Datasets:
text
stringlengths 38
532k
|
|---|
Photo credit: Space.com
If you've seen the movie Elysium, then this rotating space colony concept probably is still fresh in your mind, but did you know that this concept was first brought up in the 1970s, by NASA? The Stanford torus is a proposed design for a space habitat capable of housing 10,000 to 140,000 permanent residents. The Stanford torus was proposed during the 1975 NASA Summer Study, conducted at Stanford University, with the purpose of speculating on designs for future space colonies. Continue reading for videos and more information.
Sunlight is provided to the interior of the torus by a system of mirrors. The ring is connected to a hub via a number of "spokes", which serve as conduits for people and materials travelling to and from the hub. Since the hub is at the rotational axis of the station, it experiences the least artificial gravity and is the easiest location for spacecraft to dock. Zero-gravity industry is performed in a non-rotating module attached to the hub's axis.
The interior space of the torus itself is used as living space, and is large enough that a "natural" environment can be simulated; the torus appears similar to a long, narrow, straight glacial valley whose ends curve upward and eventually meet overhead to form a complete circle. The population density is similar to a dense suburb, with part of the ring dedicated to agriculture and part to housing. |
पहली बार खुदाई हुई तो विवादित जमीन पर बाबरी मस्जिद खड़ी थी और दूसरी बार जब खुदाई हुई तब बाबरी मस्जिद का नामो निशान नहीं था. कोहली और कुंबले का विवाद तो नया है। इससे पहले भारतीय क्रिकेट के दो लीजेंड्री सचिन तेंदुलकर और कपिल देव के बीच भी मनमुटाव हो चुका है। सचिन ने अपनी किताब प्लेइंग इट मॉय वे में कपिल के साथ अपनी नाराजगी का जिक्र किया है। कपिल देव साल 1999 में भारतीय टीम के कोच बने थे। उस वक्त कपिल देव अपने खिलाड़ियों को कुछ अलग तरह से प्रैक्टिस कराया करते थे। यह बात सचिन को पसंद नहीं आई। तब सचिन टीम के कप्तान हुआ करते थे, उन्होंने कपिल की कोचिंग मैथेड पर सवाल खड़े किए थे। हालांकि यह विवाद साल 2000 में खत्म हो गया, जब कपिल ने कोच और सचिन ने कप्तानी से त्यागपत्र दे दिया। हरिजन साप्ताहिक के प्रथम अंक में ही गांधी ने डॉक्टर अंबेडकर और जाति शीर्षक से एक लेख लिखकर अपने और उनके बीच हुए प्रश्नोत्तर को प्रकाशित किया था जागरण संवाददाता, रुद्रपुर: चुनाव में गलत शपथ पत्र लगाने के आरोप में ग्राम नजीमाबाद की गुंजारानी पत्नी अजय साहनी की प्रधानी चली गई। जांच में प्रधान पर सरकारी भूमि</s> |
Hittite is the conventional English-language term for an ancient people who spoke an Indo-European language and established a kingdom centered in Hattusa (Hittite URUḪattuša) in northern Anatolia from the 18th century BCE. In the 14th century BCE, the Hittite Kingdom was at its height, encompassing central Anatolia, south-western Syria as far as Ugarit, and upper Mesopotamia. After 1180 BCE, amid general turmoil in the Levant associated with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples, the kingdom disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some of which survived until as late as the 8th century BCE. The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Egypt and the Middle East.
Early Bronze Age Anatolia
Before the rise of the Hittite Kingdom, there were three major Indo-European groups in Anatolia: the Luwians, Palaians, and Nesites. There is no historical consensus on where they came from or when. The area which would later become the center of Hittite civilization was controlled by a non Indo-European population called the Hattians. Some historians have pointed to the royal tombs at Alaca Hoyuk that show influence of Indo-European religious art, and concluded that Indo-European invaders from the Pontic steppe installed themselves as kings in this region. However, this theory is not supported by any evidence of Indo-European invasion. We simply do not know how or when exactly Indo-European groups began to appear in Anatolia - what is clear is that an Indo-European language (Nesite) and culture eventually became dominant in the central Anatolian ruling class. The ethnic makeup of Anatolia may very well have been a mixed one, with Indo-Europeans, Hurrians, and Hattians. Indo-Europeans seem to have been heavily concentrated in the city of Neša (Kanesh) which was an Assyrian trading colony. The spread of Nesite, which would later become the official language of the Hittite Empire, was probably due to its importance in the Assyrian trade network. Nesite was written in the cuneiform script borrowed from the Assyrians.
During the early second millennium BCE the Assyrians established a series of merchant colonies in Anatolia, the largest of these was Neša. The Assyrian merchants traded tin and textiles for gold, silver, and copper. From the many tablets found at the site of Neša, historians have concluded that there were various kingdoms (Matu) in central Anatolia before the rise of the Hittite Empire, including Hatti, Neša, Burushattum (Purushanda; possibly near modern Acem Hoyuk), and Wahsusana (modern Nigde).
The Old Kingdom
The early history of the Hittite Kingdom is known through tablets that may first have been written in the 17th century BCE but survived only as copies made in the 14th and 13th centuries BCE. These tablets, known collectively as the Anitta text, begin by telling how Pithana the King of Kussara or Kussar conquered the neighbouring city of Neša (Kanesh) and annexed it peacefully. After the conquest, Neša became the seat of the Kussaran dynasty. Pithana's son Anitta launched several successful campaigns against the many Anatolian kingdoms. He defeated Zalpa and captured their king. Anitta then laid siege to Hattusa and after capturing it in a night assault, destroyed it. He established his supremacy over most of Central Anatolia around the Kizilirmak basin. Anitta's kingdom did not last long, however, and had disintegrated soon after his death.
After the fall of Anitta's kingdom central Anatolia was ravaged by warfare between small states and invading peoples like the Hurrians and the Kaskians. The Hittite Kingdom would grow out of the city of Kussara, and the founding of the kingdom is attributed to Labarna I who began a new era of conquest. Hattusili (possibly Labarna's grandson) established the seat of his reign in the city of Hattusa, from which he captured the city of Sanahuitta and controlled most of central Anatolia. Hattusili then attacked Syria, taking Alalah and Urshu. Hattusili also marched against Arzawa but his kingdom was attacked by Hurrians, triggering uprisings, and he was forced to turn back to defeat them. The rebellion effectively ended after the city of Sanahuitta was subdued. Hattusili attacked Syria a second time, capturing the city of Zaruna and defeating an army of the city of Hassuwa supported by troops from Aleppo at a battle near Mt. Atalur (Adalur). He then captured and sacked the cities of Hassuwa, Zippasna, and Hahha/Hahhum, and even crossed the Euphrates to attack Tikunani and pillaged north Mesopotamian territory. While these campaigns gained Hattusili much plunder, they did not result in the establishment of permanent Hittite control over Syria. In the later part of his reign, Hattusili had to deal with several rebellions carried out by his own sons Huzziya and Hakkarpili, as well as with a rebellion in the city of Hattusa which saw the involvement of his own daughter. It was after these rebellions that Hattusili appointed his grandson Mursili I as his heir.
Mursili continued the conquests of Hattusili, his conquests reaching Mesopotamia, and even ransacked Babylon itself in 1531 BCE bringing to an end the dynasty of Hammurabi. Rather than incorporate Babylonia into Hittite domains, Mursili seems to have instead turned control of Babylonia over to his Kassite allies, who were to rule it for the next four centuries. This lengthy campaign, however, allowed for a plot to be formed by Mursili's brother-in-law Hantili and Hantili's son-in-law Zidanta. Mursili was assassinated shortly after his return home by Hantili and Zidanta. Hantili then took the throne; he campaigned against the Hurrians in Syria, but was unable to stop their advances. The Hurrians invaded the Hittite kingdom and plundered the land of Hatti. Hantili's sons were murdered by Zidanta who took the throne, only to be killed by his own son Ammuna. During this period the Hittite Kingdom began its decline and was attacked by various surrounding rebellious states such as the Hurrian Kingdom of Kizzuwadna and the Kingdom of Arzawa. Ammuna tried but ultimately failed to conquer these rebel kingdoms. After Ammuna's death, the usurper Huzziya attempted to kill off his sons but was himself deposed by Telepinu, a son of Ammuna. Telepinu established control over the Hittite core once again, and expanded towards the Euphrates, taking various towns in the region near Carchemish. He also signed a treaty with the southern Kingdom of Kizzuwadna which formalized territorial agreements.
The successors of Telepinu reigned over a period of instability in the kingdom, sometimes called the Middle Kingdom. This period saw the first invasions of Hatti by the Kaska peoples of the north, who took the town of Nerik and led to the fortification of the capital of Hattusa and other towns in the region of Hatti, which showed that the very heart of the kingdom was under threat. This period also saw the Hittite Kingdom wracked with internecine strife, as kings were assasinated and pretenders vied for the royal throne. It was also during this period that the Hurrian confederation of Mittani expanded into Syria and into Hittite controlled land west of the Euphrates.
The New Kingdom
With the reign of Tudhaliya I (who may actually not have been the first of that name; see also Tudhaliya), the Hittite Kingdom re-emerges from the fog of obscurity, entering the period of time called the "Hittite Empire period." Many changes were afoot during this time, not the least of which was a strengthening of the kingship. Settlement of the Hittites progressed in the Empire period. However, the Hittite people tended to settle in the older lands of south Anatolia rather than the lands of the Aegean. As this settlement progressed, treaties were signed with neighbouring peoples. During the Hittite Empire period the kingship became heriditary and the king took on a "superhuman aura" and began to be referred to by the Hittite citizens as "My Sun". The kings of the Empire period began acting as a high priest for the whole kingdom, making an annual tour of the Hittite holy cities, conducting festivals, and supervising the upkeep of the sanctuaries.
During his reign (c. 1400 BCE), King Tudhaliya I sought to reassert the dominant position of Hatti. He first attacked the lands of western Anatolia including Arzawa. Tudhaliya feared that the various western states might unite against him in the future and thus attacked preemptively, transporting large numbers of soldiers and chariots from the conquered territories back to Hattusa. Soon after the end of this campaign, 22 western Anatolian states came together in a large anti-Hittite military alliance, the alliance possibly extended from Wilusa (Troy) to as far south as Lukka (Lycia). Tudhaliya attacked this alliance and defeated them in battle, once again taking back a large number of warriors and charioteers to Hatti and settling them. In the west, Tudhaliya installed Madduwatta as vassal king. Madduwatta expanded his kingdom into Asawa and Happalla, which outraged the Hittites who had commanded him to stay within his borders, but despite his apparent hostility, Madduwatta remained a Hittite vassal which served his main purpose, to keep the western Anatolian states from begin a threat to Hatti. While Tudhaliya campaigned in the west, the Kaskians invaded from the north and ravaged Hatti, a scene which would be repeated many times in Hittite history. Tudhaliya defeated the invaders and marched into Kaskian territory, where he defeated their combined forces and conquered much of their lands. Tudhaliya also succeeded in regaining control of Isuwa from the Mitanni.
Meanwhile the Mitanni King Saushtatar I had invaded and conquered Assyria and then crossed the Euphrates and conquered Syria. He also signed a treaty with the King of Kadesh. In order to challenge Mitanni, Tudhaliya first secured a treaty with the Kingdom of Kizuwadna; he then invaded Syria and conquered Aleppo, though he was unable to completely end Mitanni control over the region. After Tudhaliya's death, he left to his co-ruler and heir Arnuwanda a large but fragile kingdom which continued to deteriorate under his rule. The Kaskians began their attacks on the northern region once again, sacking and pillaging Hittite towns and temples. An alliance between Mitanni and Egypt allowed for the resurgence of Mitanni control over Syria. During the reign of Arnuwanda's son, Tudhaliya III the kingdom was attacked from all sides. Kaskians, Arzawans, Isuwans and others invaded and devastated Hatti, even Hattusa, the capital of the kingdom, was taken and burned. The Kingdom of Hatti seemed to be at an end, but Tudhaliya III, gathering his forces at Samuha, was able to retake the central Anatolian region from his Kaskian foes. His campaigns and those of his son Suppiluliuma I are attested to in the document known as the "Deeds of Suppiluliuma". Together, Tudhaliya and Suppiluliuma led armies against the Kaskians, retook the land of Hatti, and attacked the Kaskian lands themselves. Suppiluliuma I then went on to invade the Kingdom of Azzi-Hayasa, making it a vassal of the Hittite Kingdom. Suppiluliuma I now attacked the Arzawans in the region of the lower land, defeating them near Tuwanuwa and capturing this city. Suppiluliuma took 20 years to re-establish Hittite control in Anatolia, much of which was spent against the Arzawans in western Anatolia during his father's reign and continuing into much of his own.
Empire of Suppiluliuma and Mursili II
The Hittite Kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of Suppiluliuma I (c. 1350–1322 BCE), who deposed his older brother, the true heir to Tudhaliya III's throne, to become the king. Suppiluliuma I established control over Kizzuwadna and invaded Isuwa, coming into conflict with Mitanni. The Kingdom of Mitanni, wracked by civil war, was unable to withstand the Hittite onslaught. Suppiluliuma I allied with Artatama, a rival for the Mitanni throne and enemy of the Mitanni King Tushratta. Following an uprising in Isuwa, Suppiluliuma swiftly attacked the Mitanni heartland through Isuwa, capturing and plundering the Mitanni capital of Washshuganni. He then turned west, recrossed the Euphrates, and captured all the Syrian kingdoms which were vassals to the Mitanni, including Aleppo, Mukish, Niya, Qatna, Upi (Upina), and Kadesh. Other kingdoms such as Ugarit and Amurru (an Egyptian vassal) voluntarily became vassal states of the Hittites. When hostilities flared up once more with Mitanni, Tulipinu, Suppiluliuma's son and viceroy at Aleppo, invaded Carchemish but was unable to take the city. Suppiluliuma met with his son and then invaded Syria himself, laying siege to the city of Carchemish. He also sent some troops south to aid his vassals in an attack on the Egyptian ally of Amka in retaliation for an earlier Egyptian attack against Kadesh. Suppiluliuma laid siege to Carchemish and broke the siege on the eighth day, installing his son Piyassili as viceroy of the kingdom. With his sons as viceroys of Aleppo and Carchemish, Suppiluliuma had cemented his rule over Syria and brought the empire of Mitanni to an end; the Mitanni king was assassinated soon after.
Then Tutankhamun, the Egyptian Pharaoh, died and to Suppiluliuma's amazement, Tutankhamun's wife asked to marry one of his sons. Suppiluliuma sent an envoy to Egypt to confirm this message. After meeting with his returning ambassador and an Egyptian envoy, Suppiluliuma agreed to send his son Zannanza to Egypt to marry the queen; most likely he saw this as a chance to widely expand his influence and power base. However, Zannanza was assassinated en route to Egypt. Suppiluliuma was furious and blamed the new Egyptian Pharaoh Ay for his son's death. A Hittite army under crown prince Arnuwanda invaded Egyptian territory from Syria, pillaging and taking many prisoners. These prisoners brought with them a plague which ravaged the Hittite Kingdom continuing well into Mursili's reign and may have killed Suppiluliuma himself.
In the east, the weakened Mitanni Kingdom under Shuttarna had now allied itself with a resurgent Assyria. Fearing a new threat from the east, Suppiluliuma sent his son and viceroy of Carchemish Piyassili (Sharri-Kushuh) and his Mitanni ally Shattiwaza against the Mitanni Kingdom. They swept into Mitanni, taking Irrite, Harran, and finally the Mitanni capital Washukanni. Shattiwaza was made king of the new Mitanni vassal state. Six years after the capture of Carchemish, Suppiluliuma died, leaving the throne to his eldest son Arnuwanda. The very brief reign of Arnuwanda saw renewed attacks by the Kaska, after his death it was left to his brother Mursili II (c. 1321–1295 BCE) to take the mantle of kingship.
Mursili II was very young and inexperienced. Nevertheless, he proved to be a strong king, for the first years of his reign saw him carrying out punitive campaigns against the Kaska. He then turned west, where Uhhaziti, a king of Arzawa, had begun to form an anti-Hittite alliance with Ahhiyawa, Millawanda (Miletos), and other Arzawan kings of the region. Mursili personally led a force into Arzawa, defeating Uhhaziti's son Piyama-Kurunta in battle at the river Astarpa and then taking his capital city of Apasa and then the stronghold of Puranda. Mursili then turned against the kingdom of the Seha River Land, which had allied with Uhhaziti; its King Manapa-Tarhunda surrendered and Mursili left him on the throne. After the conquest, 65,000 inhabitants of Arzawa were transported to Hatti. While Mursili was in the west, the Kaskians attacked once more. Mursili then invaded and conquered the Kaskan lands, burning towns and slaughtering the population. In Syria the Nuhashshi King Tette rebelled and was joined by Egyptian troops, and Piyassili viceroy of Carchemish defeated the Egyptians and managed to contain the rebellion. Meanwhile Mursili continued his war the north, this time conquering Azzi-Hayasa. Troubles in Syria continued when Mursili's brothers Tulipinu and Piyassili both died. The loss of his Syrian viceroys led to rebellion and even the invasion of Carchemish by Assyria. Leaving his generals to deal with Syria and Hayasa, Mursili invaded Carchemish and drove out the Assyrians. Later in his reign Mursili II campaigned against the Kaska, once again retaking the Hittite holy city of Nerik; he also decisively defeated the King of Tummanna.
War with Egypt and the Battle of Kadesh
On his death Mursili left his successor Muwattalli II (c.1295–1272 BCE) a stable kingdom. Early in his reign he was forced to deal with Piyamaradu, a king in western Anatolia, who had allied himself with the King of Ahhiyawa and gone on to invade Wilusa, the Seha River land, and Lazpa (Lesbos). Muwattalli sent an army west which succeeded in dispersing Piyamaradu's forces, causing him to flee to Ahhiyawa. Muwattalli also signed a treaty with the king of Wilusa, Alaksandu, which stressed the past loyalty of Wilusa to Hatti.
Meanwhile, Egypt under Seti I had begun a series of major military campaigns in Canaan and Palestine, reasserting Egyptian authority in the region. Seti I then invaded and conquered the kingdoms of Amurru and Kadesh, since they were both Hittite vassals, which amounted to a declaration of war on Hatti. As is attested in Seti's war monument at Karnak, Seti I defeated a Hittite army sent to Syria in the region of Kadesh and took many prisioners. During this period Muwattalli II also moved the capital to the city of Tarhuntassa, moving all the state deities there from Hattusa. Not only was Tarhuntassa further south, away from the Kaska, but it was also a better position from which to launch campaigns into Syria. He also appointed his brother Hattusili III as governor of the region around Hattusa, Upper land, and as King (Lugal) of Hakpisa. He was appointed to contain the Kaska and repopulate the land of Hatti which had now only sparse population, possibly due to the constant Kaskian attacks on the area. With the departure of his brother from Hattussa, Hattusili was hard pressed in the north but he managed to drive back his enemies and establish Hittite control over the northern regions, resettling the underpopulated areas despite further Kaska incursions.
Back in Egypt Seti had died and Ramesses II ascended to the throne. In his fifth year on the throne, Ramesses launched a campaign into Syria with the goal of breaking Hittite power in the region and retaking Kadesh, which seems to have reverted to Hittite control by this time. Ramesses' forces met Muwattalli II who had assembled a large army in Syria at the Battle of Kadesh c. 1274 BCE in what was probably the largest chariot battle in history. When Ramesses, eager to arrive at Kadesh, split his forces, Muwattalli attacked, destroying one of his army divisions, the Re division, and then followed them to the camp of the Amun division, causing chaos in the Egyptian army. Only a counter attack led by the pharaoh himself turned back the Hittite forces who had stopped their attack to loot the army camp. After more pitched fighting, the battle was inconclusive. While Ramesses later claimed victory, both sides suffered heavy casualties. The Egyptians failed to take Kadesh and retreated south followed by the Hittites who took Damascus and also retook the Kingdom of Amurru. Therefore, despite Ramesses' claims to victory, the battle of Kadesh actually led to Egyptian territorial losses in Syria.
Civil War and Hattusili III
When Muwattalli died, he only left a "secondary son" as successor (a son not of his first and primary wife), named Urhi-Teshub (c. 1272–1267 BCE). Though Urhi-Teshub took the throne, it was clear that Muwattalli's brother Hattusili III resented his rule, as he was only a second-rank son. Yet despite this, Hattusili allowed Urhi-Teshub to take the throne. Early in his reign, Urhi-Teshub moved the capital back to Hattusa; this and other actions show that Hattusili exercised strong influence over his nephew in matters of royal administration. During Urhi-Teshub's reign, Assyria attacked Hanigalbat, a rump kingdom of Mitanni, and annexed it to the growing Assyrian Kingdom. This exacerbated relations between Hatti and Assyria.
Tensions between an increasingly independent Urhi-Teshub and his powerful and dominating uncle grew and eventually led to civil war when Urhi-Teshub stripped his uncle of his northern territories. At first Hattusili III complied, but when his nephew also attempted to remove him as ruler of Hakpis and Nerik, he rebelled, and with considerable support from the Hittite nobility and Kaskians, overthrew Urhi-Teshub and became the new king. Urhi-Teshub was exiled and he eventually fled to the Egyptian court of Ramesses.
The reign of Hattusili III (c. 1267–1237 BCE) was one of diplomacy and reconciliation with neighboring powers. Hattusili III drew up treaties with Babylon and Amurru, marrying his daughters to strengthen these contacts. Constant tensions with Assyria around the region of Hanigalbat led Hattusili to seek a treaty with Egypt to secure his southern frontier. The treaty would also serve to cement his credibility as the true King of Hatti and to strengthen Ramesses's image after his losses in Syria. The treaty confirmed existing territorial boundaries between Hatti and Egypt and included agreements that neither side would invade the other and that they would both come to each other's aid if attacked by a third party. The new alliance was also cemented by a marriage between Ramesses and one of Hattusili's daughters. Hattusili's Egyptian treaty allowed him to concentrate against a major uprising against the lands of Lukka in western Anatolia.
The beginning of the reign of Hattusili's son, Tudhaliya IV (c. 1237–1209 BCE), saw him dealing with rebellions in the lower land, continuing conflict with the Lukkans, Ahhiyawa, the Seha river land and even a failed assassination plot against the new king.
Tudhaliya IV also faced the growing threat of Assyria, which had finally conquered Hanigalbat under Shalmaneser and the lands of Subari under his son Tukulti-Ninurta, asserting its influence in the region. Tukulti-Ninurta then turned against the lands of Nihiriya. It was then that Tudhaliya decided to act to prevent further Assyrian expansion. He sent troops to Nihiriya and then invaded Assyria from there when the Assyrian troops retreated. The armies clashed in northern Assyria and Tukulti-Ninurta proved victorious, moving north and conquering Nihiriya afterwards. Luckily for Tudhaliya, Tukulti-Ninurta followed up his conquests in the north by attacking and conquering Babylon, not with further attacks against Hatti. Later in his reign, Tudhaliya IV also attacked and conquered Alasiya (Cyprus), possibly to protect the supply routes from Egypt which brought much needed grain to the Hittite lands.
Decline and Fall of Hatti
Tudhaliya's death led to instability in the kingdom. His successor Arnuwanda III only lasted a year on the throne before being replaced by his brother Suppiluliuma II. Suppiluliuma II faced more unrest in Lukka and Western Anatolia, and led a campaign to conquer Tarhuntassa. The loss of Tarhuntassa (possibly during Tudhaliya IV's reign) was especially damaging to Hatti since it was here where grain shipments from Egypt arrived, especially in the port of Ura. Due to food shortages in the kingdom, Tarhuntassa and the trade routes with Egypt had to be kept open. These food shortages worsened during the final years of the Hittite Kingdom. Perhaps it was because of this need to keep the grain routes open that we find Suppiluliuma II fighting sea battles against the "enemies from Alasiya", as clearly Tudhaliya's invasion of the island had not managed to completely subdue it. It is unknown if these were native Alasiyans or, as has been proposed, were part of the Sea Peoples. Whoever they were, Suppiluliuma II seems to have defeated them temporarily using the navy of his allies such as Ugarit, as Hatti had no navy of its own.
The swift and utter destruction of the Kingdom of the Hittites is attributed to the massive movement of Sea Peoples who destroyed much of Anatolia, Syria, and Palestine in the early 12th century BCE. There is still scholarly debate on who the Sea Peoples were, though it seems many of them were from western Anatolia. Most likely, attacks by Sea Peoples weakened central Hittite authority and, coupled with food shortages or outright famines, allowed for uprisings in the constantly unstable lands of Anatolia, such as Arzawa and Kaska which then attacked Hatti and led to further revolts. Whatever the case, Hittite records end abruptly with Suppiluliuma II's battles against Alisaya, and there is some archaeological evidence that shows destruction in the capital of Hattusa. Despite this, most of the Bronze age Hittite sites seem to have been abandoned rather than destroyed, thus this period seems to be characterized more by mass movements of peoples rather than widespread destruction.
The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms
By 1160 BCE, the political situation in Asia Minor looked vastly different than it had only 25 years earlier. In that year, the Assyrians were dealing with the Mushku pressing into northernmost Mesopotamia from the Anatolian highlands, and the Gasga people, the Hittites' old enemies from the northern hill-country between Hatti and the Black Sea, seem to have joined them soon after. The Mushku or Mushki had apparently overrun Cappadocia from the west, with recently discovered epigraphic evidence confirming their origins as the Balkan "Bryges" tribe, forced out by the Macedonians.
Although the Hittites disappeared from Anatolia at this point, there emerged a number of so-called Neo-Hittite kingdoms in Anatolia and northern Syria. They were the successors of the Hittite Kingdom. The most notable Syrian Neo-Hittite kingdoms were those at Carchemish and Milid (near the later Melitene). These Neo-Hittite kingdoms gradually fell under the control of the Assyrians, who conquered Carchemish during the reign of Sargon II in the late 8th century BCE, and Milid several decades later.
A large and powerful state known as Tabal occupied much of southern Anatolia. Known as Gk. Τιβαρηνοί Tibarenoi, Lat. Tibareni, Thobeles in Josephus, their language may have been Luwian, testified to by monuments written using Luwian hieroglyphics.
Ultimately, both Luwian hieroglyphs and cuneiform were rendered obsolete by a new innovation, the alphabet, which seems to have entered Anatolia simultaneously from the Aegean (with the Bryges, who changed their name to Phrygians), and from the Phoenicians and neighboring peoples in Syria. |
बॉक्स से जोड़कर बच्चों को प्रधानमंत्री के कार्यक्रम को दिखाया। सेक्टर 4 स्थित मिडिल स्कूल बोरियागेट में रेडियो से ही बच्चों ने प्रधानमंत्री की बात सुनी। यहां गिनती के बच्चे थे और शिक्षकों ने भी खानापूर्ति की। बात सुनाने के लिए रेडियो का इंतजाम जरूर किया। हिंदू मान्यताओं के अनुसार यहां देवी सती का दायां हाथ गिरा था। इस मंदिर को ऋषि कश्यप के नाम पर कश्यपपुर के नाम से भी जाना जाता था। शारदा पीठ में देवी सरस्वती की आराधना की जाती है। वैदिक काल में इसे शिक्षा का केंद्र भी कहा जाता था। मान्यता है कि ऋषि पाणीनि ने यहां अपने अष्टाध्यायी की रचना की थी। यह श्री विद्या साधना का महत्वपूर्ण केन्द्र था। शैव संप्रदाय की शुरुआत करने वाले आदि शंकराचार्य और वैष्णव संप्रदाय के प्रवर्तक रामानुजाचार्य दोनों ने ही यहां महत्वपूर्ण उपलब्धियां हासिल की। शंकराचार्य यहीं सर्वज्ञपीठम पर बैठे तो रामानुजाचार्य ने यहां ब्रह्म सूत्रों पर अपना भाष्य लिखा। विश्वनाथ मंदिर परिसर में अर्चक व सेवादारों के मोबाइल पर प्रतिबंध अपने एनजीओ को मिलने वाले धन और अन्य मुद्दों पर कांग्रेस नेता दिग्विजयसिंह द्वारा सवाल पूछे जाने के एक दिन बाद केजरीवाल ने पलटवार किया और कहा कि वह सवालों के जवाब देने के इच्छुक हैं,</s> |
को वापस दिल्ली हवाई अड्डे पर लौटना पड़ा था. उस समय चालक दल के सदस्यों ने उड़ान भरने के तुरंत बाद विमान के अंदर एक चमगादड़ को उड़ते देखा था. 2014 की उत्तर मध्यमा इंटर परीक्षा में महाविद्यालय के कपिल नौटियाल ने प्रदेश में प्रथम, शुभम कुकरेती ने द्वितीय व अमित रैवानी ने दसवां स्थान प्राप्त किया था। 2010 में अमित बंदोलिया 12वी में प्रदेशभर में आठवें स्थान पर रहे थे। उत्तराखंड संस्कृत विवि की बीएड परीक्षा में महाविद्यालय के छात्र अमित बंदोलिया व आचार्य साहित्य में सबसे अधिक अंक लाने पर शशांक पंचभैया ने गोल्ड मेडल भी प्राप्त किया। शिवांकर के पिता गोपी देशवाल व माता कस्तूरी देवी और प्रियांशु ध्यानी के पिता लवकुमार व माता कविता देवी बच्चों की कामयाबी पर खुश है। प्राचार्य डॉ. शैलेंद्रनारायण कोटियाल ने छात्रों का उत्साहवर्धन किया है। शिक्षक डॉ. सुशील बडोनी, प्रीति कोटियाल, अनूप थपलियाल आदि ने भी छात्रों की कामयाबी पर हर्ष जताया है। खतरे को सूंघ निकालने वाली नाक सिद्धार्थनगर : बिस्कोहर के एक टोले में देह व्यापार को रोकने के उद्देश्य से पुलिस प्रशासन ने मंगलवार को सख्त कदम उठाया और करीब आधा दर्जन से अधिक गुमटियों में चल रही दुकानों को बंद कराया। हालांकि संचालकों ने कहा कि</s> |
In an effort to help confront a perpetual problem for foster youth – lack of parental involvement in their schools and education – foster parent leaders in Maryland have created what they say is the nation’s first PTA for foster parents.
The idea comes from so-called “non-traditional PTAs” that serve the parents of children in special education. Sam Macer, the education chairman and president-elect of Maryland Foster Parents Association, decided that foster parents need a non-traditional PTA as well.
“Foster parents are a perfect example of how a regular PTA might not be able to service [them] because their interests are so focused,” Macer said.
Although research shows that parental involvement in their children’s education boosts academic achievement, parental involvement in the education of foster youths is, in the words of one recent California study, “extremely problematic.” One reason, says the 2007 California Foster Youth Education Summit, is that foster youth are often in a state of “limbo” when it comes who is responsible for making their education decisions – biological parents, foster parents or state agencies.
And those youths really need the help: Numerous studies have shown that as a group, foster youth lag behind other youth in academic achievement and are more likely to drop out of school. They often enter foster care already behind, and their struggles are exacerbated by such factors as transferring to new homes (and therefore sometimes new schools) and emotional problems stemming from abuse and neglect. Some of those studies are summarized in this report by Chapin Hall.
Into this challenge steps the Maryland Foster Parent Teacher Association – although after its announcement in September, it changed its name to the Maryland Resource Parent PTA, because PTA membership must be open to everyone. Macer, who is also president of the Maryland PTA, said the new group will reach out as well to “adoptive parents, kinship care providers, informal providers and group home providers.”
Compared with regular PTAs, Macer says, nontraditional PTAs are not necessarily part of the school environment, and are more likely to focus on advocacy for specific groups of children – which is what the new PTA will do.
He excepts the group to concentrate on such issues as the effect of traumatic experiences on student performance and behavior, continuing education while transitioning out of foster care and gaps in educational achievement between foster and non-foster youth.
The organization also hopes to connect foster parents with the state and national PTAs, offering them access to training opportunities to build their leadership and advocacy skills. The foster parents will also have access to various PTA programs for children, such as an arts contest and a healthy lifestyles program, along with scholarships and awards.
The new PTA drew support from Irene Clements, president of the National Foster Parents Association (NFPA), who said each state “should create a [foster parent] PTA, because [states] are being required by the federal government to meet a certain expectation of how kids are doing,” and such PTAs could help the foster youths’ academic performance.
A spokesman for the National PTA said that it did not know of any such group – including the new one in Maryland – but that the PTA supports the idea.
Education resources for foster caregivers: |
Thursday, November 14, 2019
Women in the Middle East Essay -- Gender Roles, Oppression, Culture
In the book, Women in the Middle East, a Saudi Arabian proverb states, "A girl possesses nothing but a veil and a tomb" (Harik and Marston 83). The key words, "veil" and "tomb" lend evidence to the fact that many Middle Eastern women lack identity symbolized by the ââ¬Å"veilâ⬠and lack the right of ownership except for their veil and the tomb. This statement further enforces the notion that many women in the Middle East are expected to serve and tolerate the oppression of the men in their lives throughout their lives on this earth. Moreover, it confirms that many of these women do not get the opportunity to obtain education, join the work force, and even participate in the political affairs of the country. This arrangement further helps the Middle Eastern men to view women as their properties, servants, or even as slaves. Ultimately, there are three main reasons why Middle Eastern men engage in the act of oppressing their women. One primary reason why Middle Eastern men oppress women is their deeply rooted belief system as well as their needs. For example, their belief that the Middle Eastern womanââ¬â¢s duty is being a dedicated homemaker encourages them to disallow her from seeking an education. Ramsay M. Harik and Elsa Martson, revisit this concept in their book, Woman in the Middle East, as they state that many males convince their women that education is unnecessary nor relevant to their household responsibilities. "The girl will spend her life cooking and having babies, why does she need to read or write? This was a common attitude in much of the Middle East until the last fifty years or so" (24). The common consensus was that once educated, these women would question many of the injustices suffered, would demand better treatment... ...emale relative is justifiable if she brings dishonor to the family" (86)... Many women do not stand up for their rights because they are scared from death; since many men killed women without feeling sympathy or without fearing from the consequences of laws. Therefore, laws are just another cause of the oppression of women. Middle Eastern women need to stand up for their rights and get educated to reverse the notion that they are servants and properties of their men. Furthermore, they need to rise up to their potentials and prove beyond doubt that they are equal to men. This practice would lead the path for future generations to follow and protect the inalienable rights of women. Finally, these women need to break the cycle of oppression by addressing these deeply rooted beliefs, gaining the tools to fight back, and joining forces to make lifelong changes. |
उद्योग केंद्र ग्वालियर को दिए जाने की तैयारी शुरू कर दी है। दोष निवारण के लिए मंदोदरी ने की थी मनसा देवी की पिंडी की स्थापना झारखंड मुक्ति मोर्चा ने भी अपनी पहली सूची रविवार को जारी की। इसमें पार्टी के 14 सिटिंग विधायकों को फिर से टिकट थमाया है। प्रदेश की सभी 81 सीटों पर चुनाव लड़ने वाली झामुमो अपने उपाध्यक्ष व प्रदेश के मुख्यमंत्री हेमंत सोरेन के लिए सुरक्षित सीट तलाश रही है। रूडी सर, आप हमलोगों की नजर में बिहार भाजपा के उन योग्यतम लोगों में से हैं जिनको मुख्यमंत्री के चेहरे के रूप में जनता के सामने प्रस्तुत किया जा सकता है। आपकी काबिलियत पर किसी को कोई शक नहीं लेकिन इस बार आप ये मान लीजिए कि आपदा की इस घड़ी में आपसे घोर लापरवाही हुई है। इतने सारे एंबुलेंस धूल खा रहे हैं हालांकि आपने इन एंबुलेंस की हिफाजत का पुरकश इंतजाम कर रखा था और अच्छे से कवर करके रखा था लेकिन जनता के सच्चे जनसेवक पप्पू यादव जी ने इसको एक्सपोज कर ही दिया। तीनों युवकों को 108 एबुंलेंस की मदद से जिला अस्पताल लाया गया, जहाँ इनके शव परीक्षण के लिए रखा गया है।वहीं पुलिस ने प्रकरण दर्ज कर मामले की</s> |
को मृत नवजात का शव सौंपने व उनके हस्ताक्षर दिखाए तो वह शांत होकर चले गए, लेकिन स्वजनों ने आशंका जताई है कि उनके बच्चे की जगह किसी और का मृत बच्चा उन्हें सौंपा गया है। जिसकी वह पुलिस में शिकायत करेंगे। इससे पहले सम्मेलन का उद्घाटन करते हुए रेलमंत्री सदानंद गौड़ा ने कहा कि भारतीय रेल अपने 4,000 इंजनों में बायो डीजल का उपयोग करेगी। इसके लिए डीजल में पांच फीसद बायो डीजल का मिश्रण किया जाएगा। रेलवे सालाना कम से कम 15 हजार करोड़ रुपये के डीजल का उपयोग करता है। इसमें जरा सी कमी से भी सैकड़ों करोड़ बचेंगे। पर्यावरण भी स्वच्छ होगा। बायो डीजल में डीजल की अपेक्षा कम कार्बन उत्सर्जन होता है। इसके लिए लोकोमोटिव के डिजाइन में भी बदलाव नहीं करना पड़ता। महिलाए कई घरेलु उपाय से अपनी योनी को दुबारा टाइट कर सकती है। निचे दिए गए वीडियो में देखे कैसे आप अपनी योनी को दुबारा टाइट कर सकते है। इन आसान टिप्स को अपनाए और अपनी सेक्स लाइफ में फिर एक बार उत्साह लाये। रेल मंत्री पीयूष गोयल ने आज कहा कि देश में रेलवे के पारिस्थितकी तंत्र से आसान सब्जी तैयारी के लिए 10 युक्तियाँ 36 घण्टे लगातार बारिश होने के</s> |
में और बदतर हो जाती है। अमिताभ बच्चन सर, अक्षय कुमार, अजय देवगन कृपया इस मामले पर गौर फरमाए और फिल्म सिटी गोरेगांव में स्वच्छता अभियान की शुरुआत करें, आपको हर किसी का समर्थन मिलेगा। (आईएएनएस) बता दें कि भारत में 65 इंच स्मार्ट टीवी का मार्केट काफी छोटा है। इसकी एक वजह भारत में 65 इंच स्मार्ट टीवी का महंगा होना है। ऐसे में अगर स्मार्ट टीवी को कम प्राइस प्वाइंट में पेश किया जाता है। भारतीय क्रिकेट टीम के कप्तान विराट कोहली लंबे समय से खराब फॉर्म से जूझ रहे हैं। इंग्लैंड दौर पर भी उनके बल्ले से रन नहीं निकल रहे हैं। इस दौर पर उन्होंने अब तक चार पारियों में 0, 42, 20 और 7 रन ही बनाए हैं। कोहली के फैंस के उनके बल्ले से निकलने वाले शतक का बेसब्री से इंतजार कर रहे हैं। कोहली के बल्ले से आखिरी बार 2019 में शतक निकला था। इसके बाद वह क्रिकेट के किसी भी फॉर्मेट में सेंचुरी नहीं लगा पाए हैं। लेकिन क्या आप जानते हैं कोहली ही नहीं बल्कि 3 अन्य बल्लेबाज भी लंबे समय से शतक लगाने के लिए तरस रहे हैं। आइए जानते उनके बारे में। विरोधी पार्टियों के लालच से रहना चाहिए</s> |
In the Minneapolis Airport there is a poster showing a picture of Daniel in the Lion’s Den surrounded by hungry but slightly confused looking lions. The caption is: “We in the 21st Century are not the first people to feel stressed.”
Today in church music we find ourselves in a situation that is not much different than it was centuries ago. We are not the first people to feel that there is not enough support to continue a fine music program/ministry.
The Hymn-A-Thon is such a great idea, I wish it were mine, but it’s not. It has been done before. However the purpose behind the Hymn-a-thon at our church is what is different from some others. Being a small parish, we as many, due to limited financial resources were faced with drastically cutting back the music ministry. However, whether you are in a large or small parish, there is a core of people who really believe the music ministry is very important and want to see it continue. It is their belief that music helps people worship and become closer to God.
Before you give up and think that your church is too small or too something else to attempt a Hymn-a-thon, let’s look at this idea more carefully.
First, let’s talk about patrons for a moment.
The term “patron” goes back to the medieval ages and through the Renaissance, feudal Japan, Southeast Asian Kingdoms, Aristocracy and right through to March 6, 2014. Patrons were the people and institutions that helped move the arts forward for present and future generations to enjoy and in which to participate. Patrons of the arts as were important in the early ages just as they are today.
Thanks to organizations like crowdfunding or crowdsourcing, the definition of who patrons are has expanded. Patronage is no longer just for the very wealthy, but for anyone who is interested in helping support a worthy project.
Instead of giving up and asking, “Why is this happening? Why is our Music Ministry being cut?” say instead, “Our Music Ministry is too important to let go, so what we are going to do about it?” That was the impetus the musicians of St. Bede had to start thinking about what could be done to mitigate the cuts proposed to their music ministry.
One Sunday morning, a choir member showed up with a newspaper article about a Hymn-A-Thon Trinity Cathedral in Portland had recently done. Their event raised funds to support their choir’s upcoming English tour. We thought, “well, we wouldn’t be raising funds for a tour, but a Hymn-A-Thon could work equally well to raise funds to further our small parish music ministry.” Three weeks later, on the date we had chosen to “make something” happen, we held our own St. Bede Hymn-A-Thon.
What might surprise you is the number of people who really do believe in what you are doing. We can become myopic (see paranoid) in our vision and think that people are not interested in maintaining or furthering excellence in church music. However, as we found, there are a great number of people who respect and value the traditions of the past and want to sustain them for the future. |
Establishing the History of the Establishment Clause
Copyright February 5, 1996; 2000; 2004
| Footnotes |
The establishment clause1 leading off the Bill of Rights,
the profound attachment to America's founding governmental instrument, was conceived when
a Lockean enlightenment2 fertilized a Calvinist Puritanical womb3 ;
was born in a stable filled with the incessant libertarian volleys of antifederalism4
; nursed by a Jeffersonian mother5 and weaned by a domineering Protestant
step-father6 ; matured increasingly by the legal guardian of secular relativism7
; grows senile in the hands of a nursing home run by the divided management team of
Christian Right and Secular Left; and could likely soon be placed in the tomb of a
Constitutional amendment8 if it doesn't first expire from an inarticulate
meaning at the hands of its bedside nursemaid, the Supreme Court.9 It is the
purpose of this paper to do its small part in delaying or preventing the possible funeral.
The workbench on which the establishment clause finds itself--the
prevailing intellectual culture of the Constitutional legal establishment--is, in the eyes
of some, in need of repair work itself. The outlook and manner of Blackstone, once
offering British and American law students a fixed jurisprudence, now offers only a
prophetic title commenting on the state of Constitutional interpretation: The foundation
stone of enlightened mechanical jurisprudence, supporting fixed constitutional principles,
has indeed become black, at least for anyone who might be sympathetic to Blackstone,
original intent, and the rule of law combined with political neutrality.
M. Stanton Evans laments that the Constitution's setting of limits on the federal
government, "to all intents and purposes...is now defunct. In reality, we no longer
have a Constitution, or anything that can be accurately depicted as constitutional
law."10 Evans laments that the words of what has in some circles been
considered one of the greatest documents produced by the mind of man have come to mean
nothing other than what the ambitious policy-making of Supreme Court justices decides to
make them mean. The Chief Justice and Justice Thomas joined Justice Scalia in accusing the
Court they sit on of abandoning "text and history as guides."11
Robert H. Bork says there are only two sides in the battle for the control of the law:
"Either the Constitution and statutes are law...or they are malleable texts that
judges may rewrite to see that particular groups or political causes win."12
For Bork the great heresy taking hold of legal institutions is the denial that judges are
bound by law. Bork claims the law is the only true check upon an unelected,
tenured-for-life judiciary. And by "law" he means "the principles of the
text, whether Constitution or statute, as generally understood at the enactment."13
Some of what Evans and Bork say here should be considered hyperbole
given the content of some very recent decisions coming from the current high court. Chief
Justice Rehnquist, delivering the Court's opinion in U.S. v. Lopez, a case involving a
Texas 12th grade student who brought a gun to school and was charged with violating a
federal statute14 , wrote:
We start with first principles. The Constitution creates a Federal
Government of enumerated powers. As James Madison wrote, the power delegated by the
proposed Constitution to the federal government are few and defined. Those which are to
remain in the State governments are numerous and indefinite...This constitutionally
mandated division of authority was adopted by the Framers to ensure protection of our
fundamental liberties...A healthy balance of power between the States and the Federal
Government will reduce the risk of tyranny and abuse from either front...
Under the theories that the Government presents in support of 922(q), it is difficult
to perceive any limitation on federal power... Thus, if we were to accept the Government's
arguments, we are hard-pressed to posit any activity by an individual that Congress is
without power to regulate.15
Here is the respect for Constitutional principle Evans and Bork both say are absent from
the Court but which they say shouldn't be. Here the Court is recognizing what the
Constitution intends and "obeying" it. National power is prohibited beyond what
is written. Never mind that a strict reading here happens to dovetail with the political
views of the Court majority. For Bork, personal political views should be irrelevant to a
judge.16 A justice should have the attitude of Sir Thomas More who told his
son-in-law he would use the law to protect the devil himself17 --and More was
no fan of the devil.
But what Bork might call sticking to constitutional principle--such as Justice Clarence
Thomas' recent tart denial that there is "a racial paternalism exception to the
principle of equal protection"18 --others see as a sell out of deeper
principles of justice:
The Supreme Court Majority
- The Gang of Five who sit upon the Court
- Are bent on wiping out the Bill of Rights
- As case by tragic case they sell us short,
- Extinguishing the Founding Father's lights.
- They've overturned a Richmond statute meant
- To equalize the races by its terms
- In ordering that triple ten percent
- Of city contracts go to black-owned firms.
- They turned the clock back in a second case
- By making it impossible to end
- Most racist treatment in the marketplace,
- Reversing what had been this nation's trend.
- Controlled by each and every Reagan clone,
- This bench is now supreme in name alone.19
The battle over history
Within this general frame of differing outlooks on the Court's activity
is the specific battleground of the meaning of the Establishment Clause--its founding
history. Many skirmishes have been engaged here over the issue of the creation of the
amendment and the intent of its framers. Two major differing outlooks are found among the
combatants. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, William Rehnquist, by his position,
can be considered the champion of one of the camps, with roots from previous centuries in,
for instance, John Cotton and Patrick Henry, which favor government encouragement to
religion. This camp, which includes current Supreme Court Justices Scalia and Thomas,
believes the Establishment Clause erects no "wall of separation" between the
church and the state, as Rehnquist writes in his dissent in Wallace v. Jaffree:
It would seem...that the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment had acquired a
well-accepted meaning: it forbade establishment of a national religion, and forbade
preference among religious sects or denominations...The Establishment Clause did not
require neutrality between religion and irreligion nor did it prohibit the federal
government from providing non-discriminatory aid to religion. There is simply no
historical foundation for the proposition that the Framers intended to build the 'wall of
separation' that was constitutionalized in Everson...
The 'wall of separation between church and State' is a metaphor based on bad history, a
metaphor which has proved useless as a guide to judging. It should be frankly and
Hopefully, when Rehnquist says "bad history" here he means
"inaccurate history," as in "bad historiography." That is, we assume
that for "bad history" Rehnquist means something like this: "Those who say
that the historical record indicates a desire in the Framers to radically separate church
and state have not fairly surveyed the historical data, and have therefore inaccurately
portrayed it." Let us assume that this is what Rehnquist meant because to accept what
he has actually written here--that the separationist view is "bad history"--is
to accept that Rehnquist is living in massive denial and self-deceit, apparently
understanding that the Virginia history reveals a truly separationist intent on the part
of the Framers and that he doesn't like this (actual) history.21 He calls it
"bad" and says it should be abandoned. While that may be one way to eliminate a
fact one doesn't like, it's hardly an exemplary one. So we will assume that Rehnquist
means that the history offered by certain previous Courts, not to mention scores of
respected historians, was poorly done, an inaccurate recounting of the history of that
The other polar camp in this debate, to which the message of Rehnquist is reacting,
sees Jefferson and Madison as seminal Framing influences at the time of the First
Congress, teaching that a complete separation of church and state was necessary for the
health of the new republic.22 The view that the Clause requires a secular
outlook usually accompanies this position.
Rehnquist, Scalia, and Thomas, in championing the opposing view, have
become the darlings of the Religious Right, a movement which is in the process of
mobilizing its supporters to back a religious liberty amendment to the Constitution. This
amendment--alluded to in the introduction here as one that could bludgeon the
Establishment Clause--will be dealt with later in this paper. Suffice it to say here that
its intent and possible effect is a practical obliteration of the first provision of the
Bill of Rights.23
This embryonic amendment, presently being engineered to bypass the
Supreme Court's handling of the establishment Clause in the modern era24 , is
built on a particular view of history--Rehnquist's "good" history.25
What are these "good" and "bad" views? What are these two different
histories--over which, says scholar William Lee Miller26 , "hovers a great
cloud of polemical literature and tendentious history"--which are competing for the
prize of defining the Establishment Clause?
It is a question proponents from both sides27 of the debate
say must be engaged for the true Establishment Clause to be able to stand. Rehnquist wrote
in his Jaffree dissent: "The true meaning of the Establishment Clause can only be
seen in its history."28 Certainly the proponents of original understanding29
have always stressed the importance of history; the leading spokesman of originalism,
Robert Bork, writes, "Law is a public act...All that counts is how the words used in
the Constitution would have been understood at the time."30 Without some
kind of historical study about the use of words and ideas at the time of the crafting of
the Establishment Clause, its meaning is open to manipulation.
The debate always moves at some point to the views of Madison and
Jefferson; what they were and how controlling they were. Key texts cited are Jefferson's
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom and Madison's Memorial and Remonstrance, written to
combat a bill in the Virginia legislature that proposed paying Christian teachers of
multiple denominations with tax money. Few would argue with the view that the these two
grand historical documents favor a separation of the powers of the church and the state.31
The Virginia statute states:
that to compel a man to furnish contributions of money for the propagation of opinions
which he disbelieves, is sinful and tyrannical; that even the forcing him to support this
or that teacher of his own religious persuasion, is depriving him of the comfortable
liberty of giving his contributions to the particular pastor, whose morals he would make
That no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or
ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened, in his
body or goods....32
Jefferson here makes it plain that the state cannot collect tax money
to support religion "whatsoever;" to do so would require citizens to
"support" religious worship, and be thus "burthened" in their
Madison's Remonstrance, called by Ralph Ketcham "worthy of
Locke, Milton, or Mill," and reprinted in its entirety by Justice Wiley Rutledge in
his dissent in Everson, marshals 15 points against using tax money for religious
purposes. This writing is one of the most powerful affirmations of religious freedom
written in North America. Following is a summarized outline of the Remonstrance's 15
- Religion can only be directed by conscience and reason; government has no role to play
with respect to religion; permitting the majority sole rule can harm minorities.
- The legislature would exceed its lawful authority in passing such a bill.
- A warning against government interference with human rights.
- Coercion in religion is an offense to God.
- Civil magistrates (the state) is incompetent to judge religious truth; religion is an
improper engine of state policy.
- Christianity does not require state support to flourish.
- History shows that state support of Christianity has meant its debasement.
- Good government does not need assistance from an established religion.
- The assessment would hold out a sign of "persecution" rather than
"asylum" to other nations. The assessment differs from the Inquisition
"only in degree."
- The assessment might drive away present citizens by revoking "the liberty which
they now enjoy."
- It is folly to believe religious discord will be solved by the assessment.
- Making Virginia a Christian state would discourage non-Christians from immigrating;
furthermore it would lead to a hindering of diffusing the gospel.
- It would be unwise legislation because attempts to enforce it would be problematic
because so many citizens view it as "obnoxious."
- A measure of the magnitude of the assessment ought not to be imposed without a clear
majority of citizens favoring it.
- A powerful defense of natural rights: Liberty of conscience is a "gift of
nature." Freedom of conscience is the only policy consistent with deity.
Anticipating the argument that new exigencies of church and state demand new solutions to
their interrelationship, Justice Rutledge in his Everson dissent says, while citing
the Remonstrance, "The reasons underlying the Amendment's policy have not
vanished with time or diminished in force...There cannot be freedom of religion,
safeguarded by the state, and intervention by the church or its agencies in the state's
domain or dependency on its largesse."33 This is classic Madisonian
The question the separationists must answer, then, is "Is it classic with the rest
of the Framers?" Madison collated eighty amendments proposed by seven of the states
in the form of the nineteen amendments he submitted to the House of Representatives in the
First Congress.34 One of the nineteen was the original draft of our current
"The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or
worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal
rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed."
After proposing this amendment, he was a member of the committee of
eleven to consider it, and then was the head of the House conference committee that
negotiated with the Senate to produce its current wording.35 Because of
Madison's, "nor shall any national religion be established," accommodationists
have ballyhooed that his intent for the establishment clause was only that it prevent a
national establishment and not the larger and more encompassing separation of the
Remonstrance. But Samuel Livermore, an Episcopalian from New Hampshire, proposed an
improvement on Madison's wording:
"Congress shall make no law touching religion, or infringing the right of
Madison promptly withdrew his proposed amendment and Livermore's passed the House, 34 to
20. This fact is not mentioned by those who hang on the apparent meaning of Madison's
first draft.36 The lack of notes kept in the Senate's secret deliberations on
the amendments has not kept hidden the fact that the more accommodationist amendments
proposed--which would be what Rehnquist and the Religious Right would want in
abundance--were twice rejected. As William Lee Miller concludes: "One may be allowed
to infer that the majority in the Senate intended something more in the way of
separation."37 Some think the eventual wording from the conference
committee was written by Madison.
The Political Battle
While it is an assertion that would cause pain to doctrinaire originalists, there is usually a political advantage being sought when one of the
two groups is struggling to prove a certain historical point. Putting a
"historical" spin on what is going on in the present--something we call
political commentary--is in form no different than the spin that must inevitably be put on
the past--something we call history. Whose spin on the present is correct--is health care
a positive good or a positive evil for the U.S.?--is as impossible to be answered by a
"neutral" observer as is whose historical spin is correct: Historically, what is
the true intent of the Establishment Clause? To engage in the struggle to unearth the true
history is inevitably to become embroiled in the current political controversy.
Patrick Henry thought the public encouragement of
religion would advance the common virtue in Virginia and James Madison was sure it would
not. Justice Scalia is certainly at least half correct, then, in his Lambs Chapel
concurrence where he bases his rejection of the Courts endorsement-of-religion test
on his claim that those that "adopted our Constitution...believed that the public
virtues inculcated by religion are a public good." What is not half correct is the
failure to mention that Madison--certainly a key Founder--had severe reservations about
the state being an agent in the promotion of religion as a "short cut" to get
those "public goods." Whatever virtue might be gained by the public goods was
lost by the public--as opposed to the private, religious--attempt to act as catalyst. That
was the very reason Madison wrote the Remonstrance. The point in all this is simply
to keep in memory that the division of opinion in the Founders day is still with us
today. We thus seem wise in this inquiry to remember to keep an eye out for whose "ox
is being gored" at any given time.
The most recent Supreme Court case involving the
Establishment Clause, Rosenberger v. University of Virginia, provides an example.
Representatives from both sides of Americas culture wars are on the current Court.
Justices Thomas, Scalia and Rehnquist are Republican appointees who are prone to defend
traditional religion and conservative principles. Justice Kennedy (Reagan) and Justice
Sandra Day OConnor (Reagan) are often found voting with conservative coalitions.
These justices are certainly sensitive to the same influences which are causing Republican
Presidential hopefuls Robert Dole and Phil Gramm to play up to the Relgious Right: The
Right has an increasingly muscled political machine which will weigh in with power for its
political favorites. The other Republican-appointees, Justice Stevens (Gerald Ford) and
Justice Souter (Bush) have proven to be more independent thinkers.
Democratic President Bill Clinton has been a continuous
target of the Religious Right during his presidency; his more liberal initiatives
including encouragement of gays in the military and universal health care have kept him at
swords edge with the Right. He has begun to verbally strike back in recent incidents
including his comments about conservative talk radio; the nomination of Dr. Henry Foster
for Surgeon General which was aborted by the pro-life insistence of many Senators; and the
anti-conservative wave that followed the bombing of the Oklahoma City federal building.
President Clintons high court appointees, Justices Ginsburg and Breyer, the only
Justices on the court appointed by a Democratic President, were dissenters in the Rosenberger
The nomination of Justice Clarence Thomas was heavily
lobbied by the Religious Right. The five major players in the pro-Thomas coalition were
Coalitions for America, the Family Research Council, Concerned Women for America, the
Christian Coalition and the Traditional Values Coalition, all among the most powerful
groups within the Religious Right. These groups decided to wage a more public and at
times, more negative campaign than they had ever done in the past. The increased
politicization of this confirmation battle specifically and the increased politicization
in the nomination process generally in this century has, predictably, led to increased
partisanship and politicization in the Court. Justice Thomas knows which groups went to
bat for him in his very public and controversial confirmation hearings. He has not
disappointed them in Rosenberger. Thomas concurrence in that decision was
like the work of a good Scout doing his duty. The Religious Right has been increasingly
vocal in their revisionist history of the context of the framing of the Establishment
Clause. Thomas steps right up in his concurrence and lets it be known that the reason he
is writing it is to set the record straight on the questions of history involved. He lays
into the history sketched in Justice Souters dissent. The battle extends to the
majority opinion written by Justice Kennedy who also takes potshots at Souters
dissent in his majority opinion.
He writes, almost condescendingly, it seems, "it
bears only passing mention that the dissents attempt to distinguish Lambs
Chapel is entirely without support in the law." The Lambs Chapel
case involved a church that sued a school because the church was not allowed to show there
a video series by Dr. James Dobson. Dobson is one of the most powerful actors in the
Religious Right with his daily radio program, Focus on the Family, which reaches more ears
than any other programs except for those of Rush Limbaugh and Paul Harvey. The Supreme
Court ruled that the Establishment Clause did not prevent the church from having the same
opportunity as other groups to use school facilities for meetings in the evening. Jay
Sekulow of Pat Robertsons American Center for Law and Justice argued the case for
the petitioners. Sekulow not only argued that there is a federal constitutional right to
equal access in public fora for private religious speech, but also that the policy of the
school "by targeting private religious speech for censorship from facilities made
available to the public, Center Moriches [the school district involved] has violated the
Establishment Clause of the First Amendment." The Supreme Court followed Sekulow in
Go to part 2.
| Footnotes | |
South Australian Medical Heritage Society IncWebsite for the Virtual Museum
Galleries of the Virtual Museum
Bends, Caissons, Hyperbaric Oxygen, and the Adelaide Hyperbaric Unit
The word "bends" in the heading refers to the signs and symptoms which develop in persons who suffer decompression sickness. It is derived from 'the Grecian Bends' after a popular 19th century dance in which people bend at the waist. This condition can occur in divers who ascend too quickly from their dive (> 30m), or in aircraft which rise suddenly to high altitudes (> 20,000m). Thus aircraft are now pressurised.
People have been diving into water to collect resources (such as sponges, shells, pearls, salvaging shipwrecks, etc.) for several thousand years. As these divers were limited by their lung capacity, dives were relatively short and not very deep, and consequently decompression sickness would have been unlikely, and mild at worst.
Later advances included the use of rocks ("skandalopetra" in Greek). Both the diver and the stone were attached via a rope to a boat, allowing them both to be recovered faster. The diver jumped into the water holding the rock, sinking much faster with much less effort, increasing their productivity.
Diving bells have been used to work underwater for many centuries. Aristotle wrote about them around 400 BCE. They suffer many great disadvantages, e.g.: air was used up quickly, restricted to open water, and it must be lifted to extract resources and remove spoil.
Early versions of diving suits are recorded from the 12th century, and possibly earlier. In 1405, Konrad Kyeser described a snorkel in his book "Bellifortis". Kyeser also described a metal helmet with two glass view-ports and a leather jacket, a forerunner of the standard diving dress. There are several other manuscripts from the 15th century with similar descriptions, including "Alte Armatur und Ringkunst" by Hans Talhoffer in 1459.
The brothers Charles and John Deane designed the first successful diving helmets in the 1820's. They were originally intended to be used as smoke helmets by firemen, and used an external air supply. The helmets were made in 1827 by Augustus Siebe, and began to be used for diving around 1828. The helmets were loosely fixed to a diving suit, so divers could only work in an upright position without being flooded. Siebe later improved the suit, making it water tight, adding a valve in the helmet to stop water flooding in, and allowing the helmet to be removed from the corsetlet (the collar around the breastplate, back and shoulders that supports the helmet). The displacement of the suit would cause the diver to float, so additional weight had to be added, usually to the shoes and over the breastplate and helmet.
The standard diving dress allowed for more mobility, kept the diver dry, and provided some protection from the cold. They did not protect the diver against decompression sickness or nitrogen narcosis.
Further improvements led to self contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA). The two main types are closed-circuit and open-circuit. Closed-circuit cleans and recirculates the air, while open-circuit expels the air into the environment.
Closed-circuit re-breathers recirculate the air, chemically removing some of the carbon dioxide, and adding more oxygen from a tank. Giovanni Alfonso Borelli is credited with one of the earliest designs in the 17th century, but it was probably never tested. The first commercially successful model was designed by Henry Fleuss in 1878. Sir Robert Davis designed the first practical model made in large numbers in 1910.
The first commercially successful open-circuit SCUBA was the Aqualung, developed by Emile Gagnan and Jacques-Yves Cousteau in 1942-1943.
Both types of SCUBA divers can be affected by decompression sickness, depending on the depth, air mix and duration of the dive.
Another way to access underwater sites (for building bridge piers, dams, etc.) is to construct a cofferdam. These are temporary, watertight enclosures, which allow workers to safely work on dry ground. While these give easy access, they are take up significant space, potentially interfering with trade routes, and are not well suited to deeper waters.
One solution is to use caissons. Caissons are watertight containers which become part of the final structure. The word is derived from the French caisse, meaning "ammunition wagon", "crate", or "box". There are three main types: box, open, and compressed air.
Box caissons are prefabricated boxes, often made of concrete, that are floated into position, before being sunk by being filled with concrete. Two different types of box caissons were used to build the Herodian harbour at Caesarea Maratime (about half way between the modern cities of Tel Aviv and Haifa, Israel) from 25 - 13 BCE. The harbour was built by order of Herod the Great, who named it Sebastos (Greek for "venerable", a translation of the Roman honorific augustus) and dedicated to the Roman Emperor Augustus. On the sheltered side, large hollow floating concrete boxes were towed into position, and then sunk by the addition of concrete. On the more exposed site, large seaworthy barges were used ( for more information, please refer to the Wikipedia article on Caesarea Maratima ).
Open caissons are open topped, generally tube shaped walls which are sunk by their own weight, with a steel cutting shoe (a steeply angled leading edge) at the bottom. This technique was used by Marc Isambard Brunel in the construction of the access shafts to his Thames Tunnel in 1825 - 1843.
Unpressurised caissons, such as that used in Brunel's Thames Tunnel do not cause decompression sickness. It wasn't until the 19th century that compressed air was used in caissons.
Compressed air caissons are essentially bottomless waterproof containers. Water is forced out by compressed air, providing a dry working environment. They have at least one airlock through which people can pass, compressed air shaft(s), and unpressurised shaft(s) allowing one or more cranes to extract the spoil (called muck). To reduce friction, the cutting shoe at the bottom is usually wider than the main body.
Because they are less dense than the surrounding water, caissons need to be ballasted. This is usually achieved by the pier itself, although additional weight may be needed initially.
The deeper under water the caisson is, the more air pressure is needed, with every 10m of water adding one atmosphere of pressure. Excess air pressure escapes from under the bottom of the caisson, or via the muck tube. The air must be continuously supplied to replace the oxygen used by the workers, etc.
After the excavation has finished, the caisson is backfilled with concrete, becoming part of the final structure.
The modern version of the caisson was invented by the French geologist Jacques Triger in 1841. It consisted of 4 iron tubes, each approximately 1m wide, by 5-6m long, and most importantly, an airlock. This allowed him and others to mine coal at a depth of 20m in the water logged soil of the Loire river. Triger reported that two miners complained of pain after finishing working in 2.4 atmospheres for 4 hours, quite possibly the first recorded cases of decompression sickness (DCS).
As the amount of gas absorbed in water is proportional to the pressure (Henry's law), the greater pressures inside caissons causes more gas to be absorbed by the workers. As they return to the lower pressures outside, these dissolved gasses effervesce. If these bubbles form faster than they can be removed via the lungs, they can cause many problems, including skin rashes, joint pain, paralysis, emboli, and death, depending on their size and placement.
One of the earliest description of decompression sickness was made in 1666 by the noted physicist and chemist, Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691). In his experiments with vacuums ("New Pneumatical Experiments about Respiration"), he noted "what I once observed in a viper furiously tortured in our exhausted receiver, namely, that it had manifestly a conspicuous bubble moving to and fro in the waterish humour of one of its eyes". He hypothesised that these bubbles could be dangerous. Felix Hoppe-Seyler demonstrated this experimentally in 1857 by the rapid decompression of various animals, finding considerable volumes of gas in the vena cava, and the right chambers of their hearts.
In 1847, the French doctors B. Pol and T. J. J. Watelle noted that recompression gave symptomatic relief to compressed air workers, and recommended a slow decompression to avoid further pain. They also noted a relation between symptoms and age, depth/pressure, duration of exposure, and decompression rate.
One of the earliest incidents of mass decompression sickness was recorded in during the construction of the Eads Bridge between St. Louis, Missouri and East St. Louis, Illinois across the Mississippi River in 1867. Caissons were sunk to reach the bedrock, the deepest was on the Illinois side, some 38m below the water level, requiring up to 55 psig (approx 4.7 atmospheres, car tyres are around 30 psig, or 3 atm). There were 119 severe cases, with 14 recorded deaths. The physician in charge, Dr Alphonse Jaminet, also suffered from decompression sickness and recorded his own description.
Perhaps the most famous use of caissons was the building of the Brooklyn bridge in 1871. In order to reach the bedrock under the East River (the deeper Manhattan side is about 24m below the waterline) a large wooden caisson was built on land, towed into the river, and sunk by building the pier on top of it. It was then filled with compressed air, allowing space for workers to excavate the ground below. After they had reached bedrock, the men left and the cavity was filled with concrete, becoming the foundation for the pier.
When the men had finished their shifts, they exited the caisson through a series of air locks. If they passed through too fast, they suffered from 'caisson disease', a term coined by the physician in charge of the project, Dr Andrew Smith, in 1873. He recorded 110 cases during construction, including 3 deaths. The project supervisor, Washington Roebling, also suffered from DCS in 1872, and was forced to oversee the last 10 year of construction from his house. He was greatly aided by his wife, Emily Warren Roebling, who nursed him, and trained herself as an engineer, taking over many of the duties of the chief engineer.
As a result of the deaths of these workers, both Smith and Jaminet made a series of changes to the working conditions, including:
In 1872, Smith proposed the use of a medical lock (hyperbaric chamber), but it was never installed.
In 1878, the French physiologist Paul Bert showed that decompression sickness was caused by nitrogen gas being released from blood and tissue during or after decompression, much like what happens when a bottle of carbonated soft drink is opened. He also showed that DCS is more dangerous in the obese by repeatedly decompressing his dog, before fattening it up and trying again, resulting in its untimely demise. This was also noted by Smith and Jaminet, amongst others, in their recommendations after the bridge deaths.
It wasn't until 1889 that medical locks were used. After a British contractor took control of the first Hudson River Tunnel, Ernest William Moir installed a medical lock as described by Smith, reducing the death rate from 25% to 2%.
Decompression sickness is not limited to compressed air workers. The low pressures in mountaineering, unpressurised flight, and in space can also cause DCS. One example of this was the flight of the French balloon "Zénith" in 1875. Sponsored by Paul Bert and manned by Gaston Tissandier, Théodore Henri Sivel, and Joseph Crocé-Spinelli, the Zénith was launched to determine the composition of the upper atmosphere, reaching a height of approximately 8,600m. When they began to feel the effects of asphyxia, the men tried to reach their oxygen supplies, but were unable to as their arms were paralysed. Both Sivel and Crocé-Spinelli died, Tissandier survived, but became deaf.
Early decompression models used uniform decompression rates. In 1895 the Austrian physiologist Hermann von Schrötter defined the safe decompression rate to be one atmosphere every 20 minutes. He also suggested using oxygen in recompression, but this did not become common due to fears of oxygen toxicity.
Using goats as analogues for humans, the Scottish doctor John Scott Haldane developed a model for staged decompression rates, which took into account the depth, duration, nitrogen absorption and release rates in different tissues, and age of the diver. He proved that this was safer than the Schrötter's method of uniform decompression. From this model he produced his tables, presenting them to the British Admiralty in 1908, and were used until 1955. Together with A. E. Boycott and G. C. C. Damant, Haldane published the very influential paper "The Prevention of Compressed-air Illness" in the Journal of Hygiene, June, 1908.
The US Navy Experimental Diving unit also devised its own decompression tables. Their Air Decompression Tables from 1927 became a standard world wide.
From the 1960's, Albert A. Bühlmann, a Swiss physician, made several important refinements to Haldane's model, including dividing the tissues into more groups, and correcting for altitude. This lead to the development of the SAA (Sub-aqua Association) Bühlmann System in 1987. His ZHL-8 algorithm is used in many dive computers, and ZHL-16 algorithm is the basis for many tables.
In 1935, Albert R. Behnke et al. experimented with the use of oxygen in recompression therapy. They found it was effective, and it has become standard in the treatment of DCS. The reduced percentage of nitrogen in the hyperbaric oxygen air (and hence decreased nitrogen partial pressure), results in a greater partial pressure differential between the sufferer's blood and the breathed air. This increases the rate at which the nitrogen is removed from the patient, reducing the time required to safely decompress.
Adelaide Hyperbaric Unit
Before 1950, the need for decompression facilities in South Australia were relatively low, and any divers with decompression sickness were sent interstate in pressurised aircraft. There were however some individual attempts. Mr. McLaurie, a professional diver, constructed his own decompression chamber in the 1950's.
However new uses for hyperbaric oxygen were found. Several medical publications reported usage of the treatment in gas gangrene, necrotising fasciitis, carbon monoxide poisoning, trauma and other limb or cerebrovascular ischaemic episodes. It was thought to be of use in patients receiving radiotherapy and those with multiple sclerosis.
Another advance resulted from the discovery of the North Sea oil fields and the need for decompression treatment of several persons at the same time. This resulted in many technical innovations, and some of the superseded North Sea oil platform machines became available for other uses.
In Adelaide a single unit was used by the Radiotherapy Unit in early 1960. It was based on the belief that malignant cells were more susceptible to X-rays in a high oxygen environment. This type of therapy stopped with the arrival of better radiotherapy machines a few years later.
In 1982 Mr. Salkeld purchased a multiple marine decompression chamber from the Corshelf Marine company. It was sited in Kent Town (Adelaide), and was used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Several patients from the RAH with gas gangrene and caisson disease were also treated.
In the 1980's the need for a hyperbaric unit became obvious, and the Health Commission, State Government, and National Safety Council provided the stimulus and the finances. Drs. W. T. McCoy and J. E. Gilligan provided medical support.
The first chamber, a single person unit, was purchased and installed in 1984. This was followed up by a square multi-chamber unit a year later. The Hyperbaric Oxygen Unit is still used, but its uses for decompression symptoms have decreased markedly. The current treatments are used on patients with acute or chronic wound problems, such diabetic ulcers, slow healing wounds, carbon monoxide poisoning, radiation cystitis and other post-radiation problems. Coupled with antibiotics, it is invaluable in treating gas gangrene and necrotising fasciitis. The case load is sufficiently large for the Unit to be opened each working day.
The Unit is located on Level 2 of the theatre bloc and, depending on the diagnosis, the treatment may need up to 40 attendances.
The following photographs and relevant comments show some of the history of the Unit. |
7/3/2013 - Make swimming safety a priority this Fourth of July
As families and friends gather to commemorate America's founding this Independence Day, a variety of activities will almost assuredly be had, including baseball games, cookouts and attending fireworks displays. In addition, with conditions expected to be steamy throughout much of the U.S., plans may also include a dip in the pool.
But if parents and July 4th holiday revelers aren't careful, their enjoyment can be compromised if safety precautions aren't taken while swimming.
Swimming-related injuries are particularly common in the summer months, given the soaring temperatures. In fact, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, for every child lost from drowning, another five receive emergency department care for injuries sustained.
Additionally, data from the National Safety Council indicates kids ages one to four account for nearly 90 percent of drownings at home swimming pools.
With this in mind, homeowners should be sure to adhere to swim safety rules and ensure their pool is properly protected from un-guarded use. Additionally, a thorough review of the homeowners policy should be completed, to confirm liability insurance is included in the event a pool related incident occurs. For more information on pool safety and precautions, the American Red Cross and CDC provide some helpful insights to help keep families safe this Fourth of July. |
स्पष्ट तौर पर चीन के बढ़ते कदमों से ताल्लुक रखती है। भले ही चीन इसे शांतिपूर्ण करार देता हो लेकिन इसकी वजह से भारत और जापान करीब आए हैं। हाल ही में चीन ने भारत के साथ सीमा विवाद में जो आक्रामकता दिखाई समुद्र विवाद को लेकर जापान के साथ उसके उलझाव ने इन दोनों देशों की आपसी साझेदारी की जरूरत को बल दिया है। दोनों प्रधानमंत्रियों ने सीप्लेन2 यूटिलिटी विमान को विकसित करने की दिशा में संयुक्त विनिर्माण संबंधी समझौते के बारे में खासतौर पर बात की। गीत आगामी डॉक्यूमेंट्री, चीर हरण में शामिल है, जो 2016 के आरक्षण विरोध के बारे में है. सुनील ने एक बयान में कहा कि, यह गीत मेरे अंदर बहुत सारी भावनाएं हैं यह गीत याद दिलाता है कि जीवन इतना चंचल है और मानवीय संघर्ष बिना किसी वापसी के एक परिवार को परेशान कर सकता है. संवाद सूत्र, अमरगढ़ (संगरूर) : स्थानीय गुरुद्वारा विश्वकर्मा साहिब में श्री गुरु तेग बहादुर जी के प्रकाश पर्व को समर्पित गुरुबाणी कीर्तन दरबार आयोजित किया गया। इसमें क्षेत्र की संगत ने बड़ी संख्या में शिरकत की। समागम के दौरान कथावाचक भाई अमृतपाल सिंह पक्खोकलां ने कहा कि यदि गुरु साहिब के पर्व मनाने हों तो सभी</s> |
पिता की मौत का बदला लेने के पुराने फिल्मी फार्मूले को इस फिल्म में नए अंदाज में परोसा गया था। इस फिल्म के लिए शाहरुख को जबरदस्त एक्टिंग के लिए फिल्मफेयर अवार्ड भी मिला था। तेघड़ा में निर्माणाधीन अस्पताल भवन को बनाया गया आइसोलेशन सेंटर इस घटना से लगभग एक सप्ताह पूर्व इस गांव से कुछ दूरी पर स्थित ग्राम काशीपुर में भी बाघ एक नीलगाय को अपना निवाला बना चुका है। साथ ही कटरा घाट पर भी आये दिन बाघ का आतंक देखने को मिलता है। ग्रामीण राम नरेश वर्मा के अनुसार क्षेत्र में एक नही बल्कि कई बाघ मौजूद हैं, लेकिन विभागीय अधिकारियों की निष्क्रियता के चलते एक दिन बड़ी घटित हो सकती है। यही कारण है कि वे नेता प्रतिपक्ष की मान्यता के लिए दरबदर गुहार लगाते चल रहे हैं. बीजेपी में शामिल होकर पहले ही उन्होंने अपनी छवि धूमिल कर ली है. अब झारखंडी जनता भी उनकी बातों को गंभीरता से नहीं ले रही है. ऐसे में बाबूलाल जबरदस्ती बयानबाजी कर सुर्खियों में रहना चाहते हैं. भोपाल। डिजिटल इण्डिया की दिशा में एक और कदम बढ़ते हुए मध्यप्रदेश की पहली पूर्ण वाई फ पंजाब और हरियाणा में होगी खिताबी भिड़ंत मास्क चेकिंग पर निकला पाकिस्तानी रिपोर्टर,</s> |
में बलवंत राय मेहता की अध्यक्षता में मेहता कमेटी का गठन किया गया था. इस कमेटी को पंचायती राज के प्रारूप इनके रूप कार्यों शक्तियों, चुनावी प्रक्रिया के बारे में ढांचा तैयार करने के लिए कहा गया था. वर्ष 1957 में मेहता कमेटी ने अपनी रिपोर्ट सरकार के समक्ष प्रस्तुत की. 12 जनवरी 1958 को भारत सरकार द्वारा मेहता कमेटी की अधिकतर सिफारिशों को स्वीकार कर लिया गया, जिनमें सता का विकेंद्रीकरण एक मुख्य पहलू था. महात्मा गांधी जयंती 2 अक्टूबर 1959 को पंडित जवाहरलाल नेहरु द्वारा राजस्थान की नागौर जिले की भूमि से भारत में पंचायती राज व्यवस्था की नीव रखी. 11 अक्टूबर 1959 को राजस्थान के बाद भारत में पंचायती राज व्यवस्था को लागू करने वाला आंध्रप्रदेश दूसरा राज्य बना था. बाद कई वर्षों में पंचायती राज के ढाँचे में सुधार को लेकर कई कमेटियों का गठन किया गया जिनमें अशोक मेहता कमेटी, यशपाल कमेटी, सिन्हा कमेटी मगर भारत में पंचायतीराज का स्वरूप बलवंतराय मेहता कमेटी के आधर पर ही लागू है. सविधान के द्वारा इसे सवैधानिक रूप देने के लिए सरकार द्वारा वर्ष 1993 में 73 वें व 74 वें संशोधन द्वारा इसे वैधानिक रूप दिया गया है. 73 वें संविधान संशोधन के तहत त्रिस्तरीय ढाँचे में</s> |
लेकर अमेरिका की रणनीति पर बोलते हुए राष्ट्रपति डोनाल्ड ट्रंप ने कहा था कि हम भारत के साथ एक गहरी रणनीतिक साझेदारी विकसित करेंगे, लेकिन हम भारत से उम्मीद करते हैं कि वो अफगानिस्तान मुद्दे पर हमारी पहले से ज्यादा मदद करेंगे। ट्रंप ने कहा कि अमेरिका के साथ व्यापार में भारत ने अरबों डॉलर्स की कमाई की है, लेकिन अमेरिका चाहता है कि अफगानिस्तान को लेकर भारत उसकी मदद करने के लिए आगे आए। मौसम विभाग के मुताबिक, शहर में पिछले चौबीस घंटों के दौरान 240.2 मिलीमीटर पानी बरसा। बहरहाल, इंदौरवासियों को अभी बारिश से राहत मिलने की उम्मीद कम है। अगले 24 घंटे के दौरान शहर में और अधिक बारिश होने की भविष्यवाणी की गई है। जालसाज : मात्र 15 हजार रुपए चाहिए, कल सुबह 10 बजे तक लौटा दूंगा जिला समाज कल्याण अधिकारी सुरजीत कौर का कहना है कि पूर्व सरपंचों के कार्यकाल में बुढ़ापा पेंशन में फर्जीवाड़ा करने की शिकायतें लगातार विभाग को मिल रही है। लोग सीएम विंडो से लेकर जिला उपायुक्त तक से शिकायतें कर रहे हैं। इसके चलते विभाग भी सख्त हो चुका है। विभाग ने सभी संदिग्ध पूर्व सरपंचों से लेकर दूसरे संदिग्ध पात्रों को भी नोटिस जारी कर दिए हैं। सख्ती</s> |
"Like" us to connect with other students, watch videos, see job offers and even get special discounts.
TESOL Videos - English Grammar -- Present Perfect -- Usage --
Below you can read feedback from an ITTT graduate regarding one section of their online TEFL certification course. Each of our online courses is broken down into concise units that focus on specific areas of English language teaching. This convenient, highly structured design means that you can quickly get to grips with each section before moving onto the next.
I believe i have gone through this unit with a very close study of the different parts of speeches,which are quite complex and can be confusing at times and with this i will be able to help students with their grammar which is an every day learning process.This is very important both me and my students.this unit was really hard for me it was a lot of reading and understanding eacht part of it. the phonetic script is really intresting but also really hard to understand because it looks really diffrent. it is intresting how you can pronaunce a word diffrent and it could have a complete diffrent meaning. |
कहा कि सुरक्षा देने के नाम पर गृह मंत्री राजनीति न करें. दिल्ली में पार्टी नेताओं के बीच आतंरिक कलह की वजह से पार्टी को पहले भी चुनावों में बड़ा नुकसान उठाना पड़ा है। दिल्ली ईकाई में आतंरिक कलह बड़ा मुद्दा रहा है। बीजेपी के एक नेता ने कहा कि लेकिन अब, बीजेपी एक कैडर पार्टी है और नेतृत्व बहुत शक्तिशाली है। इसलिए पूरा भरोसा है कि इस समस्या पर नियंत्रण पा लिया जाएगा। इसके अलावा बीजेपी नेतृत्व साल 2015 में की गई गलती को दोहराने से परहेज करने की कोशिश में हैं। अंत्योदय कार्डधारकों को इस योजना के तहत निजी और सरकारी अस्पतालों में निशुल्क उपचार मिल सकेगा। मुख्यमंत्री की इस योजना से जिले के गरीब लोगों को बेहतर चिकित्सीय सुविधा मिलेगी। कंपनी एडमिन दोस्त सहित धराया सीएम ने आंकड़ों का जिक्र करते हुए बताया कि बीते 10 दिन में अस्पताल के 900 बेड ही भरे हैं. जबकि 10 दिन में कोरोना के 23 हजार नये मरीज मिले हैं. केजरीवाल ने कहा कि कोरोना के नये मामलों में सीरियस केस कम हैं, और उन्हें हॉस्पिटल की जरूरत नहीं है. डॉ. गुप्ता ने एम्स के इस कदम के खिलाफ केंद्रीय प्रशासनिक न्यायाधिकरण (कैट) का दरवाजा खटखटाया है। कैट में एक</s> |
सुर्खियों में रहने के बीच एक कलेक्टर ने मिसाल पेश की है. यह अफसर भी आम लोगों की तरह स्वेप मशीन से पैसे निकालने के लिए काफी देर तक कतार में खड़े रहकर अपनी बारी आने का इंतजार करते हुए दिखाई दिए. आजादी की 75वीं वर्षगांठ पर पूरा अटारीवाघा बॉर्डर भारत माता की जय और हिंदुस्तान जिंदाबाद के जयघोष से गूंज उठा। रविवार शाम हुई रिट्रीट सेरेमनी में भारतीय जवानों ने समां बांध दिया। पुलिस जवानों के साथ महिला कर्मियों ने भी शानदार परेड की। रिट्रीट सेरेमनी देखने के लिए दूरदूर से लोग आए थे। विभिन्न स्कूलों के बच्चों ने भी यहां नृत्य किया। उनके मातापिता भी इस दौरान मौजूद रहे। कोरोना महामारी की वजह से अटारी सीमा पर ज्यादा भीड़ नहीं जुटाई गई थी। अजमेर। राष्ट्रवादी भजन कलाकार प्रकाश माली ने रविवार रात्रि को मां चामुंडा मंदिर में आयोजित जागरण में भजन प्रस्तुति देकर भक्तों का मन मोह लिया। देर रात तक चली भजन संध्या में एन्होंने एक से बढकर एक भजन सुनाए। हिंदी न्यूज़ उत्तर प्रदेश उत्तर प्रदेश में कोरोना के 1730 एक्टिव पेशेंट, अबतक 1973 हुए डिस्चार्ज समयसीमा का लक्ष्य बनाकर पूरी करें योजनाएं : महबूबा मुफ्ती टंकी पर चढ़ता देख लोगों की भीड़ जुटी सुल्तानपुर लोधी।</s> |
हजार दीपों का प्रज्वलन होगा। इस मौके पर 226 करोड़ की योजनाओं का लोकार्पण और शिलान्यास होगा।तीन दिन तक चलने वाले दिव्य दीपोत्सव का समापन 26 अक्टूबर को होना है। समापन समारोह के अवसर पर मुख्यमंत्री योगी आदित्यनाथ अयोध्या में उपस्थित रहेंगे। अगला लेखपीएम मोदी के बाद राहुल गांधी गुजरात दौरे पर, कहा झूठ सुन सुनकर विकास पागल हो गया उन्होंने प्रशिक्षणार्थियों से सीधा संवाद से सीख लेते हुए अपने उद्यम को बैंक ऋण के माध्यम से विस्तार देने को प्रेरित किया। कार्यक्रम में संस्थान के प्रकाश चंद्र, विजय सिंह लडवाल, राजेश पंत, महेंद्र सिंह पटवा, छवि दत्त पांडेय आदि भी मौजूद रहे। 60 लाख परिवारों को मुफ्त बिजली कनेक्शन देने की शुरुआत जिसपर आपको 7,815 रुपये की डाउन पेमेंट देनी होगी। इस डाउन पेमेंट के बाद आपको हर महीने 2,476 रुपये की मंथली ईएमआई चुकानी होगी।इस लोन की अवधि 36 महीने की होगी और कुल लोन राशि पर बैंक 9.7 प्रतिशत वार्षिक दर से ब्याज लेगा। सोलर सिस्टम लगवाने के इच्छुक ये पढ़ें नरेष हरिजन की जमानत याचिका खारिज होने के समाचार सुनका हरिजन के परिजनों मे निराषा छा गई, पुर्व मे हरिजन के पारिवारिक लोगो ने श्री प्रवीण पालीवाल ग्रुप के सदस्यो से उसकी जान के खतरे को</s> |
Table of Contents
In Drosophila and vertebrates, Hedgehog (Hh) signalling is mediated by a cascade of genes, which play essential roles in cell proliferation and survival, and in patterning of the embryo, limb buds and organs. In C. elegans, this pathway has undergone considerable evolutionary divergence; genes encoding homologues of key pathway members, including Hh, Smoothened, Cos2, Fused and Suppressor of Fused, are absent. Surprisingly, over sixty proteins (i.e. WRT, GRD, GRL, and QUA), encoded by a set of genes collectively referred to as the Hh-related genes, and two co-orthologs (PTC-1,-3) of fly Patched, a Hh receptor, are present in C. elegans. Several of the Hh-related proteins are bipartite and all can potentially generate peptides with signalling activity, although none of these peptides shares obvious sequence similarity with Hh. In addition, the ptc-related (ptr) genes, which are present in a single copy in Drosophila and vertebrates and encode proteins closely related to Patched, have undergone an expansion in number in nematodes. A number of functions, including roles in molting, have been attributed to the C. elegans Hh-related, PTC and PTR proteins; most of these functions involve processes that are associated with the trafficking of proteins, sterols or sterol-modified proteins. Genes encoding other components of the Hh signalling pathway are also found in C. elegans, but their functions remain to be elucidated.
The Drosophila hedgehog (hh) mutant was identified by Nüsslein-Volhard and Wieschaus in their classic genetic screen that led to the identification of key embryonic segment polarity genes (Nüsslein-Volhard and Wieschaus, 1980). Subsequently, the single Drosophila and the multiple vertebrate Hh proteins, Sonic Hedgehog (Shh), Indian Hedgehog (Ihh) and Desert Hedgehog (Dhh), have collectively proven to be key effectors in patterning the embryo, limb buds and neural tube, organ formation, cell proliferation, axon guidance and cell survival (for reviews, see Ingham and McMahon, 2001; Lum and Beachy, 2004). Mutations in genes constituting the Hh signalling pathway are also implicated in various human syndromes and cancers (Bale, 2002; Beachy et al., 2004; Pasca di Magliano and Hebrok, 2003; Taipale and Beachy, 2001). Details of the pathway are summarised in Figure 1 (Ingham and McMahon, 2001; Lum and Beachy, 2004). The various proteins involved in the Hh and Ptc signalling pathway, including those present in C. elegans, are listed in Table 1.
What role does the Hh/Ptc signalling pathway play in C. elegans development? To address this question, it is first reasonable to ask whether the major proteins of the pathway are encoded by the C. elegans genome, a task that is simplified by the availability of the complete genome sequence (Table 1; C. elegans Sequencing Consortium, 1998). Surprisingly, genes encoding recognisable Hh and Smo proteins are absent. In addition, homologs for Cos2, Fu and Su(fu), which transduce the Hh signal from Smo to Ci, are absent. The Ci homolog itself, TRA-1, is not essential for embryonic pattern formation, but continues to act at the transcriptional level to control sexual cell fate decisions and male gonadal development (Hodgkin, 1983; Mathies et al., 2004), although there is no evidence that the nuclear localisation or activity of TRA-1 is controlled in the same manner as Ci (Kuwabara et al., 2000; Zarkower and Hodgkin, 1992). It has been speculated that the C. elegans sex determination pathway could be evolutionarily related to the Hh/Ptc pathway because additional similarities have also been noted between the two pathways (Kuwabara et al., 1992).
Table 1. Components of the Hh signaling network. Note: the function of many of the C. elegans components is not clear and may be different from that in Drosophila and/or mammals. The abbreviations used for the hh pathway in Figure 1 are highlighted in yellow in this table. Slashes separate synonymous gene names, parentheses contain the abbreviations of the full gene names, comas separate paralogs.
|Hint and associated domains||qua-1, wrt-1 - wrt-10, grd-1 - grd-17, grl-1 - grl-32, hog-1||hedgehog (hh)||Sonic hedgehog (Shh), Indian hedgehog (Ihh), Desert hedgehog (Dhh)|
|Palmitoylation, membrane bound O-acyl transferase, MBOAT||Y57G11C.17, ZC101.3||rasp/skinny hedgehog (ski)/sightless||Ski1/Skn/HHAT|
|12-Pass TM, SSD||che-14, ptd-2||dispatched (disp)||DISP|
|Hip module (homologs in plants, bacteria)||–||–||Hedgehog interacting protein (Hip1/Hip)|
|GPI-anchored external plasma membrane glyco-protein (growth arrest when overexpressed)||phg-1||–||Growth arrest specific 1 (Gas1)|
|Low density lipoprotein receptor family||lrp-1||Megalin/gp330/LRP2|
|Glycosyltransferases involved in Heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) synthesis, exostosin domain||rib-1 (lacks C-term. putative catalytic region with DXD motif)||tout-velu (ttv)||EXT1|
|rib-2||brother of tout-velu (botv)||EXTL3|
|–||sister of tout-velu (sotv)||EXT2|
|Glypican: heparan sulfate proteoglycan anchored to the cell membrane by a GPI-anchor||gpn-1||dally-like (dlp/dly)||Glypican-6|
|12-Pass TM, SSD||ptc-1, ptc-3||patched (ptc)||PTCH1, PTCH2|
|7TM serpentine receptors||–||smoothened (smo)||SMO|
|Serine/threonine kinase (homologs in plants)||–||fused (fu)||FU|
|Sufu domain (homologs in bacteria)||–||Suppressor of fused (Su(fu))||SUFU|
|Kinesin-like||–||costal 2/costa (cos)||KIF27, KIF7|
|Zinc finger transcription factor||tra-1||cubitus interruptus (ci)||Gli1, Gli2, Gli3|
The C. elegans genome encodes an abundance of what will be collectively referred to as Hh-related (Hh-r) proteins, three Patched proteins and 24 Patched-related proteins (PTR). Four Frizzled receptor homologues (see Wnt signaling), as well as a series of molecules participating in the early stages of Hh signalling are also present. Given our current understanding of the Hh/Ptc signal transduction pathway in other organisms, the presence of multiple C. elegans Hh-r, PTC and PTR proteins and the absence of Hh, Smo and other components is unexpected and raises a number of questions about the evolution and the function of these genes in C. elegans.
The Hh proteins are composed of an N-terminal signalling domain, Hh-N, and a C-terminal autoprocessing domain, Hh-C. Hh-C has autoproteolytic activity, which cleaves Hh and subsequently attaches a cholesterol moiety to the Hh-N C-terminus (see scheme Figure 2A; Lee et al., 1994; Porter et al., 1996). Hh-C shares sequence similarity with the self-splicing inteins; hence, this region was named Hint (Dalgaard et al., 1997; Hall et al., 1997; Koonin, 1995). The 60 terminal residues of Hh-C are named the sterol recognition region (SRR) because they are required for adding cholesterol to Hh-N (Figure 2A; Beachy et al., 1997). Here, we refer to the combined Hint-SRR domain as the Hog domain.
Surprisingly, early database searches uncovered eight distinct C. elegans ORFs sharing similarity to Hh (Bürglin, 1996; Porter et al., 1996). Further investigation revealed that the sequence similarity shared by Hh and these ORFs was confined only to the Hog domain. Analyses of the N-terminal regions revealed several new motifs (Bürglin, 1996; Porter et al., 1996), which were also found in other ORFs that lacked Hog domains. In mimicry of the bipartite “Hedge-hog” structure, the three new gene families were named, warthog (wrt), groundhog (grd) and ground-like (grl) and the protein domains found at their respective N-terminal regions were called Wart, Ground and Ground-like (Aspöck et al., 1999; Bürglin, 1996). The final additions to the nomenclature are two previously unnamed single copy genes, qua-1 for quahog (T05C12.10/M110, Hao et al., 2006b), and an ORF consisting only of the Hog domain, hog-1 (W06B11.4). The structural organization of Hh and the Hh-r genes is shown in Figure 2B.
Over 60 Hh-r genes have been identified in C. elegans, most of which are expressed, although a few appear to be pseudogenes (e.g., grd-17; Figure 2B). Many of these genes share a one to one orthology to C. briggsae genes, although several have arisen through recent duplications within the C. elegans lineage. Preliminary searches of the ongoing Brugia malayi genome project reveal that representatives of the different C. elegans families are also present (Figure 2B). This clearly demonstrates that these Hh-r gene families were already present in the last common ancestor of C. elegans and B. malayi more than 300 million years ago.
The Wart, Ground, Ground-like and Qua domain each have a characteristic pattern of conserved cysteine residues (Figure 2C). The Ground and Ground-like domains differ in their arrangement of these conserved cysteine residues (Aspöck et al., 1999). In some instances, it has been possible to predict likely disulfide bond arrangements because of pairwise cysteine substitutions (Figure 2C; Aspöck et al., 1999). The Wart domain is about twice the size of the Ground and Ground-like domain; however, the C-terminal half of the Wart domain has a cysteine arrangement similar to that of the Ground domain and both share a short conserved motif similarly positioned between cysteine residues (FDøI, FEøV, respectively, Figure 2C; Aspöck et al., 1999). Thus, it is likely that the C-terminal part of the Wart domain and the Ground domain was derived from the same ancestral domain. The short conserved FDøV “core” motif is also present in the Hh-N core, although its position relative to the cysteine residues is different (Figure 2C; Aspöck et al., 1999).
All Hh-r genes in C. elegans, apart from hog-1, are predicted to encode secreted molecules. Porter et al. (1996) have shown that WRT-1, similar to Hh, undergoes autoprocessing; thus it is expected that other Hh-r proteins with a Hog domain will also have autocatalytic properties. However, it remains unclear whether the Hh-r proteins can bind cholesterol or other sterols, because the region corresponding to the SRR of Hh is slightly different in the Hh-r proteins (see Figure 1A in Aspöck et al., 1999).
An expression survey of wrt and grd genes revealed that they are expressed primarily in ectodermal tissues, particularly the hypodermis and seam cells, but can also be found in neurons, neuron-associated cells and gland cells (Aspöck et al., 1999). qua-1 is also expressed in the hypodermis (Hao et al., 2006b). An internal deletion in qua-1 results in severe molting defects (Hao et al., 2006b). Functional studies of other wrt genes are in progress and preliminary results indicate that they also play important roles in development. For example, wrt-5 functions in the hypodermis during embryogenesis (Hao et al., 2006a). At present it is still unclear how Hh-r molecules function, and whether their activity could relate to the function of the PTC and PTR proteins.
In Drosophila, Hh is further modified by Skinny hedgehog (Ski), which palmitoylates the N-terminus of Hh-N, an essential process for Hh function (Chamoun et al., 2001). C. elegans has two co-orthologs, Y57G11C.17 and ZC101.3 (T.R. Bürglin, unpublished), but large-scale RNAi experiments have not uncovered any associated mutant phenotype. Modified Hh is secreted with the help of Dispatched; C. elegans has two Disp homologs, CHE-14 and PTD-2 (see below).
Secreted Hh forms a multimeric complex that moves through the extracellular matrix space. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans (HSPG) play an important role in Hh signal transduction. Three Drosophila genes, tout-velu (ttv), sister of tout-velu (sotv), and brother of tout-velu (botv) encode glycosyltransferases of the EXT family that are required for the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate and are essential for the movement of N-Hh (Han et al., 2004a; Takei et al., 2004). One target for these enzymes is Dally-like (Dlp), a glypican of the HSPG family that is also essential for Hh signalling (Desbordes and Sanson, 2003; Han et al., 2004b; Lum et al., 2003). C. elegans has two EXT family members, rib-1 and rib-2 (for review, see Berninsone and Hirschberg, 2002). rib-1 is orthologous to ttv and EXT1, and rib-2 is ortholgous to botv and EXTL3; however, orthologs of other EXT members are absent (Figure 3). The EXT proteins have two domains: the exostosin domain and a 300 amino acid C-terminal region that is highly conserved between members and probably corresponds to the catalytic transferase domain, which is missing in rib-1. Homozygous rib-2 animals show delayed larval growth and reduced life span, while their progeny display more than 90% early embryonic lethality (Morio et al., 2003). The C. elegans Dally-like gene ortholog, gpn-1, shows no phenotype in large-scale RNAi screens.
Two other molecules that bind and restrict the availability and range of N-Hh are Hip and Growth arrest specific 1 (GAS1; for review, see Cohen, 2003). Hip is absent in both Drosophila and C. elegans. GAS1 is a GPI-linked protein identified by its ability to arrest cell cycle progression when overexpressed. The C. elegans ortholog phg-1/phas-1 is expressed in the pharynx and may play a similar role in mitotic cell cycle regulation (Agostoni et al., 2002). Megalin, a member of the family of low-density lipoprotein receptors, is a third protein that binds to N-Hh (see Cohen, 2003). The C. elegans homolog lrp-1 is expressed in the hypodermis; mutations in lrp-1 produce molting defects (Yochem et al., 1999).
Three ptc genes, ptc-1,-2,-3 have been identified in C. elegans, although ptc-2 is absent in C. briggsae and is likely to be a pseudogene arising from a recent duplication of ptc-1. In addition, 24 genes have been identified that encode proteins sharing both sequence and topological similarities to PTC; these proteins have been named PTR (for Patched-related; Figure 4).
Drosophila, human and mouse are each predicted to encode a single PTR protein; thus the PTR family appears to have undergone an expansion in C. elegans (Kuwabara et al., 2000). Moreover, all 24 ptr genes are present in C. briggsae and share a one to one orthology with C. elegans.
The C. elegans PTC and PTR proteins share characteristics common to all known Ptc proteins. The PTC and PTR proteins are predicted to have 12-membrane spanning domains with cytoplasmic N- and C-termini. The membrane domains can be further sub-divided into two cassettes of 1+5, which are separated by a large intracellular loop. Each cassette contains a large extracellular loop predicted to facilitate Hh binding (Figure 5). Carried within the first set of TM domains is a sterol-sensing domain (SSD), which was first identified in SCAP, a protein involved in cholesterol homeostasis (Radhakrishnan et al., 2004).
ptc-1 is the first member of the ptc and ptr family to be analysed in detail (Kuwabara et al., 2000). Surprisingly, it was found that ptc-1 plays a crucial role in germline cytokinesis. Elimination of ptc-1 activity either by RNAi or mutation produces sterile adults that carry multinucleate oocytes and sperm. In other respects, development of a ptc-1 mutant is essentially wild type. In situ hybridization reveals that ptc-1 mRNA is maternally provided, and becomes enriched in P4, the germ line precursor. Immunocytochemistry performed using a polyclonal antibody capable of detecting PTC-1 protein in wild type adult hermaphrodites reveals that PTC-1 protein is enriched in the plasma membrane of mitotic germ cells undergoing proliferation, or in membranes undergoing rapid expansions, such as oocytes. PTC-1 protein is particularly enriched in vesicles at the apex of the membrane furrows separating individual germ nuclei.
An analysis of ptc-1 mutants further revealed that the absence of cytokinesis generated membrane furrows leads to a loss of cell autonomous development in the germline syncytium, as evidenced by the presence of clusters of nuclei in M-phase (Kuwabara et al., 2000). The involvement of ptc-1 in cytokinesis has led to the hypothesis that PTC-1 could play a role in the transport of lipids, proteins or lipoproteins to the cleavage furrow. Importantly, a proteomic survey of proteins involved in mammalian cytokinesis reveals that Ptc-1 is a component of the mid-body (Skop et al., 2004). Hence, the involvement of PTC-1 in cytokinesis is likely to highlight an ancestral function for Ptc proteins, which is apparently independent of Smoothened.
A mutation has also been obtained for ptc-3. Preliminary phenotypic characterisation indicates that ptc-3 is an essential gene; mutants arrest in late embryogenesis (P.E.K., unpublished; Zugasti et al., 2005). A survey of the other ptr genes by RNAi reveals that many have roles in molting, but also affect growth and morphogenesis (Zugasti et al., 2005). It has also been demonstrated that C. elegans daf-6 encodes a Patched-related protein required for lumen formation (Perens and Shaham, 2005).
Another clue to the function of PTC-1 in worms is provided by the presence of an SSD and its connections to sterols and protein transport. The SSD of SCAP, the first identified SSD protein, is capable of binding directly to cholesterol (Radhakrishnan et al., 2004; Figure 4). Other SSD protein families that are closely related to PTC are the Dispatched family, which includes CHE-14 and PTD-2, and the Niemann-Pick Type C family, which includes the NCR-1, -2 proteins in C. elegans (Kuwabara and Labouesse, 2002). che-14 was first identified in a screen for animals that were defective in dye-filling (Perkins et al., 1986). Subsequent work demonstrated that che-14 promotes apical sorting in epithelial cells. che-14 mutants accumulate vesicles that are trapped near the apical surface, indicative of problems in protein secretion (Michaux et al., 2000). The phenotype of che-14 mutants reveals that the problem is more likely to be associated with defects in exocytosis, rather than in endocytosis. The presence of an SSD in CHE-14 led the authors to speculate that CHE-14 might be involved in the secretion of proteins containing sterol or GPI adducts. Similarly, Disp promotes the exocytosis of Hh away from the cells from which it was synthesised (Burke et al., 1999). A protein transported by CHE-14 might be WRT-6, which is expressed in sensory socket cells (Aspöck et al., 1999).
Niemann-Pick disease type C1 (NPC1) is a neurodegenerative disease associated with defects in cholesterol storage/transport. In C. elegans, ncr-1; ncr-2 double mutants are hypersensitive to cholesterol deprivation and inappropriately form dauers under favourable food conditions, a dauer-constitutive (Daf-c) phenotype (Sym et al., 2000). Recent studies further show that ncr-1 is hypersensitive to progesterone, a known inhibitor of cholesterol trafficking (Li et al., 2004). Hence, in C. elegans there is a strong link between SSD proteins and the transport of sterols, sterol modified proteins or in the case of dauer formation, a sterol modified hormone.
C. elegans are cholesterol auxotrophs, requiring exogenous cholesterol for growth and survival (Chitwood, 1999; Hieb and Rothstein, 1968). Sterols are involved in at least two processes in the worm: the decision to enter diapause, which is mediated by a sterol-derived hormone, and molting, which is impaired by sterol depletion (Matyash et al., 2004). Animals depleted for cholesterol arrest in the second generation during early larval stages (Matyash et al., 2001; Merris et al., 2003). These L2 arrested larvae became dauer-like and fail to complete molting (Matyash et al., 2004).
Because worms require so relatively little cholesterol, it has been postulated that cholesterol is unlikely to be an essential architectural component of membranes and could play a more important role in signalling (Matyash et al., 2001). Mutations in lrp-1, qua-1 and RNAi inhibition of most ptr genes, and post-embryonic RNAi of ptc gene activity all lead to defects in molting (Yochem et al., 1999; Zugasti et al., 2005; Hao et al., 2006b). Thus, taken together, it is speculated that the PTC and PTR proteins could promote the transport of sterols or sterol-modified proteins, possibly including sterol-modified Hh-r proteins.
C. elegans lacks the typical Hh signal transduction cascade found in flies and vertebrates that is composed of Smo, Fu, Su(fu), and Cos2. Since homologs of Fu and Su(fu) are found in plants and bacteria (T.R.B., unpublished), it follows that this part of the pathway was lost in nematodes. Concomitantly, we have observed a large increase in the number of C. elegans Hh-r and ptr genes. Several lines of evidence point towards the Hh-r expansion being nematode specific: 1) Homologs of the Hh-r genes have so far not been identified outside of the nematodes. 2) Conversely, Hh is present in both arthropods and vertebrates and only missing in nematodes. 3) Phylogenetic analyses of the Hog domain and motif similarity shared by the Wrt and Grd domains indicate that the wrt, grd and grl gene families are derived from a single ancestral gene (Aspöck et al., 1999); qua-1 may also be derived from the same ancestral gene, as its Hog domain is also more similar to those of the Wrt and Grd proteins than to that of Hh. 4) C. briggsae has fewer Hh-r genes than C. elegans, and B. malayi even fewer, which underscores the capacity of these genes to expand. The expansion of the ptr genes is likewise nematode specific, since Drosophila and humans have only a single copy.
There is a running debate whether or not nematodes should be classified as ecdysozoa. If nematodes are indeed ecdysozoa, or group at least within the protostome branch of ecdysozoa and lophotrochozoa (see chapter on evolution), then the loss, expansion and diversification of various Hh pathway components, which have been described here, are most parsimoniously explained by postulating that a C. elegans Hh signalling pathway did exist, but was disrupted at some unknown time in early nematode evolution. It also implies that the Hh-r genes were derived from Hh. On the other hand, if nematodes are an outgroup to coelomata, then one of several alternatives is that a complete Hh signalling pathway was never acquired.
It is clear that the Hh and Ptc homologs in C. elegans have undergone considerable evolutionary divergence when compared to their Drosophila and vertebrate counterparts. Studies in C. elegans are providing insights into the roles and mechanisms underlying the control of the Hh-r, PTC and PTC-related proteins and have established that these proteins can function independently of Smo. The involvement of Hh-r and ptr genes in molting suggests that at least some of the Hh-r and ptr genes can participate in similar pathways. Thus, it will be of particular interest to determine whether the Hh-r proteins and the PTC and PTR proteins have maintained a ligand/receptor relationship that could potentially mediate cell-cell signalling.
TRB would like to thank the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) for support. PEK thanks the MRC (UK) for funding. The authors would like to thank David Fitch for constructive discussions related to nematode phylogeny.
Agostoni, E., Gobessi, S., Petrini, E., Monte, M., and Schneider, C. (2002). Cloning and characterization of the C. elegans gas1 homolog: phas-1. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1574, 1–9. Abstract
Alcedo, J., Ayzenzon, M., Von Ohlen, T., Noll, M., and Hooper, J.E. (1996). The Drosophila smoothened gene encodes a seven-pass membrane protein, a putative receptor for the hedgehog signal. Cell 86, 221–232. Abstract Article
Aspöck, G., Kagoshima, H., Niklaus, G., and Bürglin, T.R. (1999). Caenorhabditis elegans has scores of hedgehog-related genes: sequence and expression analysis. Genome Res. 9, 909–923. Abstract Article
Beachy, P.A., Cooper, M.K., Young, K.E., von Kessler, D.P., Park, W.J., Hall, T.M., Leahy, D.J., and Porter, J.A. (1997). Multiple roles of cholesterol in hedgehog protein biogenesis and signaling. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. 62, 191–204. Abstract
Bürglin, T.R. (1996). Warthog and Groundhog, novel families related to Hedgehog. Curr. Biol. 6, 1047–1050. Abstract
Burke, R., Nellen, D., Bellotto, M., Hafen, E., Senti, K.A., Dickson, B.J., and Basler, K. (1999). Dispatched, a novel sterol-sensing domain protein dedicated to the release of cholesterol-modified hedgehog from signaling cells. Cell 99, 803–815. Abstract Article
Chamoun, Z., Mann, R.K., Nellen, D., von Kessler, D.P., Bellotto, M., Beachy, P.A., and Basler, K. (2001). Skinny hedgehog, an acyltransferase required for palmitoylation and activity of the hedgehog signal. Science 293, 2080–2084. Abstract Article
Chen, Y., and Struhl, G. (1998). In vivo evidence that Patched and Smoothened constitute distinct binding and transducing components of a Hedgehog receptor complex. Development 125, 4943–4948. Abstract
Dalgaard, J.Z., Moser, M.J., Hughey, R., and Mian, I.S. (1997). Statistical modeling, phylogenetic analysis and structure prediction of a protein splicing domain common to inteins and hedgehog proteins. J. Comput. Biol. 4, 193–214. Abstract
Hall, T.M., Porter, J.A., Beachy, P.A., and Leahy, D.J. (1995). A potential catalytic site revealed by the 1.7-Å crystal structure of the amino-terminal signalling domain of Sonic hedgehog. Nature 378, 212–216. Abstract Article
Hall, T.M., Porter, J.A., Young, K.E., Koonin, E.V., Beachy, P.A., and Leahy, D.J. (1997). Crystal structure of a Hedgehog autoprocessing domain: homology between Hedgehog and self-splicing proteins. Cell 91, 85–97. Abstract Article
Han, C., Belenkaya, T.Y., Khodoun, M., Tauchi, M., and Lin, X. (2004a). Distinct and collaborative roles of Drosophila EXT family proteins in morphogen signalling and gradient formation. Development 131, 1563–1575. Abstract Article
Han, C., Belenkaya, T.Y., Wang, B., and Lin, X. (2004b). Drosophila glypicans control the cell-to-cell movement of Hedgehog by a dynamin-independent process. Development 131, 601–611. Abstract Article
Hao, L., Aspöck, G., and Bürglin, T.R. (2006a). The hedgehog-related gene wrt-5 is essential for hypodermal development in Caenorhabditis elegans. Dev. Biol. in press.
Hao, L., Mukherjee, K., Liegeois, S., Baillie, D., Labouesse, M., and Bürglin, T.R. (2006b). The hedgehog-related gene qua-1 is required for molting in Caenorhabditis elegans. Dev. Dynamics, in press.
Hieb, W.F., and Rothstein, M. (1968). Sterol requirement for reproduction of a free-living nematode. Science 160, 778–780. Abstract
Jia, J., Tong, C., and Jiang, J. (2003). Smoothened transduces Hedgehog signal by physically interacting with Costal2/Fused complex through its C-terminal tail. Genes Dev. 17, 2709–2720. Abstract Article
Kuwabara, P.E., Okkema, P.G., and Kimble, J. (1992). tra-2 encodes a membrane protein and may mediate cell communication in the Caenorhabditis elegans sex determination pathway. Mol. Biol. Cell 3, 461–473. Abstract
Lee, J.J., Ekker, S.C., von Kessler, D.P., Porter, J.A., Sun, B.I., and Beachy, P.A. (1994). Autoproteolysis in hedgehog protein biogenesis. Science 266, 1528–1537. Abstract
Lee, J.J., von Kessler, D.P., Parks, S., and Beachy, P.A. (1992). Secretion and localized transcription suggest a role in positional signaling for products of the segmentation gene hedgehog. Cell 71, 33–50. Abstract Article
Li, J., Brown, G., Ailion, M., Lee, S., and Thomas, J.H. (2004). NCR-1 and NCR-2, the C. elegans homologs of the human Niemann-Pick type C1 disease protein, function upstream of DAF-9 in the dauer formation pathways. Development 131, 5741–5752. Abstract Article
Lum, L., Yao, S., Mozer, B., Rovescalli, A., von Kessler, D., Nirenberg, M., and Beachy, P.A. (2003). Identification of Hedgehog pathway components by RNAi in Drosophila cultured cells. Science 299, 2039–2045. Abstract Article
Lum, L., Zhang, C., Oh, S., Mann, R.K., von Kessler, D.P., Taipale, J., Weis-Garcia, F., Gong, R., Wang, B., and Beachy, P.A. (2003). Hedgehog signal transduction via Smoothened association with a cytoplasmic complex scaffolded by the atypical kinesin, Costal-2. Mol Cell 12, 1261–1274. Abstract Article
Mathies, L.D., Schvarzstein, M., Morphy, K.M., Blelloch, R., Spence, A.M., and Kimble, J. (2004). TRA-1/GLI controls development of somatic gonadal precursors in C. elegans. Development 131, 4333–4343. Abstract Article
Matyash, V., Entchev, E.V., Mende, F., Wilsch-Bräuninger, M., Thiele, C., Schmidt, A.W., Knölker, H.J., Ward, S., and Kurzchalia, T.V. (2004). Sterol-derived hormone(s) controls entry into diapause in Caenorhabditis elegans by consecutive activation of DAF-12 and DAF-16. PLoS Biol. 2, e280. Abstract Article
Matyash, V., Geier, C., Henske, A., Mukherjee, S., Hirsh, D., Thiele, C., Grant, B., Maxfield, F.R., and Kurzchalia, T.V. (2001). Distribution and transport of cholesterol in Caenorhabditis elegans. Mol. Biol. Cell 12, 1725–1736. Abstract
Merris, M., Wadsworth, W.G., Khamrai, U., Bittman, R., Chitwood, D.J., and Lenard, J. (2003). Sterol effects and sites of sterol accumulation in Caenorhabditis elegans: developmental requirement for 4alpha-methyl sterols. J. Lipid Res. 44, 172–181. Abstract Article
Michaux, G., Gansmuller, A., Hindelang, C., and Labouesse, M. (2000). CHE-14, a protein with a sterol-sensing domain, is required for apical sorting in C. elegans ectodermal epithelial cells. Curr. Biol. 10, 1098–1107. Abstract Article
Mohler, J., and Vani, K. (1992). Molecular organization and embryonic expression of the hedgehog gene involved in cell-cell communication in segmental patterning of Drosophila. Development 115, 957–971. Abstract
Morio, H., Honda, Y., Toyoda, H., Nakajima, M., Kurosawa, H., and Shirasawa, T. (2003). EXT gene family member rib-2 is essential for embryonic development and heparan sulfate biosynthesis in Caenorhabditis elegans. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 301, 317–323. Abstract Article
Nakano, Y., Guerrero, I., Hidalgo, A., Taylor, A., Whittle, J.R., and Ingham, P.W. (1989). A protein with several possible membrane-spanning domains encoded by the Drosophila segment polarity gene patched. Nature 341, 508–513. Abstract Article
Nusse, R. (2003). Wnts and Hedgehogs: lipid-modified proteins and similarities in signaling mechanisms at the cell surface. 130, 5297–5305. Abstract
Ogden, S.K., Ascano, M., Jr., Stegman, M.A., Suber, L.M., Hooper, J.E., and Robbins, D.J. (2003). Identification of a functional interaction between the transmembrane protein Smoothened and the kinesin-related protein Costal2. Curr. Biol. 13, 1998–2003. Abstract Article
Porter, J.A., Ekker, S.C., Park, W.J., von Kessler, D.P., Young, K.E., Chen, C.H., Ma, Y., Woods, A.S., Cotter, R.J., Koonin, E.V., and Beachy, P.A. (1996). Hedgehog patterning activity: role of a lipophilic modification mediated by the carboxy-terminal autoprocessing domain. Cell 86, 21–34. Abstract Article
Porter, J.A., Young, K.E., and Beachy, P.A. (1996). Cholesterol modification of hedgehog signaling proteins in animal development. Science 274, 255–259. Article
Radhakrishnan, A., Sun, L.P., Kwon, H.J., Brown, M. SS., and Goldstein, J.L. (2004). Direct binding of cholesterol to the purified membrane region of SCAP: mechanism for a sterol-sensing domain. Mol. Cell 15, 25968. Abstract Article
Ruel, L., Rodriguez, R., Gallet, A., Lavenant, L., and Therond, P.P. (2003). Stability and association of Smoothened, Costal2 and Fused with Cubitus interruptus are regulated by Hedgehog. Nat. Cell Biol. 5, 907–913. Abstract Article
Tabata, T., Eaton, S., and Kornberg, T.B. (1992). The Drosophila hedgehog gene is expressed specifically in posterior compartment cells and is a target of engrailed regulation. Genes Dev. 6, 2635–2645. Abstract
Takei, Y., Ozawa, Y., Sato, M., Watanabe, A., and Tabatta, T. (2004). Three Drosophila EXT genes shape morphogen gradients through synthesis of heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Development 131, 73–82. Abstract Article
Tashiro, S., Michiue, T., Higashijima, S., Zenno, S., Ishimaru, S., Takahashi, F., Orihara, M., Kojima, T., and Saigo, K. (1993). Structure and expression of hedgehog, a Drosophila segment-polarity gene required for cell-cell communication. Gene 124, 183–189. Abstract Article
Thompson, J.D., Gibson, T.J., Plewniak, F., Jeanmougin, F., and Higgins, D.G. (1997). The CLUSTAL_X windows interface: flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools. Nucleic Acids Res. 25, 4876–4882. Abstract Article
Yochem, J., Tuck, S., Greenwald, I., and Han, M. (1999). A gp330/megalin-related protein is required in the major epidermis of Caenorhabditis elegans for completion of molting. Development 126, 597–606. Abstract
*Edited by Iva Greenwald. Last revised February 16, 2005. Published January 28, 2006. This chapter should be cited as: Bürglin, T. R. and Kuwabara, P. E. Homologs of the Hh signalling network in C. elegans (January 28, 2006), WormBook, ed. The C. elegans Research Community, WormBook, doi/10.1895/wormbook.1.76.1, http://www.wormbook.org.
Copyright: © 2006 Thomas R. Bürglin and Patricia E. Kuwabara. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. |
वाले अंतिम बजट में 16 एजेंडे को सम्मलित किया गया है। वही विगत साढ़े चार वषोर् से अधिक समय मे कोई भी विकास कार्य को अमलीजामा नहीं पहनाए है जिसका परिणाम अंतिम बजट बैठक में पार्षदो के गर्जना का सामना शहर सरकार को करना पड़ेगा। विकास कार्य धरातल में नही आने से सदन का सत्र हंगामेदार व गहमागहमी के बीच संचालन होने का आसार है। इन्हीं में से एक मुख्य कारण है एसीई2 रिसेप्टर्स। दरअसल, ये रिसेप्टर्स एक खास तरह का प्रोटीन होते हैं। जिनको अपने नियंत्रण में लेने के बाद कोरोना वायरस तेजी से शरीर में फैलता है। वैज्ञानिकों का कहना है कि महिलाओं की तुलना में पुरुषों के शरीर में ये रिसेप्टर अधिक मात्रा में होते हैं। मूसलाधार बारिश के कारण 1 अक्टूबर से अब तक कम से कम 245 लोगों की मौत हो गई है। अधिकारियों के अनुसार बारिश के पानी के कारण जेनरेटर बंद होने पर वेंटिलेटर जैसी सुविधाएं ठप पड़ गईं, जिसके कारण अस्पतालों में भर्ती कम से कम 18 मरीजों की मौत हो गई है। यह भी चेन्नई में बारिश का कहर: घर घर में मची है आफत, देखे वीडियो (जी.एन.एस) ता.27 शिमला राजधानी शिमला के लक्कड़ बाजार में एक नेपाली मूल के व्यक्ति</s> |
जीतने पर टिकी हुई थीं लेकिन विराट कोहली की बेंगलुरु टीम गोपाल के सर्वश्रेष्ठ प्रदर्शन के आगे घुटने तक गई। गोपाल ने निर्णायक मौके पर अपना सर्वश्रेष्ठ प्रदर्शन करते चार ओवर में मात्र 16 रन देकर चार विकेट झटके। गोपाल ने ट्वंटी 20 में पहली बार चार विकेट हासिल किए। ये खबर भी पढ़ें.....3 के नाम पर आपको कैसे लूट रहीं कंपनियां, पढ़ें.. ये सड़क निर्माण की मांग को लेकर युवाओं ने दिया धरना कैंट एरिया 51.3 डेसीबल छह महीने के इन आंकड़ों का खुलासा स्वास्थ्य महकमे की स्टिल बर्थ रिपोर्ट से हुआ है। रिपोर्ट में नवजात शिशुओं की मौत के कारण स्पष्ट नहीं है, लेकिन माताओं का कुपोषण एक सामान्य और मुख्य वजह मानी जा रही है। राज्यसभा के लिए 26 मार्च को चुनाव होने हैं। (फाइल फोटो) सिंघवी की ओर से हाईकोर्ट में विविध आपराधिक याचिका दायर की थी। इसमें एसीबी में दर्ज एफआईआर को निरस्त कराने सहित चार्जशीट व उनके खिलाफ उदयपुर में जारी मुकदमे पर रोक लगाने की गुहार लगाई थी। वित्त सचिव अशोक चावला ने कहा कि अनेक विकासशील देशों की अर्थव्यवस्था भले ही पटरी पर लौट रही हो लेकिन यह सुधार शुरुआती दौर में ही है और यहाँ तक कि सभी अर्थव्यवस्थाओं तक नहीं</s> |
The Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus), also known as the Red-backed Sea-eagle, is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. They are found from Asia to Australia.
In flight the rounded tail and plumage of adults is distinctive
The Brahminy Kite is distinctive and contrastingly coloured, with chestnut plumage except for the white head and breast and black wing tips. The juveniles are browner, but can be distinguished from both the resident and migratory races of Black Kite in Asia by the paler appearance, shorter wings and rounded tail.
Beak of Haliastur showing the characteristic circular nostril
The Brahminy Kite is about the same size as the Black Kite and has a typical kite flight, with wings angled, but its tail is rounded unlike the Milvus species, Red Kite and Black Kite, which have forked tails. The two genera are however very close.
The call is a mewing keeyew.
Four subspecies are recognized:
- indus (Boddaert, 1783)
- flavirostris Condon & Amadon, 1954
- girrenera (Vieillot, 1822)
- intermedius Blyth, 1865
Distribution and status
This kite is a familiar sight in the skies of Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and southeast Asia and as far south as New South Wales, Australia, through which region it is widespread and resident. They perform seasonal movements associated with rainfall in some parts of their range.
It is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However the species is on the decline in some parts such as Java.
Behaviour and ecology
The breeding season is from December to April. This species nests in trees, often close to water. They show considerable site fidelity nesting in the same area year after year. In some rare instances they have been seen to nest on the ground under trees.
It is mainly a scavenger, feeding ondead fish and crabs, especially in wetlands and marshland.
Boonooroo, SE Queensland, Australia
Known as Elang Bondol in Indonesia, the Brahminy Kite is the official mascot of Jakarta. In India it is considered as the contemporary representation of the mythical Garuda. In Malaysia, the island of Langkawi is named after the bird ('kawi' denoting an ochre-like stone used to decorate pottery, and a reference to the bird's primary plumage colour). In Bangladesh it is known as Shonkho Chil. In the Philippines, it is known as "Lawin." |
है। इसके नए स्पाइ शॉट्स चेन्नई में कैद हुए हैं. बाइक नए अवतार में नजर आ रही है. इसमें दिए गए अलॉय व्हील्स ने बाइक के लुक को बदल दिया है. नए अलॉय क्लासिक 350 पर जच रहे हैं. अपकमिंग क्लासिक 350 एक दम नए प्लेटफॉर्म पर बेस्ड है और इसमें बीएस6 कम्पलाइंट के साथ 346 इंजन दिया जाएगा. बाइक में पुराने मॉडल के मुकाबले काफी कुछ अपडेट देखने को मिल रहे हैं. इसके फ्यूल टैंक को रिडिजाइन किया गया है. साथ ही नया एग्जॉस्ट सेटअप और नई टेल लैंप जैसे कई चेंज किए गए हैं. बांड ने कहा कि मुंबई इंडियंस की गेंदबाजी इकाई में किंग्स इलेवन पंजाब के बल्लेबाजी विभाग को ध्वस्त करने की काबिलियत है। पाइप एंड बैरल क्लब में पुलिस का छापा, हुक्का जब्त, मैनेजर गिरफ्तार सबगुरु न्यूज़: चावल की खिचड़ी तो हमेशा बनती ही है( : पाकिस्तान में पेट्रोल टैंक पलटा लोगो ने लुटा पेट्रोल ) लेकिन अभी सर्दियों में अगर बाजरे की खिचड़ी ( ) बना ली जाय तो एक अलग स्वाद की खिचड़ी खाने को मिल जायेगी बाजरे की खिचड़ी बहुत स्वादिष्ट होती है, इसकी सुगन्ध भी बड़ी ही मन मोहक होती है तो आइये बाजरे की खिचड़ी ( ) बनायें मगर उनका</s> |
This article is by Irina Verenikina, Senior Lecturer in Educational Psychology, School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences; Early Start Research Institute at University of Wollongong. It originally appeared on The Conversation.
analysis Playing with building blocks such as Lego has been an established part of early childhood education for many years.
Educators and theorists agree that building blocks or constructive play provide a wide range of avenues for enhancing learning and development in the early years, but the increased availability and accessibility of mobile digital technologies has seen children more frequently engage in virtual or “digital” play, often leaving behind traditional forms of play with physical objects in physical spaces.
So what might children lose – or gain – during this transition from physical to digital play?
Lego, the best known producer of building block toys, recently announced Lego Fusion, a range of specially designed digital products that will allow to incorporate physical build blocks into digital games on iOS and Android devices.
It isn’t Lego’s first foray into the digital realm – its videogame series has been highly successful commercially over the globe. But this is the first range of Lego products to require both physical and digital components to operate, and shows the ongoing move away from physical toys and towards digital.
Children are hands-on learners, eager to engage in activities which involve object manipulation. Physical manipulation of wooden or plastic blocks of different shapes, sizes and colours attract children’s attention and engages them in physical activities. It also helps the development of children’s fine motor skills and eye-hand coordination. Most importantly, though, it stimulates their imagination and creativity.
In playing with building blocks, children enjoy creating, experimenting and being in control. They engage in make-believe using the blocks for creating castles, trains, planes and other things only limited by their imagination. The open-ended nature of the tasks, endless choices and possibilities rendered by building blocks spark children’s creativity – making imagination the key.
Assembling toy blocks in various shapes and figures in a three-dimensional space also stimulates children’s spatial ability and mathematical thinking.
Since digital technologies entered the realm of children’s learning and play, some educators and families have enthusiastically encouraged children to explore these technologies. Others see them as potentially harmful to child development. The proliferation of digital technologies in the everyday lives of modern families has stimulated an increased market of software aimed at young children.
The advantages of digital play are yet to be fully understood. Recently my colleagues and I were awarded an Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Grant to further conceptualise digital play and understand its role in children’s development.
Nowadays children spend a substantial amount of their time playing games on the computer or other digital devices, and building block games form a significant portion of these. Games such as Minecraft allow children to construct anything they can imagine (even spaceships). Project Spark, an engine that allows anyone to create their own game for others to play, was recently launched on Xbox One.
Similarly, games aimed at an older audience, and not built on a building block principle, often include the ability to create your own game modes or maps to share with people around the world.
There are a number of advantages digital play has for children’s development which are not possible in traditional play with physical toys – the first and most obvious being mobility. Children’s digital play is not limited by the availability of space, time or physical resources necessary for physical block play. Children can engage in digital play at their leisure at any time and place, which leads to its increased use.
The ease of manipulation of digital blocks as compared to the physical version of the game provides extended opportunities for creating exciting and creative items. The possibility to save and share their digital “products” with other players open significant possibilities for communication.
Despite its advantages, there are a number of limitations associated with digital play.
In relation to digital building blocks the physical side of this construction play activity is missing. Crucially, this means that children’s learning experiences are limited as they are not engaging all the senses – the tactile sense (or learning by touch) is missing.
Prioritising digital play over physical could limit children’s learning by taking away an important dimension of physical play – learning by touch in a hands-on manner. This is often the preferred way of learning for young children. Lego Fusion might be a step towards solving this problem (at an additional cost for the families of young players), but the idea of mixing digital and physical play is not new.
It might be innovative technologically, but from pedagogical point of view it is old news. Since the first introduction of digital technologies in the early years, classroom educators have recommended combining digital and traditional resources.
Mixing the digital and physical worlds and moving freely between the two is what children do naturally. This has been demonstrated in our own research with iPads, digital play and pre-schoolers, where playing Pocket Pond – for example – prompted a child to build a real fish pond in his backyard.
Ensuring access to both physical and digital methods of building block construction where children can move freely from one to another is crucial for their development in the early years. |
से पैसा लिया तो निगरानी की टीम ने उसे धर दबोचा. हरियाणा के मुख्यमंत्री मनोहर लाल ने कहा कि राज्य सरकार प्रदेश में टेलीमेडिसिन सेवा शुरू करने... पढ़ें कारोबार में वृद्धि दृष्टि से भारत एक स्थान नीचे फिसलकर अब दुनिया की पांचवी सबसे आकर्षक अर्थव्यवस्था है। ब्रिटेन भारत को पीछे छोड़कर चौथे स्थान पर पहुंच गया है। कंपनियों के मुख्य कार्याधिकारी (सीईओ) के वैश्विक सर्वे में अगले 12 माह के दौरान वृद्धि ... पंचायत सचिव प्रमोद कुमार ने कहा कि सीडीओ से वार्ता हुई, लेकिन गुरुवार को साथियों से बात करने के बाद कोई फैसला लेंगे। उन्होंने पंचायत सचिवों में फूट की बात से इन्कार किया है। राष्ट्रवादी कांग्रेस पार्टी () नेता और महाराष्ट्र सरकार में मंत्री नवाब मलिक ने कहा कि एक्ट्रेस से पद्मश्री पुरस्कार वापस लेकर उनके खिलाफ केस दर्ज किया जाए। मलिक ने कहा कि कंगना ने उन स्वतंत्रता संग्राम सेनानियों का अपमान किया है, जिन्होंने देश की आजादी के लिए अपनी जान दे दी। उन्होंने आगे कहा कि उन्हें लगता है कंगना मलाना क्रीम (हिमाचली ड्रग) के ओवरडोज से बयानबाजी कर रही हैं। न्यायमूर्ति एच एल दत्तु की अध्यक्षता वाले पीठ ने आज सरकार के सभी दावों को खारिज कर दिया और निर्देश दिया कि इस</s> |
In June 6th, the dawn probe swept through the ground only 22 miles (35 kilometers) from the ground, and directed the camera to a bright area called Cerealia Facula near the center of the crater.
The bright sediments are made up of sodium carbonate. Scientists want to know how Cerealia Facula is formed, which indicates that the sediments "either come from shallow layers of water containing minerals, underground reservoirs, or from a deeper salt water source (liquid water rich in salt) and permeate up through cracks."
The Max Planck Solar Systems Institute also released an image showing landslide activity on the northern edge of the Occator crater. NASA said the landslide on Ceres was similar to that seen on Earth. The Max Planck Solar Systems Institute notes: "there are clear signs that materials have recently moved on slopes; "NASA hopes that the data and close-up images collected by Dawn in its new orbit will provide some insight into these fascinating terrain. |
Portable Sanding Belt - Aluminium Oxide 100 x 533 GXK 40 Grit
Aluminium oxide resin bonded on a cloth backing to provide a touch and durable product for most sanding applications.Suitable for coarse and fine grinding on metals and wood.
Materials to be worked: most metals & wood
Abrasive: Aluminium Oxide
Need a unique belt size or material ? Contact PFERD Australia on 1300 073 373 or email [email protected]
PFERD manufactures coated abrasives in Australia to order.
Belt Size mm:100 x 533 |
Early Repetitive Behaviors May Signal Autism Risk
Research in siblings of children with autism may give parents a way to spot signs of the disorder earlier
And there's a "great need" for ways to spot those children early, he said. In general, Wolff noted, the earlier that speech and behavioral therapies for autism can be started, the better children do in the long run.
But until now, researchers haven't looked at whether repetitive behavior can serve as an early red flag.
"At one time, people thought repetitive behavior didn't really show up until preschool," Wolff said. But recent research, including the current study, has shown that to be untrue.
For the study, Wolff's team followed 59 children at average risk of autism and 184 who were at high risk because an older sibling had the disorder. When the children were 12 and 24 months old, their parents completed a standard questionnaire on repetitive behaviors.
Overall, 42 of the high-risk children were diagnosed with autism at age 2. And those children had shown many more repetitive behaviors at the age of 12 months -- an average of four to eight different types, Wolff said, versus one or two for kids without an autism diagnosis.
Still, that's an average difference between two groups, Adesman pointed out. The trick, he said, is to turn that into an assessment that can reliably spot the individual kids who will develop autism.
"There's a risk you could identify too many kids, and give some of them services that they don't need," Adesman said.
He agreed, though, on the need for early screening tools, and said this study points to one potential way.
Researchers are looking into other ways, too. In a separate study reported at the meeting, a team at Boston Children's Hospital used electroencephalograms (EEGs) to gauge brain activity in 208 babies and toddlers. They found that the readings, taken with electrodes on the scalp, were able to distinguish high-risk youngsters from children at average risk of autism.
And in some cases, the EEG readings were able to separate children who went on to develop autism from those who didn't.
Because findings from both studies were presented at a meeting and not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal, the results should be considered preliminary. |
Legends, Fictions, and the Manuscripts That Illustrate Christ's Story
The Getty Center
Date: Thursday, September 22, 2011
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Location: Getty Center, Harold M. Williams Auditorium
Illuminated manuscripts from the Middle Ages, such as those on view in the exhibition In the Beginning Was the Word: Medieval Gospel Illumination, are significant for the literary texts they preserve. But they are also important, historically and culturally, for their illustrations of the life of Christ. These artistic representations tell tales of their own, and the visual stories are not always found in the corresponding texts. A careful examination of these images shows clearly and convincingly that medieval artists were not only familiar with the stories of the canonical Gospels, but also with popular interpretative alterations of these accounts and, more striking still, with many noncanonical apocryphal tales of Jesus. The apocryphal stories, in some instances, were understood to be "Gospel truth," on par with accounts found in Scripture. In this lecture, Bart Ehrman, James A. Gray Distinguished Professor of religious studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and author of Forged: Writing in the Name of God—Why the Bible’s Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are and Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (And Why We Don’t Know About Them), explores both canonical and apocryphal narratives of Jesus's life. Ehrman shows how these chronicles came to be portrayed in manuscripts that serve as repositories of some of the greatest works of art of the medieval period.
How to Get Here
The Getty Center is located at 1200 Getty Center Drive in Los Angeles, California, approximately 12 miles northwest of downtown Los Angeles. See Hours, Directions, Parking for maps and driving directions. |
(कम्प्यूटर बेस्ड रिक्रूटमेन्ट टेस्ट) पद्धति से 21 जून से 9 जुलाई तक होगी। मैच के अंतिम ओवर का एक वीडियो सोशल मीडिया पर वायरल हो रहा है, वो आरसीबी के प्लेइंग 11 में शामिल एरोन फिंच का है। एरोन फिंच वायरल वीडियो में स्मोकिंग करते हुए नजर आ रहे हैं, ये वीडियो इंटरनेट पर खूब शेयर किया जा रहा है। गुरुवार को पीलीभीत कलेक्ट्रेट में जिलाधिकारी कार्यालय में अजब नज़ारा सामने आया। पूर्वान्ह 11 बजे के बीच एक... पढ़े आठ राज्यों और केंद्र शासित प्रदेशों में कोरोना वायरस संक्रमण की साप्ताहिक संक्रमण दर राष्ट्रीय औसत 5.04 प्रतिशत से अधिक है. महाराष्ट्र में सबसे अधिक संक्रमण दर 22.78 प्रतिशत है. केंद्रीय स्वास्थ्य मंत्रालय ने रविवार को ये जानकारी दी. महाराष्ट्र के अलावा जिन अन्य सात राज्यों और केंद्र शासित प्रदेशों में राष्ट्रीय औसत से अधिक संक्रमण दर हैं, वो हैं चंडीगढ़ (11.85 प्रतिशत), पंजाब (8.45 प्रतिशत), गोवा (7.03 प्रतिशत), पुदुचेरी (6.85 प्रतिशत), छत्तीसगढ़ (6.79 प्रतिशत), मध्य प्रदेश (6.65 प्रतिशत) और हरियाणा (5.41 प्रतिशत). किम शर्मा के भाई हैं अर्जुन टी20 में सबसे ज्यादा विकेट लेने का रिकार्ड श्रीलंका के लसिथ मलिंगा के नाम है। मलिंगा ने 84 टी20 अंतर्राष्ट्रीय मैचों में 107 विकेट लिए हैं। पाकिस्तान के शाहीद अफरीदी के नाम</s> |
होकर पैदल यात्रा का एक अन्य मार्ग भी है जो आपको एक छोटी जलधारा तक ले जाता है। पैदल यात्रा के तीन लोकप्रिय मार्ग हैं कोटागिरी कोडानाड कोटागिरी सैंट कैथरीन फॉल्स और कोटागिरी लांगवुड शोला. कोटागिरी कोडानाड मार्ग आपको हरेभरे सघन चाय बागानों और मनमोहक मोयर नदी के आकर्षक नजारों से होकर ले जाता है। कोडानाड पहुंचने के लिए सुंदर घास के मैदानों से होकर गुजरना पड़ता है। भूगोल कोटागिरी में स्थित है। इसकी औसत ऊंचाई 1793 मीटर है। कोटागिरी की जलवायु ऊटी की तुलना में अधिक धनी है क्योंकि यह दक्षिणपश्चिम मानसून के आक्रमण से डोड्डाबेट्टा पर्वत श्रृंखला द्वारा संरक्षित है। जनसांख्यिकी भारत की जनगणना के अनुसार कोटागिरी की आबादी 29,184 थी। जनसंख्या में पुरुषों की भागीदारी 49% और महिलाओं की 51% है। कोटागिरी की औसत साक्षरता दर 77% है जो कि राष्ट्रीय औसत दर 59.5% से कहीं अधिक है: पुरुष साक्षरता 84% है और महिला साक्षरता 70% है। कोटागिरी में जनसंख्या का 9% भाग 6 वर्ष से कम की आयु का है। एक समय यहाँ का मौसम दुनिया का दूसरा सबसे अच्छा मौसम माना जाता था। इस शहर के ज्यादातर लोग तमिल और कन्नड़ भाषा बोलते हैं। इतिहास हालांकि, कोत्तगिरि का ब्रिटिश काल से पूर्व की अवधि का</s> |
But was tennis really the reason? One piece of evidence contradicts the view that the association was to blame. There is another theory that Satoh's nervous breakdown arose principally out of a dilemma of family honor and that his Davis Cup duties were merely a contributing factor. This dilemma can be traced back to New Year's Eve 1933, when he proposed marriage to Miss Okada. She accepted, and they were to be married in the spring of 1935 after he had completed his tennis tour and graduated at Waseda University. But they faced a serious obstacle. She was an only child and, according to Japanese custom, her husband would have to take her name in marriage so that the Okada line might be preserved. Many of Satoh's relatives, equally proud of their own name, strongly objected to such a change. Satoh himself had no such objection and often joked about it to his friends. But with his acute sense of honor, one cannot accept that Satoh took the opposition of his relatives lightly. Amid all the speculation following his suicide, one pointed question remained unanswered. Could it not be that he had found himself confronted with an impossible choice—that of either offending his own family or ending his betrothal? Either way he faced dishonor. Either action, for a man of such disciplined upbringing and high principles, could have been unthinkable.
Whatever the cause, Satoh's disappearance over the ship's side into the Strait of Malacca that April night in 1934 robbed Japan of the greatest tennis player that country has yet produced. Never again has Japan had a competitor in the "last eight" of Wimbledon, much less the semifinals; never since that day has she been a Davis Cup power. |
ट्वीट कर सुझाव भी साझा कर सकते हैं। पुलिस उपायुक्त के मुताबिक इस टि्वटर हैंडल पर आने वाली शिकायतों और सुझावों पर गंभीरता से विचार होगा और त्वरित कार्रवाई की जाएगी। उल्लेखनीय है गुरुग्राम पुलिस का ट्विटर हैंडल पहले से था। अब ट्रैफ्रिक पुलिस अलग से अपना एकाउंट बनाया है। अभिषेक ने आगे कहा, एक वेब सीरीज आपको सामान्य कहानी और उसे कहने के तरीके से अलग जाकर कुछ करने की स्वतंत्रता देती है. लेकिन इसकी सबसे बड़ी चुनौती है उसे विश्वसनीय बनाना. अभिषेक ने डिसऑर्डर से जुड़ी चीजों की बारीकियों को समझने के लिए बहुत रिसर्च किया. उन्होंने कहा, शुक्र है कि वे दो अलगअलग व्यक्तित्व थे, जिनसे निपटने में कोई संघर्ष नहीं करना पड़ा. जानने को मिला अंतरिक्ष से लेकर विमान संचालन तक का इतिहास मौसम केन्द्र जयपुर के निदेशक आर.एस. शर्मा (. ) ने बताया कि बंगाल की खाड़ी में 17 से 18 अगस्त के बीच फिर से कम दबाव का क्षेत्र बनेगा, जिसका असर राजस्थान में 20 अगस्त से दिखाई देगा। राजस्थान के पूर्वी इलाकों में भारी बारिश होगी और इस बार पश्चिमी राजस्थान में भी अच्छी बारिश होने की उम्मीद जग रही है। बता दें कि बंगाल की खाड़ी में इस मानसून अब तक दो</s> |
Veritas can help eliminate uncertainty about the size of your carbon footprint and get your organization closer to reaching net zero emissions. Our cloud-based solutions, leveraging autonomous data management, work together to reduce unnecessary data storage and decrease manual operation. Do more than carbon offsets—achieve your sustainability initiatives and goals with Veritas.
As your data footprint grows, your impact on the environment grows with it.
By 2025, cloud sustainability will be a top three criterion in cloud purchase decisions.*
Environmentally-conscious businesses experience lower volatility and 4.7 times higher margins.**
Migrations to the public cloud can reduce CO2 emissions by 59 million tons per year.**
Automated and secure data management for any cloud helps reach goals set by your sustainability initiatives to reduce your carbon footprint.
Autonomous data management and optimization eliminates many manual operations, managing resources like wasted human activity, and reducing your carbon footprint, all while ensuring continuous protection.
Elastic cloud data deduplication technology lowers your cloud storage carbon footprint by combining cloud-native snapshots with automated snapshot lifecycle management.
Automatically provisions cloud compute resources for AWS, Azure, and Google Cloud backup and recovery to meet surges, ensuring the required performance demands are always achieved. As the requirements subside resources are automatically deprovisioned along with their associated environmental impact.
With Veritas Snapshot Manager, you can easily and accurately manage backup from snapshots so you can scale down compute resources when they are not needed and reduce your storage footprint.
Veritas Alta™ Recovery Vault enables you to monitor your cloud storage resources and retention policies so you know exactly what lives in your backup environments rather than wasting resources looking for things that aren't there.
Unified backup and storage insights for heterogeneous IT environments across on-prem and cloud services. Gain actionable insights through a single pane of glass for enterprise data wherever it resides to better set targets and commit to measurable Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) standards. |
बचा गन्नों का भरा ट्रक प्रधानमंत्री नरेंद्र मोदी गरूवार को चीन के राष्ट्रपति शी जिनपिंग से मिले और दोनों नेताओं ने हाल में हुई बैठकों से मिली रफ्तार को बनाए रखने की जरूरत पर जोर दिया। इन ग्रामीणों में तीन दिन पहले बुखार व सर्दीजुकाम की शिकायत हुई थी। प्लेटलेट्स में गिरावट होने पर उन्हें इंदौर रेफर किया। इधर शहर के एक निजी क्लीनिक में भी इसी सप्ताह दो मरीजों को डेंगू के लक्षण मिलने पर इंदौर रेफर किया गया था। हाल ही में शहर की एक बालिका में भी डेंगू के लक्षण मिले थे। इस वर्ष अब तक अलगअलग प्रकरणों में डेंगू के संभावित मरीज मिले हैं। डेढ़ माह पहले मंडलेश्वर क्षेत्र के ग्राम ठनगांव के 45 वर्षीय व्यक्ति की डेंगू की वजह से मौत हो चुकी है। उल्लेखनीय है कि पिछले कुछ वर्षों से जिले को डेंगू और स्वाइन फ्लू जैसी बीमारियों के लिए हाई अलर्ट किया जाता है। जिला अस्पताल में सिर्फ आइसोलेशन वार्ड बनाया गया है परंतु गहन जांच की व्यवस्था नहीं है। शंका के आधार पर ही मरीजों को अन्यत्र रेफर किया जाता है। सेमिनार में पश्चिम बंगाल, छत्तीसगढ़, महाराष्ट्र से आए प्रतिनिधियों ने अपनेअपने राज्यों में ट्रैफिकिंग व पलायन रोकने को लेकर किए जा</s> |
इस बात पर सहमति जताई कि लालफीताशाही खत्म करने के लिए तथा योजनाओं के त्वरित क्रियान्वयन के लिए वित्तीय और प्रशासनिक सुधार जरूरी हैं। दूसरा चरण19 अप्रैल महाराष्ट्र में राज्य पुलिस और केंद्रीय बलों के 3 लाख से अधिक कर्मियों की तैनाती करके सुरक्षा के कड़े इंतजाम किए गए हैं, जबकि हरियाणा में 75,000 से अधिक सुरक्षाकर्मी लगाए गए हैं. हिंदी न्यूज़ बिहार गया दिनेश कुमार बने शेरघाटी के थानेदार, क्राइम कंट्रोल प्राथमिकता किश्वरप्रिंस के बीच हो सकती है तकरार ? 31 मई तक बह चुके तेल का इस्तेमाल यदि परिवहन के साधनों में किया जाता तो अमेरिका का एक मालवाहक ट्रक 40 लाख मील लंबे अमेरिकी राजमार्ग के 17 फेरे लगा सकता था। मोबाइल के माध्यम से प्रोब डिवाइस से जुड़ेगा मीटर फर्रुखाबाद में एक शख्स ने घर में 20 बच्चों और कुछ महिलाओं को बंधक बनाया है। सुभाष गौतम नाम का शख्स घर के अंदर से रुकरुककर फायरिंग कर रहा है। बच्चों को छुड़ाने गए ग्रामीणों को उसने धमकाया, जिसके बाद ग्रामीणों ने पुलिस को सूचना दी. पुलिस बच्चों को छुड़ाने में नाकाम रही। लखनऊ में मुख्यमंत्री योगी आदित्यनाथ ने उच्च स्तरीय बैठक बुलाई है। नौसोना के इस ठिकाने का इस्तेमाल चालकरहित ड्रोन विमानों के परीक्षण के लिए</s> |
Week Five :: July 25–29
Interfaith Lecture Theme :: The Supreme Court and Religious Communities: Holding America Accountable?
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. observed that “The conscience of the country must be both the Supreme Court and the Religious Communities.” How are these, as well as other civil entities, informing the moral compass of the nation today? In this week we will seek to discern how our social conscience is faring. |
Surname Name Meaning, Origin, and Etymology
The Pert surname was a hard name to pin down. It seems to be quite common in northern England and Scotland. It is possibly derived of a locational origin, Pert near Montrose. Or an area called Pert near Bayeux, Normandy. Or it might come from Pictish or Celtic terms for a wood or copse. The old English word pert meant a spoiled or pampered child.
The Peat, Peatt, Peet, Peed names may refer to nicknames for the name of Peter. Or, the name Peat may also refer to a residential name, living on a peat or Moorish ground. The Peart name is used by authors signifying lively or brisk.
The surname Pett or Pet may refer to a parish in Sussex, or a Dutch personal name. It may be derived from Olde English, 1600’s, ‘pytt’, a pit or hollow or living near one.
Common spelling variations of this last name include: Peat, Peate, Peart, Pert, Pett, Peatt, Peete, Peed, Pead. Patte, Peet, Piette (Flemish). Anglo-Saxon versions include Pade and Pata. The Pett surname, of Anglo-Saxon origin, includes variations of Pitt, Pitts, Petts, and Pott.
Early Bearers of the Surname
The earliest bearers of this surname include Richard de Peyt, during the period of Edward III. In 1655, a marriage was recorded between Enock Peate and Barbery Salter. Another in 1664, John Peat married Isabel Rosse.
The Pert surname doesn’t appear in records until the mid 16th Century. Thomas Pearte was baptized in London on December 24th 1570, as was a William Peart at All Hallows the Less, on November 6th 1575. William, son of Leonard Peart, was christened at St. Lawrence Pountney, London, on April 3rd 1580. Elizabeth Pearde married Robert Banckworth at St. Dunstan's, Stepney, on December 17th 1607. Charles Peart (circa 1778 - 1798) received a gold medal from the Royal Academy for his sculptures. Edward Peart (1756 - 1824) was a physician, remembered for his chemical and physical theories
The Pett surname is first recorded in the latter half of the 12th Century, and include Thomas de la Pitte in the 1225 Assize Court Rolls of Somerset, and Roger de Petts in the London rolls of 1276.
William Bitheputte of Somerset in 1277, Johan atte Pitte of Surrey in 1294, and “Thomas in the Pyt" of Worcestershire are recorded around 1300. The most famous was probably William Pitt, the younger (1759 - 1806), second son of William Pitt, first Earl of Chatham. He was the youngest prime minster of England, from 1783 to 1801, and again from 1804 to 1806. He died in office shortly after Trafalgar.
History, Genealogy, and Ancestry
The first recorded spelling of the Pert family name was Richard Pert, when he married Jane Knowles, at St. Antholin's, London on July 19th 1568. This took place during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.
The first recorded spelling of the Pett family name was Geruase de la (of the) Puette, in 1182 during the reign of King Henry II.
One of the most well-know Pett families started with Peter Pett. He was a master Shipwright (ship builder) from Deptford. He was granted a Coat of Arms in 1563. For the next several generations (15th-17th centuries), the family so strongly dominated the ship building industry that it was referred to as the Pett Dynasty. The ship building industry is so old that it is said to predate written history.
Of that family, Phineas Pett, while he was not as successful financially as others, he designed the Sovereign of the Seas, a warship of the English Navy. It was ordered personally by Charles I of England, who wanted a giant ship. After overcoming much opposition, it launched in 1637 with 102 bronze guns, making it the most heavily armed ship in the world at that time. She served in all the battles, until she ended her days, burned to the water line, cause unknown.
Phineas’ son, Peter, was the commissioner of Chatham, served in the Battle of Medway and took responsibility for the loss of capital ships. Capital ships in a navy are the large warships. There is no formal criterion for determining a capital ship, just that they are the primary ships in a naval fleet. "These characteristics define a capital ship: if the capital ships are beaten, the navy is beaten. But if the rest of the navy is beaten, the capital ships can still operate. Another characteristic that defines capital ships is that their main opponent is each other." Peter changed the arms to display three black balls rather than the three R's of the Leicestershire Pates. In some versions of these arms, a scuttled frigate is shown.
The first Peter’s granddaughter, Lydia, also became a Master Shipwright, one of the few female master tradesmen at that time.
Early American and New World Settlers
Early settlers in America include the Pates, which originate from that same Pett family. They settled in New Kent County and Isle of Wight County, Virginia. Thomas Pate continued the shipbuilding tradition. He also ran an estuarian ferry at Yorktown. This is a cable ferry that runs across rough waters where the river and sea meet, or where fresh water meets saltwater. In 1663, John Pitt from the Isle of Wight County, won a contract from the Virginia General Assembly to build a twenty-three ton vessel.
Pates continued shipbuilding in Old Bertie County, North Carolina during colonial times, on the Cashie river. Samuel Pate founded a shipyard at Hobucken, North Carolina.
James and John Pert arrived in Maryland in 1663. Jacob Pert arrived in Pennsylvania in 1741 at the age of twenty-three.
The family mottoes include:
Peat - Amicus certus - A sure friend
Peat - Ardens – Fervent
Pitt - Amitié - Friendship
Pitt - Benigno Numine - By benign providence
Pott - Fortis et astutus - Bold and crafty
Famous people with this last name include: 1) Peter Pett of the Pett Dynasty of shipwrights during the 1560’s. 2) Candace Beebe Pert (1946 - 2013) American American neuroscientist and pharmacologist 3) Nicholas Pert (1981- ) English Grandmaster chess player 4) Claude Ernest Pert (1898-1982) British India polo champion 5) Morris David Brough Pert (1947 - 2010) Scottish composer, pianist, drummer/percussionist 6) Neil Ellwood Peart (1952- ) drummer and lyricist for the band Rush 7) Thomas Spert ( -1541) English Sailing Master and vice admiral in service to King Henry VIII. Spert Island off of Antarctica is named after him. |
End of preview. Expand
in Data Studio
YALM Pretraining Data
The YALM Pretraining Data is a mix of English, Hindi and Hinglish taken from various sources for the Language modeling task and development of YALM(Yet Another Language Model).
Total Samples: ~20M
Shuffle Seed: 42
Datasets:
- HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu - Language: English | Subset: sample-10BT | Samples: 9.67M
- prince-canuma/fineweb-CC-MAIN-2024-10-1B-en - Language: English | Samples: 1.5M
- anirudhlakhotia/baarat-batched-hindi-pre-training - Language: Hindi | Samples: 8.78M
- Abhishekcr448/Hinglish-Everyday-Conversations-1M - Language: Hinglish | Samples: 1M
- Downloads last month
- 18