed time, such as numbers", "practice used worldwide today of a new day beginning at midnight. Numerals and units Roman numerals continued as the primary way of writing numbers in Europe until the 14th century, when they were largely replaced in common usage by Hindu-Arabic numerals. The Roman numeral system continues to be widely used, however, in certain formal and minor contexts, such as on clock faces, coins, in the year of construction on cornerstone inscriptions, and in generational suffixes (such as Louis XIV or William Howard Taft IV). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, in the Spanish language centuries must be written in", "Latin numerals Overview The Latin language had several sets of number words used for various purposes. Some of those sets are shown in the tables below. ūnus The numeral ūnus < Old Latin oinos ‘one’, with its cognates Old Irish óen ‘one’, Gothic ains ‘one’, Ancient Greek οἴνη oínē ‘ace on dice’, and the first part of Old Church Slavonic inorogŭ ‘Unicorn’, hearkens back to Proto-Indo-European *Hoi̯-no-s. The genitive forms ūnīus, ūnĭus and the dative form ūnī match the pronominal declension (cf. hujus, illius etc.), the remaining forms (including a rare gen. f. ūnae) conform with those of first and", "eras. Also, it was used for a letter to Charlemagne in 773, and probably, in its continued form, a source for both Bede (who found here that Aetius was consul for the third time in 446) and the Historia Brittonum.\nVictorius also wrote a 98-column multiplication table which gave (in Roman numerals) the product of every number from 2 to 50 times and the rows were \"a list of numbers starting with one thousand, descending by hundreds to one hundred, then descending by tens to ten, then by ones to one, and then the fractions down to 1/144\".", "given by an Arabic number or Roman numeral. Examples: BIII, CVII, B2, C7. \nThe two abbreviations \"B\", \"C\", represent the terms barre or bar, cejillo or capotasto, the later being Spanish and Italian terms for capo. The choice of letter adopted is an editorial decision reflecting the style adopted. The use of Roman numerals is more prevalent than Arabic numbers to avoid confusion with other fingering indications and common chord symbols (but not figured harmony).\nNotation of Roman numerals without including letters \"B\" or \"C\" is an indication of fingerboard position only. \nPartial barres indications are also determined by editorial style.", "ancient number systems of many other peoples (for the Arabic alphabet version, see Abjad numerals). A gematria of Latin script languages was also popular in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance and its legacy remains in code-breaking, numerology and Masonic symbolism today (see arithmancy). History Until Arabic numerals were adopted and adapted from Indian numerals in the 8th and 9th centuries AD, and promoted in Europe by Fibonacci of Pisa with his 1202 book Liber Abaci, numerals were predominantly alphabetical. For instance in Ancient Greece, Greek numerals used the alphabet. It is just a short step from", "in a royal document of 1456. By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe. Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of anno Domini years, and for numbers on clockfaces.\nToday, Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists (as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration), for sequential volumes, to differentiate monarchs or family members with the same first names, and (in lower case) to number pages in prefatory material in books. Adoption in Russia Cyrillic numerals were a numbering system derived from the Cyrillic alphabet, used by South and East Slavic peoples.", "Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, \"whatever\") from ότι (óti, \"that\").\nAncient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon, or bi-directional text, was also used in Ancient Greek. Latin alphabet Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script, especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics. The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος", "Greek numerals History The Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations' Linear A and Linear B alphabets used a different system, called Aegean numerals, which included specialised symbols for numbers: 𐄇 = 1, 𐄐 = 10, 𐄙 = 100, 𐄢 = 1000, and 𐄫 = 10000.\nAttic numerals was another system that came into use perhaps in the 7th century BC. They were acrophonic, derived (after the initial one) from the first letters of the names of the numbers represented. They ran  = 1,  = 5,  = 10,  = 100,  = 1,000, and  = 10,000. The numbers 50, 500, 5,000, and 50,000 were represented by the letter with minuscule powers of ten written in the top right corner: ,", "are well known. Roman numerals use a few letters of the alphabet to represent numbers up to the thousands, but are not intended for arbitrarily large numbers and can only represent positive integers. Arabic numerals are a family of systems, originating in India and passing to medieval Islamic civilization, then to Europe, and now standard in global culture—and having undergone many curious changes with time and geography—can represent arbitrarily large numbers and have been adapted to negative numbers, fractions, and real numbers.\nLess well known systems include some that are written and can be read today, such as the Hebrew and", "and Roman numerals.\nThis early system was replaced by Greek numerals which employed the entire alphabet, including the nonstandard letters digamma, stigma, or sigma-tau (placed between epsilon and zeta), koppa (placed between pi and rho), and sampi (placed after omega). As revised in 2001, ELOT 743 provides for the uncommon characters to be given (in Greek) as $ for stigma, + for koppa, and / for sampi. These symbols are not given lower-case equivalents. When used as numbers, the letters are used in combination with the upper keraia numeral sign ⟨ʹ⟩ to denote numbers from 1 to 900 and in combination", "century were disused, viz., βαῦ in the sixth place, and κόππα, the Roman Q, coming after π; that these letters then took their natural place in the system of numeration, which was afterwards made complete by the addition, at the end of the letters of the alphabet, of another character to denote 900, which from its shape was at a considerably later period called σανπῖ. The character for six had not come to be identified with the abbreviation for στ in the time of Marcus, as known through Hippolytus. In calculating the numerical value of χρειστός he counts the σ", "of the significance of numbers to extremes. Influence of Biblical texts Influenced mainly by Biblical precepts, the Fathers down to the time of Bede and even later gave much attention to the sacredness and mystical significance not only of certain numerals in themselves but also of the numerical totals given by the constituent letters with which words were written. An example is in the early Epistle of Barnabas. This document appeals to The Book of Genesis as mystically pointing to the name and self-oblation of the coming Messias. \n\"Learn, therefore,\" says the writer, \"that Abraham who first appointed circumcision, looked", "old Roman letters were retained for formal inscriptions and for emphasis in written documents. The languages that use the Latin alphabet generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and for proper nouns. The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization. Old English, for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalised; whereas Modern English of the 18th century had frequently all nouns capitalised, in the same way that Modern German is today.\nThe use of the letters I and V for both consonants and vowels proved inconvenient as", "miscellaneous questions of various kinds,\" and quotes him on the difference between Greek and Latin names for certain stars. Asconius Pedianus, in his commentaries on Cicero's speeches, refers to a biography of Cicero by Tiro in at least four books, and Plutarch refers to him as a source for two incidents in Cicero's life. \nHe is credited with inventing the shorthand system of Tironian notes, later used by Medieval monks, among others. There is no clear evidence that he did, although Plutarch credits Cicero's clerks as the first Romans to record speeches in shorthand.", "Stichometry Stichometry refers to the practice of counting lines in texts: Ancient Greeks and Romans measured the length of their books in lines, just as modern books are measured in pages. This practice was rediscovered by German and French scholars in the 19th century. Stichos is the Greek word for a 'line' of prose or poetry and the suffix '-metry' is derived from the Greek word for measurement.\nThe length of each line in the Iliad and Odyssey, which may have been among the first long, Greek texts written down, became the standard unit for ancient stichometry. This standard line (Normalzeile,", "Roman numerals). The shape of the letters v and b (and Roman numeral 5) are practically indistinguishable. Abbreviations are commonplace, mostly marked with an overline and/or superscript.\nThe prevailing script in documents from (and from the land that would eventually become) Portugal from the 8th to the 12th centuries was Visigothic script; from the mid-12th century onwards, for about a century, Carolingian minuscule and, later on, an incipient Gothic script. From 1385 onwards, that is, after John I was crowned putting an end to the Portuguese Interregnum, there is radical change in the writing style of the documents issued by the", "Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser.\nIn Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong [ae̯] first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel [ɛː]. Then, the plosive /k/ before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be", "alphabet. But during the Old Kingdom a series of standardized writings had developed for sign-groups containing more than one numeral, repeated as Roman numerals practiced. However, repetition of the same numeral for each place-value was not allowed in the hieratic script. As the hieratic writing system developed over time, these sign-groups were further simplified for quick writing; this process continued into Demotic as well.\nTwo famous mathematical papyri using hieratic script are the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus and the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.", "Roman expansion in Italy Chronology Rather than assigning an increasing number to each year, like the modern Gregorian calendar, the ancient Romans usually used an eponymous dating system where events were dated by the names of Rome's chief magistrates (typically two consuls). Roman magistrates were elected for one year; as long as the sequence of magistrates (called a fasti) and its synchronization with the modern calendar are known, dates can be converted from one dating system to the other. Thus the year when Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Antonius Hybrida were consuls becomes 63 BC. During the late 1st Century", "Charles Graux had shown that the numbers found at the end of many medieval manuscripts represented the total number of 'standard lines' in each work. Just as modern books are measured in pages, ancient authors and scribes counted the lines in prose compositions. Each line was equal to a Greek hexameter (about 15 syllables or 35 letters). While studying the famous Clarke Codex of Plato's dialogues at Oxford, Schanz noticed that the isolated letters in the margins of two dialogues formed an alphabetic series and marked every hundredth standard line. He was able to show that other manuscripts had similar", "1700.\nIn common with texts in other languages using the Roman alphabet, Latin texts down to c. 1800 used the letter-form ſ (the long s) for s in positions other than at the end of a word; e.g. ipſiſſimus.\nThe digraphs ae and oe were rarely so written (except when part of a word in all capitals, e.g. in titles, chapter headings, or captions) ; instead the ligatures æ and œ were used, e.g. Cæsar, pœna. More rarely (and usually in 16th- to early 17th-century texts) the e caudata is found substituting for either.", "Scriptio continua History Although scriptio continua is evidenced in most Classic Greek and Classic Latin manuscripts, different writing styles are depicted in documents that date back even further. Classical Latin did often use the interpunct, especially in monuments and inscriptions.\nThe earliest texts in Classical Greek that used the Greek alphabet, as opposed to Linear B, were formatted in a constant string of capital letters from right to left. Later, this evolved to “boustrophedon,” which included lines written in alternating directions. It was only later on that the Romans adapted the Etruscan alphabet to write Latin and, in the process, switched", "CE, 400 years after Ashoka. Assertions that either the numerals derive from tallies or that they are alphabetic are, at best, educated guesses.", "Alliteration (Latin) The term alliteration was invented by the Italian humanist Giovanni Pontano (1426–1503), in his dialogue Actius, to describe the practice common in Virgil, Lucretius, and other Roman writers of beginning words or syllables with the same consonant or vowel. He gives examples such as Sale Saxa Sonābant \"the rocks were resounding with the salt-water\" or Anchīsēn Agnōvit Amīcum \"he recognised his friend Anchises\" or Multā Mūnīta Virum Vī \"defended by a great force of men\".\nPontano also used it to refer to repetition of letters in medial positions. Among other kinds, he mentions the frequent case when the last", "so for example in could be written as ī. A thorn with a superscript ⟨t⟩ or ⟨e⟩ could be used for that and the; the thorn here resembled a ⟨Y⟩, giving rise to the ye of \"Ye Olde\". Various forms of the ampersand replaced the word and.\nNumbers were still always written using Roman numerals, except for some rare occurrences of Arabic numerals during the 15th century. Sample texts Most of the following modern English translations are poetic sense-for-sense translations, not word-for-word translations.", "was the official script of the Babylonian, Assyrian and Persian empires and ‘Square Hebrew’ (the script now used in Israel) developed from Aramaic around the third century AD. Handwriting based on Latin script The Romans in Southern Italy eventually adopted the Greek alphabet as modified by the Etruscans to develop Latin writing. Like the Greeks, the Romans employed stone, metal, clay, and papyrus as writing surfaces. Handwriting styles which were used to produce manuscripts included square capitals, rustic capitals, uncials, and half-uncials. Square capitals were employed for more-formal texts based on stone inscriptional letters, while rustic capitals", "(about 1950 BC) and became standard in Babylonia.\nSexagesimal numerals were a mixed radix system that retained the alternating base 10 and base 6 in a sequence of cuneiform vertical wedges and chevrons. Sexagesimal numerals became widely used in commerce, but were also used in astronomical and other calculations. This system was exported from Babylonia and used throughout Mesopotamia, and by every Mediterranean nation that used standard Babylonian units of measure and counting, including the Greeks, Romans and Syrians. In Arabic numerals, we still use sexagesimal to count time (minutes per hour), and angles (degrees). Roman numerals Roman numerals evolved", "evolved from the early Phoenician forms; letter shapes and order of appearance correspond closely. The Greek alphabet, adapted around 800 BCE, added four letters. This was the first alphabet assigning letters not only to consonant sounds, but also to vowels. The Roman Empire brought the development and refinement of our Roman alphabet, beginning around 500 BCE. The Romans added or dropped certain letters to accommodate Greek and Etruscan words; they also experimented with styles such as cursive when writing in ink. By about the fifth century CE, the beginnings of lowercase letterforms began to emerge in Roman writing, but they" ]

[ "Both of these concepts deal with traits within a population changing over time. With natural selection, one trait is more advantageous, so organisms with that trait survive and reproduce more effectively, resulting in more organisms with that trait. Genetic drift is when a trait becomes more common within a population due to luck. \n\nFor example, pretend we have a group of humans and some of them possess a genetic code that gives them green hair. If green hair is considered attractive, then those with the trait will be able to mate more and have more children. This is a benefit resulting from the trait being preferred. This means that nature selects positively for this trait and it is supported by natural selection. \n\nOn the other hand, let's again pretend that there's a trait for green hair but nobody finds it particularly attractive or unattractive. Logically, there's no reason why it should become particularly popular or unpopular. However, one day, a bunch of brown-haired people gather for a meeting in a building that catches on fire and they all die, while the green-haired people outside are unharmed. This event makes green hair more prominent within the population but it wasn't a direct result of any properties related to green hair. Since this was green hair becoming more common as a result of random events, this would be considered an example of genetic drift.\n\nTL;DR: Natural selection means the trait itself is beneficial, making it more popular. Genetic drift is when a trait just happens to become more popular, even though there's nothing advantageous about the trait." ]

[ "population genetics where it is known as genetic drift. A finite population of randomly reproducing organisms would experience changes from generation to generation in the frequencies of the different genotypes. This may lead to the fixation of one of the genotypes, and even the emergence of a new species. In sufficiently small populations, drift can also neutralize the effect of deterministic natural selection on the population.", "generations. Genetic drift causes changes in allele frequency from random sampling due to offspring number variance in a finite population size, with small populations experiencing larger per generation fluctuations in frequency than large populations. There is also a theory that second adaptation mechanism exists – niche construction According to extended evolutionary synthesis adaptation occur due to natural selection, environmental induction, non-genetic inheritance, learning and cultural transmission. An allele at a particular locus may also confer some fitness effect for an individual carrying that allele, on which natural selection acts. Beneficial alleles tend to increase in frequency, while deleterious alleles tend", "for this view is shown today, since the hypothesis has been tested repeatedly through experimental research, and the results have been equivocal at best. Speciation by genetic drift is a specific case of peripatric speciation which in itself occurs in rare instances. It takes place when a random change in genetic frequency of population favours the survival of a few organisms of the species with rare genes which cause reproductive mutation. These surviving organisms then breed among themselves over a long period of time to create a whole new species whose reproductive systems or behaviors are no longer compatible with", "gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success, the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and may be beneficial, neutral, or detrimental to reproductive success.\nThe effect of genetic drift is larger in small populations, and smaller in large populations. Vigorous debates wage among scientists over the relative importance of genetic drift compared with natural selection. Ronald Fisher held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution, and this remained the dominant view for several decades. In 1968 Motoo Kimura rekindled the debate with", "of an allele due to the randomness of what other non-neutral alleles it happens to be found in association with.\nAssuming genetic drift is the only evolutionary force acting on an allele, after one generation in many replicated idealised populations each of size N, each starting with allele frequencies of p and q, the newly added variance in allele frequency across those populations (i.e. the degree of randomness of the outcome) is . This equation shows that the effect of genetic drift is heavily dependent on population size, defined as the actual number of individuals in an idealised population. Genetic draft", "genetic drift.\nThe next key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher. In a series of papers starting in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Fisher showed that the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be produced by the combined action of many discrete genes, and that natural selection could change allele frequencies in a population, resulting in evolution. In a series of papers beginning in 1924, another British geneticist, J.B.S. Haldane, worked out the mathematics of allele frequency change at a single gene locus under a broad", "natural selection as the dominant force. Neutral theory and origin-fixation dynamics The original, modern synthesis view of population genetics assumes that mutations provide ample raw material, and focuses only on the change in frequency of alleles within populations. The main processes influencing allele frequencies are natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow and recurrent mutation. Fisher and Wright had some fundamental disagreements about the relative roles of selection and drift.\nThe availability of molecular data on all genetic differences led to the neutral theory of molecular evolution. In this view, many mutations are deleterious and so never observed, and most of the", "drift is the random fluctuations of allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next. When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward at each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error. This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that began with the", "natural selection. Other types of natural selection include stabilizing and disruptive selection. Each type of selection contains the same principles, but is slightly different. Disruptive selection favors both extreme phenotypes, different from one extreme in directional selection. Stabilizing selection favors the middle phenotype, causing the decline in variation in a population over time. Evidence Directional selection occurs most often under environmental changes and when populations migrate to new areas with different environmental pressures. Directional selection allows for fast changes in allele frequency, and plays a major role in speciation. Analysis on QTL effects has been used to", "a reduction in genetic variation near a selective sweep that is greater closer to the selected site. This pattern is useful for using population data to detect selective sweeps, and hence to detect which genes have been under very recent selection. Draft versus drift Both genetic drift and genetic draft are random evolutionary processes, i.e. they act stochastically and in a way that is not correlated with selection at the gene in question. Drift is the change in the frequency of an allele in a population due to random sampling in each generation. Draft is the change in the frequency", "the genetic diversity, and was originally outlined by Ernst Mayr. The founder effect is a unique case of genetic drift, as the smaller founding population has decreased genetic diversity that will move alleles within the population more rapidly towards fixation. Modeling genetic drift Genetic drift is typically modeled in lab environments using bacterial populations or digital simulation. In digital organisms, a generated population undergoes evolution based on varying parameters, including differential fitness, variation, and heredity set for individual organisms.\nRozen et al. use separate bacterial strains on two different mediums, one with simple nutrient components and one with nutrients noted to", "is a relatively weaker force on the population due to genetic drift. Genetic drift increases the likelihood of having fixed alleles which decreases the genetic variance in the population. Therefore, if there is only a small population of plants in an area with the ability to reproduce together, genetic drift may counteract the effects of selection putting the plant in a disadvantageous position to fungi which can evolve at a normal rate. The variance in both the host and pathogen population is a major determinant of evolutionary success compared to the other species. The greater the genetic variance, the faster", "studies started to compare the evolution of genome regions subject to strong selection versus weaker selection in the 1990s, the nearly neutral theory and the interaction between selection and drift have once again become an important focus of research. The \"drift barrier\" theory Michael Lynch has proposed that variation in the ability to purge slightly deleterious mutations (i.e. variation in ) can explain variation in genomic architecture among species, e.g. the size of the genome, or the mutation rate. Specifically, larger populations will have lower mutation rates, more streamlined genomic architectures, and generally more finely tuned adaptations.", "can change gene frequencies and produce novel traits. Genetic drift is caused by chance variation in the genes, environment, or development. Evolutionary by-products are traits that were not specially designed for an adaptive function, although they may also be species-typical and may also confer benefits on the organism. A \"spandrel\" is a term coined by Gould and Lewontin (1979a) for traits which confer no adaptive advantage to an organism, but are 'carried along' by an adaptive trait. Gould advocates the hypothesis that cognition in humans came about as a spandrel: \"Natural selection made the human brain big, but most of", "that mutation and genetic drift (rather than natural selection) cause a large portion of genetic change: the neutral theory of molecular evolution. Studies of protein differences within species also brought molecular data to bear on population genetics by providing estimates of the level of heterozygosity in natural populations.\nFrom the early 1960s, molecular biology was increasingly seen as a threat to the traditional core of evolutionary biology. Established evolutionary biologists—particularly Ernst Mayr, Theodosius Dobzhansky, and George Gaylord Simpson, three of the architects of the modern synthesis—were extremely skeptical of molecular approaches, especially when it came to the connection (or lack thereof)", "diversity Alternatively, selection can be divided according to its effect on genetic diversity. Purifying or negative selection acts to remove genetic variation from the population (and is opposed by de novo mutation, which introduces new variation. In contrast, balancing selection acts to maintain genetic variation in a population, even in the absence of de novo mutation, by negative frequency-dependent selection. One mechanism for this is heterozygote advantage, where individuals with two different alleles have a selective advantage over individuals with just one allele. The polymorphism at the human ABO blood group locus has been explained in this way. By life", "of selection) for a population of varying size (provided that it is finite and nonzero). Because the effect of natural selection is stipulated to be negligible, the probability at any given time that an allele will ultimately become fixed at its locus is simply its frequency in the population at that time. For example, if a population includes allele A with frequency equal to 20%, and allele a with frequency equal to 80%, there is an 80% chance that after an infinite number of generations a will be fixed at the locus (assuming genetic drift is the only", "the movement of populations away from cliffs in the fitness landscape.\nIn addition to in silico models, these processes are beginning to be confirmed by experimental evolution of cytochrome P450s and B-lactamase. Evolvability Interest in the interplay between genetic drift and selection has been around since the 1930s when the shifting-balance theory proposed that in some situations, genetic drift could facilitate later adaptive evolution. Although the specifics of the theory were largely discredited, it drew attention to the possibility that drift could generate cryptic variation that, though neutral to current function, may affect selection for new functions (evolvability).\nBy definition, all genes", "population genetics affecting the proportions of haplotypes in a population is genetic drift—random fluctuation caused by the sampling randomness of which members of the population happen to pass their DNA on to members of the next generation of the appropriate sex.\nThis causes the prevalence of a particular marker in a population to continue to fluctuate, until it either hits 100%, or falls out of the population entirely. In a large population with efficient mixing the rate of genetic drift for common alleles is very low; however, in a very small interbreeding population the proportions can change much more quickly. The", "which is called their linkage disequilibrium. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype. This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial: natural selection can drive a selective sweep that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft. Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size. Genetic drift Genetic", "variations holds great potential for identifying genes that might underlie differences in disease resistance (e.g. MHC region) or drug metabolism. Natural selection Natural selection in the evolution of a trait can be divided into three classes. Directional or positive selection refers to a situation where a certain allele has a greater fitness than other alleles, consequently increasing its population frequency (e.g. antibiotic resistance of bacteria). In contrast, stabilizing or negative selection (also known as purifying selection) lowers the frequency or even removes alleles from a population due to disadvantages associated with it with respect to other alleles. Finally, a number", "mutation may influence the direction of evolution when there is mutation bias, i.e. different probabilities for different mutations to occur. For example, recurrent mutation that tends to be in the opposite direction to selection can lead to mutation-selection balance. At the molecular level, if mutation from G to A happens more often than mutation from A to G, then genotypes with A will tend to evolve. Different insertion vs. deletion mutation biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes. Developmental or mutational biases have also been observed in morphological evolution. For example, according to the", "results in similar behavior to the equation above, but with an effective population size that may have no relationship to the actual number of individuals in the population. Instead, the effective population size may depend on factors such as the recombination rate and the frequency and strength of beneficial mutations. The increase in variance between replicate populations due to drift is independent, whereas with draft it is autocorrelated, i.e. if an allele frequency goes up because of genetic drift, that contains no information about the next generation, whereas if it goes up because of genetic draft, it is more likely", "other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.\nNatural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population. Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was blending inheritance. But with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural selection implausible. The Hardy–Weinberg principle provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. The frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will remain constant in the", "of forms of balancing selection exist; those increase genetic variation within a species by being overdominant (heterozygous individuals are fitter than homozygous individuals, e.g. G6PD, a gene that is involved in both Hemolytic anaemia and malaria resistance) or can vary spatially within a species that inhabits different niches, thus favouring different alleles. Some genomic differences may not affect fitness. Neutral variation, previously thought to be “junk” DNA, is unaffected by natural selection resulting in higher genetic variation at such sites when compared to sites where variation does influence fitness.\nIt is not fully clear how natural selection has shaped population", "his neutral theory of molecular evolution which claims that most of the changes in the genetic material are caused by genetic drift. The predictions of neutral theory, based on genetic drift, do not fit recent data on whole genomes well: these data suggest that the frequencies of neutral alleles change primarily due to selection at linked sites, rather than due to genetic drift by means of sampling error. Gene flow Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations, which are usually of the same species. Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of", "Directional selection In population genetics, directional selection, or positive selection is a mode of natural selection in which an extreme phenotype is favored over other phenotypes, causing the allele frequency to shift over time in the direction of that phenotype. Under directional selection, the advantageous allele increases as a consequence of differences in survival and reproduction among different phenotypes. The increases are independent of the dominance of the allele, and even if the allele is recessive, it will eventually become fixed.\nDirectional selection was first described by Charles Darwin in the book On the Origin of Species as a form of", "selection acting simultaneously on several traits ensuring that they are inherited together (i.e. linkage disequilibrium), or 2) natural selection acting on one trait causing correlated change in other traits due to pleiotropic effects of genes. For a set of traits, the equation that describe the variance among traits is the multivariate breeder’s equation Δz = β x G, where Δz is the vector of differences in trait means, β is a vector of selection coefficients, and G is a matrix of the additive genetic variance and covariance between traits. Thus, a population’s immediate ability to respond to selection is determined by the", "the relative importance assigned to the various forces of evolution, three perspectives provide evolutionary explanations for molecular evolution.\nSelectionist hypotheses argue that selection is the driving force of molecular evolution. While acknowledging that many mutations are neutral, selectionists attribute changes in the frequencies of neutral alleles to linkage disequilibrium with other loci that are under selection, rather than to random genetic drift. Biases in codon usage are usually explained with reference to the ability of even weak selection to shape molecular evolution.\nNeutralist hypotheses emphasize the importance of mutation, purifying selection, and random genetic drift. The introduction of the neutral theory by", "population genetics, many biologists doubted that small differences in fitness were sufficient to make a large difference to evolution. Population geneticists addressed this concern in part by comparing selection to genetic drift. Selection can overcome genetic drift when s is greater than 1 divided by the effective population size. When this criterion is met, the probability that a new advantageous mutant becomes fixed is approximately equal to 2s. The time until fixation of such an allele depends little on genetic drift, and is approximately proportional to log(sN)/s. Epistasis Epistasis means that the phenotypic and/or fitness effect of an allele at" ]

[ "Because they have increased stroke volume. Their hearts are strengthened so that they are able to move more blood with each pump, so their hearts don't need to pump as many times.", "You have an empty pool and you need to fill it with water. The bigger the bucket you can carry, the less trips you will need to make to fill it up.", "You don't even have to be a pro to experience this. I ride my bike a fair amount and have had nurses freak out when they take my pulse. It's always kinda funny but also scary that a health care professional in Colorado isn't more used to seeing this.", "A couple reasons:\n\n* Good cardiovascular conditioning will lower your heart rate as your heart pumps blood more efficiently. I lost weight and took up cycling over the past few years, and my heart rate is down about 15 bpm.\n* People with exceptional cardiovascular genetics tend to make good athletes. Cyclist Miguel Indurain had a resting heart rate of 28, one of the lowest ever observed in a healthy human." ]

[ "pressure responses consistent with physical loads of light/moderate intensity, in the range of 4.5–5.5 METs. Thus, the cardiovascular demands of popular sports seem to have remained relatively similar through several millennia.", "than in football impacts because of a lower effective punch mass. They cause proportionately more rotational acceleration than in football. Modeling shows that the greatest strain is in the midbrain late in the exposure, after the primary impact acceleration in boxing and football.\nMuhammad Ali, possibly the most famous boxer of all time, was “diagnosed with 'a cluster of symptoms that resemble Parkinson's disease,' known as Parkinson's syndrome, which his doctor believed were caused by numerous blows to the head,” which led to his death in 2016. Gymnastics As many skills as gymnastics involve flipping or a blind landing, incidence of", "been shown that sprinters have longer muscle fascicle lengths and smaller pennation angles than non-sprinters. This contributes by increasing the muscle's shortening velocity. Other studies have shown that particular muscle fiber types are favored in sprinters versus non-sprinters, as well as within different levels of sprinters. Faster individuals tend to have a greater percentage of Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers. Higher percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers lead to increased force production capability, as well as increased speed of contractions leading to shorter contact times.", "they do so more rapidly through a process of anaerobic metabolism, though at the cost of inferior efficiency over longer periods of firing. The average human has an almost-equal ratio of fast-twitch to slow-twitch fibers, but top sprinters may have as much as 80% fast-twitch fibers, while top long-distance runners may have only 20%. This ratio is believed to have genetic origins, though some assert that it can be adjusted by muscle training. \"Speed camps\" and \"Speed Training Manuals\", which purport to provide fractional increases in maximum footspeed, are popular among budding professional athletes, and some sources estimate", "would have an inherent rate of 20–30 impulses per minute, and the Purkinje fibers would fire at 15–20 impulses per minute. While a few exceptionally trained aerobic athletes demonstrate resting heart rates in the range of 30–40 beats per minute (the lowest recorded figure is 28 beats per minute for Miguel Indurain, a cyclist)–for most individuals, rates lower than 50 beats per minute would indicate a condition called bradycardia. Depending upon the specific individual, as rates fall much below this level, the heart would be unable to maintain adequate flow of blood to vital tissues, initially resulting in decreasing loss", "concussions than male athletes. A December 2008 report states that 29,167 female high school soccer players in the United States suffered from concussions in 2005, compared to 20,929 male players. In high school basketball, 12,923 girls suffered from concussions while only 3,823 boys did. Girls also sustained more concussions in softball, compared to boys in baseball. Female athletes also had longer recovery times than males, and also had lower scores on visual memory tests. Girls also have longer recovery times for concussions, which may be due to a greater rate of blood flow in the brain.\nWomen's ice hockey was reported", "States. This high rise in sport participation has led to some startling statistics, high school athletes account for an estimated 2 million injuries, 500,000 doctor visits, and 30,000 hospitalizations each year. The most common types of sports-related injuries among youth are sprains, muscle strains, bone or growth plate injuries, and overuse injuries.\nEarly sports specialization has long been typical among children and teenagers in gymnastics, swimming, diving and figure skating, especially if they have aspirations of being competitive at elite levels. Undeniably, the main purpose for athletes to specialize in sport is to become a better player in order to", "study has shown that compares to females, males have more muscle, higher blood volume, and more red blood cells, and those differences can be 30% in individuals. Currently, male athletes have better world records than female athletes. Take the case of running, swimming and skating; each sport reveals the fact that male athletes' world record was about 10% more than female athletes' record. It is difficult for female athletes to compete against male athletes. In 1998, Karsten Braasch — the male tennis player who ranked at No.203 in the world beat Serena Williams 6-1 and Venus Williams 6-2 after the", "general population to visit massage salons and pay for services from massotherapists and masseurs. Athletes whose sport requires endurance more than strength usually have a lower calorie intake than other athletes. \"All-around athlete\" An \"all-around athlete\" is a person who competes in multiple sports at a high level. Examples of people who played more than one sport professionally include Jim Thorpe, Lionel Conacher, Deion Sanders, Danny Ainge, Babe Zaharias and Erin Phillips. Others include Ricky Williams, Bo Jackson, and Damon Allen, each of whom was drafted both by Major League Baseball and by professional gridiron football leagues such as the", "of less than 1 is very rare among NBA players; only two players in the NBA 2010–11 season had one.\nAt combat sports, such as boxing and mixed martial arts, having a higher index is often perceived to be beneficial. Fighters such as Jon Jones, whose arm span is 21cm greater than his height, and Conor McGregor have a longer arm span than most of their opponents. This potentially allows them to use their arm span to hit their opponents, where as their opponents could not hit them. They often use this in their game plan, by keeping their distance, allowing", "a distance of 14.98 km (including extra time).\nA high work rate is valued because players with this characteristic will be able to play a more active role in defending and attacking throughout a match. Conversely, players are sometimes criticized for low work rate; for instance, ESPN Soccernet correspondent Sam Limbert highlighted a poor work rate as one of the weaker qualities of Arsenal midfielder Denílson Pereira Neves.\nHowever, some experts, such as former Brazil and São Paulo youth coach Carlos de Lorenzi, warn against the danger of equating high work rate with high talent. De Lorenzi had responsibility for the early development", "sports.\nOthers believe the incidence of concussions among synchronized swimmers is much higher, especially among the sport's elite athletes. \"I would say 100 percent of my athletes will get a concussion at some point,\" said Myriam Glez, chief executive of U.S.A. Synchro, the sport's national organizing body. \"It might be minor, might be more serious, but at some point or another, they will get hit.\"\nSynchronised swimmers often suffer from tendon injuries, as the sport tends to cause muscle imbalances. Common joint injuries include the rotator cuff and the knees.", "age), these two people could have actual HRₘₐₓ 20 beats apart (e.g., 170–190).\nFurther, note that individuals of the same age, the same training, in the same sport, on the same team, can have actual HRₘₐₓ 60 bpm apart (160–220): the range is extremely broad, and some say \"The heart rate is probably the least important variable in comparing athletes.\" Heart rate recovery Heart rate recovery (HRrecovery) is the reduction in heart rate at peak exercise and the rate as measured after a cool-down period of fixed duration. A greater reduction in heart rate after exercise during the reference period is associated with", "participating in these sustained and strenuous sports. For a normally healthy age group, the risk appears to be particularly magnified in competitive basketball, with sudden cardiac death rates as high as one per 3,000 annually for male basketball players in NCAA Division I. This is still far below the rate for the general population, estimated as one per 1,300–1,600 and dominated by the elderly. However, a population as large as the United States will experience the sudden cardiac death of a competitive athlete at the average rate of one every three days, often with significant local media coverage heightening public", "published by Brian C. Hill in 2014, examines the same effect in 100-meter tournaments with Usain Bolt being the superstar on the field. Surprisingly, Hill finds a positive superstar effect, meaning that runners produce faster running times and the likelihood of setting a personal record is increased. Wanting to explain the results seemingly contradictory to that of Brown’s, Hill points out the simultaneous nature of running competitions (whereas in golf, players get to watch each other) and that a 100-meter race is about 10 seconds which does not leave competitors much time to alter their behaviour because of Bolt. Relevance", "put. It found there was little significant difference in performance in time between men in 5 and 6 in the 100 meters. Swimming Generally, people in this class are classified as S5 or S10. F7 swimmers competing as S10 tend to have lesions at S1 or S2 that has minimal effect on their lower limbs. This is often caused by polio or cauda-equina syndrome. Swimmers in this class lack full propulsion in their kicks because of a slight loss of function in one limb. They do a standing start and kick turns, but get less power", "combat athlete that America had yet produced.\" World records and special feats Arvanitis' athleticism is reflected in his strength and endurance. He holds world records for his signature thumb pushups setting the first in 1977 with 45 in 51 seconds, and then three years later topping that mark on the nationally televised Guinness Game World Records Show completing 61 in 47 seconds. Jim also demonstrated up to seventeen consecutive one-arm thumb pushups on television talk shows throughout the 1980s. Other accomplishments include two-finger pushups on one arm, doing thumb pushups with his arms extended in front of his head, holding", "due to the shift in importance to the size and speed of the players. In rugby union, a game with heavy physical contact and minimal protection, players are being described as being \"too big\", creating collisions that are increasing the risk of short and long term injuries. Further, it has been proposed that the increased weight and speed of players and subsequent rise of collision force leads to more frequent and severe concussion injuries.\nHowever, there is as yet no research to suggest an increased use of strength and conditioning leading to an increased risk of injury.", "important, because it lets athletes increase their heart rates. According to an article by nsmi.org.uk: \"Warming up before a sport\" they state that, \"The warm-up should gently prepare the body for exercises by gradually increasing the heart rate and circulation; this will loosen the joints and increase blood flow to the muscles\" (Warming 1). Proper warm-up also increases muscle temperature. Warm muscles are less susceptible to injuries because they can contract more forcefully and relax more quickly. As a result, both speed and strength can be enhanced. Also, the probability of over-stretching a muscle and causing injury is much lower.", "oxygen during long dives.\nSinus bradycardia is a common condition found in both healthy individuals and those who are considered well conditioned athletes.\nHeart rates considered bradycardic vary by species; for example, in the common housecat, a rate of under 120 beats per minute is abnormal. Generally, smaller species have higher heart rates while larger species have lower rates.", "sprinters at the 2008 Beijing Olympics demonstrated that male and female sprinters can achieve reaction times of 109 and 121 ms in one out of 1,000 starts. The same analysis showed fewer false starts among the women and it suggests that the apparent sex difference is caused by the use of the same starting block force threshold for males and females. The authors calculated that were the force threshold to be reduced by 22% for females, to take into account their lower rate of developing muscle strength, then males and females would exhibit similar reaction times and numbers", "volunteers caused them to work less than volunteers who were not given any payment. Sports The overjustification effect has also been linked to professional sports. The performance of numerous athletes has diminished following the signing of a lucrative, multimillion-dollar contract. Some notable professional athletes whose performances have diminished following a large contract include Alex Rodriguez (MLB), Albert Pujols (MLB), Wayne Rooney (Premier League) and Albert Haynesworth (NFL).", "important role. As noted earlier one of those factors is anabolic steroids which have the capability of increasing muscle mass, which enables hitters to not only hit \"mistake\" pitches farther, but it also enables hitters to adjust to \"good\" pitches such as a well-placed fastball, slider, changeup, or curveball, and hit them for home runs. Another such factor is better nutrition, as well as training and training facilities/equipment which can work with (or without) steroids to produce a more potent ballplayer and further enhance his skills.\nRoutinely in today's baseball age we see players reach 40 and 50 home runs in", "concussions in amateur leagues are less common because of the lower impact intensity. However, concussions suffered at amateur levels can at times be more dangerous then those suffered in the AFL because of the inferior resources possessed and in some cases the coaches are not willing to pull a player out of the game, or rest them if they are suffering from a concussion. A study conducted by the Australian Football Injury Prevention Project (AFIPP) in 2002 showed that out of 301 players (who play for amateur clubs in the Melbourne metropolitan area), 14 suffered from a form of head", "tested 20 volunteers who listened to an MP3 player loaded with a mix of 13 songs that they selected and then rode an exercise bike for an hour at a pace and gear of their choice. The study found that heart rates rose from 133 to 146 beats per minute and power output increased accordingly, when listening to the tempo-less sound of crashing waves versus music with a medium to fast tempo.\nA 2004 study by a research team from Australia, Israel and the United States found that runners performing at a pace where they were at 90% of their peak", "Fighter IV, they noted he had changed little, though added \"he didn't need to\". GameSpy named him one of the 25 \"extremely rough brawlers\" in video gaming, citing the use of his weight in his fighting style. GamesRadar editor Chris Antista listed him as one of \"gaming's greatest fatties\". GamesRadar said \"E. Honda's signature Hundred Hand Slap has become one of the most feared and iconic moves in beat-'em-ups\", however included him in a list of \"Gaming's fittest fatties\", saying he could not be so fast with his size and he \"would have a heart attack half way through the", "higher cadence (revolutions per minute), which serves in part to keep the muscles loose and flexible for running. Running The primary distinguishing feature of running in a triathlon is that it occurs after the athlete has already been exercising in two other disciplines for an extended period of time, so many muscles are already tired. The effect of switching from cycling to running can be profound; first-time triathletes are often astonished at their muscle weakness, which may be caused by lactate accumulation and the bizarre, sometimes painful sensation in their thighs a few hundred yards into the run, and discover", "The Making of Me on 31 July 2008, which attempted to find out what had made him such a talented athlete. A sample of his leg muscle showed that he had 25% super-fast twitch fibres, when all previous athletes tested had only 2%. Family support was also thought to have been highly significant. Jamaicans are notable for the high level of support and encouragement they give their children in the area of sports. A notable clip showed a stadium in Jamaica with 30,000 people cheering on children taking part in an average school sports meet. Supporters included their peers, who", "is one of the best measures of cardiovascular fitness and maximal aerobic power. VO₂ max averages around 35–40 mL/(kg∙ min) in a healthy male and 27–31 mL/ (kg∙ min) in a healthy female. These scores can improve with training. Factors that affect your VO₂ max are age, sex, fitness, training, and genetics. While scores in the upper 80s and 90s have been recorded by legendary endurance athletes such as Greg Lemond, Miguel Indurain, and Steve Prefontaine, most competitive endurance athletes have scores in the mid to high 60s. Cycling, rowing, swimming and running are some of the main sports that", "settings. All the athletes were individually proctored by the trained research assistants.\nFrom this study they concluded that the collegiate athletes were older, taller, and heavier and have played their sport for more years then the high school athletes have. The high school group had more concussions and a higher proportion of females then the collegiate or control samples did. They had a total of 621 concussed athletes and 150 non-injured controls. They found little evidence that there were different rates of clinical recovery from the concussions between the high school students and the collegiate athletes. They saw that for the" ]

[ "Pirate Bay's existence is NOT the result of a want for piracy. This is the misconception that has the industry execs spending HUGE amounts of time and money trying to control the symptom of a much larger issue.\n\n People, like water, follow the path of least resistance. If the resistance becomes too much, we make a new path. Napster, Limewire, Bearshare, were all birthed as an affront to the system that made you spend $22.99 on a CD that had two songs on it you wanted to hear. Want to hear good indie bands? Tough shit. You get to chug the corporate swill and be happy to pay for it. Filesharing allowed people to get select songs from select albums quickly and conveniently. No more slogging through Best Buy.\n\n \"But Lobsterbib, surely the attraction to pirated music was driven by how free it was?\" Nope. iTunes is proof that cost of music isn't the deciding factor in piracy. Convenience is king. People will pay for anything so long as they can get it instantly. Ticketmaster thrives on this fact alone. We'd pay the Devil himself if it meant we could get Emma Watson delivered.\n\n If the industry could spend the same effort on combining their IPs into a singular venue that peeps could pay for and receive instantly, Piratebay would see its traffic PLUMMET. Wanna see crime drop? Legalize and regulate drugs. Want to see piracy drop? Make it easier to get content for fuck sake.\n\n The other night I wanted to show my GF The Neverending Story. Turns out, no one is streaming it. All the video stores have closed so I'd have to drive all the way to Wal-Hitler to buy a $9.99 DVD in 4:3 ratio. Great way to spend an evening, amirite? I would PAY to see the movie if it were there! Get off your asses and let me give you my money!\n\n So, until the elephant in the room is addressed, don't be surprised that it's pirating every episode of 30 Rock while you try to smash its wireless router.", "I love how the government spends so much time to seize it, and then another one pops up an hour later.", "So can anyone give us the rundown of what happened?", "why are the feds repeatedly using the same strategy that has been proven to be futile? It takes them thousands of times longer to remove the site than it does for one person to upload it again.\n\nare they just retarded, or is this a small piece of an elaborate scheme to undermine piracy that we are unaware of? what the fuck is going on? i want answers. i don't care if they're grounded in reason or pulled out of your ass, just give me answers.", "ELI5: I thought the switch over to magnet links was supposed to work around the legality problems with torrent files and prevent another shutdown/seizure.", "What does it mean when the feds 'seized' the site? How does one remove something from the internet? What does it mean to shut down a domain?\n\nSorry for the incessant questions", "Here in the uk, tpb is blocked. However, with this closing and rebirth of the site under a different url, providers do not block the new one.\n\nClosing the domain has the exact opposite effect.", "Can someone just give me a rundown of what pirate bay is? I gather it's a site that governments don't like. But what's it doing and why do people start it back up so quickly?", "Here's an Eli5 request: I understand people can download a current Pirate Bay site mirror to a flash drive, but how are the mirrors all able to update with new content? \n\nSo if you have someone submitting a torrent for CuteCats.mp4 on .am, for example, how are all the other mirrors updated with this new torrent data? Is there one central server?", "You think the government would do something a little better with their time. Like the war on drug.... oh wait.", "I want to know why we're all rooting for TPB? Is it just because we like free stuff or what?", "A little bit of a meta question, but what's up with all these 'megathreads' popping up lately? Are these necessary / requested? Not hating on the idea, I just find it a little peculiar.", "Why was the government now able to seize the site?", "For the people not getting the hydra logo. The swedish government seized _URL_0_ and _URL_1_. Refering to greek mythology, cut of one head, two new appear. In this case, 4.", "If the pirate bay domain got seized why does .se redirect to one of the other domains? Wouldn't they need to code something into the html page of the page on server that .se directs to? If it was seized by some sort of authority why would they allow it to redirect?\n\nWhy was it such a big deal to stop it being in .se? Because they are lax on copyright? Wouldn't russia be a better domain?", "This is all fun and games, but I can't access Pirate Bay in Portugal, my Internet company has blocked it. Anyway around this?\n\nEDIT: it*", "The porn industry did it before anyone else: Make your content free and easy to access, and people will come in HUGE numbers, which you can capitalize on with ad revenue. Sell ad spots on your sites in a real-time, auction-style system which ensures fair market value for ad spots, and you make a fortune.\n\nThe moment major movie and TV studios get this, will be the moment they save themselves from oblivion. At this rate, movies are so terrible for the most part that most people can't justify paying for them, anyway.\n\nTelevision is going the way of the dodo as well. 95% of TV shows are absolutely terrible. Most TV stations only exist because people are forced to subscribe to them in order to get the channels they actually want. If cable companies allowed everyone to choose channels 1 at a time, I believe at least 75% of TV stations would go bankrupt in a heartbeat. \n\nNetworks like HBO understand their customer base. Create decent, high quality programming that isn't constantly interrupted by the same 3 commercials which are very obviously aimed at specific, easily-identified demographics (denture cleaners, life insurance, stair elevator/escalator chair thingies advertised during The Price Is Right, for example), and people will love you for it and pay a premium for your service. \n\nFor everything else, like the ridiculous reality shows that plague the airwaves, just take all that crap and put it on a site like pornhub for non-adult content, make it free, and sell the ads. \n\nThis is the only way you'll ever truly negate the demand for piracy.", "At this point the take down attempts are just advertising, bringing a bunch of new users to the pirate-bay.\n\nAll that the anti-piracy efforts seem to do is provide an evolutionary pressure to become really resilient.\n\nIt also has produced a niche-industry that makes money fighting piracy, so wiping out piracy really isn't in their interest.\n\nGoing after the users isn't really an option, since that strengthens/causes the Pirate Party.\n\nPiracy probably could have been avoided as a mass phenomenon, if we had a fairer society, that doesn’t teach people the lesson that *ruthless & merciless wins the race*.\n\nThe financial sharks that screwed over so many talented but naive programmers in the dot-com-bubble at the turn of the millennium, did their share to produce the robin-hood/rebel mentality.\n\nI think Piracy is a net positive, because it produces the pressure for improvements in business-practices as well as innovation.\n\nIn the face of overwhelmingly powerful corporations it seems to be that causing chaos and disorder is the only voice loud enough to heard.\n\nFor me Piracy still has to kill DRM and Geo-blocking, then it can go away.", "How was TPB originally set up? Was it one dude with a lot of content or was it a group effort? Basically I guess how was filesharing and pirating discovered? I need a history.", "The big thing in this event isn't that they siezed the \"_URL_2_\" domain. The big thing is that they siezed A domain that isn't doing anything more illegal than google is. It could have been any domain really, but they did start the beginning of internet censorship in Sweden, which is a problem.", "A couple questions I haven't seen here:\n\n* How do people buy domains from different countries? Do they live there?\n\n* Who is doing this? Random people who like pirating or a staff? \n\n* Do they get paid? Ad revenue?\n\n* If anyone can download the website and upload it to a server? Why are there only official sites and not a bunch of useless copies?", "I'm kinda tech savy, but I don't under stand the word \"seized\" in this context.\n\nWhy is there a redirect to _URL_3_ even after _URL_4_ got seized? I'd understand that they grabbed permissions of the domain name and therefore no redirect could happen, but this seems not to be the case.", "How much does it cost to launch a satellite? Can they host the site legally in space?\n\nWhat happens if they don't use a domain and everyone visits an IP address? What sort of legal action can occur against the IP address?", "Instead of spending all this money tracking down/seizing property/domains etc why don't the feds just give that money to the music/film industry and we all are happy.", "Kinda related to the topic of the pirate bay, but I was using it and happened to come across an album I like, by Kanye. So I downloaded the torrent and get a letter the next day from our ISP (Verizon) saying to cease and desist. Did they send me the letter because I have been doing it too often or because Kanye's record label Def Jams is the one monitoring me. I thought it was Def Jams because I have been guilty of getting other albums yet no cease and desist letter.", "ELI5: Why can't they touch the load balancer and transit-routers instead? How are those being \"hidden\"?\n\nI get they could get more, but wouldnt that be a much bigger hit than any domain or VM \"seizures\"? Isn't that hardware that would need to be replaced?", "I love the token Time Warner pop up I get as soon as I click on torrent files in Pirate Bay - Good try boys", "What can I do as a layman, to help the PiratBay stay alive?", "People will pirate if:\n\n1) piracy is the only way to obtain the goods. Examples would be TV shows or games not available in your country.\n\n2) they simply cannot afford to pay. Examples would be poor countries where the media industry set the price too high. $60 for a game is fine in Europe, but not in Afghanistan.\n\n3) pirate sites beat legal sites in quality, availability and comfort. If I know I can find what I'm looking for on a pirate site in good quality, why would I bother to go check multiple legal sites with multiple clients, yadda yadda..\n\n4) prices across the board are too high on legal sites. This one is tricky, since what people perceive as a \"fair\" price depends on many factors.", "So I understand magnet links greatly aid in reducing size of the site and thus making it easier to transfer, and magnet links are downloaded through P2P.\n\nBut where are the files themselves hosted? For example, if I want to download Album X, where are the mp3s actually stored? What if no one is connected to you via p2p because its a very low popularity album? And how does this all translate to a .torrent file?\n\nNot very good with networking, I only really understand what p2p is due to some games having p2p online servers.", "No one is talking about media consumption being ruled by major corporate networks and that small media companies need a way to level the playing field: Putting their movies in 720p on torrent, and offering 1080/4k for $3.99 directly from their own website.\n\n/only movies I'm talking about in this example.", "Question, if a site was made that simply stated the current pirate bay URL, would it be able to be taken down? Seems like they wouldn't be breaking any laws and it would provide a constant clear path to the site.", "This goes to show that the people rule the world. No leader or government can ever stop us. It's now at the internet age the people take back the world. It's a very exciting time to be living.", "As far as my understanding goes, it's illegal to seed torrents, but not necessarily to download torrents. Something about protecting people who download things, unaware they're getting pirated stuff. Is there any truth to that?", "What's a torrent? I get that PirateBay helps you \"torrent\" stuff for free, but I don't understand exactly how that's different from streaming a show on Hulu or something.", "Kind of a general question but can they ever wipe out Pirate bay completely...assuming the people behind Pirate bay never give up on the website?", "Why are they not registered on the namecoin system yet? Seems like a convenient method for those who care enough.", "Why aren't any of these type of sites just hosted on a Native American reservation in the U.S.?", "What is pirate bay and why does reddit love it so much?" ]

[ "The Pirate Bay trial The Pirate Bay The Pirate Bay is a Swedish website that indexes and tracks BitTorrent files. It bills itself as \"the galaxy's largest BitTorrent tracker\" and is ranked as the 73rd most popular website by Alexa Internet. The website is funded primarily with advertisements shown next to torrent listings. Initially established in November 2003 by the Swedish anti-copyright organization Piratbyrån (\"The Piracy Bureau\") it has been operating as a separate organization since October 2004. Police raid on The Pirate Bay On 31 May 2006 the Swedish police organized a raid on The Pirate Bay in 12", "The Pirate Bay was ordered to be seized following a ruling by a Swedish court. The site reacted by adding six new domains in its place. The judgment was appealed on 26 May 2015. On 12 May 2016 the appeal was\ndismissed and the Court ruled the domains be turned over to the Swedish state. The site returned to using its original .org domain in May 2016. In August 2016, the US government shut down KickassTorrents, which resulted in The Pirate Bay becoming once again the most visited BitTorrent website. Content The Pirate Bay allows users to search for Magnet links.", "The Pirate Bay History The Pirate Bay was established in September 2003 by the Swedish anti-copyright organisation Piratbyrån (The Piracy Bureau); it has been run as a separate organisation since October 2004. The Pirate Bay was first run by Gottfrid Svartholm and Fredrik Neij, who are known by their nicknames \"anakata\" and \"TiAMO\", respectively. They have both been accused of \"assisting in making copyrighted content available\" by the Motion Picture Association of America. On 31 May 2006, the website's servers in Stockholm were raided and taken away by Swedish police, leading to three days of downtime. The Pirate Bay claims", "Bay was raided by the Swedish police, who seized servers, computers, and other equipment. Several other torrent related sites including EZTV, Zoink, Torrage and the Istole tracker were also shut down in addition to The Pirate Bay's forum Suprbay.org. On the second day after the raid EZTV was reported to be showing \"signs of life\" with uploads to ExtraTorrent and KickassTorrents and supporting proxy sites like eztv-proxy.net via the main website's backend IP addresses. Several copies of The Pirate Bay went online during the next several days, most notably oldpiratebay.org, created by isoHunt.\nOn 19 May 2015, the .se domain of", "the most requests consisting of: Froytal Services LLC, Bang Bros, Takedown Piracy LLC, Amateur Teen Kingdom, and International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). On 10 August 2013, The Pirate Bay announced the release of PirateBrowser, a free web browser used to circumvent internet censorship. The site was the most visited torrent directory on the World Wide Web from 2003 until November 2014, when KickassTorrents had more visitors according to Alexa. On 8 December 2014, Google removed most of the Google Play apps from its app store that have \"The Pirate Bay\" in the title.\nOn 9 December 2014, The Pirate", "oldpiratebay.org, a searchable index of old Pirate Bay torrents. IsoHunt also released a tool called The Open Bay, to allow users to deploy their own version of the Pirate Bay website. The tool is responsible for around 372 mirror sites. Since 17 December 2014, The Pirate Bay's Facebook page has been unavailable. On 22 December 2014, a website was resumed at the domain thepiratebay.se, showing a flip clock with the length of time in days and hours that the site had been offline, and a waving pirate flag. From this day TPB was hosted for a period in Moldova, on", "Bay featured a drawing of a pirate ship with the logo of the 1980s anti-copyright infringement campaign, \"Home Taping Is Killing Music\", on its sails instead of the Jolly Roger symbol usually associated with pirate ships. Technical details Initially, The Pirate Bay's four Linux servers ran a custom web server called Hypercube. An old version is open-source. On 1 June 2005, The Pirate Bay updated its website in an effort to reduce bandwidth usage, which was reported to be at 2 HTTP requests per millisecond on each of the four web servers, as well as to create a more user", "is not known whether The Pirate Bay is actually located at CyberBunker or whether they are using the CyberBunker service that routes Cyberbunker IP addresses to any datacenter around the world. These routes are not visible to the outside world.\nCyberBunker was given a court injunction on 17 May 2010, taking the site offline briefly; later that day, hosting was restored by Sweden's Piratpartiet (The Pirate Party). Former spokesman for the Pirate Bay, Peter Sunde, commented that it would now be very difficult to stop the site because it would now be seen as political censorship if anyone tries to shut", "it down.\nOn 8 July 2010, a group of Argentine hackers gained access to The Pirate Bay's administration panel through a security breach via the backend of The Pirate Bay website. They were able to delete torrents and expose users' IP-addresses, emails and MD5-hashed passwords. The Pirate Bay was taken offline for upgrades. Users visiting the website were met by the following message: \"Upgrading some stuff, database is in use for backups, soon back again. Btw, it's nice weather outside I think.\"\nOn 16 May 2012, The Pirate Bay experienced a major DDoS attack, causing the site to be largely inaccessible worldwide", "for around 24 hours. The Pirate Bay said that it did not know who was behind the attack, although it \"had its suspicions\".\nOn 5 May 2015, The Pirate Bay went offline for several hours, apparently as a result of not properly configuring its SSL certificate. Acquisition discussion On 30 June 2009, Swedish advertising company Global Gaming Factory X AB announced their intention to buy the site for SEK 60 million (approximately US$8.5 million) (30m SEK in cash, 30m SEK in GGF shares).\nThe Pirate Bay founders stated that the profits from the sale would be placed in an offshore account where it would", "a new website, OldPirateBay.org, mirroring the contents of a recent snapshot of The Pirate Bay. It is branded in isoHunt's style, featuring both a ghostly blue theme and the isoHunt logo. The team stated that they would gladly take their copy of the site down if and when the original Pirate Bay came back online, which occurred on January 31, 2015. The Open Bay On December 19, 2014, isoHunt.to released a tool called The Open Bay at Openbay.isohunt.to, providing original source code and additional tools in order to allow users to deploy their own version of The Pirate Bay website.", "ship with new technology, and complete various missions to progress throughout the storyline.\nPirate Galaxy is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game where players can interact with other players across the world, make friends, create or join clans for huge player versus player (PvP) conquest battles, and create a squad to blast enemy ships.\nStarting off on the planet Kalabesh in the Vega System, there are a total of 8 star systems and over 30 planets to explore.\nThe star systems are as follows: Vega, Antares, Gemini, Mizar, Sol, Draconis, Sirius Singularity, and Tau Ceti. These systems are similar to the stars of", "The Pirate Bay raid The Pirate Bay raid took place on 31 May 2006 in Stockholm, when The Pirate Bay, a Swedish website that indexes torrent files, was raided by Swedish police, causing it to go offline for three days. Upon reopening, the site's number of visitors more than doubled, the increased popularity attributed to greater exposure through the media coverage.\nThe raid, alleged by Pirate Bay to be politically motivated and under pressure from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), was reported as a success by the MPAA in the immediate aftermath, but with the website being restored within", "a local rank of 386 in the U.S. 123movies.to had 9.26 million worldwide unique visitors in August 2016 according to SimilarWeb data\". In October 2016, Business Insider reported that 123movies.to was the \"most-used pirate website\" in the United Kingdom. \n123Movies included HD, HD-RIP, Blu-ray and camera qualities of films. The video hosters and players it used included Openload, Streamango, and MyCloud. During its existence and shutdown period, the site was covered by TorrentFreak regarding its features, uptime/downtime, shutdown, and reasons for shutdown.\nIn December 2017, the creators of 123movies launched another streaming site dedicated to anime, named AnimeHub.to, which", "to 12 million peers. The Pirate Bay now claims over 5 million active users.\nSweden's largest technology museum, the Swedish National Museum of Science and Technology, acquired one of the confiscated servers in 2009 and exhibited it for having great symbolic value as a \"big problem or a big opportunity\". Autopsy photos In September 2008, the Swedish media reported that the public preliminary investigation protocols concerning a child murder case known as the Arboga case had been made available through a torrent on The Pirate Bay. In Sweden, preliminary investigations become publicly available the moment a lawsuit is filed and can be ordered", "Pirates: Captain's Quest Plot The game allows the player to take control of the pirate Blackbeard the 1700s, who on his quest to capture Christopher Columbus' ship, Santa Maria, allows the player to experience the life of a pirate with activities such as sword fighting, navigation, island conquering, and digging for buried treasure. Gameplay Primarily an adventure game (due to requiring players to hunt for items and gather knowledge from characters to complete puzzles), the title contains 47 levels. It also contains minigames in other genres. Critical reception Andy Backer of Computer Games Magazine positively compared it to", "Pirateer Gameplay The objective of the game is for a player to either: return the centrally located treasure to their home port, or to capture all of their opponents' three ships, using movement restricted by dice rolls (two six-sided dice), obstacles, trade winds, and currents.\nThe theme of the game is for each player to assume the role of a different band of three ships, with their own port and flag. Mendocino Game Company and lawsuit The aptly named Mendocino Game Company, based in Mendocino County, California, began publishing Pirateer in 1995.\nIn 2002, the Mendocino Game Company ceased producing Pirateer. The", "friendly interface for the front-end of the website. The website now runs Lighttpd and PHP on its dynamic front ends, MySQL at the database back end, Sphinx on the two search systems, memcached for caching SQL queries and PHP-sessions and Varnish in front of Lighttpd for caching static content. As of September 2008, The Pirate Bay consisted of 31 dedicated servers including nine dynamic web fronts, a database, two search engines, and eight BitTorrent trackers.\nOn 7 December 2007, The Pirate Bay finished the move from Hypercube to Opentracker as its BitTorrent tracking software, also enabling the use of the UDP", "Pirate Islands Plot summary (S1) Kate Redding, a sister of Nicholas and Sarah, is playing a new computer game called Pirate Islands, which has been created by her father. After Sarah tampers with the computer scanner, lightning strikes the house, and the scanner goes wild, zapping the three siblings inside the computer game. After teleporting inside the game, Kate meets Mars, the main character of the video game. Blackheart, the pirate captain, takes the siblings aboard the pirate ship and threatens to walk them off the plank, Mars climbs aboard and cuts the rope, causes the sails to fall against", "Pirates CSG Online Online packs This game included packs from the series of Pirates of the Davy Jones' Curse, Pirates of the Mysterious Islands, Pirates At Ocean's Edge, and the Christmas Special Edition ship and crew, the Sleigh and Captain Whitebeard from Pirates of the North Pole. Virtual starter packs and booster packs could be bought or obtained by codes found in physical mega-tins and mega-packs of Pirates at Ocean's Edge. After obtaining a pack, a player could have played on this online version of the Pirates of the Spanish Main by WizKids.", "BitTorrent community quickly spread the announcement across online news sites, blogs, and discussion forums. The closure message initially caused some confusion because on 1 April 2005 The Pirate Bay had posted a similar message, stating that they were permanently down due to a supposed raid by the Swedish Anti-Piracy Bureau and IFPI, as a prank. Piratbyrån set up a temporary news blog to inform the public about the incident.\nOn 1 June 2006, it was reported on The Pirate Bay website that it would be up and fully functional within a day or two. As promised, The Pirate Bay was back", "its predecessors, the world of Pirate's Curse is spread across multiple islands that Shantae can travel to via Risky Boots' pirate ship. These islands each require Shantae to gain access to a Den of Evil, where one of the pirate items can be found, and defeat a boss in order to gain a map to the next island. Players will often be required to fulfill certain quests in order to progress, such as finding an item on one island and giving it to someone on another. Hidden across the various islands are twenty cursed Cacklebats, which the player must defeat", "Pirates at Ocean's Edge Notable ships Zeus-The largest Pirate ship in the game, and one of 6 ten masters. (For now) It is the cheapest of all 6 10 mast ships, and was formerly the Baochuan. It is assumed that its captain, Zheng He, was killed in the attack by the newly crowned Emperor Blackheart.\nDivine Dragon- A new Cursed ship risen from the ocean depths by the power of El Fantasma. Its ability gives it all rank 3 cannons against all non-Cursed ships for a price of only 16 points.\nGhost Walker- A new American windcatcher ship (one of two). It", "The Pirates of Zan Summary The Pirates of Zan tells the story of Bran Hodder, a one-time engineer who sets out on a career of interstellar piracy ostensibly to further more legitimate goals. Reception Frederik Pohl reviewed Pirates favorably, saying \"It would not seem possible that after thirty years of space-pirate stories any writer could make one come alive; but Bron Hoddan is a rather unique space pirate, and Murray Leinster is a nearly unique science-fiction writer\". P. Schuyler Miller praised the novel as \"a rare old piece of Leinsterian adventure yarning\". Amazing Stories reviewer S. E. Cotts was less", "Mega-D botnet The Mega-D, also known by its alias of Ozdok, is a botnet that at its peak was responsible for sending 32% of spam worldwide.\nOn October 14, 2008, the U.S Federal Trade Commission, in cooperation with Marshal Software, tracked down the owners of the botnet and froze their assets.\nOn November 6, 2009, security company FireEye, Inc. disabled the Mega-D botnet by disabling its command and control structure. This was akin to the Srizbi botnet takedown in late 2008. The Mega-D/Ozdok takedown involved coordination of dozens of Internet service providers, domain name registrars, and non-profit organizations like Shadowserver. M86 Security", "Pirates of Treasure Island Plot The story opens on Skeleton Island, an uncharted island somewhere in the Falkland Islands chain, where Long John Silver (Lance Henriksen) and Billy Bones (Justin Jones) have staged a successful mutiny against Captain Flint (Chriss Anglin). The group is attacked by gigantic insects, and retreats back to the ship. In the chaos, Long John has one of his legs torn off by a giant beetle.\nIn the United States in 1782, Jim Hawkins (Tom Nagel) is the owner of the Admiral Benbow Inn, but has grown tired of a life of monotony and seeks adventure. One", "be used to fund projects pertaining to \"freedom of speech, freedom of information, and the openness of the Internet\". Assurances were made that \"no personal data will be transferred in the eventual sale (since no personal data is kept).\" Global Gaming Chief Executive Hans Pandeya commented on the site's future by saying \"We would like to introduce models which entail that content providers and copyright owners get paid for content that is downloaded via the site\", and announced that users would be charged a monthly fee for access to The Pirate Bay.\nGlobal Gaming Factory's letter of intent expired at the", "links to The Pirate Bay. When a user sends an instant message that contains a link to The Pirate Bay, Windows Live Messenger prompts a warning and claims \"Blocked as it was reported unsafe\". \"We block instant messages if they contain malicious or spam URLs based on intelligence algorithms, third-party sources, and/or user complaints. Pirate Bay URLs were flagged by one or more of these and were consequently blocked\", Microsoft told The Register in an emailed statement. In media The Pirate Bay is featured in Steal This Film (2006), a documentary series about society and filesharing, produced by The League", "and the Pirate's Curse, was released on the Nintendo 3DS eShop on October 23, 2014. Later the game was also released on Wii U, Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Amazon Fire TV. A fourth title, Shantae: Half-Genie Hero, was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Wii U, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch; it is the first HD game in the series. The game was successfully crowdfunded via Kickstarter and PayPal, receiving nearly $950,000, more than doubling its initial goal. A fifth game, Shantae and the Seven Sirens, was announced in 2019 on the PC, PlayStation", "Anyu and Moki write, Somalia was the \"epicenter of piracy,\" with 100 ships attacked that year; pirate ransom demands had spiked \"from tens of thousands of dollars a few years before to between $500,000 and $3.5 million,\" since shipowners were willing to pay relatively small amounts to recover much more expensive ships. Pirates extorted about $120 million in ransoms in 2008. Accordingly, insurance premiums for shipping in the Gulf of Aden increased ten times from 2007 to 2008, from $900 to $9,000. The pirates frequently targeted yachts or commercial ships, which are unarmed and may hold valuable cargo. They sometimes" ]

[ "You like pink crayons a lot. There is this place where you can get free pink crayons, but you have to deal with ads and possibly malware. Also the pink crayons are low quality and the place may not have the specific type or model of pink crayon you are looking for. Now there is this other place where if you pay a bit you get the newest, best pink crayons that you choose as soon as they come out without ever dealing with ads or any other hassle. To some its worth paying for, for others the free place works.", "They've been around for 10 years so it's pretty much impossible that they aren't making money. There are two things to note about their business model...\n\n* Running sites like that incurs a lot of fixed costs (servers and bandwidth) but once you've paid for it, it isn't actually costing you much per user. You have 50 servers and a 10 gigabit internet connection, say, so getting 50,000 free users per hour doesn't really cost you much more than getting 500 paid users.\n* Therefor, it works a bit like the spam model. Even if only 1% of people will pay for premium access or buy an advertised product or install malware, that's actually fine given that you can reach millions of users." ]

[ "States alone, including the production of various media and associated products and services. The general porn industry is between $10–$12 billion in the U.S. In 2006, the world pornography revenue was 97 billion dollars. This industry employs thousands of performers along with support and production staff. It is also followed by dedicated industry publications and trade groups as well as the mainstream press, private organizations (watchdog groups), government agencies, and political organizations. More recently, sites such as Pornhub, RedTube, and YouPorn, in addition to much pirated porn posted by individuals, have served as repositories for home-made or semi-professional pornography, made", "a free site can earn through advertising may not be sufficient to cover the costs of that bandwidth. One recent entry into the free pornography website market are Thumbnail gallery post sites. These are free websites that post links to commercial sites, providing a sampling of the commercial site in the form of thumbnail images, or in the form of Free Hosted Galleries—samplings of full-sized content provided and hosted by the commercial sites to promote their site. Some free websites primarily serve as portals by keeping up-to-date indexes of these smaller sampler sites. These intents to create directories about adult", "total (including video, pay-per-view, Internet and magazines) between $2.6 billion and $3.9 billion.\nAs of 2014, the porn industry was believed to bring in more than $13 billion on a yearly basis in the United States.\nCNBC has estimated that pornography was a $13 billion industry in the US, with $3,075 being spent on porn every second and a new porn video being produced every 39 minutes.\nA significant amount of pornographic video is shot in the San Fernando Valley, which has been a pioneering region for producing adult films since the 1970s, and has since become home for various models, actors/actresses, production companies, and other assorted", "sold, it is generally of the softcore variety and typically of low quality.\nHardcore pornography involving actors and models, both on film and in photographs, is much more difficult to come by, and almost impossible to produce and distribute domestically because of the ban. Therefore, illustrated and animated pornography is an increasingly popular alternative in India to hardcore content performed by people. Although various websites and print outlets besides kirtu.com exist, animated pornography in general is often referred to simply as \"kirtu\". History India played a significant role in the history of human sexuality, from writing the first literature that treated", "most of the videos are full-length instead of short clips, these websites have sharply cut in to the profits of pornographic paysites and traditional magazine and DVD-based pornography. The profits of tube-site owners are also squeezed in an increasingly crowded market, with the number of sites constantly growing.", "to Price \"it's still taboo [to advertise on X-rated sites like Pornhub]\". In October 2013, the media and marketing publication Digiday reported that Pornhub has already shown advertisements for various mainstream products on the Pornhub web site, including advertisements for movies, musical acts, anti-virus software, and a food delivery service, although most advertisements were still adult-related. Malvertising It was reported in April 2013 that visitors to some of the world's most popular (by Alexa rank) pornography sites risked malware being installed on their machines by malicious third party advertisements. The claims were made by security researcher Conrad Longmore, who writes", "can now be spread around the world. The result is now a small but growing amount of online amateur porn depicting underage models, created by the young people themselves. Home movies and videos Before the advent of camcorders and VHS tapes couples had to film themselves using Super 8 film which then had to be sent for film processing. This was both expensive and risky as the processing laboratory might report the film to the police depending on their local laws.\nAmateur pornography began to rapidly increase in the 1980s, with the camcorder revolution, when people began recording their sex lives", "that the pornography industry in the country earned around US$1 billion annually in 2006, making it the 8th largest pornography industry in the world and the 4th in Asia. This also meant that it held the top rank in the whole Southeast Asia, despite the fact that almost every month, the country's Optical Media Board (OMB) was confiscating hundreds of thousands of counterfeit VCDs and DVDs. From January to September 2008, the OMB confiscated 4,807,012 CDs costing ₱1.4 billion ($29,400,000; based on the prevailing peso-dollar exchange rate on 17 September 2008).\nSince 14 January 2017, several pornographic websites including Pornhub and", "Pornography in India In India, publishing or transmitting pornographic material is illegal. Pornography is available in print magazines, but is mainly consumed using the internet. This consumption is increasing with the increased prevalence of smartphones and the internet. Despite the increased access, public discourse and attitudes on pornography remain muted and a taboo in many parts of India. Print Studies have found that print media is less widely accessible than internet media in India. A randomized survey of 96 random vendors, such as video stores, mobile downloads/recharge stores and cybercafés, in Haryana, India found that 17% displayed pornography openly, 34%", "it at the Ars Electronica Symposium in 2000, and was subsequently adopted by a number of authors and experts. Messina has written a book on the subject, entitled Realcore, the digital porno revolution.\nAmateur porn has also influenced the rise of the celebrity sex tape, featuring stars like Pamela Anderson, Paris Hilton, and Kim Kardashian. The increase of free amateur porn \"tube sites\" has allowed homemade films to be uploaded across multiple tube sites on the internet, for example PornHub or HomePornKing. Due to the popularity of social networks, people can also connect with other amateur porn enthusiasts to discuss and", "(by Armen Oganezov & Sergei Pryanishnikov (2002)) etc.) and these productions basically aim the domestic market. Much of the pornography is produced for the international internet market.\nAccording to Russian law, consumption of pornography is allowed though the production of it is not. The illegal production, distribution, and \"public demonstration\" of pornography is punishable by a 2- to 6-year prison term. Roskomnadzor, the Russian government's media overseer, has the power to order the blocking of pornographic websites. In 2015 the agency required the blocking of the Russian-language version of Pornhub and 10 other pornographic sites on the basis of a court", "incoming traffic from those freesites, except that freesites designed for TopLists have many more galleries. Usenet Another free source of pornography on the Internet are the Usenet newsgroups that were the first home to such material. Newsgroups tend to be poorly organized and flooded with content that is off-topic or spam. Commercial software and websites are available that allow browsing the images or videos on newsgroups, sometimes with galleries of thumbnail images. Peer-to-peer Peer-to-peer file sharing networks provide another form of free access to pornography. While such networks have been associated largely with the illegal sharing of copyrighted music and", "displayed it semi-openly, and 49% kept it hidden. It is possible that cultural taboos and legal issues (such as those described below) make it more desirable to view pornography in India through internet mediums, such as computers or smartphones, for more privacy. Internet Internet pornography has become very popular in India with from 30% up to 70% of total traffic from porn websites. It has become a major portion of traffic and source of data revenue for telecom companies. A popular porn site released viewership data and national capital Delhi recorded up to 40% of all traffic.\nOne self reporting survey", "and are arranged by video quality, which is mostly poor due to most of them being cheap bootleg recordings from China. Markets and distribution methods continue to develop. Unauthorized sale of pornography takes place, for instance, at the Tongil Market of Pyongyang. On the China–North Korea border pornography is traded in the open. Exposure to Chinese pornography has also increased the number of abortions.\nIn the past, pornographic videos were also made in North Korea. They began to appear during the rule of Kim Jong-il, who himself reportedly had an extensive collection of pornographic films. Domestic titles were usually immediately seized", "be credible. At times the law firm itself was also alleged to have been behind sharing of previously-undistributed pornography on well-known video \"piracy\" websites – an apparent effort to induce litigable downloading.\nThe rewards reaped by what judge Wright called the \"porno-trolling collective\" ran into the millions. Steele told Forbes magazine that his firm had filed over 350 lawsuits against more than 20,000 people, resulting in \"a little less than $15 million\" in settlements. Brett Gibbs testified in 2013 that based on documents shown to him, the firm's revenue from settlements was around $1.93m in 2012, of which around 80%", "porn conglomerate in Japan at that time although they have been surpassed since by Soft On Demand (SOD) and the Hokuto Corporation.\nIn 2004 the entire Kuki group had more than 100 employees, about 20 of them at web-hoster Alchemia.\nLike many of the older and larger AV companies in Japan, Kuki has been a member of the ethics group Nihon Ethics of Video Association (NEVA) which regulates content and the censorship mosaic required in Japanese porn videos. This resulted in many of the older videos produced by Kuki having a large, blocky analog mosaic as opposed to the newer thinner digital", "possessed 450,000 child pornography images, and that a single child pornography site received a million hits in a month. Further, much of the trade in child pornography takes place at hidden levels of the Internet. It has been estimated that between 50,000 and 100,000 pedophiles are involved in organized pornography rings around the world, and that one third of them operate from the United States. Digital cameras and Internet distribution facilitated by the use of credit cards and the ease of transferring images across national borders has made it easier than ever before for users of child pornography to obtain", "amateur pornography) video websites Mofos, MyDirtyHobby, Sextube, and Webcams. Advertising MindGeek host advertisements on their sites using their TrafficJunky ad network and other sites, which receives billions of ad impressions on a daily basis.\nPornhub (which is owned by MindGeek) has conducted several of its own advertising campaigns, including a billboard in Times Square, product placement in the film Don Jon, and a tree planting campaign. According to the vice president of Pornhub, Corey Price (who commented in December 2014), Pornhub want to make watching porn \"something that's acceptable to talk about\", which would be likely to benefit Pornhub, since according", "productions that were, in the early days, distributed by making use of his father's diplomatic privileges. Pornography was first legalized in Denmark July 1969, soon followed by the Netherlands the same year and Sweden in 1971, and this led to an explosion of commercially produced pornography in those countries, with the Color Climax Corporation quickly becoming the leading pornographic producer for the next couple of decades. Now that being a pornographer was a legitimate occupation, there was no shortage of businessmen to invest in proper plant and equipment capable of turning out a mass-produced, cheap, but quality product. Vast amounts", "adult bookstore, or through mail-order; but, with the Internet, people could watch pornographic movies on their computers, and instead of waiting weeks for an order to arrive, a movie could be downloaded within minutes (or, later, within a few seconds).\nPornography can be distributed over the Internet in a number of ways, including paysites, video hosting services, and peer-to-peer file sharing. While pornography had been traded electronically since the 1980s, it was in the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991 as well as the opening of the Internet to the general public around the same time that led to", "provided a great deal of anonymity. The anonymity made it safe and easy to ignore copyright restrictions, as well as protecting the identity of uploaders and downloaders. Around this time frame, pornography was also distributed via pornographic Bulletin Board Systems such as Rusty n Edie's. These BBSes could charge users for access, leading to the first commercial online pornography.\nA 1995 article written in The Georgetown Law Journal titled \"Marketing Pornography on the Information Superhighway: A Survey of 917,410 Images, Description, Short Stories and Animations Downloaded 8.5 Million Times by Consumers in Over 2000 Cities in Forty Countries, Provinces and Territories\"", "available free by its creators (who could be called exhibitionists). They present a significant challenge to the commercial pornographic film industry.\nIrrespective of the legal or social view of pornography, it has been used in a number of contexts. It is used, for example, at fertility clinics to stimulate sperm donors. Some couples use pornography at times for variety and to create a sexual interest or as part of foreplay. There is also some evidence that pornography can be used to treat voyeurism. Etymology The word pornography was coined from the ancient Greek words πόρνη (pórnē \"prostitute\" and πορνεία porneía \"prostitution\"),", "industry, its struggling to compete with free internet alternatives, and the lives of famous porn stars.", "Internet further changed the way pornography was distributed. Previously videos would be rented or purchased through mail-order, but with the Internet people could watch pornographic movies on their computers, and instead of waiting weeks for an order to arrive, a movie could be downloaded within minutes (or, later, within a few seconds).\nAs of the 2000s, there were hundreds of adult film companies, releasing tens of thousands of productions, recorded directly on video, with minimal sets. Of late, web-cams and web-cam recordings are again expanding the market. Thousands of pornographic actors work in front of the camera to satisfy pornography consumers'", "Pornucopia, at one time, nearly 90 percent of all legally distributed pornographic films made in the United States were either filmed in or produced by studios based in the San Fernando Valley.\nThe pornography industry began to decline by the mid-2000s, owing, for the most part, to the growing amount of free content on the Internet, which undercut consumers' willingness to pay. In 2007 industry insiders estimated that revenue for most adult production and distribution companies had declined 30 percent to 50 percent and the number of new films made had fallen sharply. Automobiles The automobile still remains the dominant form", "porn\" by the Village Voice. Film Work Stabile's documentary short, Smut Capital of America premiered at the 2011 Tribeca Film Festival on April 24, 2011. \nIn 2015, his documentary Seed Money played over 50 festivals across the world and was acquired for distribution by Breaking Glass Pictures.", "or storing pornographic materials is not illegal (except for child pornography).\nThe penalty for production or distribution of pornography is up to one year imprisonment (or up to two years if the criminal used the Internet) and a fine of 1,000 leva to 3,000 leva. The penalty for distribution or possession of child pornography is up to one year imprisonment or a fine of up to 2,000 leva. Authorities tolerate illegal distribution of hardcore porn in designated shops, and on TV after 11 pm. Softcore material is rarely censored. Magazines and pornographic papers have become increasingly available since the fall of", "of social media sites such as YouTube have analyzed their business models and found that user-generated digital labor is being monetized through ads and other methods to create company profit. Criticism against exploitation centers around people as prosumers. Scholars argue that exploitation cannot occur if people are both producing and consuming their own digital labor, thereby deriving value from their own created content. Microwork The development of micro-working platforms such as Amazon Mechanical Turk created new forms of digital labor. These platforms make use of low-wage employees in order to accomplish tasks that cannot or cannot yet be performed by", "share their sex life on platforms solely for this purpose. There are sites with an open or \"closed until verification\" community where you can freely share your own pictures or watch amateurs videos directly from those who record them. Literature: sex stories The internet has also affected amateur authors sharing their pornographic stories. Text is much easier to disseminate than images and so from the early 1990s amateurs were contributing stories to usenet groups such as alt.sex.stories and also to online repositories. While most commercial sites charge for image content, story content is usually free to view and is funded", "it had 21.3 million users, compared to 5.4 million users of Microsoft's Windows Media Player.\nA survey of usage over a single week by Metrix, an internet survey company, found that 69.8% of users watched pornography, 43.2% watched cinematic movies, 29.6% watched television dramas, 21.8% watched variety shows, 11% watched cartoons, and 7% watched music videos. This is in line with South Korea being allegedly the greatest spender per capita on pornography, even though local production of pornography is illegal. Gretech disputes the credibility of this report.\nMetrix obtained the survey data from 12,000 internet users who agreed to voluntarily install a" ]

[ "so essentially making money from letting requires a large amount of time and/or starting capital?", "You're making the assumption that the market price of the house today (which is presumably where you got the mortgage repayment figures from) is the price for which the landlord bought it.\n\nAs a resident of the UK you're no doubt aware of the fact that in most parts of the country house prices have increased faster than inflation every year for the past two decades or more. In other words, even if your landlord bought the house only five years ago he'd have paid probably only 80% of its current market value. If he bought it ten years or more ago it would have cost him less than half of what it's currently worth. His mortgage would therefore be much much smaller.", "Why are you assuming your landlord has a mortgage on the property? If (s)he owns it outright, your £750 pounds is a nice income on that property. If not, it cuts the cost of the mortgage in half, and becomes profitable later on.", "your landlord probably isn't paying anywhere near that or they simply act as a manager for the property to someone who owns many properties", "Either the landlord owes nothing on the house (paid of the mortgage, or inherited the house), or he purchased the house years ago at a much lower cost.\n\nDebt is a hedge against inflation. It's entirely possibly he's paying his 1997 mortgage with your 2014 rent money.", "my mortgage is $600ish. my property tax is 400ish. my target price for renting out is $1500. =profit" ]

[ "of the Roman Empire.\nIn modern times, landlord describes any individual(s) or entity (e.g. government body or institution) providing housing for persons who cannot afford or do not want to own their own homes. They may be peripatetic, stationed on a secondment away from their home, not want the risk of a mortgage and/or negative equity, may be a group of co-occupiers unwilling to enter into the ties of co-ownership, or may be improving their credit rating or bank balance to obtain a better-terms future mortgage. Owner and tenant responsibilities A rental agreement, or lease, is the contract defining such terms", "the landlords, like all other men, love to reap where they never sowed, and demand a rent even for its natural produce. The wood of the forest, the grass of the field, and all the natural fruits of the earth, which, when land was in common, cost the labourer only the trouble of gathering them, come, even to him, to have an additional price fixed upon them. He must then pay for the licence to gather them; and must give up to the landlord a portion of what his labour either collects or produces. This portion, or, what comes to", "earn money. For example, they can sort out organic trash from other trash, and/or separate out trash made of the same material (for example, different types of plastics, and different types of metal). Especially in Brazil, many people are already engaged in such activities. In addition, rather than sorting waste at landfills, ... they can also collect litter found on/beside the road to earn an income.\nInvented in 2005, in Seattle, Bumvertising, an informal system of hiring homeless people to advertise, has provided food, money, and bottles of water to sign-holding homeless in the Northwest. Homeless advocates have accused its founder,", "Farm (revenue leasing) Farming or tax-farming is a technique of financial management in which the management of a variable revenue stream is assigned by legal contract to a third party and the holder of the revenue stream receives fixed periodic rents from the contractor. It is most commonly used in public finance, where governments (the lessors) lease or assign the right to collect and retain the whole of the tax revenue to a private financier (the farmer), who is charged with paying fixed sums (sometimes called \"rents\", but with a different meaning from the common modern term) into the", "in the actual circumstances of the land. In adjusting lease terms, the landlord endeavours to leave him no greater share of the produce than what is sufficient to keep up the stock from which he furnishes the seed, pays the labour, and purchases and maintains the cattle and other instruments of husbandry, together with the ordinary profits of farming stock in the neighbourhood. This is evidently the smallest share with which the tenant can content himself without being a loser, and the landlord seldom means to leave him any more. Whatever part of the produce, or, what is the same", "have big businesses or various other economic activities. People make money in any way that they can. Some run small family businesses from their homes, such as tailoring, shoemaking and laundry. Others find themselves digging through the ample mounds of trash hoping to find something worth keeping or selling. A large number of the slum’s residents dig through the many mountains of garbage, including children. This has an effect on the health of the residents. The slum does not offer water, electricity, or good roads.\nBesides the home-run businesses in the slum, another trade is arising that is becoming more common", "a landlord receiving crop share as rent is a producer.", "between them. Many of the richest were absentee landlords who lived in Britain or elsewhere in Ireland, and paid agents like Charles Boycott to manage their estates.\nLandlords generally divided their estates into smaller farms that they rented to tenant farmers. Tenant farmers were generally on one-year leases, and could be evicted even if they paid their rents. Some of the tenants were large farmers who farmed over 100 acres (0.40 km²), but the majority were much smaller—on average between 15 and 50 acres (0.06–0.20 km²). Many small farmers worked as labourers on the larger farms. The poorest agricultural workers were the landless", "a municipal basis. Only the owners of residential property and people who rent/own commercial space are taxed. People who rent a home do not pay property tax. Municipalities combine their property taxes with a tax for garbage collection and for the sewer system. Owners and users of property and land also pay taxes based on the value of property to the water boards for flood protection and water and wastewater treatment (\"waterschapsbelasting\"). A percentage of the value of a house (\"huurwaardeforfait\") is added to the income of the owner, so the owner of a house pays more income tax.", "Landlord A landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, land or real estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant (also a lessee or renter). When a juristic person is in this position, the term landlord is used. Other terms include lessor and owner. The term landlady may be used for female owners, and lessor may be used regardless of gender. The manager of a pub in the United Kingdom, strictly speaking a licensed victualler, is referred to as the landlord/lady. History The concept of a landlord may be", "crops and enough seed for the next year, though to include a one third payment to a landlord requires cultivation of at least five hectares of land.\nSharecropping forces the colonii to cultivate their land with more effort to attain a minimum level of income than they would otherwise have to supply. It also allows the farmer to pass some of the risks involved in farming onto the landlord as a poor crop would mean lower rents.", "Owner-occupancy Acquisition Some homes are constructed by the owners with the intent to occupy. Many are inherited. A large number are purchased, as new homes from a real estate developer or as an existing home from a previous landlord or owner-occupier.\nA house is usually the most expensive single purchase an individual or family makes, and often costs several times the annual household income. Given the high cost, most individuals do not have enough savings on hand to pay the entire amount outright. In developed countries, mortgage loans are available from financial institutions in return for interest. If the home owner", "as business tax revenue (many cities levy either a payroll tax or a gross-receipts tax on all businesses located within their boundaries). \nResidential development is typically seen as a net loss to a city's budget due to costs associated with service delivery (public safety, roads, parks, etc.) to residents exceeding the tax revenue received from those residents. For example, the city of Brisbane, when considering developing a greenfield, (Brisbane Baylands development) was told that a housing-heavy development would bring in $1 million annually in additional income for the town, but a commercial development with no housing and a larger hotel", "(i.e. in a single net lease the rent the landlord receives is net of property taxes, but not insurance and maintenance).", "rents. Many renters wanted money to buy farms, but the Agriculture Department realized there already were too many farmers, and did not have a program for farm purchases. Instead they used education to help the poor stretch their money further. Congress however demanded that the FSA help tenant farmers purchase farms, and purchase loans of $191 million were made, which were eventually repaid. A much larger program was $778 million in loans (at effective rates of about 1% interest) to 950,000 tenant farmers. The goal was to make the farmer more efficient so the loans were used for", "of reasons for which a landlord can evict a tenant. Some provinces have laws establishing the maximum rent a landlord can charge, known as rent control, or rent regulation, and related eviction. There is also an implied warranty of habitability, whereby a landlord must maintain safe, decent and habitable housing, meeting minimum safety requirements. Licensed victualler In the United Kingdom the owner and/or manager of a pub (public house) is usually called the \"landlord/landlady\", and often, strictly incorrectly, \"publican\", the latter properly the appellation of a Roman public contractor or tax farmer. In more formal situations, the term used", "would typically rent a home while saving for a deposit to get onto the property ladder. This is no longer possible; money which would have been used in saving for a deposit now goes on rent. The majority of new households formed in the UK can now expect to rent from a private landlord for life. This phenomenon has been called generation rent and there is much debate about the social consequences of this change. See inequality for further information.\nIn London, rents are double the national average and this is driving gentrification. Londoners on median earnings find they can", "revenue for services, or by leasing land that it owns. However, financing municipal services, as well as urban renewal and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private sector, and techniques such as privatization (selling services into the private sector), corporatization (formation of quasi-private municipally-owned corporations), and financialization (packaging city assets into tradable financial instruments and derivatives). This situation has become acute in deindustrialized cities and in cases where businesses and wealthier citizens have moved outside of city limits and therefore beyond the reach of taxation. Cities in search", "household income that a household earns per month is about $5,000 (25 USD) per month. The village has a number of projects that contribute to income generation, some of which are ecotourism, farine production, a village shop, vegetable garden, and a youth joinery project. These earn a small percentage of income generated from revenues paid for the use of resources, such as non-timber forest products and timber. These projects employ about 10% of the residents and the remainder go out into the gold mines, and often seasonally migrate to Brazil. Additionally, some of the villagers practice small scale forestry to", "a dollar per square metre basis. In contrast to residential rents, which are well regulated, in commercial leases there are differing types of rentals or leases.\nMany buildings are purchased as going concerns and come ready-stocked with tenants, while some A-REITs are also involved in development. Accumulated rents are the gross income of an A-REIT. From this there are a number of expenses that reduce the gross income to a net income such as management and maintenance expenses, interest, land tax, etc.\nOther sources of income include naming or signage rights, roof space for telecommunication companies, and car parking rental.\nProperty trusts must", "nearby farms, however the large farm has little use for the buildings. These can be sold off with only a building lot of real estate, but are much more saleable if a modest area, 5 to 15 acres (20,000 to 60,000 m²) is sold along with them. These are usually snapped up quickly by people with well-paying city jobs who wish to live in the country, or to retirees, who wish to be active as part-time farmers.\nSome, especially in developed areas, are used as truck gardens, with their own produce stands, or a regular stall in a local farmer's market.", "that they did have a homeowners’ association. These early residents bought their land in conjunction with the government, which gave them five years to pay off their debt. In return, the government installed services such as water and streets.", "be $13.3 to $15.2 billion. Many of the brick kiln workers are migrants and travel between brick kiln locations every few months. Kiln workers often live in extreme poverty and many began work at kilns through repayment of a starting loan averaging $150 to $200. Kiln owners offer laborers \"friendly loans\" to avoid being criminalized in breaking bonded labor laws. Bonded brick kiln laborers, including children, work in harsh and unsafe conditions as the heat from the kiln may cause heat stroke and a number of other medical conditions. Although these laborers do have the option to default on loans,", "been called an indirect subsidy by critics, who point to track access charges for railways. Housing subsidies Housing subsidies are designed to promote the construction industry and homeownership. As of 2018, U.S housing subsidies total around $15 billion per year. Housing subsidies can come in two types; assistance with down payment and interest rate subsidies. The deduction of mortgage interest from the federal income tax accounts for the largest interest rate subsidy. Additionally, the federal government will help low-income families with the down payment, coming to $10.9 million in 2008. Removing energy subsidies is viewed as a necessary measure to", "what the landlord may have laid out upon the improvement of the land, or to what he can afford to take; but to what the farmer can afford to give.\" — Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Book I, Chapter XI \"Of the Rent of Land\"\nRicardian rent should not be confused with contract rent, which is the \"actual payments tenants make for use of the properties of others.\" (Barlow 1986). Rather, the law of rent refers to the economic return that land should accrue for its use in production.\nBeing a political", "occupation. Houses with a mortgage are estimated to cost owners about $1,216 per month, which is $186 below the national average. The United States Census Bureau also estimates that 3,150,239 houses are owner-occupied, or about 70%, which is 2.7% above the national average, and that an estimated 1,349,267 houses are renter-occupied. The median house value is $135,200, which is a significant $50,000 below the national average. Also, there are an estimated 545,850 unoccupied houses. The highest number of houses in Ohio were built from 1940 to 1959 (1,175,325 houses), and that 3,058,721 houses are in some way dependent on utility", "problems. The cities of San Francisco, Mountain View, Cupertino, and East Palo Alto all released proposals to tax large businesses, targeted at large tech companies. Mountain View and San Francisco both proposed to introduce a head tax to fund homelessness services on a ballot measure; Mountain View would charge $8 to $149 per employee to fund $6 million in transportation and affordable housing programs, while San Francisco's would raise up to $300 million annually for homeless services. Both ballot measures were passed in the November 2018 elections.", "installing windows, toilets, showers, light, kitchens, and anything else they need. They often pirate electricity, water, and internet, and much of their food comes from dumpster-diving, stealing, and squatted gardens. In the total absence of wages or managers, they carry on a great deal of work, but at their own pace and logic. The logic is one of mutual aid. Besides fixing up their own houses, they also direct their energies towards working for their neighborhoods and enriching their communities. They provide for many of their collective needs besides housing. Some social centers host bicycle repair workshops, enabling people to", "allows homeowners real property tax relief of up to one half of the median assessed value of homesteads in the taxing jurisdiction (county, school district, city, borough, or township).\nAdditionally, the Pennsylvania Property Tax/Rent Rebate program is provided for low income Pennsylvanians aged 65 and older; widows and widowers aged 50 and older; and people with disabilities age 18 and older. The income limit is $35,000 for homeowners. The maximum rebate for both homeowners and renters is $650. Applicants can exclude one-half (1/2) of their Social Security income, consequently individuals who have income substantially more than $35,000, may still qualify", "The Landlord Plot Elgar Enders, who lives off an allowance from his wealthy parents, buys an inner-city tenement in Park Slope, Brooklyn, which is undergoing gentrification, planning to evict the occupants and construct a luxury home for himself. However, once he ventures into the tenement, he grows fond of the low-income black residents. Enders decides to remain as the landlord, and help fix the building. He rebels against his WASP upbringing, and to his parents' dismay, romances two black women.\nThe first is Lanie, a mixed race dancer at a local black club. Lanie has light skin and features due to" ]

[ "Just because it's \"widescreen\" doesn't mean that it's the same exact aspect ratio as your TV. A movie with black bars on the top and bottom was filmed in an aspect ration that's even wider than your widescreen TV.\n\n\nLook [here](_URL_1_). Most widescreen TV's are 16:9 (the third from the bottom on that page), and many movies are filmed in 2.39:1 (the one on the very bottom). Clearly, you cannot shrink the bottom one to fit on a 16:9 screen without having bars at the top and bottom with no picture. Well, you can if you can tolerate a distorted, squished picture. Another option is to use [Pan and Scan](_URL_0_), which gets rid of the black bars at the expense of cutting off the sides of the picture." ]

[ "the proportions of the video. If an anamorphic DVD video is played on standard 4:3 television without adjustment, the image will look horizontally squeezed. Packaging Although currently there is no labeling standard, DVDs with content originally produced in an aspect ratio wider than 1.33:1 are typically labeled \"Anamorphic Widescreen\", \"Enhanced for 16:9 televisions\", \"Enhanced for widescreen televisions\", or similar. If not so labeled, the DVD is intended for a 4:3 display (\"fullscreen\"), and will be letterboxed or panned and scanned.\nThere has been no clear standardization for companies to follow regarding the advertisement of anamorphically enhanced widescreen DVDs. Some companies,", "screen to such an extent that text displayed in that area became illegible. Moreover, due to the overscanned nature of television video, the precise edges of the visible area of the screen varied from television set to television set, so characters near the expected border of the active screen area might be behind the bezel or off the edge of the screen. The Commodore 64, VIC-20, and Commodore 128 (in 40-column mode) featured coloured gutterboxing of the main text window, while the Atari 8-bit family featured a blue text window with a black border. The original IBM PC CGA display", "format (Schlafes Bruder, Showgirls, Mikrokosmos).\nVideo was stretched vertically to fill the whole 4/3 picture of a Laserdisc (and add more information where black bars would be at the top and bottom) then either un-squeezed horizontally on a 16:9 TV set or using an anamorphic lens on a 4:3 video projector. DVD Video A DVD labeled as \"Widescreen Anamorphic\" contains video that has the same frame size in pixels as traditional fullscreen video, but uses wider pixels. The shape of the pixels is called pixel aspect ratio and is encoded in the video stream for a DVD player to correctly identify", "displaying NTSC video (at the very least, in black and white), means that consumers in these regions have a huge choice of discs. Contrary to popular belief, this practice is not illegal and in some countries that strongly support free trade it is encouraged.\nA normal DVD player can only play region-coded discs designated for the player's own particular region. However, a code-free or region-free DVD player is capable of playing DVDs from any of the six regions around the world.\nThe CSS license prohibits manufacturing of DVD players that are not set to a single region by default. While the same", "though not identical, packaging is used for commercial Blu-ray Disc titles and was used for HD DVD titles. However, the dimensions of the cases are somewhat different, about 19 mm shorter. The individual cases are color-coded, with blue being used for Blu-ray and red for HD DVD, and the format displayed prominently on a stripe above the cover art. Empty cases and do-it-yourself In addition to the industrial usages reported above, empty keep cases are available at retail stores, which can serve for instance as a replacement for broken cases or for DVDs containing personal video recordings or data. Common brands", "while the DVD was altered. What this is instead, perhaps, is a difference in processing. The VHS transfer is \"open matte\", showing top and bottom picture information that would usually be cropped in theatrical showings. In this case, it made the scenes with the boy more revealing. In contrast, the DVD is matted widescreen, reflecting the theatrical intent of being more restrained about the boy's nudity.", "Windows 7) in Vista supported only closed caption channels 1 and 2 (not 3 or 4). Apple's DVD Player does not have the ability to read and decode Line 21 caption data which are recorded on a DVD made from an over-the-air broadcast. It can display some movie DVD captions.\nIn addition to Line 21 closed captions, video DVDs may also carry subtitles, which generally rendered from the EIA-608 captions as a bitmap overlay that can be turned on and off via a set top DVD player or DVD player software, just like the textual captions. This type of captioning is", "commonly if released for awards consideration simply, \"FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION.\" Apart from this, some movie studios release their screeners with a number of scenes of varying duration shown in black-and-white. Aside from this message, and the occasional B&W scenes, screeners are normally of only slightly lower quality than a retail DVD-Rip, due to the smaller investment in DVD mastering for the limited run. Some screener rips with the overlay message get cropped to remove the message and get released mislabeled as DVD-Rips.\nNote: Screeners make a small exception here—since the content may differ from a retail version, it can be considered", "DVD, is still in the American NTSC picture format. The bonus performances are formatted as a 4:3 frame with a letterbox, which when viewed on a widescreen set produces a black area around all sides of the picture (windowboxing).", "(18.5 mm shorter and 1 mm thinner: 135 mm × 171.5 mm × 13 mm.) than a standard DVD keep case, generally with the format logo prominently displayed in a horizontal stripe across the top of the case (red for HD DVD; and PlayStation 3 Greatest Hits Games, blue for Blu-ray, and clear for regular PlayStation 3 and Nintendo Switch cartridge games). Green cases of this variety were introduced to be used for titles released for the Xbox One gaming system, though with the space intended for placing the disc being on the left side of the inner case, while most other keep cases have", "scenes censored due to inappropriate content such as violence or nudity. However, the DVDs from the series contained the scenes uncensored. The Second Stage aired on Japanese network AT-X on August 26, 2004. There are a total of 12 Japanese DVDs, released from August 28, 2004 to June 29, 2005. Additionally, the DVDs were compiled into box sets.\nADV Films announced and licensed the series for release in the United States. The series was released in uncut form, retaining the violence and nudity previously censored in Japan for broadcast. Ten DVDs were released by ADV Films from February 8, 2005 to", "required pulldown during playback.Progressive scan DVD players additionally offer output at 480p by using these flags to duplicate frames rather than fields, or if the TV supports it, to play the disc back at the native 24p rate.\nNTSC DVDs are often soft telecined, although lower-quality hard-telecined DVDs exist. In the case of PAL DVDs using 2:2 pulldown, the difference between soft and hard telecine vanishes, and the two may be regarded as equal. In the case of PAL DVDs using 2:3 pulldown, either soft or hard telecining may be applied.\nBlu-ray offers native 24 frame/s support, allowing 5:5 cadence on most", "title safe area. Older systems did this with borders for example, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System windowboxed the image with a black border, visible on some NTSC television sets and all PAL television sets. Newer systems frame content much as live action does, with the overscan area filled with extraneous details.\nWithin the wide diversity of home computers that arose during the 1980s and early 1990s, many machines such as the Sinclair ZX Spectrum or Commodore 64 (C64) had borders around their screen, which worked as a frame for the display area. Some other computers such as the Commodore Amiga allowed", "bottom screen by default. The games are displayed within a black border on the screen, due to the slightly different screen resolution between the two systems (256 × 192 px for the Nintendo DS, and 240 × 160 px for the Game Boy Advance).\nNintendo DS games inserted into the top slot are able to detect the presence of specific Game Boy Advance games in the bottom slot. In many such games, either stated in-game during gameplay or explained in its instruction manual, extra content can be unlocked or added by starting the Nintendo DS game with the appropriate Game Boy Advance", "sides (which are outside of the safe area anyhow), or zooming to eliminate the windowboxing that may be causing a very tiny picture, or stretching/compressing to eliminate other format-conversion errors. The shrunken pictures are especially troublesome for smaller TV sets.\nMany modern HDTV sets have the capability to detect black areas in any video signal, and to smoothly re-scale the picture independently in both directions (horizontal and vertical) so that it fills the screen. However, some sets are 16:10 (1.6:1) like some computer monitors, and will not crop the left and right edges of the picture, meaning that all", "manifests itself in various compression artifacts. To maintain quality the main title and the extras may be released on several discs, or the extras may be omitted completely like in the \"Superbit\" line of DVDs. Restrictions DVD-Video has four complementary systems designed to restrict the DVD user in various ways: Macrovision, Content Scramble System (CSS), region codes, and disabled user operations (UOPs). There are also anti-ripping techniques intended to foil ripping software. Content Scramble System Many DVD-Video titles use Content Scramble System (CSS) encryption, which is intended to discourage people from copying the disc. Usually, users need to install software", "to Moura the intention was to make a DVD completely different from the market, putting everything that a disk has capacity. The images were taken in high definition, which allowed them to reach the disc with quality seven times higher than normal DVDs.\nThe user can enjoy three screen formats: full screen (Pan and scan), with Letterboxing, and Widescreen. The options are available not only to the movie but also to all the extras. The director of the DVD, Brent Hieat, said some scenes have already been recorded for multi-angle viewing. \"By the way, the whole movie can be seen like", "screen: centered, left align, right align, top, etc. This is helpful for speaker identification and overlapping conversation. Some SDH subtitles (such as the subtitles of newer Universal Studios DVDs/Blu-ray Discs) do have positioning, but it is not as common.\nDVDs for the U.S. market now sometimes have three forms of English subtitles: SDH subtitles; English subtitles, helpful for viewers who may not be hearing impaired but whose first language may not be English (although they are usually an exact transcript and not simplified); and closed caption data that is decoded by the end-user's closed caption decoder. Most anime releases in", "versions of the show: a pan and scan, 4:3 standard-definition version shown on TV Tokyo and a widescreen high-definition one shown on sister channel BS Japan. Even in the 4:3 version however, there are scenes meant to be shown in 16:9. This is addressed by having the scenes letterboxed, surrounded by gold decorated mattes at the top and bottom of the screen rather than the usual plain black ones. Of course, these \"gold bars\" do not appear in the widescreen version, which is used in the DVD releases of the episodes (with some minor modifications). Characters As a remake, characters", "for transporting widescreen content, the most common of which uses what is called anamorphic widescreen format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35 mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European PALplus television broadcasts and then later on \"widescreen\" Laser Discs and DVDs; the ATSC HDTV system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used.\nRecently \"widescreen\" has spread from television to computing where both desktop and laptop computers", "vs half screen full dark. This usually results in a lower ratio as brightness will creep into the dark area of the screen thus giving a higher luminance.", "video formats VCD, SVCD and DVD (with horizontal resolutions 352p, 480p and 720p) but the best resolution usually dictates the design of all the electronics components, most notably the low pass filter. With only one analog low pass filter optimised for one video format (usually DVD 720), the other two video format will suffer from aliasing. The SVCD format is especially prone to \"foldover\" because the 480p format doesn't fit well over a 720p output. The aliasing artifacts that result from this bad fit are usually buried in noise from other sources, such as camera, quantization, and MPEG artifacts. CVD", "the actual image are not matted out. The picture is \"pushed\" farther back on screen and thus made \"smaller\", so to speak, so that, in a widescreen film, the viewer can see, on the left and right of the picture, what would normally be omitted if the film were shown fullscreen on television, achieving a sort of \"widescreen\" effect on a square TV screen. In letterboxing, the top of the image is slightly lower than usual, the bottom is higher, and the unused portion of the screen is covered by black bars. For video transfers, transferring a \"soft matte\" film", "black bars or rotating the display), primarily in the vertical shoot 'em up genre due to considerations of aesthetics, tradition and gameplay. Modern display rotation methods Modern video cards can offer digital screen rotation capabilities. However, for it to be used correctly, a special display is required that is designed to be pivoted. Rotation of LCD monitors Rotation of LCD monitors is simpler than for bulkier displays since the mass of the panel is low, the heat generated is low, and there are no magnetic effects to be concerned about. Higher quality panels can feature built in pivot points to", "series (as listed above). The episodes are presented in PAL 1.33:1 (4x3) full screen (the sides of the widescreen image are cut to create the full screen ratio, also known as pan and scan) with French Dolby Digital 2.0 sound.\nGermany – Two DVDs were made available from SPV GmbH (in association with the TV station Super RTL) containing the first 8 episodes of the series (as listed above), with each DVD consisting of 4 episodes. The episodes are presented in PAL 1.33:1 (4x3) full screen (the sides of the widescreen image are cut to create the full screen ratio, also", "programming looks slightly (though usually imperceptibly) tall and thin.\nATSC allows two anamorphic widescreen SDTV formats (interlaced and progressive scan) which are 704×480 (10% wider than 640×480); this is narrower than the 720×480 of DVD due to 16 pixels being consumed by overscan (nominal analogue blanking) – see overscan: analog to digital resolution issues. The format can also be used for fullscreen programming, and in this case it is anamorphic with pixels slightly taller (10:11, or 0.91:1) than their width.", "difference is meaningless on home videotape systems, as the chrominance is already severely constrained by both VHS and Betamax.\nCarrying the color information as one signal means that the color has to be encoded in some way, typically in accord with NTSC, PAL, or SECAM, depending on the applicable local standard.\nAlso, S-Video suffers from low color resolution. NTSC S-Video color resolution is typically 120 lines horizontal (approximately 160 pixels edge-to-edge), versus 250 lines horizontal for the Rec. 601-encoded signal of a DVD, or 30 lines horizontal for standard VCRs. Atari 800 The Atari 800 introduced separate Chroma/Luma output in late 1979. The", "Bones, 24, WWE Smackdown, Fringe, Prison Break, House, and most recently new episodes of The Simpsons. Programmes that are not available in HD are \"upscaled\" (although Sky One showed the widescreen film Malcolm in the Middle, unlike most US broadcasts, since the film was originally filmed on Panavision widescreen film but cropped to full-screen by most broadcasters. This airing of the original film preserves the film's appearance without stretching or upscaling, although some scenes were compromised for widescreen and had to be upscaled).\nSky have stated that they intend to increase the amount of HD content they show, and hoped", "Widescreen display modes Normal mode Normal mode frames the 4:3 video to the 16:9 picture area by displaying it in its original aspect ratio, with vertical gray or black bars on both sides of the screen. The disadvantage of this method is the fact that the image is small by virtue of not using the entire width of the screen. This is also known as the 4:3 mode. Full mode Full mode horizontally stretches the 4:3 video evenly across the entire width of the screen. This is the proper mode to display anamorphic video. If used for standard aspect ratio", "back in more recent DVD players that support it.\nVideo mode is the standard DVD video mode format used by DVD movies. Because the DVD Video format was invented before DVDs were recordable it doesn't allow editing of the disc, doesn't support defect management and is therefore not as robust. Space from deleted titles may not be fully reclaimed until the disc is completely erased. It is compatible with most DVD players. It is used on DVD-RW and DVD-R discs, but has never used for DVD-RAM. Most (but not all) recorders that use DVD-RW will offer the choice of VR mode" ]

[ "When you make an outbound call, the calling system gives the phone system the caller ID information. The reason this can be (legitimately) different from the actual call is for example a business that has both direct lines to each extension and a main line. An employee calling out would show up with the main line as their caller ID so that if the person calls back they get the main number (this way you’re not giving out the direct number unless you needed to). \n\nThe spammers take advantage of this system to spoof a number in the caller ID. \n\nThe phone company could counter this by comparing the caller ID info with a number you legitimately own, but they get a lot of money for all these spam calls and they’re not incentivized enough to change how they do things." ]

[ "in the United Kingdom by CPR Call Blocker, a call blocking company warning of it in The Independent.\nOn March 27, 2017, the FCC issued an official warning about the telephone scam. Veracity Investigating reports of the possible scam, Snopes noted that all purported targets of the scam only reported having been victimized after hearing about the scam in news reports. Snopes went on to note that it had contacted the Better Business Bureau, the Federal Trade Commission, and the Consumer Federation of America, none of whom could provide evidence of an individual actually having been financially defrauded after receiving one", "entities who make money sending mobile phone spam formed the Mobile Advocacy Coalition (MAC) to lobby the government to legalize that activity. In the US, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has expanded Phone Spam regulations to cover also Voice Spam—mostly in form of prerecorded telemarketing calls—commonly known as robocalls; victims can file a complaint with the FCC. In California, Section 17538.41 of the B&P Code bans text message advertisement. Consumers can sue on an individual or class basis per a private right of action against unfair business practices. In 2019, senators John Thune, Roger Wicker and Ed Markey introduced", "fax messages, in which case they are frequently considered spam by receivers. Negative perceptions and criticism Telemarketing has been negatively associated with various scams and frauds, such as pyramid schemes, and with deceptively overpriced products and services. Fraudulent telemarketing companies are frequently referred to as \"telemarketing boiler rooms\" or simply \"boiler rooms\". Telemarketing is often criticized as an unethical business practice due to the perception of high-pressure sales techniques during unsolicited calls. Telemarketers marketing telephone companies may participate in telephone slamming, the practice of switching a customer's telephone service without their knowledge or authorization.\nTelemarketing calls are often considered an annoyance,", "\"Spoofing\" can also refer to copyright holders placing distorted or unlistenable versions of works on file-sharing networks. Caller ID spoofing Public telephone networks often provide caller ID information, which includes the caller's number and sometimes the caller’s name, with each call. However, some technologies (especially in Voice over IP (VoIP) networks) allow callers to forge caller ID information and present false names and numbers. Gateways between networks that allow such spoofing and other public networks then forward that false information. Since spoofed calls can originate from other countries, the laws in the receiver's country may not apply to the caller.", "messages to other users via social gaming applications. Many of these users who receive the messages willingly add the spammers' fake profiles into their circle of friends to depend on them for additional gaming support. In doing so, several users have become more prone to being victims of data, identity theft, account hijacking, and other issues. The spammer's action here, however, does not constitute as abuse since it is typically the user who adds the spammer on their end. As such, the spammer's account cannot be suspended by a social network.\nSocial networking gamers are also susceptible to unwanted charges. For", "of the telephone calls. Snopes also analyzed a number of news reports in which media interviewed self-identified victims of the scam; in none of the stories it looked at did a victim report having been financially defrauded after receiving one of the phone calls. Snopes ultimately classified the claims as \"unproven\".\nTom Lyons, a columnist at the Sarasota Herald-Tribune, and an official at the caller ID company Hiya theorized that the purported calls were an automated dialer employed by a telemarketing firm to confirm the authenticity of the telephone numbers on its dialing lists, and not an attempt at financial fraud.", "their cell phone (e.g. to obtain a PIN), there is a limited opportunity to use a duress code. Because conversations are often being monitored by a captor, they must be subtle and short. Ideally, the use of a duress code has been confirmed before the current situation, so the family member or friend has verifiable evidence that something is wrong, and when the authorities are notified aren't just limited to speculation. Examples would include asking about someone (or something) who does not exist. For example, a person might use \"What is Cindy barking at?\" if she knows that either the", "ring scam\". The person perpetuating the scam calls the victim via a robodialer or similar means, sometimes at odd hours of the night, then hangs up when the phone is answered with the hope that the victim will be curious enough to call the number back. When the victim does this, an automatic $19.95 international call fee is charged to their account, as well as $9.00/min thereafter. Similar scams have been linked to Antigua (area code 268), Jamaica (area code 876), the Dominican Republic (area code 809) and the British Virgin Islands (area code 284).", "in some areas, and to law enforcement in others. Today, particularly in North America, most mobile phone spam is sent from mobile devices that have prepaid unlimited messaging rate plans. While the rate plans allow for unlimited messaging, in reality the relatively slow sending rate (on the order of magnitude of 1/s) limits the number of messages that may be sent before an abusing mobile is shut down. Terminology Mobile phone spam is described as \"mobile spamming\", \"SMS spam\", \"text spam\", \"m-spam\" or \"mspam\". Criminality and law enforcement SMS spam is illegal under common law in many", "form of telephone fraud known as the \"one ring scam\". The person perpetuating the scam calls the victim via a robodialer or similar means, sometimes at odd hours of the night, then hangs up when the phone is answered with the hope that they will be curious enough to call the number back. When the victim does this, an automatic $19.95 international call fee is charged to their account, as well as $9.00 per minute for the duration of the call. Similar scams have been linked to Grenada (area code 473), Jamaica (area code 876), the Dominican Republic (area code", "ring scam\". The person perpetuating the scam calls the victim via a robodialer or similar means, sometimes at odd hours of the night and then hangs up when the phone is answered, with the hope that the victim will be curious enough to call the number back. When the victim does this, an automatic $19.95 international call fee is charged to their account as well as $9.00/min thereafter. Similar scams have been linked to Grenada (area code 473), Antigua (area code 268), Jamaica (area code 876) and the Dominican Republic (area code 809).", "and via automatic number identification, so the perpetrator's phone number can still be discovered in many cases. However, these do not provide complete protection: harassers can use payphones and, in some cases, caller ID (but not necessarily automatic number identification itself) can be spoofed or blocked. Mobile telephone abusers can (at some cost) use \"throwaway\" mobile phones or SIMs. Voice over IP users may send bogus caller ID or route calls through servers in multiple countries.\nEven in these cases, with sufficient law enforcement and telco effort, persistent abusers can often be tracked down by technical means.\nCall screening is another countermeasure", "\"Outlook login help\"), though both Bing and Google have taken steps to restrict such schemes. Other techniques include email spamming and cybersquatting to lead potential victims to web pages containing scammers' phone numbers. Some scams have been initiated via pop-up ads on infected websites instructing the potential victim to call a number. These pop-ups often closely resemble legitimate error messages such as the Blue Screen of Death. Remote access The scammer usually instructs the victim to download and install a remote access program, such as TeamViewer, AnyDesk, LogMeIn, GoToAssist, ConnectWise Control (known also as ScreenConnect), etc. With the software", "been disposed. Scam baiting Tech support scammers are regularly targeted by scam baiting both online and offline, with individuals seeking to raise awareness of these scams by uploading recordings on platforms like YouTube, cause inconvenience to the scammers by wasting their time, and by disabling the scammer's computer systems by deploying RATs, distributed denial of service attacks and destructive computer viruses. Scam baiters may also attempt to lure scammers into exposing their unethical practices by leaving dummy files or malware disguised as confidential information, such as credit/debit card information and passwords, on a virtual machine for the scammer to attempt", "This limits laws' effectiveness against the use of spoofed caller ID information to further a scam. E-mail address spoofing The sender information shown in e-mails (the From: field) can be spoofed easily. This technique is commonly used by spammers to hide the origin of their e-mails and leads to problems such as misdirected bounces (i.e. e-mail spam backscatter).\nE-mail address spoofing is done in quite the same way as writing a forged return address using snail mail. As long as the letter fits the protocol, (i.e. stamp, postal code) the SMTP protocol will send the message. It can be", "novel mode of communication. In December 2006, NBC ran another story where former operators alleged that \"85 to 90 percent\" of calls were scams. Since it is illegal for relay service companies to keep records, fraudulent users can operate with impunity. Fraudulent calls of both types have been cited as reasons for further relay regulation, and as causes for long hold times that must be endured by many legitimate users. Most businesses legally cannot have relay calls blocked due to the need for legitimate users to be accommodated, although businesses that are repeatedly victimized by pranks and/or scams often", "mobile app to do the name lookup in a third-party database. Telemarketing Telemarketing organisations often spoof caller ID. In some instances, this is done to provide a \"central number\" for consumers to call back, such as a toll-free number, rather than having consumers call back the outbound call centre where the call actually originated. However, some telemarketers block or fraudulently spoof caller ID to prevent being traced. It is against United States federal law for telemarketers to block or to send false caller ID. Individuals can bring civil suits and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) can", "access to his or her computer. After remote access is gained, the scammer relies on confidence tricks, typically involving utilities built into Windows and other software, in order to gain the victim's trust to pay for the supposed \"support\" services. The scammer will often then steal the victim's credit card account information or persuade the victim to log into his or her online banking account to receive a promised refund, claiming that a secure server is connected and that the scammer cannot see the details. Many schemes involve convincing the victim to purchase expensive gift cards and then to divulge", "phone Mobile phone spam is directed at the text messaging service of a mobile phone. This can be especially irritating to customers not only for the inconvenience, but also because of the fee they may be charged per text message received in some markets.\nTo comply with CAN-SPAM regulations in the US, SMS messages now must provide options of HELP and STOP, the latter to end communication with the advertiser via SMS altogether.\nDespite the high number of phone users, there has not been so much phone spam, because there is a charge for sending SMS. Recently, there are also observations of", "of cell phone users from virtually anywhere in the world with a success rate of approximately 70%. In addition, eavesdropping is possible by using the protocol to forward calls and also facilitate decryption by requesting that each caller's carrier release a temporary encryption key to unlock the communication after it has been recorded. The software tool SnoopSnitch can warn when certain SS7 attacks occur against a phone, and detect IMSI-catchers that allow call interception and other activities.\nIn February 2016, 30% of the network of the largest mobile operator in Norway, Telenor, became unstable due to \"Unusual SS7 signaling from", "Technical support scam A technical support scam refers to any of class a telephone fraud activities in which a scammer claims to offer a legitimate technical support service, often via cold calls to unsuspecting users. Such calls are mostly targeted at Microsoft Windows users, with the caller often claiming to represent a Microsoft technical support department.\nIn English-speaking countries such as the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, such cold call scams have occurred as early as 2008 and primarily originate from call centers in India.\nThe scammer will typically attempt to get the victim to allow remote", "mobile phone spam delivered via browser push notifications. These can be a result of allowing websites which are malicious or delivering malicious ads to send a user notifications. Social networking spam Facebook and Twitter are not immune to messages containing spam links. Spammers hack into accounts and send false links under the guise of a user's trusted contacts such as friends and family. As for Twitter, spammers gain credibility by following verified accounts such as that of Lady Gaga; when that account owner follows the spammer back, it legitimizes the spammer.\nTwitter has studied what interest structures allow their users to", "Mobile phone spam Mobile phone spam is a form of spam (unsolicited messages, especially advertising), directed at the text messaging or other communications services of mobile phones or smartphones. As the popularity of mobile phones surged in the early 2000s, frequent users of text messaging began to see an increase in the number of unsolicited (and generally unwanted) commercial advertisements being sent to their telephones through text messaging. This can be particularly annoying for the recipient because, unlike in email, some recipients may be charged a fee for every message received, including spam. Mobile phone spam is generally less pervasive", "mobile phone”. In short, spam is an unwanted message that is delivered even though a user has not requested for it. Since the customer is in control and all activities are voluntary, customers' objective, goals, and emotions must be taken into account. A recent survey showed that users spend only 8 to 10 seconds on mobile advertisements. Therefore, the interaction must be straightforward and simple. Marketers must also develop relevant and engaging advertising content that mobile users want to access at the right place and time. More importantly, marketers must make sure that their offer contains real value for the", "There are various forms of cramming. Web cramming Web cramming involves billing consumers for a web page they did not even know they had.\nThis is most often accomplished when criminals develop new web pages for small businesses and non-profit groups for little or no expense. While advertising their service as free, these criminals actually engage in unauthorized phone charges on their victim's accounts. The most common scam involves \"rebate checks.\" These checks, when cashed, transfer the customer's Internet service provider, placing monthly service charges on their telephone bill. This is made possible because telecommunications companies", "them from sending the recordings to friends, family, or employers, often discovered via social media sites such as Facebook or Twitter. Pro-daters The pro-dater differs from other scams in method of operation; a face-to-face meeting actually does take place in the scammer's country but for the sole purpose of manipulating the victim into spending as much money as possible in relatively little time, with little or nothing in return. The scheme usually involves accomplices, such as an interpreter or a taxi driver, each of whom must be paid by the victim at an inflated price. Everything is pre-arranged so that", "Their objectives run from trolling, cyberbullying, and most importantly controlling political talk or even to con influencer advertisers into forking over cash to fake web-based social networking influencers.", "seconds), it would hang up and try a different code. Using this method, code hacking programs would turn up hundreds (or in some cases thousands) of working calling card numbers per day. These would subsequently be shared amongst fellow phreakers.\nThere was no way for these small phone companies to identify the culprits of these hacks. They had no access to local phone company records of calls into their access numbers, and even if they had access, obtaining such records would be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming. While there was some advancement in tracking down these code hackers in the early 1990s,", "messages Organisations that use recorded phone messages (robocalls) for marketing or sales calls must have prior consent from the subscriber. Unauthorised silent calls and robocalls from an identified caller can be reported to the ICO. Market research TPS does not cover market research calls; instead individual MR companies must be contacted and told not to call a number. If the company continues to call, complaints can be made to the Market Research Society, who may be able to take action if the call was from one of their members. The TPS rules are intended to allow legitimate opinion pollers such", "Malicious use AnyDesk can be installed on computers and smartphones with full administrative permissions, if the user chooses to do so and can therefore be used to gain full access to a device via the internet. Mobile access fraud In February 2019, Reserve Bank of India warned of an emerging digital banking fraud, explicitly mentioning AnyDesk as the attack-channel. The general scam procedure is as follows: fraudsters get victims to download AnyDesk from the Google Play Store on their mobile phone, usually by mimicking the customer service of legitimate companies. Then, the scammers convince the victim to provide the" ]

[ "This is just one example. \n\nMore grazing animals means less vegetation for other animals to use as a home or shelter from prey.\n\nThey also took vegetation away from the river banks causing more erosion. (The roots held the soil in place)\n\nThe reintroduction of wolves stopped that and kept the grazing animal population in check, allowing the vegetation to grow back.", "There was a short video that came out a year or two ago on this very topic. You can see *[How wolves change rivers](_URL_1_)*, only four minutes long or so.\n\nEssentially, the absence of the large predator allowed large grazing animal populations to boom, and because the herds had to eat, they ended up stripping the area of most of the vegetation. This in turn impacted the number and variety of small animals, birds, and insects the area could support.\n\nThe loss of so much vegetation also increased soil runoff into creeks, which impacted the fish and aquatic insects. And of course, the loss of soil changes (again) the plants that can grow.\n\nThe wolves ate some deer, but more importantly they were able to influence behavior of the deer and force them to move from area to area, allowing areas to regenerate between seasons of being partially de-nuded. As different zones of the park were able to have a break from the constant pressure of the deer, the overall ecological health of each area improved :). Healthier plants, and a wider variety of plants supported a greater diversity of other animals and insects, and improved soil retention (reduced erosion). The reduced erosion meant waterways could support more life as they were no longer full of mud and dust. Good times all around.\n\nTourism may also have spiked, especially in the first few years after the re-introduction; and you will find very few people suggesting boosting the local economy of towns around the parks is a bad thing. As long as visits are not so numerous as to create over-trafficking problems to the area that cash-flow is a plus for the region :).\n\nThe idea is related to the [Keystone Species Theory](_URL_0_). Beavers and Prairie Dogs and humans among many other species fall into this category along with wolves." ]

[ "History of wolves in Yellowstone When Yellowstone National Park was created in 1872, gray wolf (Canis lupus) populations were already in decline in Montana, Wyoming and Idaho. The creation of the national park did not provide protection for wolves or other predators, and government predator control programs in the first decades of the 1900s essentially helped eliminate the gray wolf from Yellowstone. The last wolves were killed in Yellowstone in 1926. After that time, sporadic reports of wolves still occurred, but scientists confirmed that sustainable wolf populations had been extirpated and were absent from Yellowstone during the", "its ecosystem), was reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park in 1995 as a conservation measure. Elk, the wolves' primary prey, became less abundant and changed their behavior, freeing riparian zones from constant grazing and allowing willows, aspens and cottonwoods to flourish, creating habitats for beaver, moose and scores of other species. In addition to their effect on prey species, the wolves' presence also affected one of the park's vulnerable species, the grizzly bear: emerging from hibernation, having fasted for months, the bears chose to scavenge wolf kills, especially during the autumn as they prepared to hibernate once again. The grizzly bear", "Doug Smith, Yellowstone's wolf biologist, was quoted in the New York Times as saying that \"their survival is an open question.\"\nMary Cooke, president of Wolves of the Rockies, cited 926F's killing as an example of why the government should strengthen protection for wolves who venture out of Yellowstone into areas where they become legal targets for hunters.", "been researching and studying the impacts on the Yellowstone ecosystem since re-introduction in 1995.\nAs the wolf population in the park has grown, the elk population, their favored prey, has declined. Prior to reintroduction, the EIS predicted that wolves would kill an average 12 elk per wolf annually. This estimate proved too low as wolves are now killing an average of 22 elk per wolf annually. This decline in elk has resulted in changes in flora, most specifically willows, cottonwoods and aspens along the fringes of heavily timbered areas. Although wolf kills are directly attributable to declines", "were also factors. Since 2000, 45% of known deaths and 75% of predation-caused deaths of radio collared cow-elk have been confirmed to be attributable to wolves. Human caused deaths in the same period accounted for 8–30% of known deaths. Yellowstone elk comprise up to 92% of the winter diet of wolves, the overall kill rates of Yellowstone wolves on elk in winter being estimated at 22 ungulates per wolf annually. This is higher than the 12 ungulates per wolf rate predicted in the ESA. Subspecies Historically, the wolf populations originally native to Yellowstone were classed under the subspecies C. l.", "range decreased affecting many other animals. Without wolves, coyote populations increased dramatically which adversely impacted the pronghorn antelope population. However, it was the overly large elk populations that caused the most profound changes to the ecosystem of Yellowstone with the absence of wolves. Initial releases 1995–96 In January 1995, U.S. and Canadian wildlife officials captured 14 wolves from multiple packs east of Jasper National Park, near Hinton, Alberta, Canada. These wolves arrived in Yellowstone in two shipments—January 12, 1995 (8 wolves) and January 20, 1995 (6 wolves). They were released into three acclimation pens—Crystal Creek, Rose Creek", "in elk numbers, some research has shown that elk behavior has been significantly altered by wolf predation. The constant presence of wolves have pushed elk into less favorable habitats, raised their stress level, lowered their nutrition and their overall birth rate.\nThe wolves became significant predators of coyotes after their reintroduction. Since then, in 1995 and 1996, the local coyote population went through a dramatic restructuring. Until the wolves returned, Yellowstone National Park had one of the densest and most stable coyote populations in America due to a lack of human impacts. Two years after the wolf reintroductions, the pre-wolf population", "are also shorter, and its fur bushier. Reintroduction In Yellowstone National Park, artificially relocated northwestern wolves have been well-documented feeding on elk. They usually stampede the herd using pack teamwork to separate the younger elk from the adults. They also will charge young calves separated from their parents. Winter-weakened or sick elk also play an important part of Yellowstone wolf diets and it is estimated that over 50 percent of winter-weakened or sick elk in Yellowstone are killed by wolves. Of these, about 12 percent of carcasses were scavenged by other predators, including ravens, bald eagles, black bears, grizzly bears,", "from Yellowstone National Park by 1926, although the National Park Service maintained its policies of predator control in the park until 1933. However, a 1975–77 National Park Service sponsored study revealed that during the period 1927 to 1977, there were several hundred probable sightings of wolves in the park. Between 1977 and the re-introduction in 1995, there were additional reliable sightings of wolves in the park, most believed to be singles or pairs transiting the region. Ecological impacts Once the wolves were gone, elk populations began to rise. Over the next few years conditions of Yellowstone National", "of other species. In addition to the effects on prey species, the gray wolf's presence also affected the park's grizzly bear population. The bears, emerging from hibernation, chose to scavenge off wolf kills to gain needed energy and fatten up after fasting for months. Dozens of other species have been documented scavenging from wolf kills.", "particularly sheep and calves, are vulnerable to wolves and, according to reports, livestock suffered significant depredations by wolves and coyotes in the last part of the 19th and the first part of the 20th century. This led to a war on these predators, with bounties paid by livestock associations and state agencies. By the mid-1930s wolves had been exterminated completely in the Tongue River basin (and indeed throughout the stockgrowing west). Times changed, and sympathy grew for the wolf, as well as his cousin the coyote. Since the release of wolves in Yellowstone Park in 1995, there has been increasing", "Species Act in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed. After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the coyote then became the park's top canine predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.\nBy the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves imported from Canada were reintroduced into the", "elimination of the gray wolf from the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem had profound impacts on the trophic pyramid. Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species, affecting the area's plant populations. In addition, wolves often kept animals from grazing in riparian areas, which protected beavers from having their food sources encroached upon. The removal of wolves had a direct effect on beaver populations, as their habitat became territory for grazing. Increased browsing on willows and conifers along Blacktail Creek due to a lack of predation caused channel incision because the beavers helped slow the water down, allowing soil to", "park, an important food source for the grizzly bears.\nWolf kills are scavenged by and thus feed a wide array of animals, including, but not limited to, ravens, wolverines, bald eagles, golden eagles, grizzly bears, black bears, jays, magpies, martens and coyotes.\nMeanwhile, wolf packs often claim kills made by cougars, which has driven that species back out of valley hunting grounds to their more traditional mountainside territory.\nThe top-down effect of the reintroduction of an apex predator like the wolf on other flora and fauna in an ecosystem is an example of a trophic cascade. 2009 removal from Endangered Species List Because", "least in North America, wolves contribute little to overall livestock losses. In 2005 0.11% of all cattle losses were due to wolves. In states with wolf populations, they were responsible for an average of 2.5% of predation on sheep. Jim Dutcher, a filmmaker who raised a captive wolf pack, observed that the wolves were very reluctant to try meat that they had not previously eaten or seen another wolf eat before, possibly explaining why livestock depredation is unlikely except in cases of desperation. In Wyoming, Idaho and Montana, wolf predation accounts for 1% of total sheep deaths.\nWolf hunting proponents have", "in Glacier National Park in 1986. In 1995, the federal government begin to reintroduce wolves to Yellowstone, were they were absent since the 1930s, and central Idaho as part of a Rocky Mountain recovery plan. Since then, wolves would occupy much of the northern Rocky Mountain region, with atleast 1,704 wolves in Montana, Idaho and Wyoming in 2015, and established populations in Washington and Oregon. In 2018, the wolf population in Washington was estimated at a minimum of 126. In addition, a wolf pack from Oregon crossed into California in April 2019 and produced three more pups.\nAfter being listed under", "wolf. Several non-fatal attacks including the April 26, 2000 attack on a 6-year-old boy in Icy Bay, Alaska seriously challenged the assumption that healthy wild wolves were harmless. The event was considered unusual and was reported in newspapers throughout the entire United States. Following the Icy Bay incident, biologist Mark E. McNay compiled a record of wolf-human encounters in Canada and Alaska from 1915-2001. Of the 80 described encounters, 39 involved aggressive behavior from apparently healthy wolves and 12 from animals confirmed to be rabid. \nThe first fatal attack in the 21st century occurred on November 8, 2005, when a", "disposal of livestock carcasses. While loss of livestock by wolves makes up only a small percentage of total losses in North America, surveys in Eurasia show some instances where wolf predation was frequent. In some areas of the former Soviet Union, wolves cause serious damage to watermelon plantations. Wolves will usually only take ripe melons after giving test bites, which can render even unripe fruits worthless for future consumption. Sometimes, up to 20% of the total watermelon crop can be destroyed on one raid. Wolves and game herds Wolf hunting opponents have argued that wolves serve vital functions in areas", "the western cattle and livestock industries, this agency began a concerted program which eventually was called: Animal Damage Control. This predator control program alone killed 1,800 wolves and 23,000 coyotes in 39 U.S. National Forests in 1907. In 1916, when the National Park Service was created, its enabling legislation included words that authorized the Secretary of the Interior to \"provide in his discretion for the destruction of such animals and of such plant life as may be detrimental to the use of said parks, monuments and reservations\".\nIt is generally accepted that sustainable gray wolf packs had been extirpated", "elk brought in from Yellowstone National Park. The introduction of elk to Banff, combined with controls on coyote and wolves by Parks Canada beginning in the 1930s, has caused imbalance of the ecosystem. Other species that have been displaced from the Bow Valley include grizzly bears, cougars, lynx, wolverine, otter, and moose. Beginning in 1985, gray wolves were recolonizing areas in the Bow Valley. However, the wolf population has struggled, with 32 wolf deaths along the Trans-Canada Highway between 1987 and 2000, leaving only 31 wolves in the area.\nThe population of bull trout and other native species of fish in", "reachable tree saplings, destroying beaver, songbird, insect, fish and amphibian populations, and threatening to starve themselves via overexploitation. Wolves reduced game animal numbers and forced them to be more mobile, allowing more saplings to grow and allowing the populations of aforementioned animals to increase.\nProponents for wolf hunting often point out the apparently adverse effects large wolf populations have on game herds. An example occurred in 2008, in which the Alaska Board of Game approved plans calling for department staff to shoot wolves from helicopters on the southern Alaska Peninsula in order to assist the survival of the Southern Alaska Peninsula", "Mexican wolves became extinct in the wild in the mid-20th century due to being trapped, poisoned, and shot. Since the zoo became involved in 1992, 29 pups have been born at their facility.", "gray wolf populations in Montana, Wyoming and Idaho had recovered sufficiently to meet the goals of the Wolf Recovery Plan, on May 4, 2008 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service changed the status of the gray wolf population known as the Northern Rocky Mountains Distinct Population Segment from Endangered to Experimental Population-Non Essential.\nThe wolves in Yellowstone and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem fall within this population. In response to the change in status, state wildlife authorities in Idaho and Montana enacted quota-based hunting seasons on wolves as part of their approved state Wolf Management Plans. Environmental groups objected to the delisting", "drawn attention to the fact that wolves will on occasion commit acts of surplus killing when within the confines of human-made livestock shelters. Rare incidents of surplus killing by wolves in Minnesota are reported to leave up to 35 sheep killed and injured in flocks and losses of 50 to 200 birds in turkey flocks. In spite of the low percentage of attacks on livestock in Minnesota, farms in wolf territories and environments may become more susceptible to depredation under certain conditions. These conditions include larger farm size, increased numbers of cattle, an increased distance from human management, and improper", "such as Douglas Smith, to have been primarily caused by the extirpation of wolves from the park and surrounding environs. After wolves were removed, elk herds increased in population, reaching new highs during the mid-1930s. The increased number of elk apparently resulted in overgrazing in parts of Yellowstone. Park officials decided that the elk herd should be managed. For approximately thirty years, the park elk herds were culled: Each year some were captured and shipped to other locations, a certain number were killed by park rangers, and hunters were allowed to take more elk that migrated outside the park. By", "further degradation of the range, but didn't improve its overall condition. At times, people would mention bringing wolves back to Yellowstone to help control the elk population. Yellowstone's managers were not eager to bring back wolves, especially after so successfully extirpating them from the park. Elk control continued into the 1960s. In the late 1960s, local hunters began to complain to their congressmen that there were too few elk, and the congressmen threatened to stop funding Yellowstone. Killing elk was given up as control method which allowed elk populations to again rise. As elk populations rose, the quality of the", "through natural wolf dispersal from Canada but was later modified. Reintroduction In 1994 U.S. Fish and Wildlife submitted a report to congress recommending wolves be reestablished in Idaho and Yellowstone National Park as nonessential experimental populations. In March 1995 3 groups of 6, 5 and 3 wolves were released into Yellowstone National Park. This release marked the beginning of a successful reintroduction effort coordinated with multiple wildlife agencies from multiple U.S. States and Canadian Provinces. A total of 31 wolves were released in Yellowstone National Park. Proposed removal from ESA The Gray wolf in Wyoming is on the verge of", "as bait, poisoning the meat in hopes of attracting unsuspecting wolves. It is estimated that by the 1870s, this method was killing 100,000 wolves annually. Between 1916 and 1926 the National Park Service predator control program resulted in the extermination of sustainable packs of wolves in Yellowstone National Park by 1926. American wolf hunts peaked in the 1920s-1930s, when up to 21,000 were killed annually. After World War II, wolves were seen less as varmints and more as big game trophy animals.\nThe first Canadian wolf bounty was offered in 1793 in Ontario and Quebec. Wolves became rare in Eastern Canada", "for extinction according to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Wolf weight and size can vary greatly worldwide, tending to increase proportionally with latitude as predicted by Bergmann's Rule. Wolves are usually hunted in heavy brush and are considered especially challenging to hunt, because of their elusive nature and sharp senses. Grey wolves are notoriously shy and difficult to kill, having been stated to be almost as hard to stalk as cougars, and being far more problematic to dispatch with poison, traps or hounds. However, wolves generally do not defend themselves as effectively as", "a dozen wolf packs totaling 70 individual wolves were documented in the forest in 2012. The wolf was delisted as endangered once their population levels had reached management objectives and limited hunting of wolves was permitted in the forest starting in 2012. Cougars are generally nocturnal and rarely seen but hunting of this species is also allowed in highly regulated harvests. Wolverines are rare and elusive so documentation is often only from their tracks. The Canada lynx was native to the forest, but no known populations may still exist due to the rarity of its primary food source, the Snowshoe" ]

[ "Planning and decision making for motor movement happens in the [premotor cortex](_URL_0_). To see where it is, find a spot on the top of your head that's about three inches back from your hairline. This is the section in your brain that makes the decisions about lifting limbs and looking at the ceiling. It takes in information from many parts of the brain including the senses, the emotional centers, and long term planning structures before making a decision. When it decides, it sends a command to the [Motor Cortex](_URL_1_) which is just a bit closer to the back of the head. The Motor Cortex is a doer. It takes the big decision made by the Pre-Motor Cortex and figures out how to implement it. \"Move your leg!\" says the PMC, and the MC calculates what muscles in what order need to be fired. If it's a movement that's been done to the point of being automatic (like walking or tying shoelaces) then the MC relies some on the Cerebellum to coordinate, as the Cerebellum stores all those highly practiced movements." ]

[ "the position of their body and how that changes throughout the motor skill they are trying to perform. While performing the motion the body will use receptors in the muscles to transfer information to the brain to tell the brain about what the body is doing. Then after completing the same motor skill numerous times, the brain will begin to remember the motion based on the position of the body at a given time. Then after learning the motion the body will be able perform the motor skill even when usual senses are inhibited, such as the person closing their", "in speed (quickness of a contraction), motion (reaction time of a contraction) and power (amount of resistance resisted in a period of time). Example of dynamic core function An example of this is walking on a slope. The body must resist gravity while moving in a direction, and balancing itself on uneven ground. This forces the body to align the bones in a way that balances the body while at the same time achieving momentum through pushing against the ground in the opposite direction of the desired movement. Initially, it may seem that the legs are the", "letter:\nhow the human soul can determine the movement of the animal spirits in the body so as to perform voluntary acts—being as it is merely a conscious substance. For the determination of movement seems always to come about from the moving body's being propelled—to depend on the kind of impulse it gets from what sets it in motion, or again, on the nature and shape of this latter thing's surface. Now the first two conditions involve contact, and the third involves that the impelling thing has extension; but you utterly exclude extension from your notion of soul, and contact seems", "movement and has a strong affinity with the vertical plane.\n\"In homolateral movements we develop assymetrical movements such as crawling on our bellies and hopping on one leg, establish the vertical plane, differentiate the right side of our bodies from the left, and gain the ability to intend.\nThe right and left sides of the body each open / close in contrast to each other, or an entire side steps as a unit in counterbalance with the entire other side, like a reptile or some mammals; often a slower traveling speed (e.g. humans stroll with both hands in pockets) since it is", "eyes. The body will perform the motion based on the information that is stored in the brain from previous attempts at the same movement. This is possible because the brain has formed connections between the location of body parts in space (the body uses perception to learn where their body is in space) and the subsequent movements that commonly follow these positions. It becomes almost an instinct. The person does not need to even think about what they are doing to perfect the skill, they have done it so many times that it feels natural and requires little to no", "background rhythm to all other activity.\nThe body grows and shrinks as a single undifferentiated mass, as an amoeba, the simplest form of life, the most basic sense of being. The most fundamental movement, lungs and also oxygen in blood flow and saturation of cells (cellular breathing), moves through a rhythm of expanding and condensing. When breath is integrated throughout the body, then all parts of the body will move at least slightly in coordination with the in / out breath rhythm.\nUse the breath pattern to recuperate and get in touch with one’s own \"internal state\", with one’s body self, \"proprioceptive", "your hands where they are comfortable for you. Your feet may be together or up to 12 inches apart. When viewed from the side, your body should form a generally straight line from your shoulders to your ankles. On the command 'go,' begin the push-up by bending your elbows and lowering your entire body as a single unit until your upper arms are at least parallel to the ground. Then, return to the starting position by raising your entire body until your arms are fully extended. Your body must remain rigid in a generally straight line and move as a unit", "from the brain, through the spinal cord, to the torso and limbs. The cranial nerves carry movements related to the eyes, mouth and face.\nGross movement – such as locomotion and the movement of arms and legs – is generated in the motor cortex, divided into three parts: the primary motor cortex, found in the prefrontal gyrus and has sections dedicated to the movement of different body parts. These movements are supported and regulated by two other areas, lying anterior to the primary motor cortex: the premotor area and the supplementary motor area. The hands and mouth have a much larger", "handedness and location of the gesture, but not necessarily copying the exact motion itself. Updated with movement A working body schema must be able to interactively track the movements and positions of body parts in space. Neurons in the premotor cortex may contribute to this function. A class of neuron in the premotor cortex is multisensory. Each of these multisensory neurons responds to tactile stimuli and also to visual stimuli. The neuron has a tactile receptive field (responsive region on the body surface) typically on the face, arms, or hands. The same neuron also responds to visual stimuli in the", "parts should keep moving beyond the point where the character stopped only to be subsequently \"pulled back\" towards the center of mass or exhibiting various degrees of oscillation damping. \"Overlapping action\" is the tendency for parts of the body to move at different rates (an arm will move on different timing of the head and so on). A third, related technique is \"drag\", where a character starts to move and parts of them take a few frames to catch up. These parts can be inanimate objects like clothing or the antenna on a car, or parts of the body, such", "providing feedback to the brain, enabling it to adjust the muscle groups or amount of force required to walk across the ground. Different amounts of force are applied depending on the type of surface being walked across. The leg's muscle spindle nerve cells then sense and send the position of the floor back up to the brain. Finally, when the foot is raised to step, signals are sent to muscles in the leg and foot to set it down. Biosensors Biosensors are used to detect what the user wants to do or their intentions and motions. In some devices the", "body is static; then the head’s movement when it tilts; and pitch changes during any linear motion of the head. The saccule and utricle detect different motions, which information the brain receives and integrates to determine where the head is and how and where it is moving.\nThe semi-circular canals are three bony structures filled with fluid. As with the vestibule, the primary purpose of the canals is to detect movement. Each canal is oriented at right angles to the others, enabling detection of movement in any plane. The posterior canal detects rolling motion, or motion about the X axis; the", "system is responsible for initiating voluntary or planned movements (reflexes are mediated at the spinal cord level, so movements that associated with a reflex are not initiated by the motor cortex). The activation from the motor cortex travels through Betz cells down the corticospinal tract through upper motor neurons, terminating at the anterior horn of the grey matter where lower motor neurons transmit the signal to peripheral motor neurons and, finally, the voluntary muscles. Movements not requiring use of topographic maps There are several instances of movements that do not require the participation of topographic maps, or even the", "head moves to gather information about the movement and position of the body. The hair cells are covered in tiny sensory hairs called stereocilia, which are sensitive to displacement forces as the body is moved in different positions. When the head is moved, the force moves the hair cells forward, which sends signals to afferent fibers and on to the brain. The brain can then decide which muscles in the body need to become active in order to right itself.\nThe semicircular canals have a superior, posterior, and horizontal component. Studies have shown that the horizontal canal is most correlated with", "person's posture. In all, the human anatomy is built to take force upon the bones and direct autonomic force, through various joints, in the desired direction. The core muscles align the spine, ribs, and pelvis of a person to resist a specific force, whether static or dynamic. Static core function Static core functionality is the ability of one's core to align the skeleton to resist a force that does not change. Dynamic core function The nature of dynamic movement must take into account our skeletal structure (as a lever) in addition to the force of external resistance, and", "from the body, in some cases even higher than the elbow. In these cases, drag and incidental muscle effort is increased at the expense of speed. Beginners often forget to use their shoulders to let the hand enter as far forward as possible. Some say the hand should enter the water thumb first, reducing drag through possible turbulence, others say the middle finger is first with the hand precisely bent down, giving thrust right from the start. At the beginning of the pull, the hand acts like a wing and is moved slower than the swimmer while at the end", "directions should be taken first with the ball of the foot in contact with the floor, and then with the heel lowering when the weight is fully transferred; however, some steps require that the heel remain lifted from the floor. When weight is released from a foot, the heel should release from the floor first, allowing the toe to maintain contact with the floor. Hip movement In traditional American Rhythm style, Latin hip movement is achieved through the alternate bending and straightening action of the knees, though in modern competitive dancing, the technique is virtually identical to the \"international Latin\"", "e.g. where the lower body supports and upper body moves as a unit, such as traveling movements of a frog or rabbit.\nCan be expressive of basic instincts for self survival, status, personal power, being grounded in the search supporting a reach into the environment. To \"push through to the goal\", linear-directional goals. Body-half (Homolateral) Based on the differentiation of the left and right sides of the bodies. One side of the body stabilised while the other mobilises. Movement usually switches from one side to the other but doesn't cross the midline. In the Basic Neurocellular Patterns this relates to homolateral", "of the arm or leg forward.\nExtension is the opposite of flexion, describing a straightening movement that increases the angle between body parts. For example, when standing up, the knees are extended. When a joint can move forward and backward, such as the neck and trunk, extension is movement in the posterior direction. Extension of the hip or shoulder moves the arm or leg backward. Abduction and adduction Abduction is the motion of a structure away from the midline while adduction refer to motion towards the center of the body. The centre of the body is defined as the midsagittal", "information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness, the \"unconscious\" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. Several areas in the brain coordinate movement and position with the feedback information gained from proprioception. The cerebellum and red nucleus in particular continuously sample position against movement and make minor corrections to assure smooth motion. Energy consumption Muscular activity accounts for much of", "insertion. For example, with the latissimus dorsi muscle, the origin site is the torso, and the insertion is the arm. When this muscle contracts, normally the arm moves due to having less mass than the torso. This is the case when grabbing objects lighter than the body, as in the typical use of a lat pull down machine. This can be reversed however, such as in a chin up where the torso moves up to meet the arm. Insertion The insertion of a muscle is the structure that it attaches to and tends to be moved by the", "muscles throughout the contraction, particularly at the end of the motion. In the example of throwing, the chest and front of the shoulder (anterior Deltoid) contract to pull the arm forward, while the muscles in the back and rear of the shoulder (posterior Deltoid) also contract and undergo eccentric contraction to slow the motion down to avoid injury. Part of the training process is learning to relax the antagonist muscles to increase the force input of the chest and anterior shoulder.\nContracting muscles produce vibration and sound. Slow twitch fibers produce 10 to 30 contractions per second (10 to 30 Hz). Fast", "in harmony. One therefore does not slouch or handle objects by moving just the arms. Instead, handling objects from the central axis of the body is of fundamental importance. Objects are handled with a composed and stable posture; at navel height, 3 cm behind the tip of the knees and with the space of an egg open under the arms. Objects are held firmly with the thumb and middle finger and the index finger is added more lightly. Objects are not placed down just by moving one's arms; the whole body is used when placing objects down. The eyes also focus", "area dedicated to them than other body parts, allowing finer movement; this has been visualised in a motor homunculus. Impulses generated from the motor cortex travel along the corticospinal tract along the front of the medulla and cross over (decussate) at the medullary pyramids. These then travel down the spinal cord, with most connecting to interneurons, in turn connecting to lower motor neurons within the grey matter that then transmit the impulse to move to muscles themselves. The cerebellum and basal ganglia, play a role in fine, complex and coordinated muscle movements. Connections between the cortex and the basal ganglia", "as arms or hair. On the human body, the torso is the core, with arms, legs, head and hair appendices that normally follow the torso's movement. Body parts with much tissue, such as large stomachs and breasts, or the loose skin on a dog, are more prone to independent movement than bonier body parts. Again, exaggerated use of the technique can produce a comical effect, while more realistic animation must time the actions exactly, to produce a convincing result.\nThe \"moving hold\" animates between two very similar positions; even characters sitting still, or hardly moving, can display some sort of movement,", "takes their second step (the second \"slow\"), CBM occurs as the left leg moves forward and the right side of the torso moves forward, causing the body to begin rotation to the left.\nAn exaggerated CBM is the basic of some specific dance moves, e.g., Chicken Walks in Jive and East Coast Swing. Contra body movement position (CBMP) Contra body movement position (CBMP) is a position rather than a movement. CBMP is the foot position achieved when the moving foot is placed on or across the line of the standing foot, in front of or behind it.\nThe term is slightly verbose", "While the body itself should be moving smoothly along, this motion should be very snappy, emphasizing that the toes are stuck in the air so that the bottom of the extended foot is exposed. A common instruction is to \"dig in with the heel\", which emphasizes starting the step as far back on the heel as possible. This, in turn, should lead to higher toe lift.\nNext, the weight is shifted forward from the ball of the stationary foot to the ball of extended foot. This motion is called \"rolling through\". Because this is the primary \"stepping\" motion, it", "movement that the human body finds easy as well as awkward. If your opponents approach head on, it needs a great deal of power to force them back, especially if they are a lot stronger. If instead, you step to his side and pull him onward, he will carry on under his own steam. At that point, if you apply a little force from the outside, you can change the direction of his momentum and upset his balance. By using your opponents force against them, you can see how someone who is not as strong can fell a much larger", "Contra body movement Contra body movement (CBM) is a term used in ballroom dances, such as Waltz, Foxtrot, Tango, Quickstep. It describes a specific coordination of the movement of a dancer's body when doing or preparing to do a step which involves rotation. Examples One occurrence of CBM can be observed in a left rock (adlib) turn in American Foxtrot. As the leader takes their second step (the second \"slow\"), CBM occurs as the right leg moves backward and the left side of the body moves backward, causing the body to begin rotation to the left. Similarly, as the follower", "with the way one walks or runs. This can mean an unsteady pace or dragging of the feet along with other possible irregularities. Causes Pathological changes of certain areas of the brain are the main causes of most motor disorders. Causes of motor disorders by genetic mutation usually affect the cerebrum. The way humans move requires many parts of the brain to work together to perform a complex process. The brain must send signals to the muscles instructing them to perform a certain action. There are constant signals being sent to and from the brain and the muscles that regulate" ]

[ "\"President\" is a term that is often based on the law of the place where the company is created. For example in the United States, most states require that a corporation have a person with the title President. That title carries with it some legal obligations that tie the individual to the actions of the company.\n\nMost jurisdictions don't define or require anyone to hold the title \"Chief Executive Officer\". \n\nDepending on the size of the entity, the President and the CEO may be the same person. Large entities may be comprised of several smaller companies, each with a legally required \"President\", who may report to the CEO at the top of the organizational structure.\n\nSome companies may separate the two titles for internal organizational reasons, for historical reasons, or because someone thinks it's clever.\n\nIt is rare for a company to have a CEO who reports to a President. CEO has become the de facto title for \"the highest level of the executive ladder\", but that's arbitrary and fashion could change.", "CEO is higher. Usually the head of the board of directors.\n\nPresident is often the (slightly) more hands-on leader of a division or office.\n\nAs an example the firm I work for has a CEO and a board of directors who are rarely seen, then beneath them are the division presidents - one for each of five state groupings we have. Beneath them are the vice presidents, then the office leaders, then the department managers, then the supervisors and finally the everyday employees.\n\nHow the leadership is structured will depend on the firm, but the CEO will usually be of a higher rank than the president. In very small firms though, it's not uncommon for the owner to call themselves \"CEO and President\", which basically means they take on both roles." ]

[ "category of subordinate executive, if the CEO is also the president, is the vice-president (VP). An organization may have more than one vice-president, each tasked with a different area of responsibility (e.g., VP of finance, VP of human resources, VP of research and development). Some organizations have subordinate executive officers who also have the word chief in their job title, such as chief operating officer (COO), chief financial officer (CFO) and chief technology officer (CTO). The public relations-focused position of chief reputation officer is sometimes included as one such subordinate executive officer, but, as suggested by Anthony Johndrow, CEO of", "president/CEO from among their number. There are no specific legal requirements regarding the CEO's role, or even for the title given to the holder of the CEO position, although in practice the most common title is simply Vorstandsvorsitzender, literally, \"Vorstand chairman\". A noticeable minority refer to their CEOs as Sprecher (lit., \"speaker\"), implying that the CEO is no more than primus inter pares; probably the best-known example for a company which uses this terminology is Deutsche Bank.\nThe exact relationship between the CEO and the other executive officers depends on the company's type, how it was founded, and indeed the", "meets individual expectations and changes as leadership teams adjust. President In a similar vein to the COO the title of corporate president as a separate position (as opposed to being combined with a \"C-Suite\" designation, such as \"President and CEO\" or \"President and COO\") is also loosely defined. The president is usually the legally recognized highest rank of corporate officer, ranking above the various vice presidents (including senior vice president and executive vice president), but on its own generally considered subordinate, in practice, to the CEO. \nLloyd E. Reuss was president of General Motors from 1990 to 1992, as the", "President (corporate title) History Originally, the term \"president\" was used to designate someone who presided over a meeting, and was used in the same way that \"foreman\" or \"overseer\" is used now (the term is still used in that sense today). It has now also come to mean \"chief officer\" in terms of administrative or executive duties. Powers and authority The powers of the president vary widely across organizations. In some organizations the president has the authority to hire staff and make financial decisions, while in others the president only makes recommendations to a board of directors, and still others", "Executive (government) Presidents In a presidential system, the leader of the executive is both the head of state and head of government. In a parliamentary system, a cabinet minister responsible to the legislature is the head of government, while the head of state is usually a largely ceremonial monarch or president.", "President (government title) Description The title president is derived from the Latin prae- \"before\" + sedere \"to sit.\" As such, it originally designated the officer who presides over or \"sits before\" a gathering and ensures that debate is conducted according to the rules of order (see also chairman and speaker), but today it most commonly refers to an executive official in any social organization. Early examples are from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge (from 1464) and the founding president of the Royal Society William Brouncker in 1660. This usage survives today in the title of such offices as \"President", "a single chief executive, including greater accountability, vigor, decisiveness, and responsibility:\n[T]he executive authority is one. By this means we obtain very important advantages. We may discover from history, from reason, and from experience, the security which this furnishes. The executive power is better to be trusted when it has no screen. Sir, we have a responsibility in the person of our President; he cannot act improperly, and hide either his negligence or inattention; he cannot roll upon any other person the weight of his criminality; no appointment can take place without his nomination; and he is responsible for every nomination", "Normally vice presidents hold some power and special responsibilities below that of the president. The difference between vice/deputy presidents and assistant/associate vice presidents is the former are legally allowed to run an organisation, exercising the same powers (as well as being second in command) whereas the latter are not. Legislatures In some countries the speaker of their unicameral legislatures, or of one or both houses of bicameral legislatures, the speakers have the title of president of \"the body\", as in the case of Spain, where the Speaker of the Congress is the president of the Congress of Deputies and the", "Presidency A presidency is an administration or the executive, the collective administrative and governmental entity that exists around an office of president of a state or nation. Although often the executive branch of government, and often personified by a single elected person who holds the office of \"president,\" in practice, the presidency includes a much larger collective of people, such as chiefs of staff, advisers and other bureaucrats. Although often led by a single person, presidencies can also be of a collective nature, such as the presidency of the European Union is held on a rotating basis by the various", "administers both the Head of State and the Head of Government, which emphasizes that the executive power is not concentrated on only one person. Traditionally the duty of presidency rotates among the members in order of seniority and the previous year's vice president becomes president. American vice presidency In the United States, the vice president is the second in command of the country and also presides as the President of the Senate. The vice president may break tie votes in the Senate chamber and also may be assigned additional duties by the president. The vice president is sometimes chosen for", "executive power in the federal government is vested in the president of the United States, although power is often delegated to the Cabinet members and other officials. The president and vice president are elected as running mates by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D.C.) in both houses of Congress. The president is limited to a maximum of two four-year terms. If the president has already served two years or more of a term to", "simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, the top leader in the one party system. The presidency is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the President serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress, the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative. Complications with categorisation While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by", "presidents. In each community, they can be called Presidente de la Comunidad or Presidente del Consejo among others. They are elected by their respective regional assemblies and have similar powers to a state president or governor. Deputies Below a president, there can be a number of or \"vice presidents\" (or occasionally \"deputy presidents\") and sometimes several \"assistant presidents\" or \"assistant vice presidents\", depending on the organisation and its size. These posts do not hold the same power but more of a subordinate position to the president. However, power can be transferred in special circumstances to the deputy or vice president.", "of the executive departments. The chief executive can take many names including chancellor, prime minister, or premier and the heads of the executive departments can bear different names and be called different things. In the United Kingdom, for example, the chief executive is the prime minister, and the ministers are the heads of the executive departments, which together compose the government. Legislative responsibility The first distinction made is whether a country has a government has legislative responsibility, i.e. whether a majority vote in the legislature can remove the sitting government without cause. The required majority needed to remove the sitting", "Minister-president A minister-president or minister president is the head of government in a number of European countries or subnational governments with a parliamentary or semi-presidential system of government where they preside over the council of ministers. It is an alternative term for prime minister, premier, chief minister, or first minister and very similar to the title of president of the council of ministers. Terminology In English-speaking countries, similar institutions may be called premiers or first ministers (typically at the subnational level) or prime ministers (typically at the national level). The plural is sometimes formed by adding an s to minister", "was vested in the council as a whole.\nThe modern usage of the term president to designate a single person who is the head of state of a republic can be traced directly to the United States Constitution of 1787, which created the office of President of the United States. Previous American governments had included \"presidents\" (such as the president of the Continental Congress or the president of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress), but these were presiding officers in the older sense, with no executive authority. It has been suggested that the executive use of the term was borrowed from early American", "The President is the head of the executive, as such to keep the Public Seal of the Republic, and make and execute under the public seal numerous appointments which includes the prime minister, cabinet and non-cabinet ministers, provincial governors, public officers, ambassadors and commissioned officers of the armed forces. The President may also appoint secretaries, officers and staff to carryout the duties of the office of the president. Grants and dispositions of lands and other immovable property vested in the Republic. Juridical powers The President would have the power to appoint and remove, the Chief Justice, Justices of the Supreme", "is head of the Justice Department (and the Postmaster General who until 1971 was head of the Post Office Department). The heads of the executive departments are appointed by the President and take office after confirmation by the United States Senate, and serve at the pleasure of the President. The heads of departments are members of the Cabinet of the United States, an executive organ that normally acts as an advisory body to the President. In the Opinion Clause (Article II, section 2, clause 1) of the U.S. Constitution, heads of executive departments are referred to as \"principal Officer in", "attends funerals of world leaders on behalf of the president. In parliamentary or semi-presidential systems, a vice president may coexist with a Prime Minister, as is the case in India and Namibia, but the presence of both offices concurrently is rare. In business In business, \"vice president\" refers to hierarchical position that ranges from extremely senior positions directly reporting to C-level executives (in non-financial companies), to junior non-management positions with four to 10 years of experience (in financial companies).\nIn non-financial businesses, vice presidents often report directly to the president or CEO of the company and is a member of the", "essentially all executive branch appointees of any president of the United States, including any employee serving in a position in level I, II, III, IV, or V of the Executive Schedule; any employee serving in a position of a \"policy-determining, policy-making, or policy-advocating character;\" and all military officers of one-star rank and above.\nThe only senior federal officials exempted under the bill are the president, the vice president, and their respective chiefs of staff.\nRegarding the requirement to report contacts from any \"private party,\" the bill states, \"The term 'private party' means any person or entity, but does not include a Federal,", "President of the United States. As historian Edmund Burnett wrote:\nThe president of the United States is scarcely in any sense the successor of the presidents of the old Congress. The presidents of Congress were almost solely presiding officers, possessing scarcely a shred of executive or administrative functions; whereas the president of the United States is almost solely an executive officer, with no presiding duties at all. Barring a likeness in social and diplomatic precedence, the two offices are identical only in the possession of the same title.\nNonetheless, the presidents of the Continental Congress and the presidents of the United States", "President as the nation's executive.", "and the Senate. The Executive The Executive is charged with enforcing the law. The executive branch consists of the President, the Deputy President and the Cabinet. Cabinet meetings are held with the Attorney General present. President The President is the head of state and government, as in most republics. He is also the Commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces.\nThe President has the power to appoint every leader within the executive including Cabinet Secretaries and the Attorney General.\nThe incumbent is Uhuru Kenyatta son of the first President, Jomo Kenyatta. Kenya has had a total of 4 presidents. Two of the former", "the republican idea of the separation of powers. President The executive power is vested mainly in the President of India, as per Article 53(1) of the constitution. The president has all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through subordinate officers as per the aforesaid Article 53(1). The president is to act in accordance with aid and advice tendered by the prime minister, who leads the council of ministers as described in Article 74 of the Constitution of India.\nThe council of ministers remains in power during the 'pleasure' of the president. However, in practice, the council of ministers must retain", "Chief Executive Officers The current Chief Executive Officer is Neil Atkinson - 2018 - present\nSarb Bajwa - 2013 - 2018\nClaire Curtis-Thomas - 2011-13\n??? - 2009-2011\nJohn N Williams - 2004-09\nGordon Davies - 2003", "the de facto leader of the party they represent once elected, and the Vice President, currently Mike Pence, likewise holds a leadership role as both the second-highest executive officer as well as being the President of the Senate.\nThe legislative branch, otherwise known as the United States Congress, is made up of the upper chamber, the Senate, and the lower chamber, the House of Representatives, with party-elected leaders in each. The leader of the party with most the representation (sometimes called the party-in-power) in each case is known as the majority leader, whereas the leader of the opposing party with the", "President of the Republic The President of the Republic is a title used for heads of state and/or heads of government in countries having republican form of government.", "According to the Labour Youth Forum statute the Executive is the highest body. The Executive is elected during the General Meeting every two years. The General Meeting is held annually. The Executive is made up of the administration: which includes the President, Vice President, Secretary, Vice Secretary and the Financial Officer. Other positions in the Executive are the Political Co-ordinator, the Information Officer, an Officer responsible for the branches, an Officer responsible for organising events and five official members. In reality all these members meet together and today there is no difference between the administration and the other executive officers.", "lays down that the Head of State and Union Executive is the President of India. S/He is elected for a five-year term by an electoral college consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament and members of legislative assemblies of the states. The President is eligible for re-elections; however, in India's independent history, only one president has been re-elected, Rajendra Prasad.\nThe President appoints the Prime Minister of India from the party or coalition which commands maximum support of the Lok Sabha, on whose recommendation he/she nominates the other ministers. The President also appoints judges of the Supreme Court and High", "the executive branch of government is led by the Prime Minister who must be able to command a majority in the House of Commons. The Cabinet of Ministers is appointed by the Prime Minister to lead the main departments of state, such as the Treasury, the Foreign Office, the Department of Health and the Department of Education. Officially the \"head of state\" is the monarch, but all prerogative power is exercised by the Prime Minister, subject to judicial review. Fourth, as the UK matured as a modern democracy, an extensive system of civil servants, and public service institutions developed to" ]

[ "The short answer is that at the chemical level biology is very complicated. We tend to think of all sickness and injury the same way we think of, say, a bullet wound---a single, distinct harm that directly interferes with how something in the body works in a simple way. \n\nBut that's not how all harms work. Nicotine and other carcinogens can cause damage in many ways and at many levels. They can harm cells, different parts of DNA, and different things in different parts of the body. And these harms might not happen every time, or from every puff, depending on random chance. \n\nAnd even when they do cause harm, it might not be enough. Maybe person A has a stronger immune system then person B. Or maybe person B happens to be genetically more vulnerable to cancer than person A. Or maybe person A ends up getting cancer in a cell that happens to get killed the next day by a bacteria, while person B gets it in a cell that survives long enough to grow. \n\nThere are so many variables between exposure to the toxic substance and the expression of some linked disease that even when the negative health effects are clear---as with smoking---it is almost never going to be the case that everyone will get the same injuries, or even any injury at all." ]

[ "lung cancer sufferers were likely to be smokers. He also argued that tobacco use was the best way to explain the fact that lung cancer struck men four or five times more often than women (since women smoked much less), and discussed the causal effect of smoking on cancers of the liver and bladder.\nMore observational evidence was published throughout the 1930s, and in 1938, Science published a paper showing that tobacco users live substantially shorter lives. It built a survival curve from family history records kept at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health. This result was ignored", "of lung cancer cases are associated with tobacco use. Other carcinogens include asbestos and radioactive materials. Both smoking and second-hand exposure from other smokers can lead to lung cancer and eventually death. Therefore, prevention of tobacco use is paramount to prevention of lung cancer.\nIndividual, community, and statewide interventions can prevent or cease tobacco use. 90% of adults in the US who have ever smoked did so prior to the age of 20. In-school prevention/educational programs, as well as counseling resources, can help prevent and cease adolescent smoking. Other cessation techniques include group support programs, nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), hypnosis, and", "also worth noting that the effects of smoking on the heart may be more subtle. These conditions may develop gradually given the smoking-healing cycle (the human body heals itself between periods of smoking), and therefore a smoker may develop less significant disorders such as worsening or maintenance of unpleasant dermatological conditions, e.g. eczema, due to reduced blood supply. Smoking also increases blood pressure and weakens blood vessels. Renal In addition to increasing the risk of kidney cancer, smoking can also contribute to additional renal damage. Smokers are at a significantly increased risk for chronic kidney disease than non-smokers. A history", "shows that tobacco smokers who are exposed to residential radon are twice as likely to develop lung cancer as non-smokers. As well, the risk of developing lung cancer from asbestos exposure is twice as likely for smokers than for non-smokers.\nNew research has found that women who smoke are at significantly increased risk of developing an abdominal aortic aneurysm, a condition in which a weak area of the abdominal aorta expands or bulges, and is the most common form of aortic aneurysm.\nSmoking leads to an increased risk of bone fractures, especially hip fractures. It also leads to slower wound-healing after", "overwhelming majority of smokers smoked cigarettes and more cigarette users inhale, this was thought to be a factor in developing lung cancer at a higher rate.\nMost importantly, the study proved a dose-dependent relationship. Subjects who developed lung cancer smoked more excessively and for a more prolonged period of time than individuals who did not develop the disease. Impact The Wynder and Graham 1950 study was able to conclude that \"smoking was an important factor in the production of bronchogenic carcinoma,\" but smoking wasn't established as a causal factor until four years later, when Wynder published another paper entitled, \"Tobacco", "smokers will die of illness due to smoking. The association of smoking with lung cancer is strongest, both in the public perception and etiologically. Among male smokers, the lifetime risk of developing lung cancer is 17.2%; among female smokers, the risk is 11.6%. This risk is significantly lower in nonsmokers: 1.3% in men and 1.4% in women. Historically, lung cancer was considered to be a rare disease prior to World War I and was perceived as something most physicians would never see during their career. With the postwar rise in popularity of cigarette smoking came a virtual epidemic of lung", "cancer.\nA person's increased risk of contracting disease is directly proportional to the length of time that a person continues to smoke as well as the amount smoked. However, if someone stops smoking, then these chances gradually decrease as the damage to their body is repaired. A year after quitting, the risk of contracting heart disease is half that of a continuing smoker. The health risks of smoking are not uniform across all smokers. Risks vary according to the amount of tobacco smoked, with those who smoke more at greater risk. Smoking so-called \"light\" cigarettes does not reduce the risk. Mortality", "of disease and smoking. Continued cigarette smoking negatively impacts limited-stage small cell lung cancer survival. All clinicians and care providers should strongly encourage smoking cessation at the diagnosis of limited stage small cell lung cancer. Comparing to continued smokers, patients who quit at or after diagnosis lower the risk of death by 45%.", "risk of bladder cancer compared to people who have never smoked. Passive smoking does not appear to be a risk.\nThirty percent of bladder tumors probably result from occupational exposure in the workplace to carcinogens such as benzidine. 2-Naphthylamine, which is found in cigarette smoke, has also been shown to increase bladder cancer risk. Occupations at risk are bus drivers, rubber workers, painters, motor mechanics, leather (including shoe) workers, blacksmiths, machine setters, and mechanics. Hairdressers are thought to be at risk as well because of their frequent exposure to permanent hair dyes.\nIn addition to these major risk factors there are also", "lung cancer before age 85 for a man of European descent, and a 0.8% probability for a woman. Pulmonary In smoking, long term exposure to compounds found in the smoke (e.g., carbon monoxide and cyanide) are believed to be responsible for pulmonary damage and for loss of elasticity in the alveoli, leading to emphysema and COPD. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) caused by smoking, is a permanent, incurable (often terminal) reduction of pulmonary capacity characterised by shortness of breath, wheezing, persistent cough with sputum, and damage to the lungs, including emphysema and chronic bronchitis. The carcinogen acrolein and its derivatives", "Health effects of tobacco Health effects of smoking Smoking most commonly leads to diseases affecting the heart and lungs and will most commonly affect areas such as hands or feet with first signs of smoking related health issues showing up as numbness, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and cancer, particularly lung cancer, cancers of the larynx and mouth, and pancreatic cancer. Overall life expectancy is also reduced in long term smokers, with estimates ranging from 10 to 17.9 years fewer than nonsmokers. About one half of long term male", "lifetime risk of developing lung cancer is 8% in men and 6% in women.\nFor every 3–4 million cigarettes smoked, one lung cancer death can occur. The influence of \"Big Tobacco\" plays a significant role in smoking. Young nonsmokers who see tobacco advertisements are more likely to smoke. The role of passive smoking is increasingly being recognized as a risk factor for lung cancer, resulting in policy interventions to decrease the undesired exposure of nonsmokers to others' tobacco smoke.\nIn the US, both black men and black women have a higher incidence. Lung cancer rates are currently lower in developing countries. With increased", "causes lung cancer and most believed that passive smoking causes lung cancer (89%), but current smokers were less likely to hold these health beliefs than nonsmokers were. Arguments in favor of physicians' choice to smoke It may be argued that as responsible and informed adults, Chinese physicians should be given the choice of whether or not to smoke. Their backgrounds in science and medicine enable them to know more about the effects of smoking on the body compared to the general public, so a decision they make about tobacco may be more educated.\nFurthermore, smoking can be considered a personal", "increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers. An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.\nIn December 2015, medical scientists reported that cancer is overwhelmingly a result of environmental factors, and not largely down to bad luck. Maintaining a healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, minimizing alcohol and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing the disease, according to the researchers. Children", "the possibility that smoking may alleviate some of the symptoms of mental illness, but these have not been conclusive. In 2015, a meta-analysis found that smokers were at greater risk of developing psychotic illness.\nRecent studies have linked smoking to anxiety disorders, suggesting the correlation (and possibly mechanism) may be related to the broad class of anxiety disorders, and not limited to just depression. Current and ongoing research attempt to explore the addiction-anxiety relationship. Data from multiple studies suggest that anxiety disorders and depression play a role in cigarette smoking. A history of regular smoking was observed more frequently among individuals", "smoking Results from epidemiological studies indicate that the risk of lung cancer increases with exposure to residential radon. A well-known example of source of error is smoking, the main risk factor for lung cancer. In the West, tobacco smoke is estimated to cause about 90% of all lung cancers.\nAccording to the EPA, the risk of lung cancer for smokers is significant due to synergistic effects of radon and smoking. For this population about 62 people in a total of 1,000 will die of lung cancer compared to 7 people in a total of 1,000 for people who have never smoked.", "stroke. According to a study by an international team of researchers, people under 40 are five times more likely to have a heart attack if they smoke.\nExposure to tobacco smoke is known to increase oxidative stress in the body by various mechanisms, including depletion of plasma antioxidants such as vitamin C.\nRecent research by American biologists has shown that cigarette smoke also influences the process of cell division in the cardiac muscle and changes the heart's shape.\nThe usage of tobacco has also been linked to Buerger's disease (thromboangiitis obliterans) the acute inflammation and thrombosis (clotting) of arteries and veins of the", "evidence that secondhand smoke caused cancer in humans. Those who work in environments where smoke is not regulated are at higher risk. Workers particularly at risk of exposure include those in installation repair and maintenance, construction and extraction, and transportation.\nThe US Surgeon General, in his 2006 report, estimated that living or working in a place where smoking is permitted increases the non-smokers' risk of developing heart disease by 25–30% and lung cancer by 20–30%. In the U.S., smokers that have not quit successfully have a risk of lung cancer about 20 times higher than that of never smokers. Biomarkers Environmental", "has been shown to cause clinically significant distress.\nA very large percentage of schizophrenics smoke tobacco as a form of self-medication. The high rate of tobacco use by the mentally ill is a major factor in their decreased life expectancy, which is about 25 years shorter than the general population. Following the observation that smoking improves condition of people with schizophrenia, in particular working memory deficit, nicotine patches had been proposed as a way to treat schizophrenia. Some studies suggest that a link exists between smoking and mental illness, citing the high incidence of smoking amongst those suffering from schizophrenia and", "bias, small sample size, limited generalizability, and lack of adjustment for tobacco smoking, may limit the ability to attribute cancer risk solely to marijuana use.\" Reviewing studies adjusted for age and tobacco use, they said there was a risk of lung cancer even after adjusting for tobacco use, but that the period of time over which the risk increases is uncertain.\nA 2013 review which specifically examined the effects of cannabis on the lung concluded \"[f]indings from a limited number of well-designed epidemiological studies do not suggest an increased risk for the development of either lung or upper airway cancer", "that is natural in your respiratory tract. Chronic bronchitis is common in smokers, because the tar from smoking accumulates over time, causing the lungs to work harder to repair themselves.\nTuberculosis is one of many other infections that occurs in the lower respiratory tract. You can contract this infection from airborne droplets, and if inhaled you are at risk of this disease. This is a bacterial infection which deteriorates the lung tissue resulting in coughing up blood. This infection is deadly if not treated. Lung cancer Some of these cancers have environmental causes such as smoking. When a tobacco product", "smoking, adenocarcinoma is also the most-common form of lung cancer among people who have smoked fewer than 100 cigarettes in their lifetimes (\"never-smokers\") and ex-smokers with a modest smoking history. A subtype of adenocarcinoma, the bronchioloalveolar carcinoma, is more common in female never-smokers, and may have a better long-term survival.\nSquamous-cell carcinoma causes about 30% of lung cancers. They typically occur close to large airways. A hollow cavity and associated cell death are commonly found at the center of the tumor.\nNearly 9% of lung cancers are large-cell carcinoma. These are so named because the cancer cells are large, with excess cytoplasm,", "Studies have established a relationship between tobacco smoke, including secondhand smoke, and cervical cancer in women. There is some evidence suggesting a small increased risk of myeloid leukemia, squamous cell sinonasal cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, cancers of the gallbladder, the adrenal gland, the small intestine, and various childhood cancers. The possible connection between breast cancer and tobacco is still uncertain.\nLung cancer risk is highly affected by smoking, with up to 90% of cases being caused by tobacco smoking. Risk of developing lung cancer increases with number of years smoking and number of cigarettes smoked per day. Smoking can", "up if the lungs become enveloped in smoke and the brain will be stimulated and the person will be awoken. This does not work if the person is incapacitated or under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol.\nCigarette smoke is a major modifiable risk factor for lung disease, heart disease, and many cancers. Smoke can also be a component of ambient air pollution due to the burning of coal in power plants, forest fires or other sources, although the concentration of pollutants in ambient air is typically much less than that in cigarette smoke. One day of exposure to", "There is some evidence that exposure to tobacco smoke is most problematic between puberty and first childbirth. The reason is that breast tissue appears most sensitive to chemical carcinogens breast cells not fully differentiated until lactation. The likely reason that the older studies of active smoking did not detect risks associated with smoking was that they compared active smokers to all nonsmokers (which includes many passive smokers). The newer studies, which exclude passive smokers from the control group, generally show elevated risks associated with active as well as passive smoking. Passive smoking Breathing secondhand smoke increases breast cancer risk", "lung cancer subtypes, lung adenocarcinoma incidence is strongly associated with smoking. \n\nIncidence of pulmonary adenocarcinoma has been increasing in many developed Western nations in the past few decades, with a share reaching 43.3% of all lung cancers in the US as of 2012, thus replacing squamous cell lung carcinoma as the most common type of lung cancer. This can be largely attributed to the decreasing smoking rates, which favors the adenocarcinoma histology. Indeed, although smoking is still its strongest risk factor, lung adenocarcinoma is by far the most common among lifelong non-smokers (<100 cigarettes in a lifetime).", "increases is uncertain.\" Lung There have been a limited number of studies that have looked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system. Chronic heavy cannabis smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.\nRegular cannabis smokers show pathological changes in lung cells similar to those that precede the development of lung cancer in tobacco smokers. Gordon and colleagues in a 2013 literature review said: \"Unfortunately, methodological limitations in many of the reviewed studies, including selection", "lung cancer started increasing after this dietary change. People in developing countries, whose diets still depend largely on low-sugar starchy foods with little meat or fat have lower rates of these cancers. Causes are not just from smoking and alcohol abuse. Adults can develop lifestyle diseases through behavioural factors that impact on them. These can be unemployment, unsafe life, poor social environment, working conditions, stress and home life can change a person’s lifestyle to increase their risk of developing one of these diseases. Death statistics in the United States In 1900, the top three causes of death in the", "little evidence as to why this association exists; however, it has been hypothesized that those who are predisposed to smoking are also predisposed to suicide, that smoking causes health problems which subsequently make people want to end their life, and that smoking affects brain chemistry causing a propensity for suicide. Cannabis, however, does not appear to independently increase the risk. Medical conditions There is an association between suicidality and physical health problems such as chronic pain, traumatic brain injury, cancer, kidney failure (requiring hemodialysis), HIV, and systemic lupus erythematosus. The diagnosis of cancer approximately doubles the subsequent frequency of suicide.", "link between smoking and lung cancer, but were criticized for not showing causality. Follow-up large prospective cohort studies in the early 1950s showed clearly that smokers died faster, and were more likely to die of lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and a list of other diseases which lengthened as the studies continued\nThe British Doctors Study, a longitudinal study of some 40,000 doctors, began in 1951. By 1954 it had evidence from three years of doctors' deaths, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related (the British Doctors Study last reported in 2001, by which" ]

[ "The phenomenon of being more easily amused falls under Emotional Lability which means emotional changeability or instability. You're probably more likely to cry too. In extreme cases, this is a medical condition, see _URL_0_ but in regular life, it's just that the parts of your brain which keep you on an even keel aren't working quite so well.", "Because your brain is basking in dopamine. When we get pretty damn tired, our body tries to regulate all the chemicals it may produce - including dopamine and serotonin - and you will generally get a little bit of that tasty business which will make you feel a little goofy and euphoric. Sometimes, I'm sure you've noticed, if you stay awake through this you'll get a little bit of a second wind, too!", "Follow-up question: why are some people (like me) pretty much unfazed by anything? Like, when I watch a movie I mostly just . . . watch. I don't cry, I don't laugh, etc, almost never\n\nAaand . . . if it's wrong, can it be \"corrected\"?\n\nSorry for the not really disinterested question", "I once read about how our brain, when we are in a drowsy state of mind makes us react (in terms of reaction time) the same as we would when drunk. Thus making it a bad idea to drive in that situation. \nIf that is the case, reacting to funny and sad things like you would when drunk is a possibility too. \n\nBtw in germany the word for drowsy is \"schlaftrunken\" which is literal translated to \"sleep drunk\" as in drunk from sleep.", "I get grumpy easy and snap a lot if I'm really tired. I thought this was the case with most people. \n\nI've actually never heard of what OP described.", "I've also had boners sometimes when I'm tired or sleepy, is that similar?", "Is this normal? I'm the complete opposite. When I'm tired everything pisses me off. I can go from normal to pure rage in seconds.", "I had no idea this was a thing. When I was in high school, I pulled an all nighter and before I finally went to bed, I remember laughing so hard at a pillow. I guess the concept coupled with the funny sounding name amused me.", "Neurologically, when you are tired, your frontal lobe has less control over your brain. The frontal lobe is what makes humans human. It is our internal censor as well as our sentry, regulating how we process what we experience in the world (other brain structures contribute, but the frontal lobe is almost like the master switch). When you are tired, your frontal lobe loosens up a bit, loosening both what you say and think, as well as how the rest of your brain processes input. Individuals with frontal lobe damage often have similar experiences. I wrote my master's thesis on psychosurgery, lobotomy in particular, and it was common for patients who had undergone psychosurgery to find humor (and express it) in inappropriate or random situations.", "I know of that as being \"a little punchy\", not sure where the expression came from tho...always thought that it resulted from too much focus on something for too long but fatigue is part of it too. Too much time in the recording studio, especially when waiting around for someone else to do their work, is usually when I can think of it happening to me. Stupid stuff just seems much funnier than it should and what would usually get a mild chuckle will make me laugh so hard that tears come to my eyes. It's almost like a spasm that I can't control. Someone says something silly and then something else gets piled on and I'm convulsing with laughter and can't stop!\nNever thought of it as a problem, doesn't happen very often and those posting that OP should \"see a doctor\" are probably on the autism spectrum if I were to hazzard a guess. No offense intended to my Aspie homies, some of my best friends etc etc.....", "Lowered Executive function due to fatigue; It's like being drunk or having ADHD. Your organization parts of your brain isn't working as well as well as your intent would like it.", "Not to sound overly simplistic, but maybe you just get surprised by stuff more easily when you're too tired to pay as much attention.\n\nHumor is all about unexpected things, right? If you're not paying attention to things, you're not waiting for the results that you think will happen, and whatever happens is unexpected, which can make it funny.", "Because the more tired you are, the dumber you are. The dumber you are, the more you will laugh at unfunny things. The same reason Adam Sandler movies seemed funny when you were younger. Because you were dumber.", "Its called \"being in the moment\". You've let go of labels and most thoughts which literally torment you all day long. In this moment your attention is in this very moment and not on some imaginary future which hasn't happened yet, or some long forgotten past where you've been hurt or done wrong. Its an amazing place to be and its the basis of meditation. \nEckheart Tolle the author of \"the power of now\" said, to feel like this all the time you probably need to take acid but you can achieve this state of being just by separating yourself from your thoughts and realizing that your thoughts are simply, not you. Real life experience for most people however is done through their mind, they don't really see that beautiful tree, their mind just labels it as a \"tree\" and instantly moves back into thinking mode. And we treat people like this too. That guy isn't some amazing being miraculous in every aspect but a \"boring accountant i have nothing in common with\". Most drugs take you into this \"no mind\" state that's why we become a million times more sociable, good listeners, less fearful and just have fun. Drugs however have come downs and are not a permanent solution.", "ITT drug salesmen.\n\nIt happens because your brain isn't operating as rapidly as normal, and so the interplay between expectation and reality which makes up the basis of humor is more drawn out. You'll spend longer with an incorrect expectation, and when you grasp what the reality is, you'll find it funnier since you'll be like \"woah! I can't believe I actually thought that ______! hahahahhahahahahah!\"", "Why is it, that when I get really tired, I can't use commas correctly?", "Its not something i really looked in to, but I think one big part of it that is that fact that you are tired and you cannot think things through fast enough. What makes things funny is the surprise, the unexpected twist etc.\nIf you are tired and do not have the energy to analyze things as they happen you cannot predict what will happen and this things are almost always a surprise.\n\nThis is certainly one one part of why that happens but you will have to wait for someone with knowledge of what happens with the brain as our energy levels decrease and how whose things effect how we process humor", "why do i do productive things, dance, and sing at the top of my lungs when I am without sleep for over 24 hours, but if I am well rested I don't feel like talking to anyone, fuck dancing, singing can go fuck itself, and all I feel like doing is rotting away while playing video games?", "Short-term sleep deprivation actually acts as an antidepressant, and levels of certain neurotransmitters (like serotonin) that make you feel good are increased after sleep deprivation. Serotonin is the same brain chemical targeted by SSRI antidepressants like Prozac. \n\n_URL_1_", "Interestingly, sleep deprivation eases depression (obviously not a long term treatment though). _URL_2_" ]

[ "to be less happy when they are daydreaming than when they are not even the activities they otherwise do are the least enjoyed by them. For the positive daydreaming, people report the same happiness rating between current tasks and pleasant things they are more likely to daydream about. This finding remains true across all activities. The important relationship between mood and daydreaming from time-lag analysis is that the latter comes first, not the other way round.\nFor more examples, in the late 19th century, Toni Nelson argued that some daydreams with grandiose fantasies are self-gratifying attempts at \"wish fulfillment\". Still in", "weariness, fatigue, or lack of energy. It can be accompanied by depression, decreased motivation, or apathy. Lethargy can be a normal response to boredom, inadequate sleep, overexertion, overworking, stress, lack of exercise, or a symptom of a disorder. When part of a normal response, lethargy often resolves with rest, adequate sleep, decreased stress, and good nutrition. Philosophy Boredom is a condition characterized by perception of one's environment as dull, tedious, and lacking in stimulation. This can result from leisure and a lack of aesthetic interests. Labor and art may be alienated and passive, or immersed in tedium. There", "Since it helps people to relax, fun is sometimes regarded as a \"social lubricant\", important in adding \"to one's pleasure in life\" and helping to \"act as a buffer against stress\".\nFor children, fun is strongly related to play and they have great capacity to extract the fun from it in a spontaneous and inventive way. Play \"involves the capacity to have fun – to be able to return, at least for a little while, to never-never land and enjoy it.\" Physiology Some scientists have identified areas of the brain associated with the perception of novelty, which are stimulated when faced", "stimulus decreases as the external stimulus repeats during learning process. One research identified this effect in learning and showed that learning is more effective with distributed practices rather than massive practices. Daydreaming can provide the opportunity to allow thoughts to drift away from intensive learning temporarily and to focus again with the refreshed capability to continue attention-demanding tasks.\nRelief from boredom is an obvious and adaptive function of daydreaming. When people are doing boring tasks, daydreaming allows their thoughts to detach from current external tasks to relieve boredom. At the same time, this temporary detachment will not stop external activities completely", "lazy\". A recent writer has opined that Jackson tolerated Crutchfield's tendency to sleep late because of his abilities.", "\"an absolutely primary category of life, familiar to everybody at a glance right down to the animal level.\" Psychological studies reveal both the importance of fun and its effect on the perception of time, which is sometimes said to be shortened when one is having fun. As the adage states: \"Time flies when you're having fun\".\nIt has been suggested that games, toys, and activities perceived as fun are often challenging in some way. When a person is challenged to think consciously, overcome challenge and learn something new, they are more likely to enjoy a new experience and view it as", "reactant mental health issues such as anger, anxiety, indifference, substance abuse, and depression. Economics Economists have differing views of laziness. Frédéric Bastiat argues that idleness is the result of people focusing on the pleasant immediate effects of their actions rather than potentially negative long-term consequences. Others note that humans seem to have a tendency to seek after leisure. Hal Cranmer writes, \"For all these arguments against laziness, it is amazing we work so hard to achieve it. Even those hard-working Puritans were willing to break their backs every day in exchange for an eternity of lying around on a cloud", "cool to his younger co-workers (Jonah Hill and Kelvin Yu), Alex says that he is living \"with three hot babes\". Alex's friends believe the lie and actually think the reason he is so tired every day at work is because he is living with three women who constantly \"wear him out\" in the bedroom. The real cause of his fatigue is because he stays up late at night working on his own video game, called Demonik, which he has been developing in secret for some time. Lilly asks about the game one night and he teaches her to play it.", "Times, Alison McCulloch summed it up, \"What you think you should do to be happy, like getting fitter and thinner, is part of a 'cultural code' — 'an unscientific web of symbolic cultural fantasies' — and once you realize this, you will perhaps feel a little more free to be a lot more happy.\" Similarly, in an interview on the Point of Inquiry podcast in 2007, she said \"I'm not trying really to get somebody out of depression, but I sure am trying to get people to not be so worried, so anxious over things that really don't matter.\"\nShe has", "more affluent may continue to find happiness elusive even for retirees.\nLeisure is intrinsically sought after by all as a way to release the tensions and stresses of work-life. It is often used to indulge in play – as is witnessed by how constantly obsessed nowadays people are with surfing the Internet, movies and games through their smartphones. There is no doubt that these are enjoyable activities.\nBut leisure also allows people – without the need of any modern gadgets – to re-connect with family and friends and experience the happiness arising from that interaction such as chatting over", "rhythm sleep disorders. Naps The siesta habit has recently been associated with a 37% lower coronary mortality, possibly due to reduced cardiovascular stress mediated by daytime sleep. Short naps at mid-day and mild evening exercise were found to be effective for improved sleep, cognitive tasks, and mental health in elderly people.\nMany people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \"post-lunch dip\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day", "al. argued that it's actually important for children to get the internal reflection skills from daydreaming. Research shows that children quipped with theses skills have higher academic ability and are socioemotionally better off. Also, when the external environment demands overly high attention from children, it's reasonable to believe these useful skills are underdeveloped. Functions of daydreaming Since daydreaming is disruptive in external tasks and its potential benefits are quite private and subtle, it's worth discussing the reason why daydreaming exists and occupies a large amount of people's waking time.\nMooneyham and Schooler summarized five potential functions daydreaming serves: future thinking, creative", "when these activities are necessary. Also, daydreaming can make the time doing boring tasks go faster in people's perception. Psychological studies Freudian psychology interpreted daydreaming as expression of the repressed instincts similarly to those revealing themselves in nighttime dreams. Like nighttime dreams, daydreams, also, are an example of wish-fulfilment (based on infantile experiences), and are allowed to surface because of relaxed censorship. He pointed out that, in contrast to nighttime dreams, which are often confusing and incoherent, there seems to be a process of \"secondary revision\" in fantasies that makes them more lucid, like daydreaming. The state of daydreaming is", "environment, they will fail to develop the mental capacities to do so.\nIn a learning environment, a common cause of boredom is lack of understanding; for instance, if one is not following or connecting to the material in a class or lecture, it will usually seem boring. However, the opposite can also be true; something that is too easily understood, simple or transparent, can also be boring. Boredom is often inversely related to learning, and in school it may be a sign that a student is not challenged enough, or too challenged. An activity that is predictable to the students is", "some should take to sighing,\n\nAnd like it well! And like it well!\n\nFor me, I have not thought it worth the trying,\n\nSo cannot tell! So cannot tell!\n\nWith laugh, with dance and song the day soon passes\n\nFull soon is gone, full soon is gone,\n\nFor mirth was made for joyous lads and lasses\n\nTo call their own! To call their own!\n\nHarken, harken, hark the soft guitar!\n\nHarken, harken, hark the soft guitar!\n\nFuniculì, funiculà, funiculì, funiculà!\n\nHark the soft guitar, funiculì, funiculà! Use in other media and popular culture In 1962, songwriters Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman (also knowns as the Sherman Brothers wrote new", "of as \"a reason to get up in the morning\"; that is, a reason to enjoy life. In a TED Talk, National Geographic reporter Dan Buettner suggested ikigai as one of the reasons people in the area had such long lives.\nOne of the five areas Dan Buettner has examined and presented in his book is Okinawa. He studied ikigai philosophy of the inhabitants and mentioned that the Japanese don’t have the desire to retire, people continue to do their favourite job as long as possible if their health is good. Moai, the close-knit friend group is considered an important reason", "Good Time (Alan Jackson song) Content \"Good Time\" is an up-tempo song in which the narrator claims that he is tired after a week of working, and wants to have a party because \"all the conditions are right\".\nAfter the first verse, the lyrics list off the various details of the party, such as \"a shot of tequila, beer on tap / Sweet Southern woman to sit on my lap\". The lyrics also contain references to \"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight\" by Hank Williams, Jr. and \"Boot Scootin' Boogie\" by Brooks & Dunn. The radio edit omits two", "is why everybody tries to speak pleasantly on that day. For example, if somebody says “turn on light”, it means everything will be good. On contrary, if expressions like “turn off”, “damn it” etc. are overheard it clues about negative consequences. To eat salty cake When it's sleeping time, they must eat extremely salty cake that is prepared in advance. It is not allowed to drink water. If they have a dream of someone handing them over a glass of water, he will be her future husband. Apple soothsaying People also eat an apple on that day. When they", "it does have some underlying benefits. People who fidget regularly tend to weigh less than people who do not fidget because they burn more calories than those who remain still, which is called Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis (NEAT). It has been reported that fidgeting burns about 350 extra calories per day, which could add up to about 10 to 30 pounds a year.\nFidgeting may be a result of genetics and some are born with a propensity to be fidgety. Fidgeting can also be a medical sign, as seen in hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroid patients may be restless, become agitated easily, display fine tremors,", "a \"mellow soul\" (not in a competition or engaging in extreme sport) \"once you're riding waves, you're guaranteed to be having ... fun\".\nThe pleasure of fun can be seen by the numerous efforts to harness its positive associations. For example, there are many books on serious subjects, about skills such as music, mathematics and languages, normally quite difficult to master, which have \"fun\" added to the title. Activities Many physical activities provide opportunities to play and have fun. Not only can these activities be fun but can also improve physical and mental states. Psychology According to Johan Huizinga, fun is", "funnier because he's singing them.\"", "is an inherent anxiety in boredom; people will expend considerable effort to prevent or remedy it, yet in many circumstances, it is accepted as suffering to be endured. Common passive ways to escape boredom are to sleep or to think creative thoughts (daydream). Typical active solutions consist in an intentional activity of some sort, often something new, as familiarity and repetition lead to the tedious.\nDuring the fin de siècle, the French term for the end of the 19th century in the West, some of the cultural hallmarks included \"ennui\", cynicism, pessimism, and \"...a widespread belief that civilization leads to", "Fun Fun is the enjoyment of pleasure, particularly in leisure activities. Fun is an experience often unexpected, informal or purposeless. It is an enjoyable distraction, diverting the mind and body from any serious task or contributing an extra dimension to it. Although particularly associated with recreation and play, fun may be encountered during work, social functions, and even seemingly mundane activities of daily living. It may often have little to no logical basis, and opinions on whether an activity is fun may differ from person to person. A distinction between enjoyment and fun is difficult but possible to articulate, fun", "– mood being worse upon waking and better in the evening). Robb disclosed that, since adolescence, he had suffered depression for several hours each day in the morning.\nThe following week, Robb said in an interview with 3AW's Neil Mitchell that he had found \"doing things increasingly more difficult, I could be taking on more responsibilities especially in a public sense and decided to confront it a few weeks ago. Rang Jeff Kennett and within three days he had me in front one of the best professionals in the state and this guy said you know you've had a problem for", "older people are happier due to an improved level of emotional intelligence. As for less educated people, findings about relational goods being more widely consumed within that demographic supports statistical evidence that shows that less educated people aren't necessarily less happy. This is an economical issue as choice and happiness are often correlated. While education significantly improves choice in material goods, the traditional yardstick for happiness, it does less to improve your options in relational goods, and may in fact reduce your options as more educated people tend to work longer hours, thus leaving\nless time for relationships.", "stimulation. Chronic fatigue, on the other hand, is a symptom of a greater medical problem in most cases. It manifests in mental or physical weariness and inability to complete tasks at normal performance. Both are often used interchangeably and even categorized under the description of 'being tired.' Fatigue is often described as an uncomfortable tiredness, whereas sleepiness is comfortable and inviting. Measurement Fatigue can be quantitatively measured. Devices to measure medical fatigue have been developed by Japanese companies, among them Nintendo (cancelled). Nevertheless such devices are not in common use outside Japan.", "from becoming either corrupt or incomplete. It also explains why it is important to forget dreams most of the time. Dreaming and depression It is well known that depressed people spend far more of their sleep time in REM sleep than non-depressed people, entering it earlier – and it has been shown, experimentally, that depressed people show improvement when deprived of REM sleep. This accords with Griffin’s theory, as depressed people spend much of their waking time arousing themselves physiologically through rumination and worry. All this arousal has to be discharged in dreams. Dreaming takes up a large amount of", "therefore, your child's behavior of coming past curfew will decrease.) This is negative punishment because your child likes to watch TV, so when you take that away from him for being late, he doesn't like it, therefore, wanting to come home in time to not get that privilege taken away. (Goal: to elaborate and give more background to help reinforce the theory.) \nAbraham Maslow is a very well-known humanist psychologist with his work on hierarchy needs, in which he states that humans have basic needs, and if they are not satisfied, those individuals will not desire anything else. Maslow also", "time are happier than others. Furthermore, shopping, reading books, attending cultural events, getting together with relatives, listening to music and attending sporting events is associated with higher levels of happiness. Spending time on the internet or watching TV is not associated with higher levels of happiness as compared to these other activities.\nResearch has shown that culture influences how we measure happiness and leisure. While SWB is a commonly used measure of happiness in North America and Europe, this may not be the case internationally. Quality of life (QOL) may be a better measure of happiness and leisure in Asian countries,", "awake at night, for reasons such as wanting to play the drums, wanting to count something (like sheep), to observe something like a blackout, or even because he is waiting for his upstairs neighbor to drop his shoes.\nMany Ernie and Bert sketches involve Ernie wanting to play a game with Bert, who would much rather do something else (like read). Ernie keeps irking Bert with the game until Bert joins — and usually, by the time Bert starts enjoying the game, Ernie is tired of playing the game and wants to do something else.\nOther sketches have involved them sharing some" ]

[ "Electric currents aren't like Austin from middle school, they don't come out, wander around, bug people, and then go back home. \n\nElectricity flows from negatively charged objects, to positively charged objects, until the system is neutral. That's all there is to it. If electricity flows from one location, that means that location has a negative charge, and the electricity *doesn't want to go back*. It wants to find the most positively charged location, and make it balanced. \n\nIf the most positively charged location available is the ground, then it will happily go through you to the ground. If it is an anode, then it will do that too (which is why it's dangerous to work on electronics with two hands).", "You don't need to be grounded to be shocked. You can be shocked by 120v to ground or you can be shocked by 120v to -120v (phase to phase) without being grounded, for example.", "Electricity moves from negative to positive. If you arent a possible path from the negative to positive you wont get shocked." ]

[ "as when a person is receiving an electric shock as the electricity passes through his body to the ground (earth).\nThe competent person will then issue an Electrical Installation Condition Report (EICR) also known as Periodic Inspection and Testing Report (PIR) detailing any observed damage, deterioration, defects, dangerous conditions and any non-compliances with the present-day safety standard that might give rise to danger.\nIf anything dangerous or potentially dangerous is found, the overall condition of the electrical installation will be declared to be 'unsatisfactory', meaning that remedial action is required without delay to remove the risks to those in the premises.", "that point, all occupants present at the time of the drill go to a room and lock all doors and windows tight. They must remain still until an \"all-clear signal\" has been issued. If the emergency is really life-threatening, then occupants present at the time of the emergency will evacuate to a meeting zone well away from the premises (scene of the emergency). Earthquake drill An earthquake drill is a drill used to practice in preparation for an earthquake. Schools in some areas conduct earthquake drills. Stop, drop and hold on is used during the drill. School Safety Preparedness Drill", "can be lethal.\nAccidental contact with any high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or death. This can occur as a person's body provides a path for current flow, causing tissue damage and heart failure. Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental contact. These burns can be especially dangerous if the victim's airway is affected. Injuries may also be suffered as a result of the physical forces experienced by people who fall from a great height or are thrown a considerable distance.\nLow-energy exposure to high voltage may be harmless, such as the spark", "the platform from the ground. The operator channeled the stored charge from the Leyden jar to the patient using metal attachments that were connected to the patient. The electrical charge produced a shock that was similar to \"touching a doorknob after walking across carpet in dry weather\".\nThe electrical treatment from Corbett's electrostatic machine supposedly \"cured\" the sufferer of a variety of illnesses, or at least had some electrotherapeutic value. It was especially designed to treat rheumatism. More likely, however, the electrical shock temporarily diverted the sufferer's mind from his or her aches and pains. Shaker Elizabeth Lovegrove recorded in a", "cases that had happened after practical use.\" Amnesty International has also raised extensive concerns about the use of other electro-shock devices by American police and in American prisons, as they can be (and according to Amnesty International, sometimes are) used to inflict cruel pain on individuals. Maurice Cunningham of South Carolina, while an inmate at the Lancaster County Detention Center, was subjected to continuous shock for 2 minutes 49 seconds, which a medical examiner said caused cardiac arrhythmia and his subsequent death. He was 29 years old and had no alcohol or drugs in his system.\nIn response to the claims", "of shell shock meant that it was not, in itself, considered an admissible defence. Although some doctors or medics did take procedure to try to cure soldiers' shell shock, it was first done in a brutal way. Doctors would provide electric shock to soldiers in hopes that it would shock them back to their normal, heroic, pre-war self. After almost a year of giving one of his patients electric shocks, putting cigarettes on his tongue, hot plates at the back of his throat, etc., a British clinician, Lewis Yealland, said to his patient, \"You will not leave this room until", "sparks (electrical arcs) when an induced voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage of the surrounding medium (e.g. air at 3.0 MV/m). These can deliver an electric shock to persons or animals. For example, the radio emissions from transmission lines have occasionally caused shocks to construction workers from nearby equipment, causing OSHA to establish standards for proper handling.\nEMR-induced sparks can ignite nearby flammable materials or gases, which can be especially hazardous in the vicinity of explosives or pyrotechnics. This risk is commonly referred to as Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance (HERO) by the United States Navy (USN). United States Military Standard", "Chicago Electrical Trauma Rehabilitation Institute Mission and history CETRI's mission is to promote recovery of individuals affected by electric injury while simultaneously advancing the research on electric shock. Its practitioners have been caring for electrical shock survivors for over 20 years and have reported many of the leading advances in the diagnosis and treatment of electrical injury.\nCETRI was originally an Electrical Trauma Program which worked out of the University of Chicago. In 2009, CETRI separated from its University affiliates to become a stand-alone not-for-profit organization. Since that time, CETRI has served as a centralized administration to its many resources. CETRI", "Faulty electrical connections and damaged electrical equipment can lead to an electric shock to workers and to others at or near the workplace.\nAccording to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, a total 1,738 accidents occurred due to contact with electric current between 2003 to 2010 and out of that 849, the highest number of electrical fatalities occurred in the construction industry. Five occupations from the construction industry- electricians, roofers, painters, carpenters, and construction laborers account for more than 32% of all electrical fatalities. Improper grounding, wet conditions, damaged tools and equipment, inadequate wiring, exposed electrical parts, overhead power lines and overloaded", "Shock probation Shock probation is the US legal policy by which a judge orders a convicted offender to prison for a short time, and then suspends the remainder of the sentence in favor of probation. It is hoped that the initial experience of prison will provide an effective deterrent from recidivism.\nIn shock probation, a convicted offender is sentenced to prison and starts serving his sentence. After three to six months, the judge re-sentences the prisoner to probation, and the prisoner is released under supervision. Shock probation is usually considered when a prisoner is a first-time offender and a judge believes,", "and breaking in the house. I said to him, 'This is it.' I thought the world had come to an end. Outside, wires were moving. There was no wind. The ground was quivering under our feet. I was so scared. I did not know I was scared.\" People in the community of Mount Vernon, Illinois, were frightened by the shaking. However, some did not notice the earthquake; Jane Bessen said her party was \"in a car ... to Evansville and didn't know about it until we got there\". Future threats In 2005, scientists determined there was a 90% probability of a", "strike. Although many of these objects are not normally conductive, very high voltage can cause the electrical breakdown of such insulators, causing them to act as conductors. These transferred potentials are dangerous to people, livestock, and electronic apparatus. Lightning strikes also start fires and explosions, which result in fatalities, injuries, and property damage. For example, each year in North America, thousands of forest fires are started by lightning strikes.\nMeasures to control lightning can mitigate the hazard; these include lightning rods, shielding wires, and bonding of electrical and structural parts of buildings to form a continuous enclosure.\nHigh-voltage lightning discharges in the", "from a responder or bystander touching the patient at the time of the shock). Depending on the manufacturer and particular model, after the shock is delivered most devices will analyze the patient and either instruct CPR to be performed, or prepare to administer another shock.\nMany AED units have an 'event memory' which store the ECG of the patient along with details of the time the unit was activated and the number and strength of any shocks delivered. Some units also have voice recording abilities to monitor the actions taken by the personnel in order to ascertain if these had any", "Center brought by former resident Andre McCollins, who received 31 shocks over a period of six hours. Published articles Neumeier published a series of seven articles for the Autistic Self Advocacy Network about the trial testimony, including an account of the first instance that video of the electric skin shocks was made available for public viewing. Neumeier also testified at the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's 2014 public hearing on a proposal to ban electric shock treatments for behavioral modification of people with developmental disabilities. In 2016, Neumeier published an op-ed in USA Today calling for a final ban on", "seismic waves. For quakes outside the Bay Area, they provide advance notice that shaking is on the way; for quakes in the Bay Area, they provide an earlier warning. If the seismic network warns of ground motion above a threshold, the train control computers will order “service” braking, slowing from normal speeds of up to 70 miles per hour (110 km/h) to 26 miles per hour (42 km/h) .\n“The earthquake early warning system will enable BART to stop trains before earthquake shaking starts and thereby prevent derailment, and save passengers from potential injuries”, said BART Board President John McPartland. “We are the", "for the electrical shock. These units are primarily found in hospitals and on some ambulances. For instance, every NHS ambulance in the United Kingdom is equipped with a manual defibrillator for use by the attending paramedics and technicians. In the United States, many advanced EMTs and all paramedics are trained to recognize lethal arrhythmias and deliver appropriate electrical therapy with a manual defibrillator when appropriate. Manual internal defibrillator Manual internal defibrillators deliver the shock through paddles placed directly on the heart. They are mostly used in the operating room and, in rare circumstances, in the emergency room during an", "the wire for almost one minute. Oswalt then claimed his foot slipped off the truck's bumper and he was finally \"thrown off.\" After the electric shock, Oswalt told his wife that his shoulder's condition improved and that he no longer felt any pain. According to Sports Illustrated, he reported it thus to his wife: \"My truck done shocked the fire out of me, and my arm don't hurt no more.\" Apparently, the electric charge loosened accumulated scar tissue in the shoulder. Oswalt claims he has not felt any pain in his shoulder since the incident. He finished 1999 with 143", "create fear in the laboratory. The unusually generous funding available at the institute allowed him to use human subjects for the first time. The subjects were attached to galvanic skin response recorders and to electrodes which could deliver an electric shock. They were then exposed to a light stimulus which was sometimes (randomly) followed by a shock. Mowrer discovered two unexpected phenomena. There was a substantial galvanic stress response to the first presentation of the light stimulus, before any shock had been administered. The anticipation was apparently more aversive than the shock, which would not have been predicted by traditional", "lightning strikes under normal conditions. Shock waves The shock wave from an explosion can be reflected by an inversion layer in much the same way as it bounces off the ground in an air-burst and can cause additional damage as a result. This phenomenon killed three people in the Soviet RDS-37 nuclear test when a building collapsed.", "divided into four types: fatal electrocution, electric shock, burns, and falls caused by contact with electric energy. Electrocution is one of the major hazards on construction sites. It can be fatal and can result in serious and permanent burn injuries to the skin, internal tissues and damage to the heart depending on the length and severity of the shock. When electric current flows through tissues or bone, it produces heat that causes electrical burns. Electrical burns cause tissue damage and need immediate medical attention. Electric shocks can result in the injuries like muscle spasms, palpitations, nausea, vomiting, collapse, and unconsciousness.", "to fail at lower stresses (thermal, mechanical, and electrical) than will cause failure of the strong link mechanisms. The weak link acts to break the connection to the detonators before the strong link could be disrupted and fail by the stress of an accident.\nThese mechanisms do not prevent misuse of the weapon, which is restricted by Permissive Action Link code systems, or an accident from physically causing initiation of the explosives or detonators directly from extremely high temperatures, impact forces, or electrical disturbance such as lightning. The risk of accidental direct detonation is significantly reduced by using insensitive", "is crucial to ensure the ground shaking is not able to cause any unaffordable damages. Human anxiety Human anxiety is another factor in determining the risk of induced seismicity. Anxiety refers to the human concern created by low-level ground shaking. Because injection-induced seismicity is generally of a small magnitude and short duration, human anxiety is often the only or primary hazard associated with felt events. Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) is aimed to quantify the possibility of the ground motion reaching certain arbitrary levels or thresholds at a site when taking all the possible earthquakes (both", "to the learner when the learner answered incorrectly to a set of questions. The intensity of this electric shock was to be increased for every incorrect answer. The learner was a confederate (i.e. actor), and the shocks were faked, but the subjects were led to believe otherwise. Both prerecorded sounds of electric shocks and the confederate's pleas for the punishment to stop were audible to the \"teacher\" throughout the experiment. When the subject raised questions or paused, the experimenter insisted that the experiment should continue. Despite widespread speculation that most participants would not continue to \"shock\" the learner, 65 percent", "(SPD). Modern arresters, constructed with metal oxides, are capable of safely shunting abnormally high voltage surges to ground while preventing normal system voltages from being shorted to ground. Monitoring and warning systems The exact location of a lightning strike or when it will occur is still impossible to predict. However, products and systems have been designed of varying complexities to alert people as the probability of a strike increases above a set level determined by a risk assessment for the location's conditions and circumstances. One significant improvement has been in the area of detection of flashes through both", "the battery terminals, stopping the current from going in the spiral, Page received a shock. He reported stronger shocks when his hands covered more of the spiral's length than where direct battery current went. He even felt shocks from parts of the spiral where no direct battery current passed. He used acupuncture needles, pierced into his fingers, to amplify his sense of shock. \nWhile Page advocated the use of this shocking device as a medical treatment, an early form of electrotherapy, his own interest lay in its heightening of electrical tension, or voltage above that of the low voltage battery", "sudden physical injury, as from violence or accident,\" or, more simply put, is \"a physical wound or injury, such as a fracture or blow.\"\nAccidental injuries, most of which can be predicted and thus prevented, are the unintentional negative outcomes of unforeseen or unplanned events or circumstances which may have been avoided or prevented if reasonable measures had been taken or if the risks involving the circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized and acted upon (minimized).\nBattery is a criminal offense involving the use of force against another that results in harmful or offensive contact. (Assault is fear/belief of impending", "Shock detector A shock detector or impact monitor is a device which indicates whether a physical shock or impact has occurred. These usually have a binary output (go/no-go) and are sometimes called shock overload devices. Shock detectors can be used on shipments of fragile valuable items to indicate whether a potentially damaging drop or impact may have occurred. They are also used in sports helmets to help estimate if a dangerous impact may have occurred.\nBy contrast, a shock data logger is a data acquisition system for analysis and recording of shock pulses. Overview Shocks and impacts are", "lines are exposed to electrical shock hazards including: direct contact with downed power lines, contact with electrically charged materials and equipment due to broken lines, contact with smoke that can conduct electricity between lines, and the use of solid-stream water applications around energized lines. Between 1980 and 1999 in the U.S., there were 10 firefighter fatalities due to electrical structure contact during wildfire suppression (NFPA, 2001). Maintaining a minimum 500-foot (150 m) safety buffer greatly reduces the risk of electrical structure contact, and it also reduces the effectiveness of ground-based frontal attacks.\nThe presence of the overhead transmission line would reduce the", "been thrown onto the roof of the stationary train and had suffered a severe head wound. The soldiers gave first aid to the more seriously injured victims until help arrived, and informed responding emergency personnel that the rails were still powered and needed to be shut down.\nImmediately following the collision, firefighters and paramedics from District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services were dispatched to the Takoma Metro station, and arrived at the location of the collision soon after. D.C. Fire Chief Dennis Rubin stated that the initial 9-1-1 emergency calls made the incident seem small, but after firefighters", "\"In fact, all vehicles –both electric and gasoline-powered – have some risk of fire in the event of a serious crash.\" The NHTSA announced in November 2011 that it was working with all automakers to develop post-crash procedures to keep occupants of electric vehicles and emergency personnel who respond to crash scenes safe.\nIn further testing of the Volt's batteries carried out by NHTSA in November 2011, two of the three tests resulted in thermal events, including fire. Therefore, the NHTSA opened a formal safety defect investigation on November 25, 2011, to examine the potential risks involved from intrusion damage to the" ]

[ "Plaque isn't just one bactera it is what is known as a biofilm. Layers and layers of diferent bactera and their extracellular matrixs. Pretty much any bactera can eventually form biofilms. Everyone has bactera on and in their bodies called their natural flora. Your natural flora bactera grow into the plaque on your teeth.", "Bacteria are everywhere. In your mouth, on your skin, inside your body, on your food, in the air... everywhere" ]

[ "plaque which is due to an intraepidermal carcinoma and is potentially malignant. The lesions may occur anywhere on the skin surface, including on mucosal surfaces. Freezing, cauterization, or diathermy coagulation is often effective treatment. Pathomorphologic study of tissue sampling revealed: polymorphism of spiny epithelial cells has progressed into atypism; increased mitosis; giant and multinucleate cells; acanthosis; hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis; basal membrane and basal layer are retained. Causes Causes of Bowen's disease include solar damage, arsenic, immunosuppression (including AIDS), viral infection (human papillomavirus or HPV), chronic skin injury, and other dermatoses. Histology In Bowen's disease, atypical squamous cells proliferate through", "such as agar or carboxymethyl cellulose, to prevent the virus infection from spreading indiscriminately. A viral plaque is formed when a virus infects a cell within the fixed cell monolayer. The virus infected cell will lyse and spread the infection to adjacent cells where the infection-to-lysis cycle is repeated. The infected cell area will create a plaque (an area of infection surrounded by uninfected cells) which can be seen visually or with an optical microscope. Plaque formation can take 3–14 days, depending on the virus being analyzed. Plaques are generally counted manually and the results,", "Viral plaque A viral plaque is a visible structure formed within a cell culture, such as bacterial cultures within some nutrient medium (e.g. agar). The bacteriophage viruses replicate and spread, thus generating regions of cell destructions known as plaques.\nCounting the number of plaques can be used as a method of virus quantification. These plaques can sometimes be detected visually using colony counters, in much the same way as bacterial colonies are counted; however, they are not always visible to the naked eye, and sometimes can only be seen through a microscope, or using techniques such as staining (e.g. neutral", "chewed on for approximately one minute. The remaining tablet or saliva is then spit out. Disclosing gels will show the presence of the plaque, but will often not show the level of maturity of the plaque. Disclosing tablets are often prescribed or given to patients with orthodontic appliances for use before and after tooth brushing to ensure optimal cleaning. These are also helpful educational tools for young children or patients that are struggling to remove dental plaque in certain areas. Disclosing gels and tablets are useful for individuals of all ages in ensuring efficient dental plaque removal. Visual or tactile", "the accumulation of plaque had led to the development of inflammation coupled with an increase in the gingival infiltrate containing immune cells\nResearch has highlighted that the mechanisms of peri-implant mucositis and gingivitis are very similar with bacterial invasion from plaque triggering redness, swelling and inflammation within soft tissues. Peri-implant mucositis has the ability to transform into peri-implantitis if no action is taken to reverse signs of peri-implant mucositis, similar to gingivitis and periodontitis. To reverse peri-implant mucositis, good oral hygiene must be performed regularly to remove plaque which initiated this disease.\nPeri-implant mucositis becomes peri-implantitis when bone resorption is identified around", "surfaces of the teeth do not absorb the disclosant, only rough surfaces. Plaque disclosing gels can be either completed at home or in the dental clinic. Before using these at home or in the dental clinic check with your general practitioners for any allergies to iodine, food colouring or any other ingredients that may be present in these products. These gels provide a visual aid in assessing plaque biofilm presence and can also show the maturity of the dental plaque. Disclosing tablets Disclosing tablets are similar to that of disclosing gels, except that they are placed in the mouth and", "the oral cavity: through the application of a disclosing gel or tablet, and/or visually through observation. Plaque detection is usually detected clinically by plaque disclosing agents. Disclosing agents contain dye which turns bright red to indicate plaque build-up.\nIt is important for an individual to be aware of what to look for when doing a self-assessment for dental plaque. It is important to be aware that everyone has dental plaque, however, the severity of the build-up and the consequences of not removing the plaque can vary. Plaque disclosing gel Plaque disclosing products, also known as disclosants, make plaque clinically visible. Clean", "no symptoms are reported from the patient. Most often solitary entities are therefore found by the dentist.\nThe gums are red, friable, or sometimes granular, and sometimes bleed easily if traumatised. The normal stippling is lost. There is not usually any loss of periodontal attachment. In a few cases a sore mouth can develop, and if so pain is sometimes made worse by toothpastes, or hot or spicy food. The lesions can extend to involve the palate.\nPlasma cell cheilitis appears as well defined, infiltrated, dark red plaque with a superficial lacquer-like glazing. Plasma cell cheilitis usually involves the lower lip. The", "the dorsum of the tongue in persons taking long term corticosteroids or antibiotics, but occasionally it can occur after only a few days of using a topical antibiotic. This is usually termed \"antibiotic sore mouth\", \"antibiotic sore tongue\", or \"antibiotic-induced stomatitis\" because it is commonly painful as well as red.\nChronic erythematous candidiasis is more usually associated with denture wearing (see denture-related stomatitis). Hyperplastic This variant is also sometimes termed \"plaque-like candidiasis\" or \"nodular candidiasis\". The most common appearance of hyperplastic candidiasis is a persistent white plaque that does not rub off. The lesion may be rough or nodular in", "as plaque-induced diseases.\nExample conditions that oral medicine is concerned with are lichen planus, Behçet's disease and pemphigus vulgaris. Moreover, it involves the diagnosis and follow-up of pre-malignant lesions of the oral cavity, such as leukoplakias or erythroplakias and of chronic and acute pain conditions such as paroxysmal neuralgias, continuous neuralgias, myofascial pain, atypical facial pain, autonomic cephalalgias, headaches and migraines. Another aspect of the field is managing the dental and oral condition of medically compromised patients such as cancer patients suffering from related oral mucositis, bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaws or oral pathology related to radiation therapy. Additionally, it is", "may lead to a diagnosis of chronic multifocal oral candidiasis. Sometimes an approximating erythematous lesion is present on the palate as the tongue touches the palate frequently. The lesion is typically 2–3 cm in its longest dimension. Causes Predisposing factors include smoking, denture wearing, use of corticosteroid sprays or inhalers and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Candida species even in healthy people mainly colonizes the posterior dorsal tongue. Median rhomboid glossitis is thought to be a type of chronic atrophic (or erythematous) candidiasis. Microbiological culture of the lesion usually shows Candida mixed with bacteria. Diagnosis The diagnosis is usually made on", "been established, but not all individuals who have gingivitis will get periodontitis. Plaque accumulation is vital in the progression of periodontitis as the bacteria in plaque release enzymes which attack the bone and cause it to break down, and at the same time osteoclasts in the bone break down the bone as a way to prevent further infection. This can be treated with strict oral hygiene such as tooth brushing and cleaning in between the teeth as well as surgical debridement completed by a dental professional. Detection of plaque build-up There are two main methods of detecting dental plaque in", "The longer that plaque stays on the tooth surface, the harder and more attached to the tooth it becomes. That is when it is referred to as calculus and needs to be removed by a dental professional. If this is not treated, the inflammation will lead to the bone loss and will eventually lead to the affected teeth becoming loose. Tooth brushing Routine tooth brushing is the principal method of preventing many oral diseases, and perhaps the most important activity an individual can practice to reduce plaque buildup. Controlling plaque reduces the risk of the individual suffering from plaque-associated diseases", "of cases of denture related stomatitis. Median rhomboid glossitis This is an elliptical or rhomboid lesion in the center of the dorsal tongue, just anterior (in front) of the circumvallate papillae. The area is depapillated, reddened (or red and white) and rarely painful. There is frequently Candida species in the lesion, sometimes mixed with bacteria. Linear gingival erythema This is a localized or generalized, linear band of erythematous gingivitis (inflammation of the gums). It was first observed in HIV infected individuals and termed \"HIV-gingivitis\", but the condition is not confined to this group. Candida species are involved, and in", "Gingival disease Causes Dental plaque accumulates at the surfaces when proper cleaning and maintaining is not done. There is inflammation due to the bacteria released from the toxins. calculus forms and if not removed, causes this disease.", "can harbour greater accumulations of plaque with more virulent changes in bacterial composition, which can ultimately cause a reduction in periodontal health as indicated by increased gingival recession, bleeding on probing, and plaque retention measurements. Furthermore, fixed appliances makes plaque control more challenging and restricts the natural cleaning action of the tongue, lips, and cheek to remove food and bacterial debris from tooth surfaces, and also creates new plaque stagnation areas that stimulate the colonisation of pathogenic bacteria. It is the general consensus among dental academia that patients undergoing orthodontic treatment maintain a high level of plaque control through not", "lipoteichoic acid (LTA), that promote an inflammatory response in the gum tissue. This inflammation can cause an enlargement of the gingiva and subsequent formation. Early plaque in health consists of a relatively simple bacterial community dominated by Gram-positive cocci and rods. As plaque matures and gingivitis develops, the communities become increasingly complex with higher proportions of Gram-negative rods, fusiforms, filaments, spirilla and spirochetes. Later experimental gingivitis studies, using culture, provided more information regarding the specific bacterial species present in plaque. Taxa associated with gingivitis included Fusobacterium nucleatum subspecies polymorphum, Lachnospiraceae [G-2] species HOT100, Lautropia species HOTA94, and Prevotella oulorum", "wounds or open sores on or in his or her mouth, or bleeding gums. Brushing the teeth, flossing, undergoing dental work soon before or after performing oral sex can also increase the risk of transmission, because all of these activities can cause small scratches in the lining of the mouth. These wounds, even when they are microscopic, increase the chances of contracting STIs that can be transmitted orally under these conditions. Such contact can also lead to more mundane infections from common bacteria and viruses found in, around and secreted from the genital regions. Because of the aforementioned factors, medical", "they act to destroy nerve tissue and create inflammation. Inflammatory pathogens are an indicator of Alzheimer's disease and bacteria related to gum disease have been found in the brains of Alzheimer's disease individuals. The bacteria invade nerve tissue in the brain, increasing the permeability of the blood-brain barrier and promoting the onset of Alzheimer's among the elderly population. It has also been found that individuals with a plethora of tooth plaque have a risk of cognitive decline. Poor oral hygiene can also have an adverse effect on speech and nutrition causing general and cognitive health decline. Oral viruses Herpes simplex", "or chemotherapy. Pseudomembraneous candidiasis can involve any part of the mouth, but usually it appears on the tongue, buccal mucosae or palate.\nIt is classically an acute condition, appearing in infants, people taking antibiotics or immunosuppressant medications, or immunocompromising diseases. However, sometimes it can be chronic and intermittent, even lasting for many years. Chronicity of this subtype generally occurs in immunocompromised states, (e.g., leukemia, HIV) or in persons who use corticosteroids topically or by aerosol. Acute and chronic pseudomembranous candidiasis are indistinguishable in appearance. Erythematous Erythematous (atrophic) candidiasis is when the condition appears as a red, raw-looking lesion. Some sources consider", "most common form of candidiasis, by far the most common fungal infection of the mouth, and it also represents the most common opportunistic oral infection in humans with lesions only occurring when the environment favors pathogenic behavior.\nOropharyngeal candidiasis is common during cancer care, and it is a very common oral sign in individuals with HIV. Oral candidiasis occurs in about two thirds of people with concomitant AIDS and esophageal candidiasis.\nThe incidence of all forms of candidiasis have increased in recent decades. This is due to developments in medicine, with more invasive medical procedures and surgeries, more widespread use of broad", "inflammation of the tissue. This is characterized by the cardinal signs of inflammation including a red, puffy appearance of the gums and bleeding due to brushing or flossing.\nGingivitis due to plaque can be reversible by removal of the plaque. However, if left for an extended period of time, the inflammation may begin to affect the supporting tissues, in a progression referred to as periodontitis. The gingivitis response is a protective mechanism, averting periodontitis in many cases. Periodontitis Periodontitis is an infection of the gums which leads to bone destruction around the teeth in the jaw. Periodontitis occurs after gingivitis has", "red for eukaryotes or giemsa for bacteria) or immunofluorescence. Special computer systems have been designed with the ability to scan samples in batches.\nThe appearance of the plaque depends on the host strain, virus and the conditions. Highly virulent or lytic strains give clear plaques while strains that only kill a fraction of their hosts (due to partial resistance/lysogeny) or only reduce the rate of cell growth give turbid plaques. Some partially lysogenic phages give bull's-eye plaques with spots or rings of growth in the middle of clear regions of complete lysis.\nNon-viral spontaneous hole formation in cell culture (eg. LLC-PK1,", "In response to growth factors secreted by macrophages, smooth muscle and other cells move into the plaque and act to stabilize it. A stable plaque may have a thick fibrous cap with calcification. If there is ongoing inflammation, the cap may be thin or ulcerate. Exposed to the pressure associated with blood flow, plaques, especially those with a thin lining, may rupture and trigger the formation of a blood clot (thrombus). The cholesterol crystals have been associated with plaque rupture through mechanical injury and inflammation. Other causes Atherosclerotic disease is not the only cause of myocardial infarction, and it may", "infections may be single but are often multiple. Typically, clusters of superficial nodules or papules are described. An erythematous plaque has also been reported. The lesions may be painful or painless and may become fluctuant. The lesions typically occur on the elbows, knees and feet in swimming pool-related cases, and on the hands and fingers in aquarium owners. The inhibition of growth of M. marinum at 37 °C is related to its ability to infect the cooler parts of the body especially the extremities. Lesions appear after an incubation period of about 2–4 weeks, and after 3–5 weeks they are typically", "This, in turn, can lead to destruction of the gingival tissues, which may progress to destruction of the periodontal attachment apparatus. The plaque accumulates in the small gaps between teeth, in the gingival grooves and in areas known as plaque traps: locations that serve to accumulate and maintain plaque. Examples of plaque traps include bulky and overhanging restorative margins, clasps of removable partial dentures and calculus (tartar) that forms on teeth. Although these accumulations may be tiny, the bacteria in them produce chemicals, such as degradative enzymes, and toxins, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS, otherwise known as endotoxin) or", "Hollenhorst plaque Clinical significance It is usually seen when a physician performs ophthalmoscopy, during which a plaque will appear bright, refractile, and yellow. It is caused by an embolus lodged within the retinal vessel that originated from an atheromatous plaque in a more proximal (upstream) vessel, usually the internal carotid artery. It is often an indication of a previous ischemic episode in the eye and is a sign of severe atherosclerosis. The most important step in management is to identify and treat the originating plaque to prevent further embolization. Eponym The phenomenon is named after the American ophthalmologist", "systemic, such as fungemia and invasive candidiasis. Oral candidiasis is common in elderly denture-wearers. In otherwise healthy individuals, these superficial infections can be cured with topical or systemic antifungal medications (commonly over-the-counter antifungal treatments like miconazole or clotrimazole). In debilitated or immunocompromised patients, or if introduced intravenously (into the bloodstream), candidiasis may become a systemic disease producing abscesses, thrombophlebitis, endocarditis, or infections of the eyes or other organs. Typically, relatively severe neutropenia (low neutrophils) is a prerequisite for Candida to pass through the defenses of the skin and cause disease in deeper tissues; in such cases, mechanical disruption of the", "monitoring of their plaque levels. The time between visits will gradually increase if the patients’ plaque control is up to standard. Gingivectomy by electrosurgery Electrosurgery is defined as the intentional passage of high-frequency waveforms or currents, through the tissues of the body to achieve a controllable surgical effect. It has been used in dentistry for more than 60 years.\nElectrosurgery may be used where a blood-free environment is required, providing that there is no bone coming into contact with the instrument and good oral hygiene is maintained. The technique is not widely used due to multiple factors including cost and lack", "middle path, that damage is due to a shift in the relative populations of more and less dangerous bacteria in the plaque. This is called the ecological plaque hypothesis. \nThe disease is associated with a variable microbial pattern.\nAnaerobic species of bacteria Porphyromonas gingivalis, Bacteroides forsythus, Treponema denticola, Prevotella intermedia, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Eubacterium sp. have all been implicated in chronic periodontitis.\nMicroaerophile bacteria Actinomyces actinomycetemcomitans, Campylobacter rectus, and Eikenella corrodens also may play a role in chronic periodontitis. Treatment There is professional agreement among dentists that smoking cessation and good oral hygiene are key to effective treatment and positive outcomes for patients." ]

[ "In addition to what's already been said about the actual technological differences, one major difference is working conditions.\n\nHard Disks are produced and sealed in clean factories to ensure there is no contamination. They are encased in thick unbend-able metal. From the day you start using it, you can't bend it, get it dirty, scratch it, or really abuse it in any way. The parts inside that rigid case are precisely machined to fit together and be aligned perfectly, and because you can't stick your fingers in there, they stay that way. Precision engineering.\n\nMeanwhile DVDs and other similar disks are made from cheap soft easily scratched, easily bent plastic. In use they get coated with your filthy greasy fingerprints. They'll get scratched when you handle them, when your kids put them in the player they'll get jam and cat hair over them. You bend and distort them each time you remove them from the case, and you can put them in a huge variety of players of varying quality.\n\nSo while the hard disk can afford to store one bit of data in an incredibly tiny spot on the disk because it knows it will have the precision to address it exactly, safe from damage, dirt, and distortion, the DVD has to keep its bits of data in larger lumps so it can still be seen through your filthy fingerprints and coffee stains on your bent and scratched disk. It also keeps some parts of the disk to store checksum information (a bit like backups) to make up for those bits it still can't read.", "Continued technology improvements. When the DVD was invented it was considered impressively high-capacity. But it's limited by the requirement that discs be reproduced by physically molding plastic -- each \"bit\" of data is an actual pit in the plastic, detected by a laser shining on it. [Diagram here.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe tiny size of bits on a modern hard drive goes way below what you can reliably make that way." ]

[ "5D DVD Advantages over current discs 5D DVDs use a writing system that uses extremely tiny particles on which data is written, with multiple layers that are read by three different colors of laser (rather than only one, as is the case with DVDs and Blu-ray discs). According to the developers, this could result in discs with a capacity of 10 terabytes, approximately 2000 times the capacity of a standard DVD, compared to Holographic Versatile Disc technology, which has an estimated maximum disc capacity of 6 terabytes. The similarity of disc writing would also make it easier to make 5D", "a capacity of 100GB. Hitachi has stated that current Blu-ray drives would only require a few firmware updates in order to play the disc.\nThe first 50 GB dual-layer Blu-ray Disc release was the movie Click, which was released on October 10, 2006. As of July 2008, over 95% of Blu-ray movies/games are published on 50 GB dual layer discs with the remainder on 25 GB discs. 85% of HD DVD movies are published on 30 GB dual layer discs, with the remainder on 15 GB discs.\nThe choice of video compression technology (codec) complicates any comparison of the formats. Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD both", "scenario for DVD movies) while offering only a negligible benefit in capacity. Additionally, without a non-data side, they proved harder to handle and store. Dual-layer discs Dual-layer discs also employ a second recorded layer, however both are readable from the same side (and unreadable from the other). These DVD-9 discs (Type C in ISO) nearly double the capacity of DVD-5 discs to a nominal 8.5 GB, but fall below the overall capacity of DVD-10 discs due to differences in the physical data structure of the additional recorded layer. However, the advantage of not needing to flip the disc to access", "which was similar to standard DVDs. Standard VMDs can use 4 layers, for 20 GB of storage. The rarer 8 and 10 layered discs store 40 GB to 50 GB, respectively. One manufacturer listed up to 20 layers on a disc being possible in the future.\nThe Blu-ray Disc uses a blue-violet laser, rather than VMD's red laser, which means Blu-ray can store more information per layer. This format has so far only utilized 1 and 2-layered versions. In January 2007, Toshiba announced development on a triple layer HD DVD (TL51) that would have had a capacity of 51 GB. ", "Because of the fact that Blu-ray cases are smaller than DVD cases, more Blu-Rays than DVDs can fit on a shelf. Mini Blu-ray Disc The \"Mini Blu-ray Disc\" (also, \"Mini-BD\" and \"Mini Blu-ray\") is a compact 8-centimetre-diameter (~3 in) variant of the Blu-ray Disc that can store 7.8 GB of data in its single layer configuration, or 15.6 GB on a dual layer disc. It is similar in concept to the MiniDVD and MiniCD. Recordable (BD-R) and rewritable (BD-RE) versions of Mini Blu-ray Disc have been developed specifically for compact camcorders and other compact recording devices. Blu-ray Disc recordable \"Blu-ray Disc recordable\" (BD-R)", "(later dropped) looked very similar. Capabilities differ; single-layer PFD discs have a capacity of 23 GB whereas Blu-ray discs can store 25 GB. However, Blu-ray discs currently allow a 2x data transfer rate of 72 Mbit/s – lower than PFD. This is because PFD discs use much higher quality media and drives use higher quality components, making them prohibitively expensive for the consumer segment to which Blu-ray is aimed. XDCAM video system The PFD format is used as the recording medium in Sony's XDCAM professional video devices, both for standard definition and high definition applications. Professional Disc for Data (PDD)", "disc is stored in a 32 bit value, it allows for a maximum length of just over 4.2 GB (more precisely, one byte less than 4 GiB). (Note: Some older operating systems may handle such values incorrectly (i.e. signed instead of unsigned), which would make it impossible to access files larger than 2 GB in size. The latter holds true also for operating systems without large file support.)\nBased on this, it is often assumed that a file on an ISO 9660 formatted disc cannot be larger than 2³²-1 in size, as the file's size is stored in an unsigned 32", "had declined to say whether the 51 GB disc was compatible with existing drives and players. Specification 2.0 Part 1 (Physical Specification) for triple layer HD DVD had been approved in November 2007.\nAt the CES 2007, Ritek revealed their high definition optical disc process that extended both competing high definition formats to ten layers, increasing capacity to 150 GB for HD DVD and 250 GB for Blu-ray Disc. A major obstacle to implementing this technology in either format (150 GB HD DVD will not be developed due to HD DVD's discontinuation) is that reader-writer technology available may not be able to", "nominal capacity of a DVD-10 disc to 9.4 GB, but each side is locked to 4.7 GB. Like DVD-5 discs, DVD-10 discs are defined as single-layer (SL) discs.\nDouble-sided discs identify the sides as A and B. The disc structure lacks the dummy layer where identifying labels are printed on single-sided discs, so information such as title and side are printed on one or both sides of the non-data clamping zone at the center of the disc.\nDVD-10 discs fell out of favor because, unlike dual-layer discs, they require users to manually flip them to access the complete content (a relatively egregious", "refers to two optical disc formats that can be recorded with an optical disc recorder. BD-Rs can be written to once, whereas Blu-ray Disc Recordable Erasable (BD-REs) can be erased and re-recorded multiple times. The current practical maximum speed for Blu-ray Discs is about 12× (54 MB/s). Higher speeds of rotation (10,000+ rpm) cause too much wobble for the discs to be written properly, as with the 20× (27.7 MB/s) and 52× (7.8 MB/s) maximum speeds, respectively, of standard DVDs and CDs. Since September 2007, BD-RE is also available in the smaller 8 cm Mini Blu-ray Disc size.\nOn September 18, 2007, Pioneer and Mitsubishi", "disk drive used on the IBM PC had a 360×1024-byte capacity.\nIn many cases diskette hardware was marketed based on unformatted capacity, and the overhead required to format sectors on the media would reduce the nominal capacity as well (and this overhead typically varied based on the size of the formatted sectors), leading to more irregularities. Optical discs The capacities of most optical disc storage media like DVD, Blu-ray Disc, HD DVD and magneto-optical (MO) are given using SI decimal prefixes.\nA \"4.7 GB\" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 GiB. However, CD capacities are always given using customary binary", "released. Because the Blu-ray Disc format is upgradable it poses challenges to the adoption of the HVD format. 4K Blu-ray discs and players became available in the first quarter of 2016, having a storage capacity of up to 100 GB. Laser and optics While a DVD uses a 650 nm red laser, Blu-ray Disc uses a 405 nm \"blue\" laser diode. Although the laser is called \"blue\", its color is actually in the violet range. The shorter wavelength can be focused to a smaller area, thus enabling it to read information recorded in pits that are less than half the size of those", "with readable surfaces on both sides of the disc. HD DVDs were able to store 15 GB with a single-layer and 30 GB with a dual-layer. Blu-ray discs, which won the HDTV optical format war by defeating HD DVDs, can hold 25 GB for single-layer, 50 GB for dual-layer and up to 128 GB for quad-layer discs. Optical storage include CDs and DVDs. History In 1985, the New York Times said about optical storage, \"the rumor refuses to die.\" \nThe 1978-introduced LaserDisc and 1982-introduced audio/music CD had made a data-storing optical media format, introduced in 1984 at a trade show,", "a 10% increase in minimum mark (digital 0 or 1) length on the disc, with a corresponding 10% increase in rotation speed and 10% reduction in gross recordable capacity, accounting for the lower capacity of a single-sided dual-layer DVD at 8.5 billion bytes, versus a double-sized, single-layer DVD at 9.4 billion (for 12 cm discs). Detail differences in formatting and file structure mean the \"usable\" data area capacity does not change by exactly this much, but for all intents a DVD-R DL has effectively 20/11ths the capacity of a DVD-R SL, and the same holds for +R, commercially pressed, and 8 cm", "of mass data storage after the hard drive. They are slower than their flash-based counterparts. Standard 120 mm optical discs are larger than flash drives and more subject to damage. Smaller optical media do exist, such as business card CD-Rs which have the same dimensions as a credit card, and the slightly less convenient but higher capacity 80 mm recordable MiniCD and Mini DVD. The small discs are more expensive than the standard size, and do not work in all drives.\nUniversal Disk Format (UDF) version 1.50 and above has facilities to support rewritable discs like sparing tables and virtual allocation tables, spreading", "whilst at the same time, the console continuously caches data onto its hard disk, even buffering unread data when a game is not actively accessing the optical drive, forming part of Sony's PlayGo strategy.\nUltra HD Blu-ray (for 4K resolution playback) is not supported, due to cost. The console does however support photos and videos at 4K resolution. DVD The read-only optical drive also reads DVDs. It does not read CDs. Hard drive The console includes a 2.5\" 500 GB, 1 TB or 2 TB hard drive, which can be upgraded by the user. Other An additional 256 MB chip (using a 2 Gbit DDR3 SDRAM", "than one format; e.g., DVD±R(W) (DVD plus-dash recordable and rewritable) is used to refer to drives that can write/rewrite both plus and dash formats, but not necessarily DVD-RAM. Drives marked, \"DVD Multi Recorder\" support DVD±R(W) and DVD-RAM. Sizes DVD recordable media are sold in two standard sizes, a regular 12 cm size for home recording and computer usage, and a small 8 cm size (sometimes known as a miniDVD) for use in compact camcorders. The smaller Mini DVD-RW, for example, holds 1.46 GB. Longevity According to a study published in 2008 by the Preservation Research and Testing Division of the U.S.", "to have been abandonedby their respective developers. Capacity/codecs Blu-ray Disc has a higher maximum disc capacity than HD DVD (50 GB vs. 30 GB for a double layered disc). In September 2007 the DVD Forum approved a preliminary specification for the triple-layer 51GB HD DVD (ROM only) disc though Toshiba never stated whether it was compatible with existing HD DVD players. In September 2006 TDK announced a prototype Blu-ray Disc with a capacity of 200GB. TDK was also the first to develop a Blu-ray prototype with a capacity of 100GB in May 2005. In October 2007 Hitachi developed a Blu-ray prototype with", "720 oersteds, is much narrower than that for the ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch format, 600 versus 300 oersteds, and consequently it was possible to format a ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch DD disk as HD with no apparent problems.\nBy the end of the 1980s, the ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch disks had been superseded by the ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch disks. Though ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch drives were still available, as were disks, they faded in popularity as the 1990s began. The main community of users was primarily those who still owned 1980s legacy machines (PCs running DOS or home computers) that had no ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch drive; the advent of Windows 95 (not even sold in stores in", "it, a basic DVD disc—known as DVD-5 in the DVD Books, while called Type A in the ISO standard—contains a single data layer readable from only one side. However, the DVD format also includes specifications for three types of discs with additional recorded layers, expanding disc data capacity beyond the 4.7 GB of DVD-5 while maintaining the same physical disc size. Double-sided discs Borrowing from the LaserDisc format, the DVD standard includes DVD-10 discs (Type B in ISO) with two recorded data layers such that only one layer is accessible from either side of the disc. This doubles the total", "DVD recordable Comparing recordable CDs and DVDs The larger storage capacity of a DVD-R compared to a CD-R is achieved by focusing the laser to a smaller point, creating smaller 'pits' as well as a finer track pitch of the groove spiral which guides the laser beam. These two changes allow more pits to be written in the same physical disc area, giving higher data density. The smaller focus is possible with a shorter wavelength 'red' laser of 640 nm, compared to CD-R's wavelength of 780 nm. This is used in conjunction with a higher numerical aperture lens. The dyes used in", "resulting in equivalent levels of audio and visual quality, but differ in other aspects such as interactive capabilities, internet integration, usage control and enforcement, and in which features were mandatory for players. The storage size also varies: A dual-layer HD DVD holds a maximum of 30 GB of data, while a dual-layer Blu-ray Disc carries 50 GB. Development Even after finalizing the HD DVD standard, engineers continued developing the technology. A 51 GB triple-layer spec was approved at the DVD Forums 40th Steering Committee Meeting (held on November 15, 2007). No movies had been scheduled for this disc type, and Toshiba", "only each sector's data, its size will be a multiple of 2,048; this is usually the case for ISO disc images.\nOn a 74-minute CD-R, it is possible to fit larger disc images using raw mode, up to 333,000 × 2,352 = 783,216,000 bytes (~747 MiB). This is the upper limit for raw images created on a 74 min or ≈650 MiB Red Book CD. The 14.8% increase is due to the discarding of error correction data. Manufacture Pre-pressed CD-ROMs are mass-produced by a process of stamping where a glass master disc is created and used to make \"stampers\", which are", "Mbit/s vs 4-5 Mbit/s) as that of standard DVDs, which helps minimize artifacts caused by video compression and allow the image to be pre-filtered less prior to compression, which results in more detail. Superbit should not be confused with either Blu-ray or HD DVD discs, both of which are different media formats of much higher bit rate and resolution, and are incompatible with standard DVD video players.\nTo maximize space for the main feature, static menus are used and commentary tracks are removed. To further improve the size and therefore quality of the film on the disc, Superbit discs contained a", "a hybrid double-sided disc with one dual-layer side, one single-layer side, and a total nominal capacity of 12.3 GB. DVD-14 has no counterpart in ISO.\nBoth of these additional disc types are extremely rare due to their complicated and expensive manufacturing.\n Note: The above sections regarding disc types pertain to 12 cm discs. The same disc types exist for 8 cm discs: ISO standards still regard these discs as Types A–D, while the DVD Book assigns them distinct disc types. DVD-14 has no analogous 8 cm type. The comparative data for 8 cm discs is provided further down. DVD recordable and", "special ML media, but no change to the optical pickup-head. In terms of capacity, both ML-DVD-R (recordable) and ML-DVD-ROM discs were specified at 16GB for dual-layer, and 8GB for single-layer. Rewritable media (ML-DVD-RW) offered 8GB (single-layer.) Because of the shared physical characteristics with DVD-ROM pickups, the ML controller-chip was anticipated as a drop-in replacement for existing DVD-drives, greatly reducing cost of ML-DVD capable drives. \nThis time, Calimetrics faced competition from both above and below. From above, there were the two blue-laser formats - the Philips/Sony backed Blu-ray, and the Toshiba/NEC Advanced Optical Disc (AOD.) ", "less. For example, an 8.5 GB DVD can hold about 90 minutes of 1080p video encoded with VC-1 or AVC at an average bitrate of 12 Mbit/s, which corresponds with the average length of Hollywood feature-films. If quality is compromised slightly, and good compression techniques are used, most feature films could be encoded with 3× DVD. Due to its much greater resolution, HD-Video also has significantly more redundant information than DVD which newer compression standards can encode more efficiently.\nIt is technically possible for consumers to create HD DVD compatible discs using low cost DVD-R or DVD+R media. At least one", "DVD-RAM for random access on optical media using phase-change principals. It would hold 20 gigabytes per layer instead of 15 gigabytes for HD DVD-R, due to differences in recording methods used, yielding a higher density disc. DVD / HD DVD hybrid discs There are two types of hybrid formats which contain standard DVD-Video format video for playback in regular DVD players, and HD DVD video for playback in high definition on HD DVD players. The Combo disc is a dual sided disc with one side DVD and the other HD DVD, each of which can have up to two layers.", "discs. Optical storage differs from other data storage techniques that make use of other technologies such as magnetism, such as floppy disks and hard disks, or semiconductors, such as flash memory and RAM.\nOptical storage can range from a single drive reading a single CD-ROM to multiple drives reading multiple discs such as an optical jukebox. Single CDs (compact discs) can hold around 700 MB (megabytes) and optical jukeboxes can hold much more. Single-layer DVDs can hold 4.7 GB, while dual-layered can hold 8.5 GB. This can be doubled to 9.4 GB and 17 GB by making the DVDs double sided,", "Double-density compact disc Double-density compact disc (DDCD) is an optical disc technology developed by Sony using the same laser wavelength as compact disc, namely 780 nm. The format is defined by the Purple Book standard document. Unlike the compact-disc technology it is based on, DDCD was designed exclusively for data with no audio capabilities. \nFor a 12 cm disc, it doubles the original 650 MB to 1.3 GB capacity of a CD on recordable (DDCD-R) and rewritable (DDCD-RW) discs by narrowing the track pitch from 1.6 to 1.1 micrometers, and shortening the minimum pit length from 0.833 to 0.623 micrometer." ]

[ "Maybe it's not racism or discrimination in the traditional sense, but I've heard anecdotally that whites in Sub-Saharan Africa are more likely to be targeted by robbers because they stand out it's presumed that they have money.", "A fair amount, depending on the country. Zimbabwe (Under Mugabe) for example, seized all white farmers' lands for fairly racist reasons, which, ironically, completely devastated their economy, and caused a massive starvation problem." ]

[ "played racist music. According to a study by Fundamental Rights Agency published in 2018, 63% of Africans in Finland had experienced racist harassment, which had appeared as offensive gestures, comments, threats or violence. This was the highest percentage of any EU member state, much higher than for example in Malta which was only 20%. 14% stated they experienced violence due to their skin colour, which again was the highest in the EU, much higher than in Portugal where only 2% experienced violence. Identity According to an estimate in 2009, there are 20,000 Afro-Finns. They compose a much higher minority than", "lesser degree in South America (particularly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, while most of the other Latin American countries also have a considerable population of European origins). Australia and New Zealand have large European derived populations. Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities (or with the exception of Cape Verde and probably São Tomé and Príncipe, depending on context), but there are significant minorities, such as the White South Africans. In Asia, European-derived populations predominate in Northern Asia (specifically Russians) and some parts of Northern Kazakhstan. Languages Europe has about 225 indigenous languages, mostly falling within three Indo-European language", "Racism in Europe A study of social attitudes that was conducted at Harvard University from 2002–15 has mapped the countries in Europe with the highest incidents of racial bias, based on data from 288,076 White Europeans. It used the Implicit-association test (a reaction-based psychological test that is designed to measure implicit racial bias). The weakest racial bias was found in Serbia and Slovenia, and the strongest racial bias was found in the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Malta, Moldova, Bulgaria, Italy, Slovakia and Portugal. Bulgaria On 9 October 1992, the Bulgarian president signed the Council of Europe Framework", "in the aftermath of events like the September 11 attacks and Bali Bombing by radical Muslim extremists contributed to strained ethnic relations in some Australian communities. A notable outcome was the 2005 Cronulla race riot that saw thousands of Anglo-Saxon Australians target persons of Middle-Eastern appearance in south-eastern Sydney. Indigenous Australians Indigenous peoples of Australia, comprising Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders peoples, have lived in Australia for at least 65,000+ years before the arrival of British settlers in 1788. The colonisation of Australia and development into a modern nation, saw explicit and implicit racial discrimination against Indigenous Australians.\nCo-Indigenous Australians continue", "criminals and indentured servants who hoped to pay off their debts. By 1800, European emigration had transformed the demographic character of the American continent. This was also due in part to the devastating effect of European diseases and warfare on Native American populations.\nThe European settlers' influence elsewhere was less pronounced as in South Asia and Africa, European settlement in this period was limited to a thin layer of administrators, traders and soldiers.", "perceptions of racism caused poor psychosocial functioning. The researchers suggested that factors such as racism, discrimination and alienation contributed to physiological health risks in ethnic minority families. The study also mentioned the effect of poverty on Aboriginal populations: higher morbidity and mortality rates.\nAboriginal Australians suffer from high rates of heart disease. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide and among Aboriginal Australians. Aboriginal people develop atrial fibrillation, a condition that sharply increases the risk of stroke, much earlier than non-Aboriginal Australians on average. The life expectancy for Aboriginal Australians is 10 years lower than non-Aboriginal Australians. Technologies such", "country worldwide is Jordan. According to this study, racial tolerance is also low in ethnically diverse Asian countries, while Western and Central Europe and the United States are relatively racially tolerant.\nMore than 30 years of field experiment studies have found significant levels of discrimination against non-whites in labor, housing, and product markets in 10 different countries. The Netherlands A study conducted in the Netherlands and published in 2013 found significant levels of discrimination against job applicants with Arabic-sounding names. Liberia The constitution of Liberia renders non-Blacks ineligible for citizenship. United States With regard to employment, multiple audit studies have found", "that \"the Indian in East Africa brought India with him and kept it inviolate\". Same was said about the Europeans. Those who remained saw a gradual improvement in their legal status, however the Asian community continued to be cautiously inward and self-reliant. Despite varying degrees of acculturation, most have retained their strong Indian ties and traditions, and are a close-knit, endogamous community.\nFollowing the 1982 Kenyan coup d'état attempt to remove President Moi, many Asian shops and businesses in Nairobi were attacked and pillaged whilst a number of Asian women were said to have been raped by the rioters. Despite fears", "instances of environmental racism difficult to identify. Only nationality and country of birth are recorded, and only for first-generation migrants; persons born abroad in France are mostly from North and Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as a smaller presence from Eastern Europe.\nAccording to a 2008 study by Lucie Laurian titled Environmental Injustice in France, \"towns with high proportions of immigrants tend to host more hazardous sites, even controlling for population size, income, [and] degree of industrialization of the town and region\". In the case of towns which have the highest percentage of residents who are born abroad, there is a significantly", "Indo-European migrants into the Indian subcontinent, but not necessarily an \"invasion of any kind\". Bamshad et al. (2001) notice that the correlation between caste-status and West Eurasian DNA may be explained by subsequent male immigration into the Indian subcontinent.Basu et al. (2003) argue that the Indian subcontinent was subjected to a series of Indo-European migrations about 1500 BCE.\nMetspalu et al. (2011) note that \"any nonmarginal migration from Central Asia to South Asia should have also introduced readily apparent signals of East Asian ancestry into India\" (although this presupposes the unproven assumption that East Asian ancestry was present – to a", "A 2008 EU-MIDIS survey of attitudes to minorities in the 27 EU States found that Ireland had the most racist attitudes to Afro-Europeans in the entire EU.\nWhile most racist abuse in Ireland is verbal, violent hate crimes have occurred. In 2000, a white man was stabbed and seriously injured when defending his Jamaican-born wife from racist abuse by a group of adult men. In 2002, a Chinese man Zhao Liu Tao (29) was murdered in Dublin in what was described as the Republic of Ireland's first racially motivated murder. Later that year Leong Ly Min, a Vietnamese man who had", "some of the crimes were racist and hinduphobic in nature, and others were opportunistic. A subsequent Indian Government investigation concluded that, of 152 reported assaults against Indian students in Australia that year, 23 involved racial overtones. Background Indian students were at the time and are currently the second largest group of international students studying at a tertiary level in Australia. From 2004 to 2009 the number of Indians studying in Australia rose from 30,000 to 97,000 with 45,000 of these living in Melbourne, 32,000 in Adelaide and the remainder shared between Sydney, Brisbane and Perth. Some students come from rural", "negative consequences\".\nEvidence also shows that there is a correlation between benevolent prejudices and hostile prejudices towards a particular group, in particular regarding the issue of benevolent prejudice towards women and misogyny. European Americans and African Americans In an experiment run by Judd, Park, Ryan, Brauer, and Kraus (1995), perceptions of African Americans held by European Americans show that they held hostile beliefs indicating that they viewed African Americans as hostile, cliquish, irresponsible, and loud. However, the same European American participants held benevolent beliefs that African Americans were athletic, musical, religious, and had strong family ties. The study was also done", "and other racial prejudice mainly against Poles and Roma, but also aimed at other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups.\nA Dutch immigrant to South Africa, Hendrik F. Verwoerd, created apartheid.\nIn a 2016 Pew Research Center survey conducted of the US and several European countries designed to measure countries' citizens acceptance of people of different ethnic groups, the Netherlands scored lowest for the percentage of people who said that having people of different races living in their country improved it, with the vast majority of Dutch respondents whether of liberal or conservative political leanings responding in the negative. In contrast, the", "Racism in Australia Racism in Australia traces both historical and contemporary racist community attitudes, as well as political non-compliance and governmental negligence on United Nations human rights standard and incidents in Australia. Contemporary Australia is the product of Indigenous peoples of Australia combined with multiple waves of immigration, predominantly from the United Kingdom and Ireland.\nLaws forbid racial and other forms of discrimination and protect freedom of religion. Demographic analysis indicates a high level of inter-ethnic marriage: according to the Australian Census, a majority of Indigenous Australians partnered with non-Indigenous Australians, and a majority of third-generation Australians of non-English-speaking background had", "racial inferiority to the Europeans, based on the Social Darwinism. There was a theory about the ultimate disappearance of Chinese in the Brazilian society. Some Brazilians were also afraid of Chinese domination in Brazil after immigration as Chinese would take over the places with exotic cultures, opium, pigtails and pagan religions. Unlike the Indians and Africans who had been Christianized, many Chinese immigrants had difficulty integrating into society as they strongly held on to traditional Chinese beliefs. Some Brazilians also feared that the Chinese would not leave Brazil once they had settled down, and would congregate in certain areas and", "the British elite and the native Indian population. While most of these discriminatory policies were directed against native Indians, some restrictive policies were also imposed on British females to \"protect\" them from miscegenation. Sexual jealousy Indo-Caribbean people were brought to the Caribbean from various parts of India as indentured labourers for agricultural estates over a century ago. At these times they were stereotyped as being jealous for women of their ethnic origins. For example:\nThe shortage of Indian women resulted in violence committed by jealous lovers and husbands, creating a stereotype of East Indian men, which gained in infamy, coolies reputation", "greatly from country to country. Several countries have anti-discrimination laws which prohibit religious discrimination. Many countries, particularly in West Africa and Southern Africa, have a high degree of religious tolerance, both as enforced by the government, and as reflected by societal attitudes. Others, however, have significant levels of religious discrimination, either practiced by government apparatuses or by the general public. Groups facing significant levels of legal discrimination in Africa include Muslims (in majority Christian countries), Christians (in majority Muslim countries), Bahai Faith practitioners, Ahmadiyya Muslims (in Muslim countries), and Rastafarians. Additionally, some countries have significant levels of societal animosity against", "and Indian) of Goa, people of Indo-French descent, and Indo-Dutch descent.\nIndians have encountered Europeans since their earliest civilization. They have been a continuous element in the sub-continent. Their presence is not to be considered Anglo-Indian. Similarly, Indians who mixed with Europeans after the British Raj are also not to be considered Anglo-Indian. Britons in the British East Indies and British India Historically, the term Anglo-Indian was also used in common parlance in the British Government and England during the colonial era to refer to those people (such as Rudyard Kipling, or the hunter-naturalist Jim Corbett), who were of British descent", "South Africans (approximately 100,000 individuals) and Vietnamese South Africans (approximately 50,000 individuals). \nThe majority of the Indian population came to South Africa as indentured labourers to work in the sugar plantations in Natal in the late 19th and early 20th century. They came from different parts of the Indian subcontinent, adhered to different religions and spoke different languages. Others however came independently for work purposes and established businesses.", "compared to the general Australian population. Poverty and employment discrimination The impact of discrimination and stigma can be seen in high rates of poverty. A 2015 Australian survey of people born with atypical sex characteristics found high levels of poverty, in addition to very high levels of early school leaving, and higher than average rates of disability. 6% of the 272 survey participants reported being homeless or couch surfing.\nOII Europe states that \"stigma, structural and verbal discrimination, harassment\" as well as harmful practices and lack of legal recognition can lead to \"inadequate education, broken careers and poverty (including homelessness) due", "racial bias was found in several Eastern European countries (the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Bulgaria, Slovakia), as well as Malta, Italy, and Portugal. A 2017 report by the University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism tentatively suggests that \"individuals of Muslim background stand out among perpetrators of antisemitic violence in Western Europe\". Belgium There were recorded well over a hundred antisemitic attacks in Belgium in 2009. This was a 100% increase from the year before. The perpetrators were usually young males of immigrant background from the Middle East. In 2009, the Belgian city of Antwerp, often referred", "India wrote a strongly worded letter condemning the professor, stating: \"Your oversimplifying and discriminating generalization is an offense ... to millions of law-abiding, tolerant, open-minded and hard-working Indians,\" he wrote. \"Let's be clear: India is not a country of rapists.\" General reports The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) noted in 2001, in its second report on the situation of the approximately 9% non- citizen population after German reunification:\n(…) that, in spite of the considerable number of non-citizens who have been living in Germany for a long time or even from birth, there was a reluctance by Germany to", "India stealing jobs from the native Marathi people in Maharashtra. They even have a history of attacking immigrants, who they accuse of being involved in crimes around Mumbai. Shiv Sena also has a history of threatening the Pakistani cricket team from coming to Mumbai and also threatening Australian cricket players in the Indian Premier League cricket competition following the racist attacks on India students in Australia in 2009.\nEven in the last few decades, there has been a rise in the anti-Immigrant attitudes in the North East Indian states like Assam, which has received illegal immigrants from neighboring Bangladesh. Riots have", "racism therefore is that Europeans are not racially, but culturally superior\" to non-Europeans. Cultural racism in Western countries Wren argued that cultural racism had manifested in a \"broadly similar\" way throughout Europe, but with specific variations in different places according to the established ideas of national identity and the form and timing of immigration. She argued that Western societies used the discourse of cultural difference as a form of Othering through which they justify the exclusion of various ethnic or cultural 'others', while at the same time \"glossing over issues of social and economic inequality\" between different ethnic groups. Using", "\"that Northern Europeans are a superior subspecies of the white race.\" While anti-Asian racism was embedded in U.S. politics and culture in the early 20th century, Indians were also racialized for their anticolonialism, with U.S. officials, casting them as a \"Hindu\" menace, pushing for Western imperial expansion abroad. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only, and in the 1923 case, United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, the Supreme Court ruled that high caste Hindus were not \"white persons\" and were therefore racially ineligible for naturalized citizenship. It was after the Luce–Celler Act of 1946 that a", "matters pertaining to India has made French people prone to explaining away India via the caste system.\nSocial studies conducted by French researchers are prone to emphasise on the lacunae of India's economy rather than achievements and improvements in the sphere of poverty reduction, health-care, education, etc. French media portray India in an unfavourable light by focussing principally on events connected to crimes, corruption, inequalities, poverty, ethnic & religious strife, etc.\nThe morbid fascination of European tourists with Hindu cremation rituals is perceived as lack of sensitivity besides being a gross invasion of privacy. Hoards of tourists flock to cremation grounds on", "Criminology In 2011, the Australian Institute of Criminology released a study entitled Crimes Against International Students:2005-2009. This found that over the period 2005-2009, international students were less likely to be assaulted than the average person in Australia. Indian students experienced an average assault rate in some jurisdictions, but overall they experienced lower assault rates than the Australian average. Indian immigration to Australia As of 2012 the number of Indians migrating to Australia has increased to such an extent that Indians are now the most numerous nationality moving to Australia per year, overtaking China and the UK.", "high emigration levels, immigrants from Europe have settled in the country. By 2005, an estimated 212,000 British citizens were residing in South Africa. By 2011, this number may have grown to 500,000. Some European Zimbabweans emigrated to South Africa. Some of the more nostalgic members of the community are known in popular culture as \"Whenwes\", because of their nostalgia for their lives in Rhodesia \"when we were in Rhodesia\".\nDespite high emigration levels, a high level of non-South African white immigrants have settled in the country, in particular from countries such as Britain and Zimbabwe. For example, by 2005, an estimated", "seeking to minimize contributions of Europeans in favor of other ethnic groups. This has produced \"anti-bias\" curricula that are overtly biased against people of European descent or in favor of people of African descent." ]

[ "Companies that have to choose between Airbus or Boeing still consist of people (who can be manipulated through commercials), and they can sadly often do so with bias even though they're supposed to run the numbers and make an informed decision.", "brand recognition. They want you to *value* that your flying on a Boeing airplane, so that name has extra value when they try to sell their planes to the airline.", "Because Boeing is a publicly traded company. Marketing affects public opinion and stock prices.", "The same reason Coke makes commercials, branding. Even folks that buy planes are susceptible the effects of slick advertising.", "There's an argument that Coca Cola doesn't need advertisement because it's so popular. But the fact is, it's popular because of the constant advertisement. \n\nImagine advertisements as a reminder - if coca cola didn't advertise, you'd be constantly reminded to drink Pepsi, and in time, the only thing you would hear are reminders about pepsi. Eventually the concept of coca cola will vanish from the collective consciousness." ]

[ "that Boeing's products are unlikely to be selected because it is not a \"trusted partner\". \"Our government is not going to allow our aerospace sector to be attacked in this manner ... We can't do business with a company that treats us in this way.\"\nCanada will review Boeing's bid when it is presented.\nOn 12 October, Boeing replied that its illegal-subsidies complaint against Bombardier is about selling aircraft below the cost of production and not an attempt to hurt a competitor, the company merely wants \"fairness\" in \"following trade rules\" as Boeing claims to be already doing.\nIn meetings with Donald Trump,", "had acquired these properties, Disney Interactive Studios may not necessarily have the ability to license the content due to existing deals, such as Disney's deal with Electronic Arts for Star Wars games. Yasue added that they were \"looking at all of Disney, the new ones as well\" when choosing worlds for the game, including worlds potentially based on Marvel Comics and Star Wars properties. He expanded, saying, \"We have to come up with a world that has a lot of originality. We want variety... so we don't want too many of one sort of world, that would look the same.", "of particular importance in the all-important US market, which Airbus needed to penetrate with its new aircraft if it wanted to break the stranglehold Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment with the 737 for over 15 years. Airbus knew that the major US carriers would be suspicious of the new aircraft's commercial credentials if only state-owned (and at the time subsidised) airlines (Air France and Lufthansa) of countries, whose aerospace industries benefitted from orders, as launch customers. Therefore, having a successful wholly independent airline with a major, worldwide scheduled presence like BCal order a brand-new, technologically advanced aircraft came", "this information and accused Boeing of hypocrisy, insisting that all aircraft manufacturers require government subsidies; he labelled the company \"the king of corporate welfare\" and a \"subsidy junkie\", and suggested that Boeing was trying to \"crush a competitor\". Boeing replied that their illegal-subsidies complaint against Bombardier is about selling aircraft below the cost of production and not an attempt to hurt a competitor. The company merely wants \"fairness\" in \"following trade rules\" as Boeing already claims to be doing. Jamal Khashoggi In response to the murder of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi, Gardiner said that \"We must look very carefully again", "not ignore the CSeries and allow it to grow, as Boeing had done with Airbus, and decided to aggressively compete against Bombardier. Airbus responded by dropping the price on A320 in head-to-head competitions and successfully blocked Bombardier from several deals. He thinks by \"pressing the Trump Administration for 300% tariffs, [Boeing] forced them into our hands\", and Boeing doesn't care about the present cost to \"not to have competition, [...] an admission of a weak product line and a weak commercial organization that they say we just can't afford that competition\".\nWith the Airbus corporate strength behind it, AirInsight anticipate the", "once handed over to the defence ministry won't be used for commercial operations by AI at all. At present, the 747s are deployed for commercial operations by AI when not in use for VVIP flights.\nAccording to discussions, the government will buy out the two planes from AI, sources said.\n\"The planes would need extensive modifications and done up according to VIP requirements. It would also be fitted with sophisticated communication equipment, in flight refuelling equipment and security kits for which certification would be needed from Boeing\", the official said.\n\"Other modalities are being worked out in consultation with Boeing officials. The transfer", "to \"buy either new characters or businesses that are capable of creating great characters and great stories.\" Later, in early February 2012, Disney completed its acquisition of UTV Software Communications, expanding their market further into India and Asia. On October 30, 2012, Disney announced plans to acquire Lucasfilm in a deal valued at $4.05 billion. Disney announced an intent to leverage the Star Wars franchise across its divisions, and planned to produce a seventh installment in the main film franchise for release in 2015. The sale was completed on December 21, 2012. On March 24, 2014, Disney acquired Maker Studios,", "65% of loan guarantees over 2007 and 2008 went to companies purchasing Boeing aircraft. In 2012, the Bank's loan guarantees became even more skewed, with 82 percent of them going to Boeing customers.\nHowever, EXIM supporters note that Boeing is the largest exporter in the United States by dollar value, and must be protected in their capacity as the only remaining comprehensive U.S. commercial aircraft manufacturer. Support of Boeing is seen as particularly critical as Comac, China's state-owned and heavily subsidized commercial aircraft manufacturer, aggressively seeks to leech market share from both Boeing and Airbus. Also important to note, Boeing is", "companies from making a bid, as the deal was needed to be voted on by shareholders.\nIger explained the reasoning behind the bid: \"Direct-to-consumer distribution has actually become an even more compelling proposition in the six months since we announced the deal. There has just been not only a tremendous amount of development in that space, but clearly the consumer is voting—loudly.\"\nOn June 27, the United States Department of Justice gave antitrust approval to Disney under the condition of selling Fox's 22 regional sports channels within 90 days of closing, to which the company has agreed. The next day, Disney and", "Gardiner of the UK Labour Party accused Boeing of hypocrisy, insisting that all aircraft manufacturers require government subsidies; he labeled Boeing \"the king of corporate welfare\" and a \"subsidy junkie\" and suggested it was trying to \"crush a competitor\".\nBombardier manufacturing in Northern Ireland employs indirectly 11,000 people. European Union Boeing was prepared for the possibility of losing military sales from the Canadian and UK reactions, but was surprised that Airbus took a majority stake in the program, which could cause EU retaliation, leading to the US possibly backing down.\nIn its original April complaint, Boeing notes that \"Airbus has opened a", "Boeing. The government claimed to have guarantees from Boeing not to discontinue any product lines, but shortly thereafter, Boeing discontinued both the successful Twin Otter and the Dash 7. The jigs and specialised equipment for their manufacture were destroyed.\nBoeing was in heavy competition with Airbus Industrie for a series of new airliners for Air Canada, at that time a Canadian Crown corporation. Boeing used the DHC purchase to further strengthen their commitment to their shared production contracts. The contract was particularly contentious. When Air Canada announced that Airbus had won the contract in 1988, amid claims of bribery, Boeing", "be bidding for other defence work and this kind of behaviour clearly could jeopardise our future relationship.\"Boeing UK is also a major employer in the UK.\nMay hinted that the UK might cease ordering aircraft from Boeing unless the punitive tariff against Bombardier is dropped.\nThe UK government's orders for helicopters and patrol aircraft are already firm and Boeing will refuse to back down to prevent \"subsidized competition\" and \"illegal dumping\" by Bombardier which would hurt Boeing for many years.\nThe Republic of Ireland's Taoiseach Leo Varadkar warned that the Commerce Department's tariff may result in a UK-US trade war.\nOn October 11, Barry", "Boeing–Embraer joint venture History In December 2017, the Wall Street Journal reported Boeing has been in takeover talks with the 18,000 employee strong Embraer, valuing it over its $3.7 billion market value, awaiting Brazilian government approbation.\nThe two companies confirmed that a potential combination was being discussed, with a transaction subject to approval by the Brazilian government and regulators, the two companies’ boards and shareholders\nThe potential deal is seen as a reaction to the Airbus-Bombardier deal on the CSeries.\nOn December 22, 2017, Brazilian President Michel Temer said the sale of Embraer to Boeing was \"out of the question\", adding that the", "a joint-venture between the Carlyle Group and the Chinese State-owned CITIC which then sells space on these satellites to Chinese companies. The companies stated that they never specifically intended for their technology to be used by China's Ministry of Public Security and the Police.\nOn July 18, 2019, when presenting its second-quarter results, Boeing announced that it had recorded a $4.9 billion after-tax charge corresponding to its initial estimate of the cost of compensation to airlines for the 737 MAX groundings, but not the cost of lawsuits, potential fines, or the less tangible cost to its reputation. It also noted a", "7 and the Airbus A319neo.\nThe effect of stiff competition and production delays was apparent in early 2016. On 20 January, United Continental Holdings ordered 40 Boeing 737-700 aircraft instead. Aside from ready availability of aircraft already in full production, the purchase of Boeing vs. the Bombardier CSeries was financially prudent. Since United already flies 310 of the 737, there will be savings for pilot training and fewer spare parts will need to be stocked. Boeing also reportedly gave United a massive 73% discount on the 737 deal, dropping the price to $22 million per aircraft, well below the CS300 market", "were released, \"What we didn't mention is how funny they are.\" Sony Computer Entertainment America Senior Vice President Peter Dille said that the commercials had \"been tremendously successful. Consumers love it. It's great to hear people like you guys love it. And the results are really in the sales because it's really been flying since this coincided in September with the launch of the new PS3.\" Engadget also loved the commercials saying, \"We have to hand it to Sony, they've followed up nicely on their \"worst kept secret\" trade show jokes with an ad campaign that is fittingly self-aware\". Destructoid", "consumption and emissions. In 2017, 3 767-300ERs were purchased from Japan Airlines, becoming the first converted 767s for UPS.\nIn October 2016, UPS Airlines announced a $5.2 billion agreement to purchase 14 Boeing 747-8F freighter aircraft (with an option for 14 more). While originally planning to end production of the 747 by 2020, along with the UPS purchase, Boeing cites replacement of older aircraft, e-commerce, and demand for larger aircraft across international routes as justification for retaining the 747. In February 2018, UPS exercised its option to purchase the additional 14 747 freighters, making UPS the largest operator of the 747-8", "commercial aviation division. This is seen as a reaction after Airbus acquired a majority of the competing Bombardier CSeries on October 16, 2017. Embraer will retain its executive business jet and its defence business.\nOn May 23, 2019, Boeing announced that the division would be known as \"Boeing Brasil – Commercial\", dropping the Embraer name, but has not yet decided whether the aircraft will be rebranded as Boeing models. Production bases and facilities The company's headquarters and a production base are in São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil. It also has production bases in the State of São Paulo at Botucatu,", "the first commercial jetliner to reach 1,000 sales.\nOn May 21, 1961, the company shortened its name to the current \"Boeing Company\".\nBoeing won a contract in 1961 to manufacture the S-IC stage of the Saturn V rocket, manufactured at the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana.\nIn 1966, Boeing president William M. Allen asked Malcolm T. Stamper to spearhead production of the new 747 airliner on which the company's future was riding. This was a monumental engineering and management challenge, and included construction of the world's biggest factory in which to build the 747 at Everett, Washington, a plant which is", "US$400 million of Boeing's pretax earnings in 2000, US$50 million more than the 747. By 2004, the airliner accounted for the bulk of wide-body revenues for the Boeing Commercial Airplanes division. In 2007, orders for second-generation 777 models approached 350 aircraft, and in November of that year, Boeing announced that all production slots were sold out to 2012. The program backlog of 356 orders was valued at US$95 billion at list prices in 2008.\nIn 2010, Boeing announced plans to increase production from 5 aircraft per month to 7 aircraft per month by mid-2011, and 8.3 per month by early 2013. Complete assembly of", "do subsequent commercials for the company.", "the purchase agreement with Boeing covering the firm order of 2 Boeing 777-300ER, plus 2 options. The first PAL-owned aircraft was delivered on 20 June 2012, with it being the third Boeing 777-300ER for the airline.\nThe purchase of Boeing 777s effectively signals the end of additional 747-400 orders and production of the said aircraft in passenger configuration and a win for Boeing versus the Airbus A340-600 that was also being considered. In December 2016, 2 more B777s were delivered. In March 2017, 2 more B777s were leased from Intrepid Aviation with both aircraft being delivered in December 2017.\nPhilippine Airlines is", "believed to penalize companies like Boeing for engaging in legal action against the country. July 2019 In July 2019 the federal government released a formal request for proposals to purchase 88 new fighters. The request invited Airbus, Boeing, Lockheed Martin and Saab to submit proposals for their Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Lockheed Martin F-35 and the Saab Gripen, in a competition that will assess the bids under a points system, assigning 60% for technical merit, 20% for cost and 20% for industrial benefits to Canada. The winner is expected to be announced in 2022 and first deliveries in", "of traditional commercial business in the airline industry, without the risk of financial loss. These organizations also provide an outlet for those who are interested in aviation but unable to fly themselves in real life due to financial, health, or other reasons. As of 2014, an estimated 80 percent of virtual pilots hold no real world pilot's license.\nAcademics have stated that members of these groups can often show significant attachment and immersion in their activity, building strong relationships with those who they share their created \"space\" with. Participants can become unusually dedicated and committed to their group through the forging", "that the acquisition will neither affect any of Marvel's products in any way nor will the nature of any Marvel characters or products be transformed. The acquisition was completed on December 31, 2009. Transition of ownership regarding Star Wars On December 21, 2012, Disney acquired Lucasfilm (and, as a result, the rights to the Star Wars franchise, Skywalker Sound and Industrial Light and Magic) as a subsidiary for the price of $4 billion. Lucasfilm and Star Wars in general were evaluated to decide upon how each area was to be approached. After Dark Horse Comics lost the rights to create", "to its suppliers to have them pull any Disney branded products out of the five \"highest-risk countries\" by April 2014: Bangladesh, Ecuador, Venezuela, Belarus and Pakistan, based on a World Bank-governed metric report. This was announced in May after a Bangladeshi factory building collapsed. Haiti and Cambodia, which are also low-ranking countries, were allowable per Disney's new policy so long as the factories worked with the Better Work health and safety program run by the International Labour Organization and the International Finance Corporation. Bangladesh factories were liable to get work if they also partnered with the Better Work program. Disney", "Jr. of Deadline Hollywood commented, \"given how Disney made the Marvel and Lucasfilm deals under the cone of silence, if this happens we'll probably only know it when it's announced. It is certainly being talked about today.\"\nRumors of a nearing deal continued on December 5, with additional reports suggesting the FSN regional sports networks would be included in the sale (assets that would likely be aligned with Disney's ESPN division).\nOn December 11, Comcast announced it was dropping its bid on the Fox assets. On December 14, Disney and Fox confirmed a $52.4 billion deal to merge the two companies, pending", "ads, the actors are specific to those countries.\nThe UK ads feature famous comedy duo Mitchell and Webb, with David Mitchell as the Windows PC and Robert Webb as the Mac computer. The Japanese ones are played by Rahmens, with Jin Katagiri as the Windows PC and Kentarō Kobayashi as the Mac computer.\nIn April 2009, Justin Long revealed that the \"Get A Mac\" commercials \"might be done\". In May 2010, the \"Get A Mac\" was officially ended and the web pages began to redirect to a new \"Why You'll Love Mac\" page with more features on the Macintosh hardware and software.", "various businesses could face market difficulties and financing challenges in the future. Some consumers say they are avoiding purchasing Trump-branded products and services as a protest against Trump and his campaign. Bookings and foot traffic at Trump-branded hotels and casinos fell off sharply in 2016, primarily driven by a decrease in visits to the properties by women. Following the release of the Access Hollywood tape recordings in October 2016, the value of the Trump brand was reported to have taken a further hit, with estimates of the reduction in the brand's added value of up to 13 percentage points. Stocks,", "and the product. In 2007, the Kraft Lunchable's site allowed visitors to access a limited number of games for their promotion of the movie Transformers unless they had a promotional code which could be found inside the product. US regulations The US has only a few policies in place for regulating the advertisements that are directed to children. Children's Advertising Review Unit (CARU) of the National Council of Better Business Bureaus has established a code within the advertising industry of self-regulation. The guidelines set by CARU apply to all types of children's advertising but hold no actual" ]

[ "This is actually one of the major issues with American football. The padding protects from the blunt hit and spreads out the impact so you aren't taking a lot of force to a particular place on your body, but your body is still being shoved really hard as a whole. This means the force is spread out and absorbed a bit so your skeleton isn't taking such a direct impact, but since a body at rest tends to stay at rest, when you get hit, your organs like to stay where they are as your skeleton is forced to move and they bang around inside their cage.", "Your ribs are fairly flexible, and that elasticity helps prevent the more serious injuries related to broken ribs (namely punctured lungs, which can be life threatening). The ribs do protect the major organs in your rib cage, and without those ribs, those bruised lungs would have been far more severe. Bruised lungs are much less severe than broken ribs, so the elasticity helps to protect despite what you might think." ]

[ "torn when he was hit by a member of the Dallas Cowboys defense. Unitas wrote in his autobiography that he felt his arm was initially injured by the use of the \"night ball\" that the NFL was testing for better TV visibility during night games. In a post-game interview the previous year, he noted having constant pain in his elbow for several years prior. He would spend most of the season sitting on the bench. The Colts still marched to a league-best 13–1 record behind backup quarterback and ultimate 1968 NFL MVP Earl Morrall. Although he was injured through most", "most NFL players DeMarco took painkillers to mask the pain so he could continue playing causing further damage to his body.", "Taylor noted, \"I can throw freely and it doesn't hurt. I'm close to 100 percent and never even thought of not playing.\" Assistant coach Gary Moeller explained that Taylor's injury problem had been caused by the fact that \"he didn't know how to throw properly until he came to Michigan.\" Taylor had been \"flinging the ball with his arm,\" Moeller noted, instead of using his whole body and sometimes reverted to that habit. Despite the pain, Taylor vowed to give it his best effort against Notre Dame, saying, \"I was raised to play football only one", "known, is that of playing in the 1979 playoffs, including Super Bowl XIV, with a fractured left fibula. He also played in the 1980 Pro Bowl with the injured leg, a week after the Super Bowl. In the playoffs, Youngblood sacked Dallas Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach near the sideline in the waning moments of the divisional playoff game versus the Cowboys. Playing with the fractured leg was noted by Sports Illustrated in their Top 10 list of athletes playing in pain. For that and other achievements Jack was dubbed the \"John Wayne of football\" by Jim Hanifan and echoed by", "While 80 percent of players return to pitching at the same level as before the surgery, for those Major League Baseball pitchers who receive the surgery twice, 35 percent do not return to pitch in the majors at all. Injury factors The ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) can become stretched, frayed, or torn through the repetitive stress of the throwing motion. The risk of injury to the throwing athlete's UCL is thought to be extremely high as the amount of stress through this structure approaches its ultimate tensile strength during a hard throw.\nThis injury is associated with baseball, although it sometimes", "than in football impacts because of a lower effective punch mass. They cause proportionately more rotational acceleration than in football. Modeling shows that the greatest strain is in the midbrain late in the exposure, after the primary impact acceleration in boxing and football.\nMuhammad Ali, possibly the most famous boxer of all time, was “diagnosed with 'a cluster of symptoms that resemble Parkinson's disease,' known as Parkinson's syndrome, which his doctor believed were caused by numerous blows to the head,” which led to his death in 2016. Gymnastics As many skills as gymnastics involve flipping or a blind landing, incidence of", "the Colts defeated the Oakland Raiders in the season opener, a rail over the opposing team tunnel collapsed injuring two fans. One fan was transferred to the hospital for evaluation. No serious injuries were reported.\nOn September 3, 2015, three fans were injured by a bolt that fell from the roof of the stadium as it was being opened during an NFL preseason game against the Cincinnati Bengals. The stadium was pronounced safe by officials, but the roof remained closed for events until a final investigation was completed as to why the bolt fell.", "attacks, the backs still do get tackled like any other player on the field, so they have to have physical strength as much as a forward. The Concussion bin was replaced by the head bin in 2012 with the players assessment taking 10 minutes. Causes and likelihood of concussion Concussion was the most commonly reported Premiership Rugby match injury in 2015-16 (for the 5th consecutive season), constituting appropriately 25% of all match injuries, and the RFU medical officer said that the tackle is where the overwhelming majority of concussions occur.\nA study found that playing more than 25 matches in the", "was best known for his devastating right-hand punch; he so frequently hit players with his right hand, often landing blows on their helmets or teeth, his right hand was often in poor condition.\nIn an interview, Donald Brashear described how Kocur cracked his helmet with his punches; though his helmet absorbed most of the blow, he still felt serious pain in his gums even on the other side of his face, leaving him unable to eat for a day or so. Kocur's punches often seriously injured players, such as Brad Dalgarno of the New York Islanders, whose orbital bone, cheek bone,", "pistol. Austin survived but the gunshot destroyed his right eye and damaged his left, effectively ending his football career. He now works as a special educator at an elementary school in Clemson, South Carolina.", "that everything is not given to you on a silver platter. Being able to go out there and practice with my teammates is a blessing. Not too many people come back positive from an ACL [injury].\" In an interview with The Daily Reveille, Alexander noted the strength of LSU's defensive line in recent years and suggested that, iff Penn State is Linebacker U. and USC is Halfback U., then LSU should be known as \"Defensive Line U\": \"This is officially now Defensive Line University. We have a stockpile of guys who can play good football here, and", "pounds or so. The muscles along the right side of my back tore. They just snapped and let loose. And that was the start of it all: the pain, the painkillers, the addiction, the lost career.\" Music A film tie-in song written by Sammy Cahn and Jimmy Van Heusen was recorded by Frank Sinatra and Robert Horton. It was composer Elie Siegmeister's only Hollywood film score.", "injuries have occurred as a result of engaging in it. In 1943, just one season after collecting his 3,000th hit, Paul Waner accidentally gashed his foot while shagging a fly ball in a game against the Pittsburgh Pirates, his former team. This was probably due to Waner being nearsighted and his refusal to wear glasses; thus, he \"played the outfield by ear.\" Nearly four decades later, Jerry Reuss was handed the honor of pitching on Opening Day in 1981, but suffered an injury to his calf while shagging for his teammates. He was replaced by unheralded rookie", "... And then you have his quarterback out there giving everything he had, and it was a contrast between the two visually that when you looked at him and you looked at Philip Rivers, you said well, damn—we don't know how bad Tomlinson was hurt.\" Terrell Davis, whose NFL career ended due to knee injuries, said, \"... when you're talking about the knee, it just ain't the same.\"\nTomlinson did not participate in the San Diego Chargers' off-season program in 2008 because of the injury. Much like the previous year, Tomlinson got off to a slow start after jamming his", "and ribs. The distribution of injuries are significantly different between the three groups (beginner, amateur, and professional), this seems to be expected as a person progresses through the different levels the forces involved are a lot higher, less padding and protective equipment is used, and athletes are likely to train harder, resulting in more serious injuries among experienced fighters.", "how well the player lands will impact on the injury. Lack of Stability Lack of stability in the knee is a main cause of rupturing the ACL in the knee. Most advanced athletes struggle to gain enough stability within the knee while exercising causing the possibility of injury. The ACL exists to provide the knee stability but it is the athletes duty to make sure the knee is stable enough to be able to play out the game. Prevention The risk of injuring the ACL is very high for an athlete, as most professionals say it is worrying how common", "my heart. I could've punctured it, but it just bruised.\" -Jim McMahon, 2014\nThe season ending rib injury to McMahon in Week 15 (a 19–14 win against the Giants) made way for a devastating loss at home to Dallas in Week 16, ending Philadelphia's playoff hopes. However, the season was highlighted by a 10–6 record, allowing the Eagles to join the 49ers as the only NFL clubs to post 10-or-more wins in each of the last four seasons. Both teams missed the postseason in '91 despite winning 10 games. A Defense That Rewrote the Record Books Philadelphia's defense finished the season", "the season due to tearing his ACL. 2012 Season During the 2012 offseason, Hurt stated that he was getting practice reps at the tackle position. During training camp, he split snaps at left guard with Josh LeRibeus after Kory Lichtensteiger had arthroscopic surgery and split snaps at right tackle with Tyler Polumbus and Willie Smith after Jammal Brown was placed on the physically unable to perform (PUP) list. After playing as a reserve guard for most of the season, Hurt started at right tackle in Week 16 against the Philadelphia Eagles for Tyler Polumbus, who suffered a concussion in the", "an injury. The following week, he aggravated his shoulder injury and subsequently missed the Colts' Week 15 victory against the Cincinnati Bengals. The Indianapolis Colts' safeties sustained numerous injuries throughout the regular season, including strong safety Bob Sanders, who sustained a knee injury and was limited to four games. Veteran Mike Doss tore his ACL in Week 7 and missed the last nine games after being placed on injured reserve. Bethea started the first ten games and began developing a reputation for delivering big hits over the middle. His performance placed him in line as a possible rookie of the", "sidearm pitching places less stress on the elbow and shoulder, thus reducing a pitcher's risk of injury. It is also not uncommon to hear the opposite. Analyses of pitchers' deliveries shows that arms slots are a function of shoulder tilt, not elbow angle, and this suggests that no one arm slot poses a greater threat to the elbow than another. It is likely, however, that pitchers who throw overhand are more susceptible to hyperabduction and concomitant rotator cuff problems, because they more easily throw the ball with the elbow higher than the level of the shoulders. In American football Sidearm", "the AFL, Cousins said his chest often felt tight and he had difficulty playing, \"but if I monitored my asthma correctly and took the right medication, I was able to overcome those effects\". In 1999, he had a mild asthma attack while warming up for a game against Melbourne, then fainted while at a restaurant after the game. West Coast's football manager, Rod Lester-Smith, said Cousins may have been affected by asthma, low blood pressure from playing the game earlier, and a corked leg that caused some internal bleeding. He was taken to Murdoch Hospital and recovered quickly.\nWest Coast coach", "up in a massive mistake of the athlete's own doing which results in injury. Finally, winning and losing streaks come to a close in all sports and this includes Milwaukee's nine-game winning streak in 1954. This makes the 1972 Miami Dolphins perfect season, 2007 New England Patriots perfect regular season, and the 2008 Detroit Lions winless season all the more remarkable.\nSI addressed its own opinions on the alleged cover jinx in a 2002 issue that featured a black cat on its cover.", "Orleans at the Super Bowl when he \"mooned\" journalists who were inquiring as to the status of a minor injury to his buttocks. McMahon was notorious for head-first baseball-style slides when running the football, despite being coached to slide feet-first to protect his body. In the playoffs McMahon heeded this coaching advice and was speared by a defender's helmet squarely in his buttocks, causing a painful deep bruise for which McMahon sought acupuncture treatment.\nIn an early-season Thursday night game at Minnesota, McMahon was slated to back up Steve Fuller, as McMahon had missed practice time earlier in the week due", "contact with Tatum's shoulder pad, compressing his spinal cord and breaking his fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae. He eventually regained limited movement in his right arm, but spent the rest of his life as a quadriplegic. The injury came just after Stingley had finished negotiating a contract extension that would have made him one of the highest paid receivers in the NFL. The new contract was to be announced when the Patriots returned from the West Coast. Instead, it was never signed.\nAlthough controversial, the hit was not against NFL rules at the time, as it was not helmet-to-helmet contact (it", "didn't want anybody thinking they could run on me or take advantage of the injury. I tried to do almost everything, except throw a baseball, left-handed: opening a door, turning on the radio—everything. It didn't get any better, but it was good enough that I didn't have to have surgery.\"\nBecause of his injury, Smith let his then four-year-old son Nikko perform his traditional Opening Day backflip before the Cardinals' first home game of the 1986 season. Smith made an \"eye-popping\" play later that season on August 4, during a game against the Philadelphia Phillies at Busch Stadium. In the top", "an injury that no previous NFL player had ever returned from. In October 1994, he beat the odds and made his comeback at home against the team he had grown up following, the Seattle Seahawks. On his first play, he tackled Chris Warren for a 5-yard loss. However, in the second quarter, he ruptured a disc in his neck in a collision with a teammate. Emtman continued to play, even though after the game, he could not close his fists due to nerve damage from the injury. He managed to play three more weeks until continuing pain forced him to", "a knee injury and not returning for the rest of the game. It was later revealed that Pollard's hit on Brady had ended the quarterback's season. Pollard later apologized for the hit, saying, \"It was really an accident, I can't change what happened. I can't do anything but pray for him and hope he has a speedy recovery.\" The Brady hit, along with other cases where quarterbacks had suffered serious injuries on similar helmet-to-knee hits, resulted in a rules change in the NFL beginning with the 2009 season: a defensive player on the ground may no longer lunge or", "elbow in a game against the Boston Red Sox on May 27 after jamming it into the metal fence at Fenway Park. He remained in the game, and x-rays later turned up negative. Revere later said of the injury, \"Luckily, I've got strong enough bones. If it was somebody else it may have been bad, but luckily it wasn't serious.\"\nBy the end of May, Revere was back hitting mainly at the top of the order after manager Charlie Manuel decided to adjust the lineup in hopes of sparking some offense. He managed two hits in a game against the Miami", "left knee after Palmer released a pass 66 yards down field to wide receiver Chris Henry, who was also injured on the play. The injury to Palmer was severe, including damage to his anterior cruciate ligament, medial collateral ligament, and posterior cruciate ligament. MRI's later determined that Palmers ACL, PCL, and MCL were all torn as a result of the hit. Cincinnati fans booed at him after watching the replays on the jumbotron, thinking that a flag should've been thrown for a late hit or roughing the passer. However, no flag was thrown because the hit was deemed legal", "field goal attempts, this is not generally true on kickoffs, and a kicker can see significant contact during a kick return. Kicker Björn Nittmo notably suffered severe brain damage from a hit he sustained on a kickoff in 1997.\nStill, due to their lack of plays in games and lack of contact compared to other positions, the top kickers in the NFL have often had extremely long careers, far beyond that of a typical NFL player. Place kicker is one of the few positions where it is not uncommon for players to be beyond the age of 40. Of" ]

[ "I think my dentist was counting money while my hygienist was scraping my teeth.", "Scraping off the plaque build up. And it is usually the dental hygienist not the actual dentist.", "Most of the time they're looking at how much plaque is on or around your teeth. In other instances they're determining texture of the top layer of enamel. Both of these factor into the health of your teeth and help with diagnosing any problems you may have.", "They are removing what is called calculus (sometimes also tartar, or \"teeth stone\"), which is a hardened form of plaque. It's bad for your gums and can cause gum bleeding.", "If the hygienist is doing it, he/she is removing plaque and tartar buildup. If the dentist is doing it he/she either is not bothered enough to hire a hygienist :p, or is checking for cavities after your cleaning. The metal 'pick\" is to explore all the little grooves and surfaces of the teeth to make sure there are no 'holes' or tiny pits which the instrument sticks into when poked at which could signify decay." ]

[ "remove material from them. This characteristic makes burrs suitable for dentistry, as the tool will grind the hard enamel of teeth, yet leaves soft mouth tissues unharmed if the tool should unintentionally touch them.", "the mouth near the gums while the elevator helped pull the tooth out of its socket. Then, a pair of pincers would do the rest of the job, wiggling the tooth out of the gum until the extraction was complete. The functionality of today's Dental Forceps come from the need to remove items from the mouth such as the cotton balls Dentists place next to a patient's teeth or the rubber bands a patient needs for their braces. However, most dental forceps are not designed for comfort, nor do they take the account of the dental practitioners hand positions", "a surgical or trans alveolar approach may be required, which involves cutting the gum away and removing the bone which is holding the tooth in with a surgical drill. After the tooth is removed, stitches are used to replace the gum into the normal position.\nImmediately after the tooth is removed, a bite pack is used to apply pressure to the tooth socket and stop the bleeding. After a tooth extraction, dentists usually give advice which revolves around not disturbing the blood clot in the socket by not touching the area with a finger or the tongue, by avoiding vigorous rinsing", "Toothpick History Known in all cultures, the toothpick is not just the oldest instrument for dental cleaning, but predates the arrival of early modern humans, for the skulls of Neanderthals, as well as Homo sapiens, show clear signs of teeth picked with a tool. Toothpicks made of bronze have been found as burial objects in prehistoric graves in Northern Italy and in the East Alps. In 1986, researchers in Florida discovered the 7500-year-old remains of ancient Native Americans and discovered small grooves between many of the molar teeth. One of the researchers, Justin Martin of Concordia University Wisconsin, said", "are then cut, chopped, milled and bleached (to lighten) into the individual toothpicks. Plastic toothpicks, also called dental pics, are still made in America in Georgia, by Armond's Manufacturing. The Mayo Clinic recommends using a dental pic in lieu of a wooden toothpick to clean one's teeth, as they clean more effectively and one does not risk injuring the gums.\nNowadays other means of dental hygiene are preferred such as dental floss and toothbrushes.", "teeth, usually to remove sharp points or to balance out the mouth. However, the veterinarian must be careful not to take off too much of the surface, or there will not be enough roughened area on the tooth to allow it to properly tear apart food. Additionally, too much work on a tooth can cause thermal damage (which could lead to having to extract the tooth), or expose the sensitive interior of the tooth (pulp). A person without a veterinary degree who performs this service is called a horse floater or equine dental technician. In popular culture The common", "Dental drill A dental drill or handpiece is a hand-held, mechanical instrument used to perform a variety of common dental procedures, including removing decay, polishing fillings, and altering prostheses.\nThe handpiece itself consists of internal mechanical components which initiate a rotational force and provide power to the cutting instrument, usually a dental burr. The type of apparatus used clinically will vary depending on the required function dictated by the dental procedure. It is common for a light source and cooling water-spray system to also be incorporated into certain handpieces; this improves visibility, accuracy and overall success of the procedure. High-speed handpiece", "tooth extraction routinely since it is a core skill taught in dental schools. Periodontists are performing more and more extractions, since they often follow up and place a dental implant. Types Extractions are often categorized as \"simple\" or \"surgical\".\nSimple extractions are performed on teeth that are visible in the mouth, usually with the patient under local anaesthetic, and require only the use of instruments to elevate and/or grasp the visible portion of the tooth. Typically the tooth is lifted using an elevator, and using dental forceps, rocked back and forth until the periodontal ligament has been sufficiently broken and the", "successful in maintaining the vitality of the pulp, the dentist will usually keep the status of the tooth under review for about 1 year after the procedure. Indirect In 1938, Bodecker introduced the Stepwise Caries Excavation (SWE) Technique for treatment of teeth with deep caries for preservation of Pulp vitality. \nThis technique is used when most of the decay has been removed from a deep cavity, but some softened dentin and decay remains over the pulp chamber that if removed would expose the pulp and trigger irreversible pulpitis. Instead, the dentist intentionally leaves the softened dentin/decay in place, and uses", "Teeth cleaning Teeth cleaning is part of oral hygiene and involves the removal of dental plaque from teeth with the intention of preventing cavities (dental caries), gingivitis, and periodontal disease. People routinely clean their own teeth by brushing and interdental cleaning, and dental hygienists can remove hardened deposits (tartar) not removed by routine cleaning. Those with dentures and natural teeth may supplement their cleaning with a denture cleaner. Brushing Careful and frequent brushing with a toothbrush helps to prevent build-up of plaque bacteria on the teeth.Electric toothbrushes were developed, and initially recommended for people with strength or dexterity problems", "easy to clean. Bite reclamation Bite reclamation is for patients who have had years of excessive wear to their teeth due to grinding or acid reflux can alter their vertical dimension. This gives them a closed or shorter look to their face and smile. By opening up their bite, a qualified professional can reclaim their vertical dimension. Materials In the past, dental fillings and other tooth restorations were made of gold, amalgam and other metals—some of which were veneered with porcelain. Now, dental work can be made entirely of porcelain or composite materials that more closely mimic the appearance of", "a method of making a disposable dental floss tooth pick.", "fissures and grooves in the chewing surfaces of back teeth, preventing food from becoming trapped and thereby halt the decay process. An elastomer strip has been shown to force sealant deeper inside opposing chewing surfaces and can also force fluoride toothpaste inside chewing surfaces to aid in remineralising demineralised teeth.\nBetween cleanings by a dental hygienist, good oral hygiene is essential for preventing tartar build-up which causes the problems mentioned above. This is done through careful, frequent brushing with a toothbrush, combined with the use of dental floss or interdental brushes to prevent accumulation of plaque on the teeth. Powered toothbrushes", "Pulp capping Pulp capping is a technique used in dental restorations to prevent the dental pulp from necrosis, after being exposed, or nearly exposed during a cavity preparation. When dental caries is removed from a tooth, all or most of the infected and softened enamel and dentin are removed. This can lead to the pulp of the tooth either being exposed or nearly exposed which causes pulpitis (inflammation). Pulpitis, in turn, can become irreversible, leading to pain and pulp necrosis, and necessitating either root canal treatment or extraction. The ultimate goal of pulp capping or stepwise caries removal", "is to protect a healthy dental pulp and avoid the need for root canal therapy.\nTo prevent the pulp from deteriorating when a dental restoration gets near the pulp, the dentist will place a small amount of a sedative dressing, such as calcium hydroxide or MTA. These materials, protect the pulp from noxious agents (heat, cold, bacteria) and stimulate the cell-rich zone of the pulp to lay down a bridge of reparative dentin. Dentin formation usually starts within 30 days of the pulp capping (there can be a delay in onset of dentin formation if the odontoblasts of the", "a softer alloy such as aluminum or brass to avoid scratching or damaging the material being bent.\nMuch of the tooling is made of hardened steel or tool steel to maintain and prolong the tool's life. However, when there is a concern of scratching or gouging the work piece, a softer material such as aluminum or bronze is utilized. For example, the clamping block, rotating form block and pressure die are often formed from hardened steel because the tubing is not moving past these parts of the machine. The pressure die and the wiping die are formed from aluminum or", "Dental restoration Direct restorations This technique involves placing a soft or malleable filling into the prepared tooth and building up the tooth. The material is then set hard and the tooth is restored. The advantage of direct restorations is that they usually set quickly and can be placed in a single procedure. The dentist has a variety of different filling options to choose from. A decision is usually made based on the location and severity of the associated cavity. Since the material is required to set while in contact with the tooth, limited energy (heat) is passed to the tooth", "tissue of which the dentin portion of the tooth is composed. The dental pulp helps complete formation of the secondary teeth (adult teeth) one to two years after eruption into the mouth. The dental pulp also nourishes and hydrates the tooth structure, making the tooth more resilient, less brittle and less prone to fracture from chewing hard foods. Additionally, the dental pulp provides a hot and cold sensory function. Variation Root canals presenting an oval cross-section are found in 50–70% of root canals. In addition, canals with a \"tear-shaped\" cross section are common when a single root contains two canals", "crushing When teeth are knocked-out, they end up on an artificial surface: the floor, the ground or material such as carpeting. If the surface is hard, the tooth root cells will be traumatized. Since the cells remaining on the tooth root are very delicate, additional trauma to the tooth root cells must be avoided so as to avoid more tooth root cell crushing. This damage can occur while picking the tooth up and/or during transportation to the dentist.\nWhen a tooth is picked up, it should always be grasped by the enamel on the crown. Finger pressure on the tooth root", "While early grills could not be removed easily and involved reshaping the tooth itself to fit the grill, grills are today made from custom dental molds. For more expensive grills, a dentist takes a mold of the wearer's front teeth with a quick set alginate. A tooth mold is obtained by filling the alginate negative with buff stone, then the buff stone is used to fit the grill to the unique set of teeth. However, for inexpensive novelty grills, a jeweler may make an impression by having the wearer bite into dental putty or wax softened in", "teeth, exposed root surfaces and areas of demineralization. If polishing does occur on these surfaces, fluoride therapy can minimize the risk of dental caries. Excessive pressure can lead to frictional heat that may cause pulpal discomfort or necrosis of the dental pulp. Restorations Surfaces of restorations may be damaged by conventional tooth polishing with prophylactic paste. Materials such as gold, amalgam, composite, porcelain and titanium implants can be polished by using specifically designed pastes such as those that contain rouge, tripoli, cuttle, emery, coarse pumice to prevent roughened or scratched surfaces. It is important to refer to manufacturer’s directions before", "made by traveling dentists in town fairs. They sometimes had musicians with them playing loud enough to cover the cries of pain of the people having their teeth extracted. In 1880 in Pyrénées-Orientales (France), one of these traveling dentists claimed to have extracted 475 teeth in one hour.", "screw tends to pull out, or to split the wood along the grain, and the radial edges have trouble cutting through the long wood fibers.\nCenter bits are made of relatively soft steel, and can be sharpened with a file. Auger bits The cutting principles of the auger bit are the same as those of the center bit above. The auger adds a long deep spiral flute for effective chip removal.\nTwo styles of auger bit are commonly used in hand braces: the Jennings or Jennings-pattern bit has a self-feeding screw tip, two spurs and two radial cutting edges. This bit has", "Cleaning between the teeth is called interdental cleaning and is as important as tooth brushing. This is because a toothbrush cannot reach between the teeth and therefore only removes about 50% of plaque off the surface. There are many tools to clean between the teeth, including floss and interdental brushes; it is up to each individual to choose which tool they prefer to use.\n\nSometimes white or straight teeth are associated with oral hygiene, but a hygienic mouth may have stained teeth and/or crooked teeth. For appearance reasons, people may seek out teeth whitening and orthodontics. Tooth cleaning and decay Tooth", "from the setting process. Indirect restorations In this technique the restoration is fabricated outside of the mouth using the dental impressions of the prepared tooth. Common indirect restorations include inlays and onlays, crowns, bridges, and veneers. Usually a dental technician fabricates the indirect restoration from records the dentist has provided. The finished restoration is usually bonded permanently with a dental cement. It is often done in two separate visits to the dentist. Common indirect restorations are done using gold or ceramics.\nWhile the indirect restoration is being prepared, a provisory/temporary restoration is sometimes used to cover the prepared tooth to help", "gnarled enamel and making the correct preparations, some inexperienced dentists face problems when performing a standard filling or root canal. The gnarled enamel can cause the drill problems and in some cases the dentist must replace the drill burr. The toughness of gnarled enamel varies from patient to patient and usually is nothing to be concerned about.", "the teeth.\nBy pressing the end of it, the user allows the teeth to open up and by releasing their hold, the teeth will grab whatever object is below the grabber. Use The tool is mainly used to retrieve screws, although is also helpful in retrieving jammed bits in the motherboard. They mainly come in sizes ranging from about 4 to 9 inches. The outer shell is usually plastic, although higher end retrievers can have metal casing and reinforced inner material. ", "method however, is not very effective and has a risk of damaging restorations on or accidentally extracting the opposing tooth. Therefore, before using this method, it is important to look at the state of the opposing tooth. Tapping and pneumatic tools Sliding hammers work by using a tip to engage the crown margin and sliding the weight along the shaft and tapping this to loosen the restoration. Several versions are available. Some are weighted, others are spring loaded. This system is uncomfortable for the patient and is not always successful. It is also contraindicated for periodontically involved teeth, as it", "throughout the procedure to mind. Dental forceps have been designed to the point where Dentists experience medical complications of their own on the carpal scale considering their hands are always placed in a certain awkward angle while they remove items from the patient's mouth.   ", "used more for decoration), on which to cut food and which protects counter tops and knives from damage. Carving fork A carving fork is a long, two-pronged fork used to hold meat steady while it is being carved. Carving forks are often sold together with carving knives or slicers as part of a matched carving set. Honing steel Contrary to popular belief, a honing steel (or butcher's steel or sharpening steel) does not sharpen knives, but instead straightens the blade, while a sharpener sharpens the blade. A honing steel is a rod made of steel or ceramic, generally about 30" ]

[ "It's because servers where traditionally named according to the services they provide. So a world wide web server had www., a file transfer protocol server had ftp., et caetera. We stopped having to type it because nowadays, the www._URL_0_ and _URL_0_ URLs both refer to the same server (URL is like a set of coordinates on a map that is given to your web browser to go and find the web site). Some sites don't, and so typing either form might yield different results.\n\nMost browsers also add the www. in automatically, to stop any problems that might occur.", "Back when giant lizards roamed the earth, there were many different ways to access the internet, all of them text based. A site's name would give you a clue as to what program you needed to use...gopher, lynx, ftp, telnet, etc.\n\nWhen the World Wide Web came along, www was used to let you know you were going to need a web browser and a machine capable of displaying graphics. Eventually, almost all sites were www, and the other sites fell into obscurity. The www is a holdover from that distant era." ]

[ "common despite the fact that it is slightly longer than the original (starting with \"A\").\nAs the use of typewriters grew in the late 19th century, the phrase began appearing in typing lesson books as a practice sentence. Early examples include How to Become Expert in Typewriting: A Complete Instructor Designed Especially for the Remington Typewriter (1890), and Typewriting Instructor and Stenographer's Hand-book (1892). By the turn of the 20th century, the phrase had become widely known. In the January 10, 1903, issue of Pitman's Phonetic Journal, it is referred to as \"the well known memorized typing line embracing all", "widely used between the 1870s and the 1950s, before the arrival of transatlantic telephone calls and next-day airmail rendered them obsolete. Numerous special-purpose codes were also developed and sold for fields as varied as aviation, car dealerships, insurance, and cinema, containing words and phrases commonly used in those professions.\nThese codes turned complete phrases into single words (commonly of five letters). These were not always genuine words; for example, codes contained \"words\" such as BYOXO (\"Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?\"), LIOUY (\"Why do you not answer my question?\"), BMULD (\"You're a skunk!\"), or AYYLU (\"Not clearly coded,", "1904 reform saw only two letters remaining, â and î, the choice of which followed rules that changed several times during the 20th century.\nDuring the first half of the century the rule was to use î in word-initial and word-final positions, and â everywhere else. There were exceptions, imposing the use of î in internal positions when words were combined or derived with prefixes or suffixes. For example the adjective urît \"ugly\" was written with î because it derives from the verb a urî \"to hate\".\nIn 1953, during the Communist era, the Romanian Academy eliminated the letter â, replacing it", "the diversification of the alphabet to codify the phonologies of the various languages.\nThe nature of writing has been constantly evolving, particularly due to the development of new technologies over the centuries. The pen, the printing press, the computer and the mobile phone are all technological developments which have altered what is written, and the medium through which the written word is produced. Particularly with the advent of digital technologies, namely the computer and the mobile phone, characters can be formed by the press of a button, rather than making a physical motion with the hand.\nThe nature of the written word", "reasons for this, including: first, the alphabet has 26 letters, but the English language has 40 sounds that must be reflected in word spellings; second, English spelling began to be standardized in the 15th century, and most spellings have not been revised to reflect the long-term changes in pronunciation that are typical for all languages; and third, English frequently adopts foreign words without changing the spelling of those words. Role in beginning reading Learning the connection between written letters and spoken sounds has been viewed as a critical heuristic to word identification for decades. Understanding that there is a direct", "did not come into common use until the end of the Middle Ages, a thousand years later.\nMore recently, the development of SMS (Short Message Service) technology is eliminating use of unnecessary letters in informal communication. Time pressure and limited character counts have introduced common abbreviations and variations such as gr8fl (grateful) and lite, as well as acronyms like idk (I don't know) and the ubiquitous LOL.", "\"m\". Also in 1803, the letter \"x\" was replaced with \"j\" when it had the same pronunciation as \"j\", and the circumflex accent (^) was eliminated. In 1994, it was decided at the 10th Congress of the Association of Academies of the Spanish Language to use the universal Latin alphabet, which does not include \"ch\" and \"ll\" as letters. \nThe earliest editions were more extensive: they included Latin translations of the entry, in some cases gave usage examples (especially in popular phrases), and summarized the word's etymology; contemporary editions do so concisely. The earliest editions had \"x\" entries that no", "the English language, non-English words familiar to Americans, and first names and family names commonly found in the United States. It improves encoding for proper names in particular to a considerable extent. The author claims that in general it improves accuracy for all words from the approximately 89% of Double Metaphone to 98%. Developers can also now set switches in code to cause the algorithm to encode Metaphone keys 1) taking non-initial vowels into account, as well as 2) encoding voiced and unvoiced consonants differently. This allows the result set to be more closely focused if the developer finds that", "during the remainder of the century. It was not until the 17th century that spelling began to be discussed, around the time when the first grammars were written. The spelling debate raged on until the early 19th century, and it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that the orthography reached generally acknowledged standards.\nCapitalization was during this time not standardized. It depended on the authors and their background. Those influenced by German capitalized all nouns, while others capitalized more sparsely. It is also not always apparent which letters are capitalized, due to the Gothic or black letter", "of the 1980s worked on what you are now using - the WWW. ND-NOTIS had full support for HTML at that time.\nThe main \"first\" - WYSIWYG - What you see is what you get. In 1983, most text editors used \"codes\" that had to be inserted in the text, like \"^p\" meaning \"paragraph.Even in the early days of text editors on Windows, most text systems were like that. However, NOTIS-WP, would show where the line ended and a new page started for a long time. The \"Symbolic Graphic Markup Language\" was developed as an international standard, and version 2 of", "portion of it used for each character. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term typewriter was also applied to a person who used a typing machine.\nThe first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874, but did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s. The typewriter quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by professional writers, in offices, and for business correspondence in private homes.\nTypewriters were a standard fixture in most offices up to the 1980s. Thereafter, they began to be largely supplanted by computers. Nevertheless, typewriters", "with the arrival of the digital \"typesetting machine\" like Compugraphic and the apparition of programs of Self-publishing like TeX and others. Later word processing systems arrived to the market. All these circumstances marked the end of the Diatype.", "international direct dialing was introduced in the 1960s, because, for example, dialing VIC 8900 on a Danish telephone would result in a different number to dialling it on a British telephone. At the same time letters were no longer placed on the dials of new telephones.\nLetters did not re-appear on phones in Europe until the introduction of mobile phones, and the layout followed the new international standard ITU E.161/ISO 9995-8. The ITU established an international standard (ITU E.161) in the mid-1990s, and that should be the layout used for any new devices. There is a standard, ETSI ES 202 130,", "The alphabet, first described completely by Spanish monks, was adopted by the Abbé de l'Épée's deaf school in Paris in the 18th century, and was then spread to deaf communities around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries via educators who had learned it in Paris. Over time, variations have emerged, brought about by natural phonetic changes that occur over time, adaptions for local written forms with special characters or diacritics (which are sometimes represented with the other hand), and avoidance of handshapes that are considered obscene in some cultures. The most widely used modern descendant is the American", "(produced by \"smart quotes\" in word-processing software) were replaced with question marks or boxes on non-Windows operating systems, making text difficult to read. Many web browsers and e-mail clients will interpret ISO-8859-1 control codes as Windows-1252 characters, and that behavior was later standardized in HTML5. Mac Roman The Apple Macintosh computer introduced a character encoding called Mac Roman in 1984. It was meant to be suitable for Western European desktop publishing. It is a superset of ASCII, and has most of the characters that are in ISO-8859-1 and all the extra characters from Windows-1252 but in a totally different", "The latter models in particular were popular with both professionals and consumers.\nIn the 1970s and 1980s word processing, a method for \"typing\" documents using a keyboard linked to a computer and a video screen, was developed. Early machines were dedicated exclusively to this function and a notable Canadian contribution, the Superplus IV, produced by AES Data in Montreal in 1981, became widely popular. However, the rise of the personal computer and the invention of PC-compatible word processing software, such as WordPerfect in 1982 and Microsoft Word in 1983, made stand-alone word processors obsolete. Spreadsheet software also became popular for accounting", "or English.\nBecause of their widespread use, including in public advertisements by large multinational companies, large players in the online industry like Google and Microsoft have introduced tools that convert text written in Arabish to Arabic (Google Translate and Microsoft Translator). Add-ons for Mozilla Firefox and Chrome also exist (Panlatin and ARABEASY Keyboard ). The Arabic chat alphabet is never used in formal settings and is rarely, if ever, used for long communications. History During the last decades of the 20th century, Western text-based communication technologies, such as mobile phone text messaging, the World Wide Web, email, bulletin board systems, IRC,", "Simplified Spelling Board The Simplified Spelling Board was an American organization created in 1906 to reform the spelling of the English language, making it simpler and easier to learn, and eliminating many of what were considered to be its inconsistencies. The board operated until 1920, the year after the death of its founding benefactor, who had come to criticize the progress and approach of the organization. Founding The Simplified Spelling Board was announced on March 11, 1906, with Andrew Carnegie funding the organization, to be headquartered in New York City. The New York Times noted that Carnegie was convinced that", "of the International Telegraph Union evolved over time; in 1879, it mandated coded telegrams only contain words from German, English, Spanish, French, Italian, Dutch, Portuguese, or Latin, but commercial codes already frequently used nonsense words. By 1903 regulations were changed to allow any pronounceable word no more than ten letters long.\nAnother aim of the telegraph codes was to reduce the risk of misunderstanding by avoiding having similar words mean similar things. Codes were usually designed to avoid error by using words which could not be easily confused by telegraph operators. Telegrapher errors could sometimes cause serious monetary damages, which in", "and influence in education circles was around 1914, when there were 1751 members in 40 countries. World War I and its aftermath severely disrupted the Association's activities, and the Journal did not resume regular publication until 1922. Development of the Alphabet The group’s initial aim was to create a set of phonetic symbols to which different articulations could apply, such that each language would have an alphabet particularly suited to describe the sounds of the language. Eventually it was decided that a universal alphabet, with the same symbol being used for the same sound in different languages was the ideal,", "the beginning of the alphabet (a, b, c,...) for known quantities, and letters from the end of the alphabet (z, y, x,...) for unknowns. It has been suggested that he later settled on x (in place of z) for the first unknown because of its relatively greater abundance in the French and Latin typographical fonts of the time.\nThree alternative theories of the origin of algebraic x were suggested in the 19th century: (1) a symbol used by German algebraists and thought to be derived from a cursive letter r, mistaken for x; (2) the numeral 1 with oblique strikethrough; and", "Though the I.T.A. was not originally intended to dictate one particular approach to teaching reading, it was often identified with phonics methods, and after the 1960s, the pendulum of educational theory swung away from phonics.\nThe I.T.A. remains of interest in discussions about possible reforms of English spelling. There have been attempts to apply the I.T.A. using only characters which can be found on the typewriter keyboard or in the basic ASCII character set, to avoid the use of special symbols.", "Europe for the preceding 30 years, his grasp of the English spelling system had become uncertain. The Belgian assistants he brought to help him set up his business had an even poorer command of it.\nAs printing developed, printers began to develop individual preferences or \"house styles\". Furthermore, typesetters were paid by the line and were fond of making words longer. However, the biggest change in English spelling consistency occurred between 1525, when William Tyndale first translated the New Testament, and 1539, when King Henry VIII legalized the printing of English Bibles in England. The many editions of these Bibles were", "on Windows.\nUnlike most MS-DOS programs at the time, Microsoft Word was designed to be used with a mouse. Advertisements depicted the Microsoft Mouse, and described Word as a WYSIWYG, windowed word processor with the ability to undo and display bold, italic, and underlined text, although it could not render fonts. It was not initially popular, since its user interface was different from the leading word processor at the time, WordStar. However, Microsoft steadily improved the product, releasing versions 2.0 through 5.0 over the next six years. In 1985, Microsoft ported Word to the classic Mac OS (known as Macintosh System", "called \"electronic typewriters\" and typically occupying a lower end of the market, selling for under $200 USD.\nDuring the late 1980s and into the 1990s the predominant word processing program was WordPerfect. It had more than 50% of the worldwide market as late as 1995, but by 2000 Microsoft Word had up to 95% market share.\nMacWrite, Microsoft Word, and other word processing programs for the bit-mapped Apple Macintosh screen, introduced in 1984, were probably the first true WYSIWYG word processors to become known to many people until the introduction of Microsoft Windows. Dedicated word processors eventually became museum pieces.", "The rise of email and social networks has also reduced the home role of the word processor as uses that formerly required printed output can now be done entirely online. History Word processors are descended from the Friden Flexowriter, which had two punched tape stations and permitted switching from one to the other (thus enabling what was called the \"chain\" or \"form letter\", one tape containing names and addresses, and the other the body of the letter to be sent). It did not wrap words, which was begun by IBM's Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter (later, Magnetic Card Selectric Typewriter). IBM", "of article easier to find using search engines like Google.\nIn the beginning, most how-tos on the Internet were the result of a complex process in which an author wrote a how-to for potential readers. After 2001, user added content played a more and more important role on the internet in a trend that is widely referred to as Web 2.0. This had a profound impact on the way in which how-tos are generated on the internet, as the readers and users were able to add to and improve the on-line content.", "being hired by IBM Germany. As an IBM typewriter salesman, he coined the word \"Textverarbeitung\" (\"word processing\") in 1955. A number of sources even credit him with originating the concept. However, Thomas Haig, an assistant professor in the University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee's School of Information Studies, wrote in the IEEE Annals of the History of Computing that the English term preceded the German, though he conceded that the latter \"was the first to achieve any currency\". Steinhilper tried to get IBM Germany interested in the concept, but without much success. In 1971, when the idea finally began to be accepted, IBM", "William Bullokar William Bullokar was a 16th-century printer who devised a 40-letter phonetic alphabet for the English language. Its characters were in the black-letter or \"gothic\" writing style commonly used at the time. Taking as his model a Latin grammar by William Lily, Bullokar wrote the first published grammar of the English language, in a book titled Brief Grammar for English, which appeared in 1586.", "Selectric Expensive Typewriter, written and improved between 1961 and 1962 by Steve Piner and L. Peter Deutsch, was a text editing program that ran on a DEC PDP-1 computer at MIT. Since it could drive an IBM Selectric typewriter (a letter-quality printer), it may be considered the first-word processing program, but the term word processing itself was only introduced, by IBM's Böblingen Laboratory in the late 1960s.\nIn 1969, two software based text editing products (Astrotype and Astrocomp) were developed and marketed by Information Control Systems (Ann Arbor Michigan). Both products used the Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-8 mini computer, DECtape" ]

[ "\"Imaginary\" is a bad word for them because they definitely exist, they're just part of the complex plane.\n\nImagine the number line, which contains all \"real\" numbers going off left and right into infinity. Left is negative, right is positive. Take a step to the right and you're at 1, a step to the left and you're at -1. Now imagine you take a step *forward* instead of left or right. Or you take a step backwards. You're going *somewhere*, you're going to a number - a number that definitely \"exists\" but it's not on this line that contains all \"real\" numbers. So when you take one step forward, it's not in the 1 direction, it's in the i direction. A step backwards is in the -i direction. Two steps is 2i, then 3i, etc. You have another number line that stretches forward and backward to infinity, which is the \"imaginary\" number line. When you put them together, you get the complex plane: that is, if you take three steps to the right and four steps forward, your position can't be described just by the real or imaginary number line, it's at 3+4i.\n\nYou can do this again with the \"up/down\" direction and create another number line that isn't real *or* imaginary numbers, that goes into three dimensions. Those are *quaternions* - units of numbers that are further into complex dimentions. The new line is marked with j, then k...and you can just keep going into more and more dimensions.\n\n[Relevant Numberphile](_URL_0_)\n\nEDIT: A word, and I'm bad at math.", "I feel like the answers that have been given are missing something. Just talking about the complex plane misses the point, since then you're just talking about higher-dimensional real numbers; just saying they involve the square root of -1 doesn't tell you why we care about having a square root of -1.\n\nThe motivation for complex numbers comes from polynomials. If I write an equation like\n\nx^5 + 3x^4 - 7x^3 + 20x^2 + 2x + 1 = 0\n\nthen it's quite natural to ask about values of x that solve this equation. The trouble is, in the general case, such as with\n\nx^2 + 1 = 0\n\nthere won't necessarily be any solutions. So what do we do? Well, let's just *make up* a solution. Suppose there is a number, call it i, such that i^2 = -1. Note that there are no *real* numbers for which this is true. Doing this, setting x = i in the above equation solves it... but that's not all. We said i was just like any other number, so we can add, subtract, multiply, and divide with it. The only special thing is that i^2 = -1.\n\nThe reason we don't just dismiss this as arbitrary is that not only is the above equation solved, but now *all equations* of the form\n\na0 + a1 * x + a2 * x^2 + ... + an * x^n = 0\n\nhave a solution. In fact, they have exactly n solutions (modulo multiplicity), and we got this just by saying i^2 = -1.\n\nThis just one of the many ways that complex numbers (which is a real number + an imaginary number) are a natural generalization of the real numbers. As it turns out, they can also be a useful tool for engineers/physicists because of this.\n\nSo, to answer the question, it isn't so much that there is a \"difference\" between imaginary and real numbers, rather that imaginary numbers are a *natural extension* of real numbers.", "Since nobody's gone into it the way I had it explained to me, I'll just toss another post into the mix. It helps to have some context in terms of what various types of numbers are, and why we care about them.\n\nWe started off with the most obvious numbers: the numbers you count with. 1, 2, 3, 4, ... We call these the **natural numbers**\n\nWe came up with the concept of zero, and realized that we could give every number an *additive inverse* (basically, a negative). This gave us **the integers**: ..., -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ..., and allowed us to define subtraction.\n\nThen we realized that there was another concept not covered by these; fractions! Say we have three people and two pizzas; no integer will split them evenly among us. So we have the **rational numbers** (which are a ratio of two integers): 1/2, 365/48, -7727/78, etc.\n\nBut then we came across another problem; the number √2 definitely exists; if you have a square with a side length of one, this is the length of your diagonal. But it's not a natural number, integer, or rational number. The numbers which 'fill in the blanks' in this manner are the **real numbers**.\n\nSo, similar to how we realized that we could 'unlock' subtraction by defining negative integers, we decided to see what happens if you take the square root of a negative number, and we defined an **imaginary unit** i = √(-1).\n\n**Complex numbers** are a number with a **real part** and an **imaginary part**, such as 1 + 3i, or 27 - 4i. It turns out that including the concept of a negative square root is actually consistent with everything we already knew - in fact, we can learn a lot about real numbers by exploring properties of complex ones!", "The real numbers are all the numbers you grew up working with - 1,2,3,4, 4.5, 1/3, 1.2345, -27, 3.1415... and so on.\n\nWhen you limit yourself to the real numbers, the square root of -1 is undefined - there's just no possible number it can be.\n\nTo get around this, mathematicians defined **i** as the square root of -1. Giving you `i * i = -1`. Imaginary numbers are any real number multiplied by **i** : i, 2i, 3i, 4i, 4.5i, i/3, 1.2345\\*i, -27i, 3.1415...\\*i and so on.\n\nThen you also have the *complex numbers* which are made up of *both* real & imaginary parts - things like `(2.5 + 3i)`. Really, anything of the form `(a + bi)` where a & b are real numbers." ]

[ "live in. It turns out that a mathematical model involving imaginary time predicts not only effects we have already observed but also effects we have not been able to measure yet nevertheless believe in for other reasons. So what is real and what is imaginary? Is the distinction just in our minds?\n— Stephen Hawking\nIn fact, the names \"real\" and \"imaginary\" for numbers are just a historical accident, much like the names \"rational\" and \"irrational\":\n...the words real and imaginary are picturesque relics of an age when the nature of complex numbers was not properly understood.\n— H.S.M. Coxeter In quantum statistical mechanics The equations", "the purely imaginary numbers. The set of all skew-Hermitian matrices forms the Lie algebra, which corresponds to the Lie group U(n). The concept can be generalized to include linear transformations of any complex vector space with a sesquilinear norm.\nNote that the adjoint of an operator depends on the scalar product considered on the dimensional complex or real space . If denotes the scalar product on , then saying is skew-adjoint means that for all one has\n.\nImaginary numbers can be thought of as skew-adjoint (since they are like matrices), whereas real numbers correspond", "Imaginary time Origins Mathematically, imaginary time may be obtained from real time via a Wick rotation by in the complex plane: , where Is defined to be , and is known as the imaginary unit.\nStephen Hawking popularized the concept of imaginary time in his book The Universe in a Nutshell.\nOne might think this means that imaginary numbers are just a mathematical game having nothing to do with the real world. From the viewpoint of positivist philosophy, however, one cannot determine what is real. All one can do is find which mathematical models describe the universe we", "Totally imaginary number field In algebraic number theory, a number field is called totally imaginary (or totally complex) if it cannot be embedded in the real numbers. Specific examples include imaginary quadratic fields, cyclotomic fields, and, more generally, CM fields.\nAny number field that is Galois over the rationals must be either totally real or totally imaginary.", "December/Decimal, and the coincidence that both equal the same amount (). Imaginary numbers Some jokes are based on imaginary number i, treating it as if it is a real number. A telephone intercept message of \"you have dialed an imaginary number, please rotate your handset ninety degrees and try again\" is a typical example. Another popular example is \"What did i say to π? Be rational. What did π say to i? Get real.\" Stereotypes of mathematicians Some jokes are based on stereotypes of mathematicians tending to think in complicated, abstract terms, causing them to lose touch with the \"real", "Quater-imaginary base Converting into quater-imaginary It is also possible to convert a decimal number to a number in the quater-imaginary system. Every complex number (every number of the form a+bi) has a quater-imaginary representation. Most numbers have a unique quater-imaginary representation, but just as 1 has the two representations 1 = 0.999... in decimal notation, so has the two quater-imaginary representations 1.(0300)…₂ᵢ = 0.(0003)…₂ᵢ.\nTo convert an arbitrary complex number to quater-imaginary, it is sufficient to split the number into its real and imaginary components, convert each of those separately, and then add the results by interleaving the digits. For", "numbers is Platonic realism, which grants them abstract, immaterial existence. Other forms of realism identify mathematics with the concrete physical universe.\nAnti-realist stances include formalism and fictionalism.\nSome approaches are selectively realistic about some mathematical objects but not others. Finitism rejects infinite quantities. Ultra-finitism accepts finite quantities up to a certain amount. Constructivism and intuitionism are realistic about objects that can be explicitly constructed, but reject the use of the principle of the excluded middle to prove existence by reductio ad absurdum.\nThe traditional debate has focused on whether an abstract (immaterial, intelligible) realm of numbers has existed in addition to the physical", "real number is an algorithmically random sequence. \nCalude, Hertling, Khoussainov, and Wang showed\nthat a recursively enumerable real number is an algorithmically random sequence if and only if it is a Chaitin's Ω number. Incompleteness theorem for halting probabilities For each specific consistent effectively represented axiomatic system for the natural numbers, such as Peano arithmetic, there exists a constant N such that no bit of Ω after the Nth can be proven to be 1 or 0 within that system. The constant N depends on how the formal system is effectively represented, and thus does not directly reflect the complexity of", "numbers The real numbers have several important lattice-theoretic properties that are absent in the complex numbers. Most importantly, the real numbers form an ordered field, in which sums and products of positive numbers are also positive. Moreover, the ordering of the real numbers is total, and the real numbers have the least upper bound property: \nEvery nonempty subset of that has an upper bound has a least upper bound that is also a real number. \nThese order-theoretic properties lead to a number of important results in real analysis, such as the monotone convergence theorem, the intermediate value theorem and", "(and its combinations with real numbers by addition and multiplication). Calculations with numbers are done with arithmetical operations, the most familiar being addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation. Their study or usage is called arithmetic. The same term may also refer to number theory, the study of the properties of numbers.\nBesides their practical uses, numbers have cultural significance throughout the world. For example, in Western society, the number 13 is regarded as unlucky, and \"a million\" may signify \"a lot.\" Though it is now regarded as pseudoscience, belief in a mystical significance of numbers, known as numerology, permeated ancient and", "alternative number systems Although the real numbers form an extremely useful number system, the decision to interpret the notation \"0.999...\" as naming a real number is ultimately a convention, and Timothy Gowers argues in Mathematics: A Very Short Introduction that the resulting identity 0.999... = 1 is a convention as well:\nHowever, it is by no means an arbitrary convention, because not adopting it forces one either to invent strange new objects or to abandon some of the familiar rules of arithmetic.\nOne can define other number systems using different rules or new objects; in some such number systems, the above proofs", "claims concerning mathematical objects in question and specifically complex numbers are incorrect,\" specifically attacking their statement that complex numbers and irrational numbers \"have nothing to do with one another\". Plotnisky here defends Lacan's view \"of imaginary numbers as an extension of the idea of rational numbers—both in the general conceptual sense, extending to its ancient mathematical and philosophical origins ... and in the sense of modern algebra.\" The first of these two senses refers to the fact that the extension of real numbers to complex numbers mirrors the extension of rationals to reals, as Plotnitsky points out with a quote", "into using imaginary numbers practically, he goes into a detailed explanation of the properties of complex numbers. Right away, he makes it clear that the rules of arithmetic for imaginary numbers are not the same as for real numbers. This was a big accomplishment, as even numerous subsequent mathematicians were extremely confused on the topic.\nBombelli avoided confusion by giving a special name to square roots of negative numbers, instead of just trying to deal with them as regular radicals like other mathematicians did. This made it clear that these numbers were neither positive nor negative. This", "in the same sense that real numbers can be represented in floating point. Surreal numbers Conway's surreal numbers fall into category 2. They are a system designed to be as rich as possible in different sizes of numbers, but not necessarily for convenience in doing analysis. Certain transcendental functions can be carried over to the surreals, including logarithms and exponentials, but most, e.g., the sine function, cannot. The existence of any particular surreal number, even one that has a direct counterpart in the reals, is not known a priori, and must be proved. Hyperreals The most widespread technique for handling", "Normal number In mathematics, a real number is said to be simply normal in an integer base b if its infinite sequence of digits is distributed uniformly in the sense that each of the b digit values has the same natural density 1/b. A number is said to be normal in base b if, for every positive integer n, all possible pairs n digits long have density b⁻ⁿ.\nIntuitively, a number being simply normal means that no digit occurs more frequently than any other. If a number is normal, no finite combination of digits of a given length occurs more frequently than any", "view or position. Number Number exists only in the mind. The same thing is described by different numbers according to the mind's viewpoint. An object can have an extension of one, three, and thirty six, according to its measurement in yards, feet, and inches. Number is relative and does not exist separately from a mind. Sensed qualities are mental Unity is merely an abstract idea. Primary qualities, such as figure, extension, and motion, are relative, as are secondary qualities such as red, bitter, and soft. They all depend on the observer's frame of reference, position, or point of view. Berkeley's", "an institution in as much as it represents the system of meanings that govern a given social structure. These imaginaries are to be understood as historical constructs defined by the interactions of subjects in society. In that sense, the imaginary is not necessarily \"real\" as it is an imagined concept contingent on the imagination of a particular social subject. Nevertheless, there remains some debate among those who use the term (or its associated terms, such as imaginaire) as to the ontological status of the imaginary. Some, such as Henry Corbin, understand the imaginary to be quite real indeed, while others", "which is expressed as 300₂ᵢ, and then shifting by one place to the right, yielding: 6i = 30₂ᵢ.\nFinding the quater-imaginary representation of an arbitrary real integer number can be done manually by solving a system of simultaneous equations, as shown below.\nBut there are faster methods for both real and imaginary integers, as shown in the negative base article. Another conversion method For real numbers the quater-imaginary representation is the same as negative quaternary (base −4). A complex number x+iy can be converted to quater-imaginary by converting x and y/2 separately to negative quaternary. If both x and y are finite", "methods have no such constraint and can have descriptive names; these are sometimes known as alternative constructors. As an example, when complex numbers are created from two real numbers the real numbers can be interpreted as Cartesian or polar coordinates, but using factory methods, the meaning is clear, as illustrated by the following example in C#.\n public class Complex\n {\n public double real;\n public double imaginary;\n\n public static Complex FromCartesian(double real, double imaginary)\n", "coefficients. Real numbers that are not rational numbers are called irrational numbers. Complex numbers which are not algebraic are called transcendental numbers. The algebraic numbers that are solutions of a monic polynomial equation with integer coefficients are called algebraic integers. Constructible numbers Motivated by the classical problems of constructions with straightedge and compass, the constructible numbers are those complex numbers whose real and imaginary parts can be constructed using straightedge and compass, starting from a given segment of unit length, in a finite number of steps. Computable numbers A computable number, also known as recursive number, is a real number", "the rightmost digit of a natural number has a place value of 1, and every other digit has a place value ten times that of the place value of the digit to its right.\nIn set theory, which is capable of acting as an axiomatic foundation for modern mathematics, natural numbers can be represented by classes of equivalent sets. For instance, the number 3 can be represented as the class of all sets that have exactly three elements. Alternatively, in Peano Arithmetic, the number 3 is represented as sss0, where s is the \"successor\" function (i.e., 3 is the third successor of 0). Many different representations", "are mere modes of representation. Space and time are ideal, subjective, and exist a priori in all of our representations. They apply to all of the objects of the sensible world because these objects exist as mere appearances. Such objects are not dreams or illusions, though. The difference between truth and dreaming or illusion depends on the connection of representations according to rules of true experience. A false judgment can be made if we take a subjective representation as being objective. All the propositions of geometry are true of space and all of the objects that are in space. Therefore,", "be the least upper bound of the set of approximants {b₀, b₀.b₁, b₀.b₁b₂, ...}. One can then show that this definition (or the nested intervals definition) is consistent with the subdivision procedure, implying 0.999... = 1 again. Tom Apostol concludes,\nThe fact that a real number might have two different decimal representations is merely a reflection of the fact that two different sets of real numbers can have the same supremum. Proofs from the construction of the real numbers Some approaches explicitly define real numbers to be certain structures built upon the rational numbers, using axiomatic set theory. The natural numbers –", "real number and such that this real number belongs to the corresponding set if and only if the sequence is eventually periodic.\nIn 1848 Charles Hermite wrote a letter to Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi asking if this situation could be generalised, that is can one assign a sequence of natural numbers to each real number x such that the sequence is eventually periodic precisely when x is a cubic irrational, that is an algebraic number of degree 3? Or, more generally, for each natural number d is there a way of assigning a sequence of natural numbers to each real number", "in fiction. Other areas have different fictitious telephone numbers.\nTo be effective, it must not be possible to change a fictitious telephone number into a real one by adding or changing a few digits. Usually, the number must be unassigned in every area code within the numbering plan. Outside NANPA, special fictitious telephone numbers for mobile phones, premium-rate numbers or toll free numbers are sometimes assigned as well. Telephone numbers in movies, television and music In the I Love Lucy episode The Girls Want to Go to a Nightclub (1951), Lucy dials up Sam Zabaglione, at Plaza 52099 (755-2099). \nIn 1966", "integers. A proposition such as carries over to the hyperreals as . Superreals The superreal number system of Dales and Woodin is a generalization of the hyperreals. It is different from the super-real system defined by David Tall. Dual numbers In linear algebra, the dual numbers extend the reals by adjoining one infinitesimal, the new element ε with the property ε² = 0 (that is, ε is nilpotent). Every dual number has the form z = a + bε with a and b being uniquely determined real numbers.\nOne application of dual numbers is automatic differentiation. This application can", "to be another quantity h which is an imaginary scalar, which he observes should have already occurred to anyone who had read the preceding articles with attention. Article 149 of Elements is about Geometrically Imaginary numbers and includes a footnote introducing the term biquaternion. The terms imaginary of ordinary algebra and scalar imaginary are sometimes used for these geometrically imaginary quantities.\nGeometrically Imaginary roots to an equation were interpreted in classical thinking as geometrically impossible situations. Article 214 of elements of quaternions explores the example of the equation of a line and a circle that do not intersect, as being indicated", "natural numbers onto the real numbers, that therefore the real numbers are no more than countable. And, since every natural number can be trivially represented as a real number, therefore the real numbers are no less than countable. They are, therefore exactly countable. However this reasoning is not constructive, as it still does not construct the required bijection. The classical theorem proving the existence of a bijection in such circumstances, namely the Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem, is non-constructive and no constructive proof of it is known. Axiom of choice The status of the axiom of choice in constructive mathematics is complicated by", "is not in general possible to determine whether two such expressions are equal (the constant problem).\nA real number is called computable if there exists an algorithm that yields its digits. Because there are only countably many algorithms, but an uncountable number of reals, almost all real numbers fail to be computable. Moreover, the equality of two computable numbers is an undecidable problem. Some constructivists accept the existence of only those reals that are computable. The set of definable numbers is broader, but still only countable. \"Reals\" in set theory In set theory, specifically descriptive set theory, the Baire space is", "Imaginary curve In algebraic geometry an imaginary curve is an algebraic curve which does not contain any real points.\nFor example, the set of pairs of complex numbers satisfying the equation forms an imaginary circle, containing points such as and but not containing any points both of whose coordinates are real.\nIn some cases, more generally, an algebraic curve with only finitely many real points is considered to be an imaginary curve. For instance, an imaginary line is a line (in a complex projective space) that contains only one real point." ]