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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Complement Clauses
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These are the types of clauses where usually the principal clause needs the subordinate clause to be adequately completed. Without the subordinate, the principal clause often looks very incomplete as in the following examples: Ninteekereza (nti) ali hanu. I think he is here. Ndozire nti nookora kurungi. Katunihire (tuti) muraija. Ninkigumya (nti) muntu murungi. Noogira (oti) araagaruka? Naateekateeka kwija. Akatubeiha ngu tarikwija. Ninyesiga noija kukora gye omurimo gwawe. Ningira tarikugaruka. Nimpamya ngu naija kusingura. I see you are doing well. Let us hope you will come. I am convinced he is a good person. Do you think he will come back? He is planing to come. He deceived us that he was not coming. I hope you will do your work well. I think he is not coming back. I am sure he will win. In the above examples, the first five sentences are in Runyoro -Rutooro while the last five are in Runyankore-Rukiga. The first sentence is typical of the type of sentence where the principal clause ninteekereza 'I think' remains very insufficient without the subordinate clause to complete it. The subordinate ali hanu 'he is here' is necessary to complete the sentence. The subordinating conjunction nti or subordinator 'that' can often be understood. Sentence (2) is an example where the principle clause ndozire 'I have seen' could somewhat stand on its own in a specific context. In that case ndozire, could mean that 'I have witnessed all that has taken place and have seen enough'. Otherwise, in normal circumstances, the principal clause ndozire, needs a subordinate to complete it. It can be said that the subordinate clause nti nookora kurungi, 'that you are doing well' can also stand on its own if the conjunction nti is deleted as is often the case. However, the argument is that in the subordinate clause the conjunction is always an integral part of that clause whether overtly expressed or not. As such, a clause like nti nookora kurungi, cannot stand on its own. In sentence (4) ninkigumya, 'I am sure' or literally 'I affirm it' one may say that the clause may stand on its own. However, this is basically because in the clause ninkigumya 'I affirm it' the object pronoun ki introduces an element of redundance since the "thing" being affirmed is what is repeated in the subordinate clause. If the sentence were: 'I am sure he is a good person' then the autonomy of the principal clause would disappear. Moreover, the above sentence, where the object pronoun is not represented, is also acceptable in Runyoro-Rutooro, and in that case, ningumya... is an incomplete sentence. In sentence (6) the principal clause is naateekateeka 'he is planning' which may have autonomy in some contexts but usually needs something to complete it. The subordinate clause kwija - 'to come' - is also an infinitive clause. The latter looks incomplete in every way. Sentence (7) has a principal clause - akatubeiha, 'he lied to us' which could be considered autonomous if the verb kubeiha, 'to lie' is used in absolute terms - i.e: not needing any explanation as to what the lying was about. Otherwise, the subordinate ngu tarikwija 'that he was not coming' is necessary. Sentence (8), (9) and (10) all have principal clauses which cannot be self-sufficient. In (8) ninyesiga, 'I am sure' or 'I am confident' needs something to complete it, especially in the Runyankore - Rukiga version. It is the same with (9) ningira 'I think' and with (10) nimpamya 'I am convinced'.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The function of complement clauses
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Complement subordinates usually play the role of direct objects or of noun phrase objects. In normal circumstances they can be replaced by an NP object or its equivalent. The main verb in the principal clause is the one that needs to be completed by the subordinate clause which therefore plays the role of NP object. The subordinate clause is therefore part of the VP as illustrated by the tree diagram for sentence no. (2) Complement subordinates therefore serve to complete the sentence by supplementing what is provided in the verb phrase. As the above illustration indicates, these clauses can normally be replaced by a noun or noun phrase.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Note on subordinators
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This term is used here to refer to the conjunctions or their equivalents which usually introduce the complement subordinates. In Runyakitara, they are not very many, the most frequent being: ngu ngu "that", and - ti ti "that" to which is prefixed different noun class subject prefixes, that is:
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: One could argue that the real conjunction in Runyakitara is
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ngu ngu, since a conjunction is usually an invariable word, and ti ti cannot be said to be invariable. However, because of its usage, one can also argue that - ti ti plays the role of a conjunction although it is not strictly speaking a conjunction (it could be considered a kind of pronoun). Ndozire nti nookora kurungi. I have seen that you are working well. I have seen that your work is good.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Relatives
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Relative clauses are characterized by the fact that they are usually noun expansions and often play the role of an adjective when the latter functions as an expansion of the noun. Compare the following sentences in Runyoro-Rutooro. [1] Omwana murungi ali hanu. [1] The good child is here. [2] Omwana omurungi ali hanu. [2] The child who is good is here. In the first example we have a simple sentence with the adjective murungi acting as an expansion of the noun omwana. On the other hand, in the second sentence we have a complex sentence made up of the following clauses: Omwana .... ali hanu (The child .... is here) — is the principal clause; and 'Who is good' — is the subordinate relative clause. Note that in Runyoro-Rutooro the clause omurungi 'who is good' does not need a verb which is overtly expressed. The deep structure of this sentence (clause) could be: ou ali murungi owaali murungi As a matter of fact, the structure: owaali murungi (who is good) could be accepted in some contexts. In the three sentences below, one could even say that all of them are correct. [1] Omwana omurungi azooka kara. [2] Omwana anyakuli murungi azooka kara. [3] Omwana owaali murungi azooka kara. A good child is identified early enough. Sentences (2) and (3) seem to lay emphasis on the 'goodness' of the child as opposed to those who are not good. Otherwise the personal opinion of the writer is that (1) and 92) could be used interchangeably while (3) seems slightly more far-fetched or stylistic. Other examples include: Omushaija ori aha ni munywani wangye. Ogu mushaija ou orikureeba ni mukuru. munonga. Ebitookye eby'omuhendo mukye, noobigura aha. Enjura erukugwa omu October ni nyingi munonga. Omuti ogwamuteera ni mureingwa munonga. Emiti ei orikutema n'eya Petero. Abaana abu murikujuma nibaza kubateera. Omukama ou baitsire asigire abaana baingi munonga. Oburwaire obu murikuhurira bwaza kumara abantu. Ebitabo ebi mwashoma bikahandiikwa omushaija ogu. The man who is here is my friend. The man whom you are seeing is very old. Cheap bananas are bought here. Bananas that cost a low price are bought here. The rain that falls in October is plenty. The tree that has hit him is very tall. The trees that you are cutting belong to Peter. The children whom you are insulting will beat you. The King whom they have killed left a lot of children. The sickness which you hear about is going to finish people. The books that you have read were written by this man. The above sentences are in Runyankore-Rukiga. There is a convention in both Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga orthography, that when the relative pronoun introducing the relative clause plays the role of subject, then it is joined to the verbal that is part of the relative clause. On the other hand, when this relative pronoun plays the role of object, then it is separated from the subsequent verbal. For instance, in sentence [1] the relative ori aha 'who is here' is made up of ou ari aha but ou ou is joined to ari to make ori, because the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause (the man who is here). In Runyoro-Rutooro it would have been: Omusaja owaali hanu — here again the pronoun is ou and the verbal is ali. Conventionally the two are joined to make: owaali - "who is". In sentence [2], on the other hand, the pronoun ou 'whom' is separated from orikureeba 'you are seeing', because here ou has an object function. It is the man who is being seen, and not the one who is seeing. Thus conventionally, we do not write owoorikureeba but ou orikureeba 'whom you are seeing'. Sentence [3] is different from the other examples. The literal translation for Ebitookye eby'omuhendo mukye would be 'The bananas of low price' however, the fact of adding the initial vowel e Examples: e (on by'omuhendo mukye 'of low price' makes the phrase become a relative clause. Compare:).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Conclusion
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In this chapter we have seen what a sentence is and of what it is made. We have talked of simple and complex sentences and of clauses within sentences. Syntactic analysis in Bantu languages is quite demanding particularly because the demarcation between morphology and syntax in these languages remains quite evasive. This is therefore an area where a lot remains to be done.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: References
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Brown, K. & Miller, J. (2002). Syntax: A Inguistic introduction to sentence structure. London & New York: Routledge. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyamas, N. (2003). An introduction to language (7th Edn.). Boston: Thomson Wadsworth. Kroeger, P. (2004). Analyzing syntax: A lexical-functional approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lyons, J. (1968). Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: ASPECTS OF RUNYAKITARA SEMANTICS Celestino Oriikiriza
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What is Semantics? O'Grady (1996, p. 268) defines sematics as "the study of meaning in human language". To understand it better, it is important if it can be defined in three ways First, as the scientific study of linguistic meaning (linguistic meaning is the meaning denoted by words, sentences, and expressions). Second, as the science of meaning (that is, the way in which meaning is formed). Third, as the quantity of meaning that is packaged in an expression. This is the ordinary interpretation of the word semantics. Sub-fields of semantics include: Lexical semantics (lexicology: the nature of the words and expressions of a language); conceptual semantics (meanings and concepts); logical semantics (propositions); and discourse meaning. Others are: pragmatics (the study of contextual meaning); computational semantics; onomastics (the science of naming); grammar and meaning (grammatical and semantic interface); compositional semantics (sentential meaning) and diachronic and synchronic perspective of meaning.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The meanings of the word 'meaning'
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There are many meanings of the word 'meaning' but not all of them denote linguistic meaning. According to Ogden and Richards (1985, p. 186), other meanings of the word meaning are: (i) Explanation: Can you tell me what you mean by your action? In this utterance, 'meaning' stands for explanation. (ii) Purpose or special quality: Life has lost its meaning. In this utterance, 'meaning' represents purpose or quality. (iii) True nature of something: We seem to have forgotten the true meaning of Christmas. In this utterance, 'meaning' denotes the nature of something. (iv) Experience and understanding: Do you know what missing an exam means? In this utterance, 'meaning' denotes an experience and knowledge of something. (v) Intention: What do you mean by doing that to me? In this utterance, 'meaning' denotes intention. (vi) Importance: Health means everything. In this utterance, 'meaning' denotes importance. (vii) Indication: This signpost means that there is a zebra-crossing ahead. In this utterance, 'meaning' has the sense of 'indicate'. (viii) Suggestion: There is no any [meaning] of hatred in this letter. In this utterance, 'meaning' denotes suggestion. These are not linguistic meanings but rather meanings to do with the essence of something, implication of something, inherent order of something, the philosophy (that is, reason) of something. The meanings above can therefore be categorised under broader areas of meaning as shown in the table below.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Broader categories of meaning
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All the above are not linguistic meanings but other kinds of meaning. Linguistic meaning refers to the thing or idea that is denoted by a word, sentence, or expression. Using the examples above, we can derive linguistic meanings for each of them as shown below.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Linguistic meanings
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Sentence Can you tell me what you mean by your action? Life has lost its meaning. We seem to have forgotten the true meaning of Christmas. Do you know what missing an exam means? What do you mean by doing that to me? Health means everything.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Linguistic meaning
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I am surprised by what you have done. Life is meaningless (to me). People no long observe Christmas as they used to do. I am going to suffer because I missed an exam. You have caused me problems because of what you have done. You need to maintain your health. Sentence This signpost means that there is a zebra-crossing ahead. There is no any meaning of hatred in this letter. Linguistic meaning Take care as you drive ahead. The letter does not impute hatred. These examples show that there is a difference between linguistic meanings and other kinds of meaning in the world. The aim of semantics as a language discipline is to investigate and explain the elements involved in the formation of linguistic meaning, and the ways in which they form the meaning. The elements are words, sentences, expressions, among others. There are other disciplines (Philosophy, Fine Art) that study other kinds of meaning, as shown above. They study meanings such as philosophical and artistic meanings respectively.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Scope of Treatment of Linguistic Meaning in this Chapter
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Most studies investigate linguistic meaning at the level of words, sentences, propositions, context of utterances and discourse. The main thrust of this chapter is to show that the meanings represented by these structures, and the nature of the structures themselves are a result of what pertains in the real world and how it is expressed in a given language. For instance, if a situation occurs where a human entity uses his/her hand to pick an object such as a book from a shelf, assuming the entity is a student and the action has just happened, the situation can be expressed in Runyakitara (Ry-Rk), as: omwegi yaiha ekitabo aha materekyero (The student has removed a book from the shelf). Although the mental encoding of the action 'pick' differs between English as 'get' and Runyakitara as 'remove' respectively, the situation (that is, the event that is obtaining) is the same. It is the expression that speaks about it that differs. Depending on the language, the difference may be in terms of mental encoding which impacts on the lexical decoding (e.g., 'get' versus 'remove' as in the example above), overt marking of definiteness (e.g., 'the' as in the English sentence), etc. The correspondence of what is in language and what is in the world helps to explain the interface between situations in the real world and their encoding in language. The situations in the real world are universal, e.g. 'a human entity picks a book from the shelf' can happen anywhere, but they are encoded (or expressed differently) between languages in terms of communication. Therefore, this chapter explains the link between that which is in the language (in this case Runyakitara) and that which is in the world. It will be called linguistic isomorphism of language and phenomena.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Prior Work on Linguistic Isomorphism of Language and Phenomena in Runyakitara
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The work in this chapter is not necessarily the first one to talk about language and meaning, particularly on linguistic isomorphism. Prior work on Runyakitara exists which indirectly displays the fact of this aspect. Taylor (1985) identifies several subcategories of Runyankore-Rukiga lexicon, whereby it is representative of the phenomena (entities) in the Runyankore-Rukiga institutional and material environment. Muranga (1990) discusses the meaning and philosophy of Rukiga personal names, reflecting what is in the real world (that is, places). Both Rubongoya (2013) and Mubangizi (1963) tackle examples of parts of speech in Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga respectively in a bid to show how Runyakitara words function. The former would also show the semantic properties of words, nouns in particular as the basis of how they are grouped in noun classes. These efforts show how the works aim at portraying the way in which the mind of a Runyakitara speaker perceives the concept that is denoted by a word, and therefore how the word refers to the entity that exists in the real word as a 'concrete' object in the realm of that language. Below are examples of part of the content of the works above. Taylor (1985): Structured semantic fields (Taylor, 1985) (a) Kinship terminology: ishenkuruza (his/her great-grandfather), nyinenkuruza (his/her great-grandmother), ishenkuru (his/her grandfather), nyinenkuru (his/her grandmother), ishe (his/her father), nyina (his/her mother), mukaishe (his/her step-mother), ishento (his/her uncle), nyinento (his/her aunt), ishenkazi (his/her father's sister), (sic.) nyinashengye [Rukiga] (his/her father's sister). (b) Colour terms: Taylor (1985) deals mainly with the aspect of the naming system of the colour terms in Runyankore, the morphological formation of words for colour, examples of the colour terms and basic colour terms. It is noted that there are prefixes which denote femininity and masculinity in the colour naming system, and that the prefixes have correspondence with those for personal names. Thus, ka ka is prefix for colour terms referring to heifers (cattle), while ru ru - is a prefix for colour terms referring to bulls. A mention of names such as kagaaju (brown female cow) and rugaaju (brown male cow) would therefore justify this observation. Personal names in Runyankore-Rukiga are not necessarily referring to colour but to sex. Such names are common in the traditional society of Banyankore and Bakiga, for example Kambugiro and Rutashaazya, where the former is a name for a woman and the latter for a man. The stems for basic colour terms in Runyankore-Rukiga are given in Taylor (1985) as -era (white), -tukura (red), -iragura (black). The terms are normally adjectival in structure, whereby the prefixes that are attached to them derive from the appropriate noun class marker. Taking an example of the noun class for the word ente (cow), ekirabyo (flower) which fall in noun class 9/10 9/10 (en-/en-) and 7/8 7/8 (eki-/ebi-) respectively, the following would be the description of 'a white cow', 'a black cow' and 'a red flower': ente erikwera (a white cow), ente erikwiragura (a black cow), ekirabyo ekirikutukura (a red flower), omuntu orikwiragura (a darkskinned person). (c) Body parts: The following words among others are listed in Taylor (1985) as part of the inventory of words referring to body parts: rujuga (Adam's apple), okwahwa (armpit), omugongo (back), bladder (oruhago), omwitsyo (breath), finger (orukumu), ekigyere (foot), empiita (sweat). They represent objects/entities in the real world. However, omwitsyo (breath) and empiita (sweat) refer to entities that do not make up the framework of the body. For this reason, they would not be among the terms for body parts. Their appropriate category needs to be identified. Body respiration and body waste materials would be the immediate groupings to think about. (d) Cattle markings, botanical and personal names: Behind the names of cattle given in Taylor (1985) is the argument that the naming is based on the unique features of a cow (also emphasised in Ingfield, 2003), most of which are the markings on the skin. This is verifiable from the following names and descriptions as outlined in the work: kyasha [a cow with a] small patch on forehead mamba [a cow with a] grey and white patch(es) mbarago [a cow with a] clear brown patches mbombo [a cow with] stripped patches gaaju [a cow which is] light brown mayenje [a cow which has] black or white spots all over the body (e) Basic vocabulary: The basic Runyankore-Rukiga vocabulary listed in Taylor (1985) ranges from adjectives to verbs and nouns. It is a list which consists of about two hundred words. Examples of the words include -ona/-ena (all). This is a pronoun stem to which a noun prefix is attached. Others are: kandi; na (and), enyamaishwa (animal), aha (at), omugongo (back), enyima (behind) and -tiina (fear), sic. okutiina, v. (fear). The infinitive form as in the foregoing example is the natural form for citation of verbs. In attempting to give the basic vocabulary of a language, one is aiming at showing the main stream vocabulary of that language. Examples: Rubongoya (1999).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Semantic Fields
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This sub-section focuses on ways of categorisation of words. The different ways are presented, compared and evaluated. Then, it is shown how they represent semantic isomorphism of language in terms of their frameworks. Together, they are viewed under a broader theory of semantic fields. A semantic field is a set of words (or lexemes) related in meaning. For example, a set of the words referring to different colours is a semantic field. This field is referred to as 'words for colour', or as 'colour terms'. Therefore, a semantic field for colour terms would include words such as red, green, black, purple, white, orange, blue, among others. Figure 5.2 below shows a semantic field of colour terms. Figure 5.2. A semantic field of colour terms The words in a semantic field share a common semantic property, i.e. subject matter. For instance, the semantic field for colour terms consists of all words referring to colour. Museveni et al. (2012) make an assumption that words exist as names of things belonging to different domains (that is, semantic fields). The main domains identified in this work which in some respects tends to follow the model of grouping of words in Roget (1987) are indicated below: [1] Words for things of the heavens, earth and cosmology [2] Words for plants [3] Words for animals [4] Words to do with human kind [5] Words to do with human language [6] Words to do with social behaviour in closely related communities [7] Words for agriculture and preparation of foods and beverages [8] Words for livestock farming, milk and meat [9] Words for work and the world of skills [10] Words to do with dressing, ornaments and perfumes [11] Words for travel on land, water and in the air. Each of the broad domains of words has sub-domains. For instance, the domain for words of plants has these sub-domains with corresponding words. Examples in Museveni et al. (2012) include the following (translation and comments are mine, where the source is not indicated): Words for plants amacanda (sunflowers) amababi (leaves) amashaari (tree branches), eishaari (tree branch) eibwa (thorn) amahwa (thorns) Words for grasses, creepers and weeds ekiraare (weeds) encenzilenkyenzi (goose grass) omutanga (inedible pumpkin-like plant) omucuamba (star-grass) Words for mushrooms, mosses and weeds ebituzi (large edible mushrooms), ekituzi (large edible mushroom) entyabirilensyabiri [dialectal difference] (type of large mushrooms) engongi (algae) okuhumba (to catch moulds) okwiha obutuzi (to pick a smaller type of mushrooms) omugina (area where the mushrooms have grown) By using word domains, Museveni et al. (2012) would like to base on the theory of semantic fields to put Runyankore-Rukiga words into (natural) lexical groups based on the natural order of things. The work somewhat deviates from the treatment in Roget's Thesaurus where words are grouped following a philosophical dimension to show semantic fields. Landau (1989) portrays that Roget (1779-1869) divided up vocabulary into six main areas, namely, abstract relation, space, matter, intellect, volition (will) and affections. These do not reflect the philosophical but rather the natural dimension of things. Roget (1989) based on them to compile what is commonly known as Roget's Thesaurus. To get the words under each of the domains in the thesaurus, he looked at the concepts/things and named them. The names of the concepts formed the vocabulary; English vocabulary in this case. For instance, for the concept of 'affections' in Roget (1987), the following classification is found: Affection: general terms, personal, sympathetic, moral, religious Moral: obligation, sentiments, conditions, practice, institutions Practice: temperance, intemperance, sensualism, asceticism, etc. Following both the natural order of things approach and the philosophical dimension approach, it is assumed that it is possible to divide up the vocabulary of a language into semantic fields, much as the two approaches do not yield the same results. Both approaches can also create cross-cutting terms; that is, terms which belong to more than one domain. For instance, in English, love (n.) can belong to 'affection' and 'moral' sub-domains. In Runyankore-Rukiga, ekiraare (weeds) and omucwamba (star-grass) can belong to the plant domain and to the grass domain at the same time. Crystal (2003, p. 104) observes that another inconsistency on the part of semantic fields is that, [There is] ... a great deal of variation as we move from one part of the language to another. For instance, whereas it is easy to make a perfect semantic field for words to do with 'body parts' or 'names of fruits', it is not quite the same for words to do with 'noise' or 'ornaments' (things used for decoration). According to Crystal (2003), some words for "noise" or "ornaments" will not seem to be exactly belonging to the same concept. Examples are music and watch respectively. Cross-cutting terms and fitness of a term in a semantic field create a challenge of getting a consistent approach for establishing semantic fields, and therefore, the need to continue looking for more consistent (precise) divisions of concepts. The question is: under what semantic approach can words be perfectly divided? This is one end that some linguists could have come to in search for perfect divisions of words. The situation-role theory enunciated in Kiingi (2009) moves towards this perfection. In the theory, divisions of all things are enunciated, as in Table 5.3 below. Table 5.3. Division of all things The list is a range of entities that exist. All sub-entities that fall under an entity have 'names'. Examples are shown in Table 5.3 under the column for objects. The names are the words in the vocabulary of a language. For instance, the term 'flower' is under 'plant' because a leaf is a plant object. The term 'house' is under material objects. This shows that what is in the language is also in the world, and most likely vice versa. Hence, the terms 'four' and 'tomorrow' come under quantity and temporal objects respectively. These kinds of divisions qualify to be the domains of words. The above are taken as the domains into which the mind divides up all things. Apart from the domains and the terms (words) under each of them, the situa-tion-role theory specifies that the entities referred to by the terms (words) are acted on, and the actions are spoken about. For example, 'a flower withers'. This is an action which is a result of force/conditions of nature. Seen from another example, a number is counted or added to another. It is possible that when actions take place, they are spoken about. Speech is in terms of sentences. Sentences follow the logical order of the action (depending on the language). For instance, the order of the event 'a flower withers', has the intrinsic structure 'something changes', which in speech (in English expression) is SV (Subject + Verb); that is, The flower withered or The flower has withered. Kiingi (2008a), Kiingi (2008b) and Kiingi (2009) posit the following roles that are played by entities. Table 5.4: Roles played by entities To view the above as actions, we can talk of 'changes', 'causations', 'nonchanges', etc. On the other hand, they can be considered as roles if seen against the background of the entities that perform them; for example, in 'The car is moving slowly', 'move (verb) denotes change in space. In 'The key opened the door', 'open' denotes causation (that is, the key causes the door to open). Based on the the situation-role theory, whose concepts are semantic categories and semantic-roles as listed and symbolised above, sentences can be symbolically formalised to show their semantic structure (thst is, pattern), as in the examples below. (The upper-case symbols are from Table 5.4 and the lower-case symbols are from Table 5.3). Sentence: He turned a traitor. Formalization (that is, semantic structure): Vh Gq Sentence: The ball hit me on the head. Formalization (that is, semantic structure): Zr Wh Rl The formalization above corresponds to the sentence structure SVC and SVOA respectively on a one-to-one correspondence. This correspondence is called syntaxsemantic isomorphism. The semantic situation-role theory has practical implications for lexicon (vocabulary) and dictionary making. In terms of lexicon, it is possible for one to choose to compile a lexicon (vocabulary) of a plant object, e.g. 'leaves'. It will not make sense to compile the terms of all leaves, but for a particular type of leaves, and in a particular way. For instance, in Runyakitara, it makes sense to compile the specific names of leaves of types of plants. Examples are ( Ry/Rk Ry/Rk ): amashansha (banana leaves) - amababi g'emitumba (leaves of a banana tuber) ebishuusha (pumpkin leaves) - amamabi g'ebihaaza/ebyozi (leaves of pumpkins) This kind of compilation is a called a subject dictionary, or a lexicon in general terms. For a defining dictionary, the semantic situation-role theory has the implication that meanings of words can be determined on the basis of the action that impacts on an entity. For instance, in 'The car is moving slowly' we know that 'to move' is to change in space relative to a location. For a 'car' in particular and other things which 'move', the definition of 'to move would be to go from one point to another'. A new meaning can also be sought if a different entity were the one undergoing the action (of the verb), e.g. 'The time is moving slowly'. In this case, 'move' means 'to complete a cycle'. It shows that if a different entity other than the normal entity performs the action, the implied meaning changes. This is an aspect of metaphoricity, and therefore meaning extension. How is this? 'move' as an example, is normally in relation to concrete objects if they change in space from one position to another. A non-concrete object such as time cannot be said to 'move' in this context. In cases where this verb is used to refer to time or any other non-concrete object, then the intended meaning is metaphorical (an extension of the basic meaning). Also, it is possible to use the semantic situation-role theory to write a systematic thesaurus. For instance, in terms of synonyms, the words 'price' (n.) and 'measure' (n.) may not belong to the same domain (that is, semantic category) of quantity objects if they are looked at from the perspective of their meaning. If 'price' is meant to mean 'value' it needs to belong to the abstract objects. But if it is meant to mean 'figure' (as in price tag), it needs to be put under quantity objects. Therefore, the specific meaning of words will be the basis of grouping words as synonyms under the different domains. This explains why 'price' and 'measure' may not be synonymous in certain cases. Indeed, it is the reason the two words are not direct synonyms of each other in the following list of synonyms recorded in Fergusson (1986, p. 323) demonstrated below. price, n. cost, expense, fee, rate, charge, value, worth, amount, figure, expenditure, outlay, valuation, assessment, estimate, quotation, bounty, reward. measure, n. size, magnitude, quantity, amount, extent, degree, scope, range. Using semantic categories to identify synonyms, it is justified to have the word endorero (Runyankore-Rukiga) being a synonym of ekifumuka (Runyankore-Rukiga) and vice versa. This can be judged from their meaning below as portrayed in Oriikiriza (2007, p. 161), whereby the meaning situates the words in the domain of material objects: endorero (n.) Akahengyere aku baabire bafumura omu kisiika ngu abakazi bareeberemu abagyenyi omu ... ibanga, ahabw'okuba bakaba bataikirizibwa kuzayo kubareeba nari kubahikaho. (A hole in one of the rooms in the house, which was used by women to see visitors. Women were not allowed to see visitors or come close to them.) Ekifumuka ky'orwigi eki baabaire bareeberamu enyamaishwa nari omuzigu aheeru nyekiro. (A hole in the door through which one observed an animal or enemy when it is outside at night.) According to the meanings above, the word endorero is a sub-set of ekifumuka. The latter includes the meaning of the former. Nonetheless, they depict entities that belong to the same domain, i.e. material object. Similarly, the Runyoro-Rutooro word enkamyo (n.) would belong to the domain of material object and plant. It is given in Ndoleriire et al. (2009, p. 44) with the following senses, which can be a justification for this: enkamyo (n.) (1) sour milk, (2) a plant used to turn milk sour. Clearly, in terms of semantic isomorphism of language, the semantic role-theory of language is reflective of situations that happen independent of language. It tells us of the phenomena (objects/entities) that exist in the real world independently outside language, but which are encoded in language (for purposes of communication). In the world of a Runyakitara speaker, there are objects/entities whose names have been illustrated through examples. The examples are, therefore, part of the vocabulary of Runyakitara. An attempt has been made to show how this vocabulary can be categorized systematically into ways in which the mind divides up all things. This has been done on the basis of the semantic situation-role theory. In the next section, emphasis now will be put on situations that take place and how they are encoded and expressed in language. The analysis will be based on the semantic situation-role theory (explained in the preceding section), with examples taken from English and Runyakitara. Situations, their Encoding and Expression in Language Events happen independent of language. For instance, the event (that is, the situation) of a leaf decaying or water boiling. In English sentnec form, these particular situations could be exressed as:
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The leaf deacayed or The water boils
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Both correspond to the sentence pattern Subject + Verb (SV). It is the ame in Runyakitara for sentences like: Omwana yaarira (The child has cried); and Omuti gukooma (The tree dried up). Basing on the situation-role theory, we can show the propositional form of the situations expressed by the sentences. Also, it is possible to show the sentence patters for the propositions. The propositions indicate how the situations are encoded in the mind. Below are examples of sentences from Taylor (1985) and Rubongoya (1999) which are used to illustrate propositional forms and their equivalent sentence patterns. The first line shows the sentence, while the second and the third show the propositional form (based on the symbols in Table 5.3) and sentence pattern respectively (S, V, O, A, S' in the examples represent subject, verb, object, adverbial and clause in that order). Taylor (1985, pp. 90-96) (Ry/Rk): (1) Omuntu akwaise (sic.) enkoni (Someone is holding a stick). h h holds r r; SVO (2) Omwambari naamureeba (I have seen the official). h1 h 1 has seen h2; h 2 ; SVO (3) Mpa akasente (Give me some money). h1 h 1 requests for m m from h2 h 2 ; (O)SVO → → SVOO (4) Yohaana ni omushomesa (John is a teacher). h h is q q; SVC (5) Akeeyeta omukama (He called himself a king). h1 h 1 calls h1q h 1 q; SVOC (6) Omwana akizakiza ishe (The child is different from its father). h1 h 1 is different from h2 h 2 ; SVO (7) Naashushana na ishe (He is like his father). h2 h 2 similar to h2 h 2 ; SVA (8) Wakame yaagarama obwino yaabwanika (Brer Rabbit lay down with his teeth exposed as if it was dead). z z changes to q; q; SVS' (9) (a) Akaitwa omwibi (He/she was killed by a thief). h2 h 2 causes an effect to h1 h 1 (such that h2 h 2 dies); SVO (b) Akaitwa omuze (He/she died of smallpox). b b causes an effect to h Examples: h (such that).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Semantic Change
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Semantic change refers to a process by which words change in meaning. In relation to isomorphism of language, semantic change is indicative of change in phenomena. Therefore, it means that change in the real world influences a change in language. In the case of words, a change in their meaning is a result of a change in a situation or practice that exists. In the subsequent paragraphs, the content is aligned to changes in the meanings of words to illustrate changes in practices and conceptions. Byakutaga (1996) gives the following Runyoro-Rutooro examples of semantic change. Table 5.5: Runyoro-Rutooro examples of semantic change
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Causes of Semantic Change
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Byakutaga (1996) gives the following causes of semantic change. Development of new concepts (e.g., in the case of ebyaitu) above. The development of new practices (e.g., in the case of entomi) above. Development of new innovations (e.g., the use of computer which apparently was named kalimagezi in Luganda). It is said that originally the word kalimagezi referred to someone who is bright (oyo omwana mugezi 'that child is bright'). The meaning of kalimagezi was extended to mean computer. The examples above in Byakutaga (1996) denote meaning extension of words. Over time, words do extend in meaning. This process is called meaning widening (or broadening). Below are the different ways in which words change in meaning, as described in Murray (1996). The different ways are taken to be the types of semantic change. (i) Semantic broadening: It refers to a process by which a word gains a new sense, in addition to its previous sense or senses. For Runyakitara, the examples in Table 5.5 above, are cases of semantic broadening. A word gains a new meaning without losing its former meaning. (ii) Semantic narrowing: It is a process by which a word loses any of its senses which it used to have. In Runyankore-Rukiga, the word omwigarire which used to mean 'king's wife', today refers more to 'handmaid of God' in the religious sense (Christianity) than its former meaning. Similarly, the word omushumba which used to mean 'employee' and 'cow-herder', today refers more to 'pastor' (in Pentecostalism) than to the former meanings. The former meanings of these words are getting more obsolete, and this portrays gradual semantic narrowing. (iii) Semantic shift: It refers to the process in which a word loses its former meaning, and takes on a new, but often related meaning. For example, in Runyankore-Rukiga the word omukago meant a blood-sealed friendship, but today it means any form of close friendship. Similarly, the word okuramya meant worshipping a traditional god, but today it means Christian worship. (iv) Semantic weakening (that is, suppression of meaning): It is a process by which the meaning of a word is suppressed in terms of its actual sense. In RunyankoreRukiga, the meaning of the word omuhuuku (male slave) is relative to a captive who has been turned into a slave. Today the word is used to mean 'servant' in jocular circumstances when a person wants to tease the other, telling them that he/she is not their servant. In this case the former meaning is suppressed. Incidentally, this trend of usage of the words is steadily gaining momentum. In religious terms (Christianity), the word omuhuuku is constantly used to refer to 'servant of God' or to 'those who are humble before God'. However, this trend of change of meaning has not affected the word omuzaana (female slave) which is the direct opposite of the word omuhuuku (male slave). The latter tends to be used to collectively refer to both males and females whenever used, thus supressing its actual sense. Another example in Runyankore-Rukiga is the expression abanyabuzaare n'abanyamikago, which in its strict sense means 'relatives and friends'. It is normally used as a phrase in announcing the death of someone, but whenever it is used the sense that is carried is: 'all the people who know the deceased' other than 'relatives and friends'. (v) Semantic pejoration and amelioration: The process whereby a term acquires pejorative meaning (i.e., donates disapproval) compared to its ameliorative meaning. In the Runyankore-Rukiga religious discourse, expressions like abairu baawe (your servants) have an ameliorative sense. Traditionally among the Banyankore (Uganda), the word omwiru (a materially poor person) carried a pejorative sense. With the coming of Christianity, it is adopted in expressions like omwiru wa Ruhanga (God's son or daughter) in an ameliorative sense. (vi) Metaphorical change: It is a process by which a word with a concrete meaning takes on a more abstract sense, although without losing its original meaning. The word okuhweza (to visualise) in Runyakore-Rukiga has a concrete meaning, i.e. 'to see with one's eyes'. The speakers may use the word in constructions such as Abo bakahweza kare; baine entunguuka (Those became clever; they have developed). In this sense okuhweza means to be 'quick-witted'. This is a more abstract and recent meaning denoting metaphorical change. (vii) Loss of lexical items: This refers to words which are no longer used in a language. The words enyamuziga (bicycle), engondoore (ram) and ekizibaho (coat) are examples of Runyankore-Rukiga words that are now obsolete. New words, instead, are used to mean the same entities; i.e., egaari, empaya y'entaama and egooti/ekooti respectively. The processes of lexical change (as described above) form part of semantic change. Semantic change causes language change. Whether it is lexical change or semantic change, there is need to examine the intrinsic factors that underlie these processes. Taking an example of entomi (fist) in the examples above, the entity it refers to denotes a biotic object. It extended in meaning to 'bribe', which denotes a material object. This change is indicative of new phenomena that happen in the real world and how it is encoded in the human system of communication (that is, language). The new phenomena happen independent of language. Their encoding or conceptual existence (Namyalo, 2014) in the language is consequential with the occurrence of the phenomena. The phenomena (or situations) that take place in the real world can be new. They can also be old, or intermediary (neither old nor new). They can be positive or negative. They can be relational. The phenomena that get out of place in the real world cause a concurrent effect in the language. For instance, in the case of word loss, words are less used, and eventually get lost, leading to word loss. The theory of linguistic isomorphism as explained for language change, word classification (word domains) and sentence structure applies to other semantic features of language. These are meaning relations which include antonymy, synonymy, hyponymy/hypernymy, semantic incompatibility, among others described below.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Antonymy
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Antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning. Antonyms are opposite word forms in a language. Examples of antonyms in Runyakitara include omutsigazi (young man) versus empangare (grown up girl), omushaija (man) versus omukazi (woman). Antonyms therefore denote oppositeness of concepts. The concepts may be concrete or abstract objects that exist in the real world as the examples above would indicate. That is to say that there exists a pair of entities, e.g. 'girl' and 'boy' in the world. For purposes of communication, they have names in the language. The names must be opposites of each other since the entities they refer to are. Crystal (2003) identifies gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and converse antonyms. The work goes ahead to define them as follows: Gradable antonyms show the expression of degree, e.g. small/big, wide/narrow, Complementary antonyms express binary contrast, e.g. male/female, single/married. Converse antonyms include terms whereby the meaning of one presupposes the meaning of another, such as sell/buy, parent/child. Much of these examples represent entities or ideas which are in the real world in terms of physical size ('big' or 'small'), physical binary contrast ('male' or 'female') and sequence of things ('sell' and 'buy'). In the following section, examples of antonyms in Runyakitara are listed. Their translation and categorisation show how they also lend themselves to the theory of linguistic isomorphism, i.e. that their meaning and relationship cast the entities that are in the real world and their nature of juxtaposition. Table 5.6. Examples of antonyms
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Synonymy
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Different from antonymy, synonymy is the relationship of sameness of meanings of words (Crystal, 2003). Hurford and Heasley (1983) define synonymy in specific terms. They render synonymy as the relationship of words in terms of the meaning(s) that they have in common. Here, the assumption is that not all meanings are the same between a pair of words. They give an example of 'hide' (v.) and 'conceal' (v.) which are not the same in all of their meanings. According to Palmer (1981) there is no perfect synonymy. Each word in a pair or group of synonyms will have a distinctive meaning from the other or others. The distinction may be in terms of dialectal differences, style, metaphoricity, among others. Runyakitara examples for synonyms based on the strict definition of synonymy are as follows: When the words in the pairs above are analysed, they are not exactly the same in meaning. Each will have a slight difference in meaning. Some of the factors that influence synonyms in Runyakitara are: (a) Word borrowing: Some words are loan words in Runyakitara. For instance, kuyamba (help) is a loan word both in Runyankore-Rukiga and Runyoro-Rutooro. (b) Dialectal differences: For instance, omugyera (river) is predominantly used in Runyankore, whereas its counterpart omurindi (river) is predominantly used in Rukiga. (c) Social usage: In Runyoro-Rutooro some words are synonyms of others as a result of the palace language. For instance, okufa (die) is synonymous with okutu uza uza (die) used in the case of the death of a king in Bunyoro and Tooro. Synonymy implies that a word has the same meaning as the other; at least one of its meanings if it is a word with multiple meanings. Even if it does not have multiple meanings, still it will have a sense in which it is similar and different to the other in meaning. Synonymy is an aspect of words (language) which originates from the realities of what is in the real world (linguistic isomorphism). We will take the meanings of 'hide' (v.) and 'conceal' (v.) (Hurford & Heasely, 1983) to illustrate this.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Sentence
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The fruits were hidden behind the fridge. Words can hide meaning. Some people hide the truth. The illicit consignment was concealed in boxes of textbook materials. The enemy concealed himself. Meaning of hide/conceal (1) To keep something in a place so that people do not see it (2) To make something appear less obvious (3) To cover up what is supposed to be known (1) To put something in another for purposes of hiding it (2) To keep something in a secret place to deny other people access to it From the meanings above, there is similarity between meanings (1) and (2) of 'hide' and 'conceal' respectively. Similarity and dissimilarity of meaning is a representation of the phenomena that occurs in the world (that is, the events entailed in the words are real). Therefore, this conforms to the isomorphism of language and phenomena (linguistic isomorphism).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Hyponymy versus Hypernymy
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Hyponymy is the relationship of inclusion of the meaning of a word in the meaning of another. The meaning of the word 'car' is included in the meaning of the word 'vehicle', for example. The word which includes the meaning of another is a hypernym. It expresses the relationship of inclusion of the meaning of a word in the meaning of another. The objects represented by hyponyms and hypernyms exist in the real world, but their meaning is described in words. For instance, 'a car' exists as a single object 'car', and 'a vehicle' is any object that moves by the power of an engine. Much as each exists singly, it is part of the others whose collection forms a virtual form. Therefore, the word 'vehicle' represents what exists in the real world in virtual form. Like other languages, Runyakitara words denote entities that have concrete and virtual existence in terms of hyponymy and hypernymy. The word ente (cow) has the latter quality. Its hyponyms are enyana (calf), enumi (bull), ejigija (heifer), encwamutwe (new born calf) and omutavu (calf).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Polysemy
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Polysemy refers to relationship of the multiple meanings of a word by extension of its basic sense. Examples of words with multiple meanings can be cited in Rubongoya (2013) as shown below. okwetumbura (v. refl.) to pride oneself, flatter oneself on, stand on tip toe; pluck up courage; abantu abamu kwetumbura kubagiza ensoni (some people regard flattering oneself as a shameful thing.) okugaba (v.i) to distribute, to give away, to contribute, give in marriage, send out (army); ebintu bye abigabira abanaku (he/she gives his/her belongings to the poor); ija ongabise ebyokulya (come and help me distribute food). okutagaarra (v.i.) to take up much space, spread out, extend; abaikaarra omumotoka bafunzire tibatagaraza maguru gaabo (those who sit in a car in excess do not spread out their legs). The relationship of multiple meanings of words lies in the conceptual sense that cuts across the set of the meanings of a polysemous word. In the examples above underlying concepts are 'stand out' for okwetumbura, 'give out' for okugaba and 'spread apart' for okutagaarra.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Homonymy and homophony
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While other sense relations involve the shape of the meaning of words, others involve the relationship in the shape of the words themselves. The latter sense relations are referred to as homonymy (that is, the sameness of the shape of words). Homonyms are of different types, namely, homologues and homomorphs. Homologues are of two sub-categories: homographs and homophones. Homographs are different words with the same spelling. Homophones are words of different spelling but with the same pronunciation. Crystal (2003) offers the following examples for English language: 'bank' (building) vs 'bank' (ground), and 'threw' vs. 'through' for homophones. Homomorphs are same shape of words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g. 'water' (n.) and 'water' (v.) Although different in shape, homonyms as words represent different entities in the real world. However, the language form makes them similar or different in shape. The origin of the shape for homophones may be quite clear: similar pronunciation of words. The same goes for homomorphs, which are a result of conversion. It is not clear what the origin of homographs is. Lyons (1977), Crystal (2003) and Soanes (2001) trace their origin under etymology. Lyons (1977) gives an example of 'port' 1 (harbour) and 'port' 2 (kind of fortified wine) which are distinct words. It is maintained in this work that the former is derived from Latin (portus 'port') which is a reconstruction of the form ford (Modern English), while the latter is derived from 'Oporto' the name of a city in Portugal through which wine was exported. It is also noted in this work that the name of the city came from the Portuguese expression 'o porto' which meant 'the harbour' and originated from Latin 'porto'. From this background we note that since the words in question denote unrelated concepts (harbour and drink, wine) each concept needs a different name; that is, word. Therefore, instead of having one word for both meanings (polysemy), each is denoted by a different word (homonymy). In Runyakitara, words are spelt according to how they are pronounced unlike in English, for instance, where it is not the case. There is no mismatch between phonetic and phonemic representation in Runyakitara. Runyakitara words such as omukama (king) have letters represented by the same grapheme as the sounds. But the word 'Chemistry' in English has sound /k/ /k/ which is represented by ' ch ' as the grapheme. Therefore, a language with matching phonetic and phonemic representation as Runyakitara is not expected to have homophones. Homomorphs are also not expected since they come about as a result of stress placement. Being a non tresstimed language, Runyakitara is not expected to enlist homomorphs. Runyakitara has homographs such as shown below for Runyankore-Rukiga: omuti (tree)/omuti (concentrated banana juice), engoma (drum)/engoma (throne), amahembe (horns)/amahembe (witchcraft)/amahembe (bicycle handlebars). To be noted is that homography involves words each of which represents an independent entity in the real world. Homographs are to the language, while the entities they represent are to the world. Again this equals to linguistic correspondence between language structure and phenomena (linguistic isomorphism).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Conclusion
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In this chapter, various semantic perspectives of the correspondence of what is in the language and what is in the world have been explored in respect of Runyakitara. This concept of correspondence has been termed as semantic isomorphism of language. The perspectives explored include from semantic fields, noun class semantic properties, divisions of words and situations, semantic change and meaning relations. In each case, the language structure has been presented, and commented on in terms of how it is a representation of phenomena that exist in the world environment of the speaker. Several more linguistic insights have been arrived at in this chapter. They include criteria for determining linguistic meaning, approaches to compilation of thesauruses, compilation of a lexicon, encoding/expression of meaning, examples of semantic change and meaning relations in Runyakitara, among others. The chapter portrays that the occurrence of phenomena is independent of language, but language is used to express it for purposes of communication. The implication of this is that the more we study the language the more we appreciate it and use it to communicate better.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: References
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Byakutaga, S. C. (1996). Language corruption or change? The case of Runyakitara. Makerere Papers in Languages and Linguistics, 1(3), 12-21. Fergusson, R. (Ed.) (1986). The Penguin dictionary of English synonyms and antonyms. London: Penguin Books Ltd. Hurford, J. R. & Heasley, B. (1983). Semantics: A coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Infield, M. (2003). The names of Ankole cows. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd. Klingi, K. B. (2008a). The semanticosyntactic bridge. Kampala: Unpublished paper, Makerere University Institute of Languages. Klingi, K. B. (2008b). The semanticosyntactic bridge I. Retrieved from: http://lu-ganda.ugaccommodations.com/Semanticosyntacticbridge.pdf. Klingi, K. B. (2009). The semanticosyntactic bridge II. Retrieved from: http://lu-ganda.ugaccommodations.com/The\ Semanticosyntac-tic%20Bridge%20II.pdf. Landau, S. I. (1989). Dictionaries: The art and craft of lexicography. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics (Vol. 2.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mubangizi, B. K. (1963). Kanyarurimi 1. Mbarara: Omuhanda gw'Okumanya. Muranga, M. J. K. (1990). Pessimistic nomenclature in south west Uganda. Makerere Papers in Languages and Linguistics (1), 64-84. Murray, R. W. (1996). Historical linguistics: The study of language change. In O'Grady, W., M. Dobrovolsky & F. Katamba (Eds.), Contemporary linguistics: An introduction ( 3rd 3 rd Edn.) (pp. 344-346). London/New York: Longman. Museveni, Y. K., Muranga, M. J. K., Gumoshabe, G., & Muhoozi, A. N. (2012). Kandondoozi y'Orunyankore-Rukiga: A thesaurus of Runyankore-Rukiga. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. Namyalo, S. (2019). Modernisation of Luganda terminology in the field of linguistics. Kampala: Makerere University press. Ndoleriire, O., Kintu, J. & Kasande, H. (2009). Runyoro-Rutooro-English dictionary. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. Ogden, C. K., & Richards, I. A. (1923, 1985). The meaning of meaning. London: AKR Paperbacks. O'Grady, W. (1996). Semantics: The analysis of meaning. In O'Grady, W., M. Dobrovolsky & F. Katamba (Eds.). Contemporary linguistics: An introduction (3rd Edn.) (pp. 268). London/New York: Longman. Oriikiriza, C. (Ed.). (2007). Kashoboorozi y'Orunyankore-Rukiga. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Limited. Palmer, F. R. (1981). Semantics (2 nd nd Edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Roget, P. M. (1987). Roget's Thesaurus of the English words and phrases. London: Longman. Rubongoya, L. T. (1999). A modern Runyoro-Rutooro grammar. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. Rubongoya, L. T. (2013). Runyoro-Rutooro/English and English/Runyoro-Rutooro dictionary (1 st st Edn.). Fort Portal: Modrug Publishers. Soanes, C. (2001). The Oxford dictionary of current English. London: Oxford University Press. Taylor, C. (1985). Croom descriptive grammars: Nkore-Kiga. London: Croom Helm. van Noppen, J. P., & Dierickx, J. (2003). Crystal. The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (2 nd nd Edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Introduction
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Translation is defined by Pearsall (2001, p. 1969) as "a written or spoken rendering of the meaning of a word, speech, book, or text, in another language". On the other hand, Babcock (2002, p. 2429) defines translation in two forms: As a verb, "a rendering from one language or representational system into another". In other words, translation is to turn into one's own language or another language; to make a new version by rendering into another language. And as a noun, translation is an act, process, or instance of translating as a rendering from one language or representational system into another. Translation is an art that involves the recreation of a work in another language for readers of a different background. According to Bassnett (1991), translation is the rendering of a Source Language (SL) text into the Target Language (TL) so as to ensure that (1) the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and (2) the structures of the SL will be preserved as closely as possible but not so closely that the TL structures will be seriously distorted. On the other hand, Brislin (1976) defines translation as the general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target), whether the languages are in a written or oral form; whether the languages have established orthographies or do not have such standardisation; or whether one or both languages are based on signs, as with sign language of the deaf. Venute (1995, p. 17) defines translation as "a process by which the chain of signifiers that constitutes the source-language text is replaced by a chain of signifiers in the target language, which the translator provides on the strength of an interpretation". Finally, Larson (1984) defines translation as a discipline that consists of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language. This is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of the second language by way of semantic structure. It is meaning which is being transferred and must be held constant. Only the form basically changes due to the differences in the structure of different languages. The above definitions have a number of things in common. There is consensus among the different scholars mentioned above that translation involves transfer of information from one language (SL) to another (TL) and that the words used may not be the exact equivalents of what was in the SL. But there should be semantic harmony in both languages to make sure that the meaning in the SL is the same in the TL. The translator must avoid semantic shift, which would lead to misinformation. The setting of the text for translation should also be maintained, the styles, broadly speaking, must be equivalent, or comparable. The form, therefore, must be maintained in relation to the structure of a given language. Larson (1973) describes form as the actual words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, etc., which form the surface structure of the language. The translated version should therefore, have a dynamic equivalence if it cannot get the exact equivalents. What Does the Form of the Language Include? According to Larson (1973, p. 3), the form of the language includes "the actual words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs etc.", which form the surface structure of the language. For example, in the sentence: (a) The slow cat was knocked by a fast car. The actual words are: the slow cat was knocked by a fast car; and they form a sentence. This sentence is subdivided into subject and predicate, thus: This structure (of subject and predicate) too constitutes the form of the sentence. If we take a Runyakitara sentence like: (b) Omwana mubi akaiba omuyembe. The words: Omwana mubi akaiba omuyembe make the form of the sentence. Therefore, if we were to translate the first sentence into Runyakitara and the second sentence into English, the words would change their form. The English form would not remain as English, neither would the Runyakitara form remain Runyakitara. Therefore, the translations of sentences (a) and (b) would be as follows: English: The slow cat was knocked by a fast car. Rn/Rt: Akajangu akakaba nikagenda mpora emotoka erukwiruka muno ekakatomera. Ry/Rk: Akajangu akaabaire nikagyenda mpora emotoka erikwiruka munonga ekakatomera. You will notice that the structure of the sentences in Runyakitara has changed and is not like that of English. The number of words for both sentences is different from those in the source text. Whereas in the source language there are nine (9) words, in the target languages, they are eight (8) (in Rn/Rt) and eight (8) (in Ry/Rk). It should be noted that even if the number of words had been equal with those in the source text or less, still there would be a change in form. One important point to note is that, whereas the form of the source text changes in language, the meaning does not change. This is because, if the meaning was to change, then the intended message would change. Thus, the rule to remember in translation is keeping the original meaning as original as possible, even if it means changing the form. For example, in the following translated sentences, the form and structure are maintained but the meaning drifted. For all the sentences, the form has been maintained but the meaning has shifted, which has distorted the intended message. Thus, according to Larson (1984) in Rwomushana (2004, p. xiii) Translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation and cultural context of the source language text, analysing it in order to determine its meaning and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. In that context, the proper translation for the above example should be as follows: i) English: The old dog bit me Ry/Rk: Embwa enkuru endumire iii) English: One by one makes a bundle Rn/Rt: Kamu kamu nigwo muganda. It should be noted that the source language is the one from which the translation is made and the receptor or target language is the language into which the translation is made. However, you may have noticed that whereas in the source language one form may be expressed by one word, in the receptor language, it may be expressed by more than one word and vice versa. For example: Ry/Rk: Ekitabo ky'omwegyesa The teacher's book The book for the teacher The book which belongs to the teacher The book owned by the teacher. All these are different forms expressing one meaning. Due to differences required in form to convey a certain meaning, the translator must choose the best form which expresses the meaning in the most natural way in the receptor language. In doing this, the appropriate vocabulary, idioms and expressions, must be chosen to put the message across.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Reasons for Translation
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There are various reasons that justify why documents should be translated from one language to another. These include the need for accessibility. Most innovations take place in a language the person who has innovated speaks or uses. In most cases, all that information is in that language. Unless the innovation is rendered into another language, the innovation may remain in the source language and yet the beneficiaries of the innovation speak a different language. Innovations can therefore, be accessible to other languages if there is translation. Secondly, new inventions are usually accompanied with instructions on how to use a product. However, the inventers may not speak more than one language and yet what they have invented is for usage across the globe. Such instructions can be followed if they are written in a language that is understood by many people. This is important especially when it comes to medical prescriptions. Thirdly, translation is a discipline in its own right. There are some people who have specialised in translation. At the same time, translation is one of the activities that are time consuming and require skills, knowledge and good command of both the source and target language. This exercise, therefore, cannot be offered free of charge. Those who engage in translation have to be paid. The fourth reason for translating is that some written information and knowledge can only be accessed if one knows the languages it is written in. In certain cases, some languages are dead. The only way information or knowledge of that nature can be retrieved is through translation. For example, Latin is a dead language; it has no native speakers who use it as their mother tongue; but there are documents still written in that language. It also continues to be taught in schools. Documents written in Latin can only be accessed when translated. Lastly, sharing information comes about due to diversity in languages. In Uganda alone, there are four main language groups. Within these languages, there are dialects whose level of mutual intelligibility is low. With English as the official language and yet local languages dominate social discourse, access to information can only be achieved through translation. Likewise, some information that is in international languages can be shared if translated. For example, the Bible is the most widely translated book in the world yet its source languages are Hebrew and Greek.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: History of Translation in Uganda
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According to Bassnett (1991), translation studies cannot be complete if not considered in a historic perspective. Translation, according to Jacobsen (1958) in Bassnett (1991, p. 43) "is a Roman invention". However, Bassnett (1991) notes that there is a conflict between the Romans and the Greeks who accused the Romans of lack of creative imagination with arguments based on whether translation is either word by word or sense by sense transfer of message. It is noted that the first widely translated works were the translation of the Bible. It initially started with St. Jerome's New Testament Version which was launched by Pope Damasus in 384AD, which followed sense by sense transfer of messages. However, a paper presented by Pardo (2013) notes that Nida and Taber (1969) place the beginning of translation to the translation of the Old Testament Bible from Hebrew to Greek that was done by seventy translators. In Uganda, the Bible has been the most widely translated book. Most of the main languages have a translated version. The Bible Society embarked on translating it into all the languages of Uganda that have an orthography. It was first translated into Luganda and its first section came out in 1887. In 1893, the New Testament was published and the complete Bible was first published in 1896. This was followed by Runyoro Bible that was published in 1913. The Runyankore-Rukiga Bible was published in three parts with the first part coming out in 1957. This was followed by the New Testament that was published in 1962 and the full version was published in 1964. In 1989, it was revised and Apocrypha books were translated and included. The Bible in Acholi was published in part for the first time in 1905. The New Testament was first published in 1933 while the whole Bible was first published in For the Lango language, part of the Bible was published in 1967. The New Testament was first published in 1974 while the complete Bible was first published in 1979. Lugbara had the first part of the Bible published for the first time in 1922. This was followed by the New Testament that was first published in 1936. In 1966, the first complete Bible was published. Ateso got the first part of the Bible published in 1910. In 1930, the New Testament was first published. The complete Ateso Bible was first published in 1961. Other languages that the Bible was translated into are Ngakarimojong, Rufumbira, Rukonjo and more recently, the New Testament was translated into Lusoga, Lumasaaba, Lugwere and Lusamia-Lugwe. Other literary works have also been translated from English into RunyankoreRukiga and Luganda. They include Washington Irving's Rip Van Winkle (1819) translated into Runyankore-Rukiga as Ruhondeeza mwene Busaasi by Ntungwerisho Yemima in 1962, Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart (1958) was translated into Luganda as Eby'edda Bisasika by B. J. Walakira in 1994, George Orwell's Animal Farm (1945) into Luganda as Amaka ga Bawansolo by C. Karinda in 1988 and Wole Soyinka's Trials of Brother Jero (1973) translated as Owooluganda Jero Wakati mu Bikemo by J. Kizza Mukasa in 1995, part of Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart (1958) into Runyankore-Rukiga as Eby'obuzaariranwa Nibihwerekyerera by Rwomushana E. in 2004, Song of Lawino Song of Ocol into Luganda as Omulanga gwa Lawino by A. Kiyimba in 2014. However, the examples show that only one genre of literature has been given a lot of attention, i.e. literary prose. This means that other genres of literature and other works of scholarship have not had a chance to share knowledge of this magnitude. The situation has possibly been so because, though RunyankoreRukiga has been written since the 1950s, it came to be established as an academic discipline in 1990 when it started to be taught as part of "Runyakitara" at Makerere University. Before this, there was no urgent need to translate works from other languages for academic purposes. As noted above, most of the works that have been translated fall within the discipline of literature. However, the current competitive global trends demand that people be adequately informed if they are to compete favourably. People must get empowered through information if they are to survive in what has been termed as a global village. People need to be empowered with basic knowledge and skills to progress. Most of the knowledge that drives the world today is not available in our indigenous languages but is in what are known as international languages. Yet, people operate in their local or indigenous languages. If the cycle of ignorance and poverty that is a burden to our people is to be broken, we must avail this knowledge to them in the languages in which they operate. This will lead to indigenisation of knowledge and may contribute to breaking the current cycle of poverty.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Types of Translation
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There are various types of translation in the translation exercise. Their classification is mainly governed by the purpose of the translation. According to Bassnet (1991) and Larson (1984), they are the following: The first type is referred to as Literal Translation. This type of translation is formbased. It is a word per word translation. It does not usually give the original meaning of the source text as languages do not normally have a one-to-one correspondence of forms because of the different syntactic forms. However, for purposes of linguistic analysis, one may need a literal translation. For example: English: The President of Uganda gave a table made of wood to his close friend. Rn/Rt: Mukuru w'ihanga lya Uganda akaha emeeza ekozerwe omu rubbaho ha we ali haihi munywani. Or English: What is your father's name? Ry/Rk: Ni riiha ryasho eiziina? As you have noticed, the literal translation does not make much sense in Runyakitara. The second type is Idiomatic Translation. This is a type of translation which tries to use the natural forms of the receptor language and tries to sound as natural as possible. According to Larson (1973, p. 16), "A truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation. It sounds like it was written originally in the receptor language". Therefore, in Runyakitara too, when we translate, we must sound as natural as possible. For example: English: No sooner had I sat down, than I was terribly attacked by thieves. Ry/Rk: Nkaba naayehuumuzaho nti, abashuma bantaahirira n'obukambwe. Rn/Rt: Nkaba nakaikarra nti, nkarora abasuma nibantaagura noobukambwe. The third type is Pragmatic Translation. This is sometimes referred to as idiomatic translation. It involves the treatment of technical documents in which information about something is transferred into another language for immediate use. Brislin (1976) cites an example of repairing a machine whereby the manual that helps in providing information can be translated from one language to another to enable the technicians repair it. In this type of translation, the translator tries to use the natural forms of the receptor language and has to be as natural as possible. For Example, while repairing an engine, it may have an instruction that is reflected in the sentence below, English: Replace with a new cup. Ry/Rk: Taho ekifundikizo ekisya. Ideally, a cup in Runyankore-Rukiga is ekikopo. However, when you are translating, pragmatism is important to get what could be its equivalent and you end up with ekifundikizo, which, in Runyankore-Rukiga is lid. The fourth type is referred to as Ethnographic Translation. This is the type used in explicating the cultural context of the source and second language versions. Brislin (1976) notes that it is used when there is a difference between the time and culture of the source and the target language. For example, while translating the Lord's Prayer, ' … ….give us our daily bread', it becomes ' … … otuheereze egabo yaitu y'obutoosha'. Bread is omugaati made out of wheat flour but egabo is simply food in RunyankoreRukiga. Because of the period when the Lord's Prayer was pronounced and having a different cultural set up, the equivalent words are of ethnographic nature. The fifth type is Aesthetic-Poetic Translation. This is a form of translation that contains heroic, couplet and dramatic dialogue. It is influenced by the effect of the poet. In other words, this form of translation puts into account the feelings and any information used by the original author and might digress quite a bit from source language. This form of translation is important when translating poems and songs where the rhythm has to be maintained. For example, Songs of Solomon: 2: 2-4, when translated, it becomes: English: Like an apple tree among the trees of the woods, Ry: Nk′oku Nk ′ oku omuti gw'omucungwa guba omu kibira, English: so is my lover among men. Ry: na nkunzi yangye nikwo aba omu batsigazi. English: In his shadow I delight to sit, Ry: Nkashutama omu kicuucu kye nshemereirwe munonga, English: and his fruit is sweet to my taste. Ry: ebijuma bye byannurira. English: He brought me to the banquet hall, Ry: Yantaasya omunju y'obugyenyi, English: and his glance at me signalled love. Ry: yandeebesa amaisho ga Rukundo. Linguistic Translation is the sixth type of translation we shall consider. This type of translation is concerned with equivalent meanings of the constituent morphemes of the target language (TL) and its grammatical form. It is the form advocated for usage in machine translation because it applies in situations where the languages undergoing translation have the same level of civilisation. It is useful in languages that have a similar grammar and sentence structure, for instance, if one was to translate from Runyankore to Rutooro in the following sentence: Rn: Omwana onu agende Ry: Omwana ogu agyende
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Translation Process
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The fact that translation involves far more than a working acquaintance with two languages is aptly summed up by Levy (1963) when he declares that a translation is not a monistic composition, but an interpenetration and conglomerate of two structures. On the one hand there are the semantic content and the formal contour of the original; on the other hand, the entire system of aesthetic features bound up with the language of the translation. The above means that translation is not just something superficial or even artificial; you need to know both the source language (SL) and the target language (TL) very well. Muranga (1992) describes the translation process even more dramatically when he says that it involves moments of real trouble, even danger and difficulty, whenever the translator has to use all the creative powers at his disposal in order to salvage a meaning from the hazards of cross-cultural transfer. He notes "... the translator is like a ferryman trying to ferry some people across a river. He must use all the paddling skills at his disposal and, in case of trouble, all his creative energy and wisdom in order to bring his passengers safely across" (p.3). Nida and Taber (1969) provide a model that sums up the translation process with an illustration in Bassnett (1991, p. 16) as shown below. Figure 6.1: The translation process The process of translation is explained in the flow chart above. To execute the process, one needs the relevant linguistic and aesthetic, ethnographic, pragmatic skills. It shows that the SL text should be comprehended before any actual translation work begins. Thereafter, the text should be analysed in order to determine how it should be translated. After that, the process of transferring the message from the SL to the TL follows. This is accompanied by transfer of the message to the TL, without distorting it. The message in the TL must be at least approximate to that of the SL. This approximate dimension is emphasized by Bassnett (1991, p. 2) when she says that translation must ensure that "(1) the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar, and (2) the structures of the SL will be preserved as closely as possible but not so closely that the TL structures will be seriously distorted". Larson (1984), for her part, explains that in translation, the translator needs to study and analyse the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation and the cultural context. This is done in order to determine the meaning, which is reconstructed using the lexicon and grammatical structure that are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. On the other hand, Venute (1995) believes that a translated text is deemed acceptable when it reads fluently and when there are no linguistic or stylistic peculiarities that are not natural to the target language. The translated text must be transparent. In translation the final text should not reflect that it has been translated, it should sound natural and feel original. According to Hillaire (1931), the translator should consider the work to be translated as an integral unit and translate it in sections, asking him/herself before each section what the whole sense is that he has to render. He should render idiom-by-idiom and intention-by-intention, bearing in mind that the intention of a phrase in one language may be more or less emphatic than the form of the phrase in another language. This, therefore, shows that the translator of literary prose, for example, has the right to ignore some of the stylistic aspects of the SL text in order to conform to the stylistics and idiomatic norms of the receptor language that are most natural and acceptable in the TL. To sum it up, the process of translating should involve: i) Ability to understand the source language. ii) Knowledge of the receptor language. iii) Reading through the document identified for translation. iv) Identifying the language register. v) Identifying the intention of the author. vi) Identifying the level of understanding of the intended users of the translated version. vii) Identifying the hard-to-translate concepts. viii) Selection of the most appropriate terms/vocabulary to use. ix) Translation of the text into the recipient language. x) Proofreading the translated text. xi) Submission of the text. We should note that from experience, translation can be effective if the translator follows the following steps: Begin by reading through the text to be translated. This involves reading of the text so that you become familiar with it. The second step is identifying the language register. You should always endeavour to establish if the source text is legal, medical, religious, etc. This helps in choosing the appropriate vocabulary to be used. The third step is to knowing the target beneficiaries of the translation. This is important because it gives an idea of what type of language one should use. If the target is readers whose formal education is limited to primary level, there may be need to use simple language. The fourth step is identifying the required reference materials. Some translations require wider consultations. When a translator gets the text to be translated, it is important to identify the different resources that may be required to use during the process. It is imperative that the translator identifies the human resource that may be useful and contacts them. For example, if the text is legal, it is good to have a lawyer within reach. This also applies to medical texts. As a fifth step, it advisable to seek to know the likely consequences of your actions. As a translator, it is important to know the risks involved in misrepresenting facts. This is because a mistake can cost life or lead to imprisonment of an innocent person. For every document to be translated, ensure that it does not move an inch away from the original meaning. You are now ready for the sixth step, which is translating the work. If you are sure that all the above have been appropriately addressed, you should embark on the translation. This is followed by back-translation as the seventh step. This is the process of re-translating the work back into the source language. It is done by an independent person that has not accessed the original work whose text is what has been translated. It is usually a source of conflict. The back-translator may write a different text. When the back-translation is done, the most important aspect should be to establish that the texts are closely related. This is because it is impossible to get the original document as it was written initially; no two persons can think alike. Secondly, the structure of the SL and the TL vary from one another. The eighth and final stage is to harmonise the translation. After back-translation has been finished, it is important to get all the three texts together and harmonize the work to come up with a single working document. The translation and back-translation should be harmonised to reflect what was in the initial text. It is at this stage that translation is considered complete. After all that has been done, you should then ask yourself the following questions: i) Is the translation in the target language equivalent or similar to the text in the source language? ii) Will the intended beneficiaries understand the text? iii) Would they respond the same way if it was in the source language? iv) Would the translation have the same meaning if the text is back-translated? If the answers to the questions above are in the affirmative, then, the translation will have been accomplished.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Challenges in Translation
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The process of translation has its own challenges that are experienced. Various factors are responsible for this phenomenon. These include the following: a) Lack of concept in receptor language b) Translation of Figurative Language c) Existence of untranslatabilities d) Emotional torture The lack of concept in receptor language is the first major challenge. Although it has been said that a translator must try to sound as natural as possible, it is quite difficult to come up with the appropriate expressions because there is no one-to-one lexical equivalence across languages. There are times when the source text talks about a concept or object that does not exist in the receptor language. What does one do in such a case? For example: ST: The robot was talking like a human being. Which of the three sentences below translates the above sentence to the satisfaction of the speaker of Runyankore? Why? i) Erobboti ekaba neegamba nk'omuntu. ii) Ekyoma kikaba nikigamba nk'omuntu iii) Ekyoma ekimanywa nka robboti, kikaba nikigambira kimwe nk'omuntu. Beekman and Callow (1974) suggest three possible ways of dealing with the problem of lexical equivalence: Usage of a generic word with a phrase; Usage of a loan-word; or Usage of a cultural substitute. a) Usage of a generic word with a phrase There are times when a translator has to translate a concept or idea which does not exist in his/her language. He/she needs to understand clearly the words and their meaning in the source language and how they are used in the different contexts. He/she needs to know the form and functions of the different lexical items in the language. The form of a word includes the physical attributes of the object being talked about. For example, the form of the car includes its size, colour, shape and its parts. But the function is to transport people and things. A translator needs to know well the functions and forms of words as they might differ from language to language. For one to come up with such a descriptive phrase of 'robot', he/she must know how the robot looks like and what it does. Thus, a translator needs to be widely read and very knowledgeable in various disciplines. At this stage, we need to note that even when the form and function of the lexical items are very much similar, they might have different associations in the two languages. For example, bread may be the same in both languages but with different functions. Whereas in Runyakitara bread may be a special treat for breakfast, in English it may be taken as daily food. If one chooses the generic term with a descriptive phrase to cater for the new concept being translated, there are various ways in which the generic term can be dealt with. As explained by Larson (1973), in the modification of form approach, the translator describes the generic form of the word to be translated. For example, if translated into Runyankore, it is: Another way in which a word could be translated is by making explicit its function. For example: In other instances, one may decide to use both the form and the function to describe a new concept in the receptor language. Thus, robot ekyoma ekikozirwe nk'omuntu ekirikukora buli karimo nk'omuntu. aeroplane ekyoma ky'amapapa ekirikugendera omu mwanya, ekitwara abantu n′ n ′ ebintu. The translator can also use a comparison of something in the receptor language to that in the source language. For example: ekitiiho tonto Or muha something like a big spoon a wine-like brew a dog-like animal. b) Usage of a loan-word There are times when a loan-word may be used to bring about lexical equivalence. When this is done, the word is usually modified to fit into the linguistic structure of the receptor language. Also, when the word is introduced, it is usually described. If you consider our first translation of 'robot', we used a loan-word with a RunyankoreRukiga description, thus: Ekyoma ekimanywa nka robboti, kikaba nikigambira kimwe nk'omuntu. After the introduction of such a word in the language, it is later assimilated as a borrowed word. In the translation of the Draft Constitution (1993), many loan-words were adopted as Runyakitara words and they are now being used. Words like Konsitityusoni (Runyoro-Rutooro), Konsitityushoni (Runyankore-Rukiga) have since been incorporated into the vocabulary of the receptor dialects. c) Usage of a cultural substitute There are times when any of the above-mentioned possibilities does not seem appropriate. Here, the translator may choose a cultural substitute from the receptor lan- guage. However, the translator must be very careful as sometimes the cultural substitute may not give the near equivalent, especially if the term does not exist. Thus, Larson's (1973, pp. 163-176) guidelines should be taken into consideration: i) How similar are the two things or events? If there is no similarity between the events and things, the translator must be very careful about the terms he/she chooses. For example, "a red-carpet welcome" - cannot be translated as: Okutangirira kw'ekirago kirikutukura. Rather, it is translated as: Okutangirira okw'ekitiinisa ky'amaani. ii) Could a descriptive equivalent be used without distorting the text? In this case, if a descriptive equivalent suits the situation better, it is advisable that it is used rather than the cultural substitute. iii) How culturally isolated are the speakers from the receptor language? The speakers from the receptor language may be living in a very remote area and have had very little interaction with the outside world. Even when an object is described by its function, it may be difficult for the speakers to understand what is being described. In this case, it would be better to use a cultural substitute. However, the translator is cautioned to be faithful to historical events. He/she should not change the truth of a historical fact because he/she wants to use a cultural substitute. For example, these are some of the cultural substitutes. The second major challenge faced by translators is associated with figurative language. This can be explained as a language that uses words, groups of words or expressions that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation. Figurative language can also bring about difficulties in translation. This is because the figures of speech such as metaphors, similes, idioms, allusions, hyperboles or puns may not always have corresponding equivalents in the source language and receptor/target language. For example, it may not be easy to translate an expression like "it rained cats and dogs" or "I smell a rat". Larson (1973, p. 254) suggests five ways of dealing with similes and metaphors, which are figures of speech: Keeping the metaphor if it sounds natural in the receptor language. Translating the metaphor as a simile using 'like' or 'as'. Substituting an equivalent metaphor from the receptor language. Keeping the metaphor and explaining the meaning. Translating the meaning of the metaphor without keeping the metaphorical imagery. The existence of untranslatable words is the third challenge that is faced during translation. Untranslatable words do not have an equivalent in the target language. This is because of the cultural uniqueness that exists. As a result, some words or expressions are in one language while they are not in another. When such a situation arises, it is imperative to get an expression that is equivalent. In case that is not possible, the translator has no option other than naturalising the word or expression. This means that the person writes the word as it is pronounced in the source language but follows the rules of orthography of the target language. The other alternative is to borrow from a neighbouring language. The fourth challenge to translation is emotional torture. This occurs when a translator, in the process of translation, has to translate texts that have emotional attachment. It may happen that one is hired to translate a document that may result in loss of life or property and the information is not yet published. The challenge would be whether to report such a situation to authorities yet it is against the ethics of translation where confidentiality is important.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Specialised Terminology
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From your daily experience of language usage, you must have noticed that different areas of specialisation use specialised terminology in their work. These include science, agriculture, economics, law, religion, medicine, biology, linguistics, et cetera. As a translator, one may be asked to translate texts from specialised disciplines. In this case, one needs to be well equipped with the vocabulary and meanings of the source text. And when translating the specialised terminology, there is need to keep it specialised in the receptor language. So, the translator needs to be precise and economical, at the same time relaying the original meaning of the term. The major problem arises when the terms to be translated are abstract in nature and are objects. For example, if a translator is given the following economics terms as extracted from Basic Economics for East Africa by Ddumba (2004), the likely equivalents in Runyankore-Rukiga identified for translation are as follows: a) Advantages (ebirungi): This term can be translated as ebirungi. However, the meaning is not as close to L1 as it should be. Ebirungi is basically "good things" and this is not the exact equivalent of "advantages". Another term would be ebirikuganyurwamu, from the verb okuganyurwa, which means payment for what you have done. The payment can either be monetary or benefits out of the activity. b) "Economics" as a term can be translated as Eby'obutungi. However, it does not come out in a natural way. Economics, when translated as ebyobutungi becomes synonymous with wealth, which is obutungi or eitungo. The term "economics" comes from Greek for oikos (house) and nomos (custom or law), hence "rules of the house(hold)." Its equivalent obutungi comes from the verb okutunga [o-ku- tunga] that could be explained to mean 'to get'. In Runyankore-Rukiga, the noun derived from okutunga is obutungi or eitungo, which is ownership of assets both movable and immovable. This form of wealth is for either an individual or a group of people or a country. Judging from the origin of the word economics, obutungi is more informative and extensive. A challenge, however, emerges between resources and economics where the two are polysymous in RunyankoreRukiga and the meaning is almost the same. c) Consumer (omukozesa): In Runyankore-Rukiga, this would literally mean 'the user' not 'the consumer'; but it is the only word that has the nearest meaning. 'Consume', in Ry/Rk would be okurya which is similar to 'eating' but the word consumer, which WebFinance Inc. defines as 'An individual who buys products or services for personal use and not for manufacture or resale' would contradict it since okurya, which in this case would be omuri has no relationship with consumption of services. Omukozesa still remains with another challenge as it may also refer to the one who has used something to do a particular work. A noun that would be used and fits well by embodying the consumption of goods and services is not available in the language. This would make the word being translated according to the context, and would not have a uniform translation, not even its immediate equivalent. d) Firm is translated as kampuni yet that would be the translation for 'company' which was naturalised. This is because 'firm' is a synonym of 'company'. In Runyankore-Rukiga, it is not possible to differentiate the two especially when they are serving the same purpose. Form and content do not change at all, as both remain nouns. e) Micro and Macro are free morphemes. Micro is a prefix in the International System of Units abbreviated as SI from the French Le Système International d'Unités and other systems of units denoting a factor of 106 10 6 (one millionth). 'Macro' on the other hand is the opposite denoting something big. In Runyankore-Rukiga, 'micro' does not have an equivalent term. It can best be translated as akakye. However, this does not suit the term as akakye is translated as 'small'. Akakye is not a prefix but an independent adjective. Likewise, 'macro' does not also have an equivalent but can be translated as ekihango. This, however, does not also suit the term. f) Poverty (Obworo) has a number of equivalents. In Economics, the term is used to refer to a situation of dire need. However, further description of poverty in Economics brings about concepts such as 'relative poverty' and 'absolute poverty'. Relative poverty does not have an equivalent and there would be a problem translating it. Its closest translation is obworo obutarengyesereize. This translation does not sound natural. On the other hand, 'absolute poverty', which is a noun phrase, has an equivalent in form of obukyene. This is just a noun. g) Products and Goods: These are different in English but in Runyankore-Rukiga, they are homophones. Both can be translated as ebintu. However, the products and goods have a monetary attachment to them and can be disposed of at any time while ebintu may not always attract a price tag on them. In other words, they may not easily be converted into money. h) Profits (Amagoba) is a straight forward term, as it has its counterpart word in L2. i) Aid (obuhwezi) stands out as 'help'. In Economics, aid is loan money. If one is to translate aid as loan money, the difference becomes obvious, as obuhwezi is not necessarily 'help' that requires a refund. In most cases, obuhwezi is free, whether it is in form of goods or services. j) Allowances (empeera): Whereas allowance is specific in English and means an extra pay that may not be tagged to a salary, empeera is payment for any work done. Although it is meaningful, it does not cater for payment of an allowance. k) Amount (omuhendo): The translation is direct and would apply in all circumstances related to transactions. Assets (eitungo): This idiomatic translation. However, it is not as straight as omuhendo. Eitungo in most cases refers to what a person owns in form of cows. Whereas the word 'asset' involves both movable and non-movable, eitungo does not go that far. m) Balance of Payments (Obwingane bw'entaatsya n'enshohoza y'ebitunziibwe aheeru n'ebiguzirweyo): This is a clear example of a definition turned a terminology. There is no word that can be used to describe balance of payments and is understood by a local person unless it is explained. n) Bank (banka): As a naturalised word, banka is understood by everyone. It is a new term that people had to learn. This is a recent naturalised term that would otherwise be eibiiko ry'esente. However, the maintenance of the English version in all places where banks exist has enabled the naturalisation. o) Bill (ekishare): The translation presupposes the amount of money that is being asked. Its back-translation in English would be similar to 'expected charges' or 'fees'. This is a clear equivalent word that works. It should be noted that whenever such terms have equivalents in the receptor language, it is advisable to naturalise them. That way, ambiguity would be avoided, since the user will be forced to read about the term from the source language. However, in a situation where the target language user does not understand the Source Language at all, he/she will be forced to inquire from those who know. It leaves no room for guesswork. The following could be the dynamic equivalents when translated into Runyankore-Rukiga.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Conclusion
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Translation, as a discipline, can be successfully accomplished depending on the language register, the intended beneficiary and the purpose it is aimed at achieving. As a translator, one must ensure that he or she is as close to the original text as possible regardless of the language structure. The translator must, at times, consider the language being used within the locality. Thus, issues of borrowing concepts and ideas from other languages should be looked at as avenues for the enrichment of a language, especially where there are new concepts, inventions and innovations.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: References
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Babcock, P. (Ed.). (2002). Webster's third new international dictionary of the English language. Springfield: Merriam-Webster Inc. Publishers. Bassnett, S. (1991). Translation studies. London: Routledge. Beekman, J. & Callow, J. (1974). Translating the word of God. Michigan: Zondervan Publishers. Brislin, R. W. (1976). Translation. New York: Garden Press. Ddumba, S. J. (2004). Basic economics for East Africa. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. Larson, M. L. (1984). Meaning-based translation: A guide to cross-language equivalence (Vol. 366). Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Levy, J. U. P. (1963). The art of translation. In J. Holmes (Ed.). The nature of translation. The Hague: Mouton. Muranga, M. J. K. (1992). Translation as a means of developing and enriching the target language. Makerere Papers in Languages and Linguistics, 1(2), 3-23. Nida, E. A. & Taber, C. (1969). The theory and practice of translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Pearsall, J. (Ed.). (2001). The new Oxford dictionary of English. London: Oxford University Press. Rwomushana, E. (2004). The challenges of translating literary prose fiction from English into Runyankore-Rukiga based on 'Things fall apart' (Unpublished MA Dissertation, Makerere University). Venute, L. (1995). The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. London: Routledge. Walakira, B. J. (1994). Eby'edda bisasika (Luganda Translation of Things fall apart by C. Achebe). Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers Ltd. WebFinance Inc. (2019). Customer. Retrieved from http://www.investorwords.com/1055/consumer.html
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Chapter 7
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TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION IN RUNYAKITARA: LINKING THEORY TO PRACTICE Edith Ruth Natukunda-Togboa
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Introduction
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Do we, as Banyakitara, need translation? It is estimated that more than 6,000 languages are spoken globally. Without translation, we can only communicate with those people who share with us a common language. Unfortunately, since the space for every language is limited on the world scene, some of the minority voices, which are less developed, with poor media access and are under-documented, would simply not be heard without this critical function. Africa has the highest language density in the world; more than 2,000 languages are used on the continent and more than 60% 60% of the population uses indigenous languages. These languages have remained mainly oral, informal in usage and under-published. Without translation, the creativity of African oral literature, its cultural novelty, and unique indigenous knowledge base will remain unamplified. Translation, in this case presents an opportunity to boost the image of African Languages and salvage the traditional wisdom, like that of the Banyakitara that is getting lost over generations. This work of preservation of the homogeneity of African thought has especially been effected through what Bandia (1993) terms the "transference" of African literature. He states that translating African creative works is a double "transposition" process, from the primary level of translation, that is the expression of African thought in a European language by an African writer; to the secondary level of translation, or the "transfer" of African thought from one European language to another by the translator" (Badia, 1993). This is a practical way of demonstrating how translation theory embodies important values for our society. These are some of the applications of translation and interpretation that will be discussed in this chapter. The preceding chapter dealt with definitional issues, translation processes and professional registers in Runyakitara. This follow-up chapter will further investigate the relevance of translation in Runyakitara, the evolution of the discipline and its theories, translation and interpretation strategies, as well as recent developments in the field like audio-visual translation, in an attempt to link theory to application. In a study conducted in several African countries, 97.4% 97.4% of the respondents stated that greater access to translated information would help individuals to understand their legal rights, 95.18% 95.18% said it would improve the overall quality of life; 88.78% 88.78% of respondents said it would help prevent international, civil, ethnic, or communal conflict in Africa; and 63.7% 63.7% said it could have prevented the death of someone in their family or circle of friends. (Kelly et al., 2012). Indeed, not until Africa has access to such information can we say that we have emerged from the "information famine" and like the wealthy nations, we have got to the "global information age". This study suggests that "it is only through translation that this disparity can eventually be eliminated" (Kelly et al., 2012). In Uganda, the conditions to help us emerge from the prevailing "information famine" are far from being conducive. A case study on translation in Uganda that was conducted on the translation of fiction books from 2001 to 2008 showed that:
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Translation of Fiction Books from nine Ugandan publishers from 2001-2008
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Source: Adapted from MA thesis findings (Lapajian, 2010) These are very low translation ratios over many years and they are heavily fluctuating from one year to another. Translated fiction accounts for 6.3% 6.3% of total fiction book supplies. Therefore, although we consider access to translated information as a motor of development, translation in itself as a feature is a rare phenomenon in Uganda, if we are to go by the findings on fiction books. A closer look also reveals that most of these translations are produced by foreign publishing houses: 77.0% 77.0% of all these translations have been published by British publishers, 10.3% 10.3% by Kenyan and 2.3% 2.3% by American publishers. Only 10.3% 10.3% of all translations has been published by Ugandan publishers (Lapajian, 2010). The distribution of the languages of translation is presented in the following tables:
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Distribution of target languages of translated fiction titles in four Ugandan bookshops
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Source: Adapted from MA thesis findings (Lapajian, 2010)
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Distribution of source languages of translated fiction titles in four bookshops in Uganda
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Source: Adapted from MA thesis findings (Lapajian, 2010) The tables show that in Uganda, English is dominant both as a target and as a source language in translation. The relatively high proportion of fiction books translated into Ugandan languages can be explained in terms of the newly introduced education policy requiring the use of indigenous languages as media of instruction in the early classes. Hence, the translations into Ugandan languages are for the most part translations of English school readers into Luganda, Runyankore-Rukiga and Ateso (Lapajian, 2010). These school readers are printed in large numbers, thus driving up the ratios of both English as a source language and Ugandan languages as target languages. The lesson to pick from this study is that the more the national and regional language policies go beyond discussions and speeches and get into practical application, the better it will be for the growth of translation studies in Runyakitara. Such suggestions on best practices to adopt for the future are best analysed when one knows the history of a discipline. The preceding chapter traced the history of Bible translation in Uganda as one of the beginnings of translation in Runyakitara. How does this link up with the global history of translation? Translation and Interpretation: A Historical Perspective Contemporary scholars in translation studies like, George Steiner, have now become more specific on the history of translation by distinguishing the discipline from the history of language. George Steiner (1975) for instance has divided the chronology of the discipline into four periods which we are going to adapt as our base for analysis in this chapter with adjustments: The first period refers to the time of the great Roman translators like Horace and extends for 1,700 years; The second period dates from the 1900s to the 1940s; The third one extends from the 1950s to the 1960s; and The fourth one dates from the 1960s to 2000;
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The fifth period from 2000 to the present
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3 3 . 1
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The First Period in the History of Translation
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This period, according to the scholar As-Safi (2011), from the University of Petra, starts with the Romans translators but should extend to ancient translated documents that have been found in Egypt and Iraq. This period was specifically documented in Fraser Tyler's essay on the "Principles of Translation" in 1791 and it is the longest in translation history. It is characterised by its word-for-word and sense-for-sense translations. It emphasises the aesthetic criteria of the target language (TL) rather than the "rigid notions of fidelity". Early translators like Horace in his Art of Poetry, warn against the "over-cautious imitation of the source model and slavish literalism" (cited in As-Safi, 2011). This period concludes with the discussion of good translation as that "in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language" (Bell, 1991). From the above discussions, Tyler deduces three laws that are characteristic of this first period: The translations should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original work; The translation should have all the ease of the original composition (Cited in As-Safi, 2011).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Second Period
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This period, according to Steiner (1975), runs up to the forties of the twentieth century. It is characterised by the focus on the theory of hermeneutic inquiry (from the Greek - to understand) and the development of a vocabulary and methodology of approaching translation. One theorist who was pronounced during this period is the French humanist Etienne Dolet who proposed the early principles of translation in "La Manière de bien traduire d'une langue à l'autre" ("How to translate well from one language to another"): The translator must fully understand the sense and meaning of the original author; The translator should have perfect knowledge of the both the source language (SL) and the target language (TL); The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings; The translator should use forms of speech in common use; The translator's words should choose and order appropriately words to produce the correct tone. These five principles were further summarized by John Dryden (1631-1700) in his "Preface to Ovide's Epitsle" into three categories of translation: Meta phrase, or turning on an author word-by-word, and line-by-line, from one language to another; Paraphrase or a translation with latitude, the Cicerian "sense for sense" view of translation; Imitation, where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit, "between the two extremes of paraphrase and literal translation" (in AsSafi, 2011).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Third Period
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This is the shortest of all the periods in translation history. It starts with the first papers on machine translation in the 1940s and extends for less than three decades. It is characterised by the introduction of structural and applied linguistics as well as contrastive studies in morphology and syntax. These new studies help the translator to "identify similarities and differences between native language (NL) and foreign language (FL) and integrate the communication theory into the study of translation" (Steiner, 1975, in As-Safi, 2011, pp. 297-413).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Fourth Period
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This period has its beginning in the 1960s and according to Steiner, it is still running up to the present date. It is characterised by the translator's recourse to the use of hermeneutic inquiry in translating and interpreting. Translators in this period revised their approaches in order to include other disciplines in translation. This contemporary period has witnessed the emergence of a lot of new theories such as "polysystem theory", from a group of Russian literary theorists, offering a general model for understanding, analysing and describing the functions and evolution of literary systems and its application to the study of translated literature. The period also includes the "skopos theory" (from Greek purpose) developed in Germany in the late 1970s, reflecting a shift from mainly linguistic theories to a more functionality and socioculturally oriented conceptualisation of translation. Unlike the preceding periods where one school of thought was pronounced, in this contemporary period we notice the diversification of the theorists' orientation. This period also has experienced a marked increase in translation needs in the second half of the 20th 20 th century: the political, business, scientific, tourist, academic educational, religious and other needs that have increased significantly and they continue to increase as communication with "the other" gets faster, wider and more sophisticated. This is why this period privileges the principle of internationality in translation.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Fifth Period
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The fifth period which is hereby proposed is the era of translation computerisation. This fifth period also coexisted with the fourth since advanced work by translation theorists, linguists, engineers, researchers, evaluators of end-user groups, professional translators, trainers and translation companies started to bear fruits in the 1940s. From that time, improvement of automatic machine translation of source text (ST) into target language has been on-going. It was improved with the assistance of man providing a post-editing semantically equivalent and well-formed text in the target language (TL). From the "direct translation" (morpho-syntactic replacements) of the 1950s, computerised translation has advanced to "rule based approaches" (rules of transfer for the particular pair of languages being handled) and "corpus based approaches" (using algorithms to match the new TL segments with the built-in SL segments) (Quah, 2006 cited in As-Safi, 2011). The early Runyakitara translations were mainly from the third and fourth period in the history of translation and as noted in the introduction, these were unfortunately not many. But the fifth period which is bringing with it a lot of open source materials and virtually translated "documents" is fast increasing space for minorities in the translation world. This is increasing the hopes of the unheard and "untranslated" voices.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Translation Theories
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From the existing literature, for almost two thousand years, translation theory had been merely concentrating on outstanding translated works of art. The science of translation, earlier on known as "translatology", did not emerge until the 1940s (AsSafi, 2011). In the actual sense of the discipline, however, the history of translation deals with: "what translators say about their art/craft at different periods: what kinds of recommendations translators have made and how translation science has been taught" (Baker, 2005). Translation theory is of importance to translators because it helps them to determine the appropriate translation method for the text or text-category in question. It is also important in providing "a framework of principles, restricted rules and hints for translating texts and criticising translations, a background for problem solving" (As-Safi, 2011). A rigorous theory of translation, in the case of Runyakitara, provides a practical evaluation procedure, with specific criteria, which indicates a certain level of accomplishment of the task under study. Eugene Nida (1976) seems to offer a good summary of translation theories when he observes that "due to the fact that translation is an activity involving language, there is a sense in which any and all theories of translation are linguistic" (Nida, 1976, p. 66). He goes on to classify these theories into three sub-categories which we will use in our analysis: philological theories, linguistic theories, and socio-linguistic theories. This classification depends upon the perspectives and approaches applied to the principles and procedures of translation discussed in the preceding chapter.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Philological Theories
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These rely on philology as the study of the development of language, a concept linked to the classical literary studies (As-Sifa, 2011). In the case of Runyakitara, they will be mainly concerned with the comparisons of Runyakitara structures and those of other indigenous and foreign languages into which one is translating or interpreting. They will dwell on the functional correspondence, literary genre, stylistics and rhetoric. As Nida (1976) explains, instead of "treating the form in which the text was first composed, they deal with corresponding structures in the source and receptor languages and attempt to evaluate their equivalences" (Nida, 1976, p. 69). Such translation theories will be found useful in assessing translation procedures that are used for translating classical Runyankore recitations (Ebyevugo) and transcribing traditional songs (Ebyeshongoro) into English and other foreign languages.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Philosophical Theories
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Proponents of philosophical theories like George Steiner (1975) emphasise "the psychological and intellectual functioning of the mind of the translator" (p. 249). He explains that such a theory of translation is essentially "a theory of semantic transfer from source language (SL) into target language (TL)" (p. 249). This is what has been termed the "hermeneutic approach" aiming at understanding a piece of oral speech or written text and the attempt to diagnose the [translation] process in terms of a general model of meaning (Steiner, 1975). Steiner approaches the act of literary translation "in the context of human communication across barriers of language, culture, time and personality" (Steiner, 1975, in As-Safi, 2011, pp. 297-413). He thus sub-divides the [hermeneutic] motion into four stages of: Assuring and determining the sense in ST, that has to be extracted; Invading, extracting the meaning and bringing it home; Incorporating new elements into the target linguistic and cultural system; and finally, Compensating or restoring in the target text what the translator failed to recover from the original text (Steiner, 1975). The translation of proverbs and sayings from the Runyakitara languages into English and other languages, may find good use of these philosophical theories.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Linguistic Theories
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Unlike the philological theories which compare genre, stylistic, and features of the ST and TT, the linguistic theories are based on the comparison of linguistic features, their development, mainly due to the application of linguistic fields such as semantics (meaning), pragmatics and the teaching of translation/interpretation. These theories view translation as "simply a question of replacing the linguistic units of the ST with the 'equivalent' TL units without reference to factors like context or connotation" (As -Safi, 2011, p. 35). According to Nida and Taber (1969), linguistic translation contains elements which can be directly derived from ST wording. In this model, the surface elements of ST (grammar, meaning, connotations) are analysed as linguistic structures that can be transferred to the TL and restructured to form TL surface elements.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Functional Theories
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The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a shift from the static linguistic typologies of translation to communicative approaches for the analysis of translation (As-Safi, 2011). The functional theories focus on the use of text type and language functions (Baker, 2005; Shuttleworth & Moiro, 2007). In the text type argument, it is at the level of the text rather than the words, that equivalence and communication are effected. In the informative text for instance, the purpose is to communicate facts. Hence, when analysing an informative translation in Runyankore, one should check whether the translator has transmitted the full referential of conceptual content. In the example of "Instructions" translated by Natukunda and Asiimwe (2012a) for the non-governmental organisation, ACCLAIM, our interest as translators was to ensure that the text was fully informative and contained no ambiguity as demonstrated in the box below ( Ry/Rk Ry/Rk ):
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Instructions
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This interview should be started only once informed consent has been obtained from the participant. Read all of the questions and all of the information that is in bold print aloud to the participant. Please read all information as it is written. Interviewer instructions are in italic print these are for your use and should not be read aloud.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Please mark an
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X X in the box that corresponds to the reply by the participant. Note that some questions have multiple responses possible. Please mark an X in the box next to each reply. Do not read the list of possible responses to the participant, unless noted in the instructions for a specific question. If someone replies "I don't know" this should be the only response indicated. For the "Other" responses, mark an X in the box and then write the response on the line provided. Please record participants' comments as directly and carefully as possible. At this time, mark start time of interview below and then proceed with the interview.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Endagiiiiro
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Ekigaaniiro eki kitakaatandikwa otakatungire okwikiriza kw'orikugarukamu ebibuuzo. Banza waayaturira orikugarukamu ebibuuzo byona n'ebyokushoboorora ebihandilkire omuri bwino ekwasire. Nitukushaba ngu oshome ebibuuzo byona n'ebyokushoboorora nk'oku biri. Endagiiiiro z'orikubuиza zihandiikire omu bunyuguta bukye - ebyo n'ebyawe kukoresa, otakaabishomera orikubuuzibwa ('yagarukamu?). Ijuka ngu ebibuuzo ebimwe biine ebyokugarukamu by'emiringo mingi. Nitukushaba ngu oyorekye n'akabonero ka X buri kyagarukwamu kyona. Otakaashomera ou orikubuиza eby'okugarukamu ebi arikubaasa kweyambisa kwihaho baaba baakikuragiira omu ndagiiriro y 'ekibuuzo ekyo kyonyini. Omuntu yaagarukamu ati: "Tindikumanya" kibe eky'okugarukamu kyonka eki oraayorekye. Ku araagarukemu "Ekindi", yoreka akabonero ka X omu kashanduuko akari omumaisho g'ekyo ky'okugarukwamu, reeru ohandiikye eki yaagamba kyonyini aha runyerere ru baakuha. Nitukushaba ngu ohandiikye eki baakugarukamu nk'oku baakigamba kwonyini. Orikugarukamu ebibuuzo yaagira eki yaarengyeza, kihandiikye kurungi n'obwegyendesereza bwingi. Mbwenu hati handiika obwire bwonyini obu waatandikiraho ekigaaniiro kyawe. Source: Edith Natukunda-Togboa & Allen Asiimwe: ACCLAIM Men's Questionnaire Translated Oct 3-2012 In the expressive text which favours creative composition, one would check to see whether the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST has been transmitted. In an operative text, the translation should create an equivalent of a behavioural response. The audio-medial texts require a "supplementary method"; that is supplementing adequately with visual images, sound, music and action. In the words of Munday (2001, p. 16), "the text type approach moved translation theory beyond the effect they create among the readers; going towards the consideration of the communicative purpose of translation". Nord (2007, p. 8) goes on to add that translation, under this perspective is uplifted "to a form of mediated intercultural communication".
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Socio-linguistic Theories
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These theories, according to As-Safi (2011), endeavour to link translation to the communicative theory and the information theory with a special emphasis on the receptor's role in the translation process. We hasten to add that the sociolinguistic theories do not disband language structures, but rather, deal with them at a higher level, in accordance to their functions in the communication process. These structures may include rhetorical devices, or figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, irony, hyperbole, etc. These theories require the translator to exhibit a high level of language performance.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Interpretative Theory
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The interpretative theory is also known as the theory of sense and is part of the socio-linguistic theories. Originally, it was designed to reflect the process involved in conference interpretation. The proponents of this theory argue that: ... interpreters do not work merely with linguistic meaning, but also need to take into account such factors as the cognitive context of what has already been said, the setting in which the interpreting is taking place and the interpreter's own world knowledge" (Lavault, 1966, cited in Shuttlewoth & Cowrie, 2007, p. 85). The focus, in this case of interpretation, is on the intended meaning, or the sense, than the words of the speaker on the floor, which is the oral source text. We note also that the target text that is relayed to the receptor in the interpretation process is also in the oral form.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Systems Theory
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It promotes a general model for understanding, analysing and describing the functioning and evolution of literary systems with special emphasis on the study of translated literature. Followers of this theory give priority to the requirements of the target language, stressing readability and accessibility, employing a pleasant and easy style. An example of the systems' theory is Baker's polysystem theory.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Manipulation Theory
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This is also associated with the translation of literature. According to Hermans, under this theory, translation implies a degree of manipulation of the ST for a certain purpose, because its process aligns "the target text (TT) with a particular model which should secure social acceptance in the target culture. This theory is descriptive, target oriented, functional and systemic" (Hermans 1985, p. 11). In contrast to the linguistic theories, this one approaches translation not as science, but rather as an art which permits manipulation rather than rigid equivalences. Accordingly, translation is deemed a "re-writing process and the translator a re-writer who can alter or manipulate the ST in such a way as to be acceptable in the target language and culture" (As-Safi, 2011, p. 41).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Aesthetic Communication Theory
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This theory propounds the creativity-orientation, especially for literature, which is essentially an aesthetic communication between the translator and the target reader. This theory caters for the arousing of the reader's suspense, interest and pleasure. To this end, according to As-Safi, "it employs fore-grounded structure, a highly elevated style and literary diction" (Steiner, 1975, in As-Safi, 2011, pp. 297-413).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Relevancy Theory
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This is associated with pragmatics which deals with the use of language in communication. More specifically, it deals with the way meaning is conveyed and manipulated by the participants in a communicative situation. In other words, pragmatics deals with the speaker's meaning and the way it is interpreted by the hearers through what is known as "implicature". The theory emphasizes "the interpretative use of language as distinct from the descriptive use" (Palumbo, 2009, cited by Allot 2003, p. 51). Baker (2005), points out that human communication is based on the ability of human beings to infer what is meant that may be accounted for through the principle of relevance, defined as achieving maximum benefit at minimum processing cost. The relevance theory tries to account for the way the information processing faculties of the mind enable us to communicate with one another. "Its domain is therefore with the mental faculties rather than texts or processes of text production" (Gutt, 2000, p. 21). From the foregoing, one can observe that each translation theory has its way of trying to balance the semantic content and the literary values of the original text. They represent sets of options for assessing whether the right word was chosen or the appropriate modification was effected. The correct application of these theories on Runyakitara consists of mastering the art of choosing the appropriate set of options available for a multi-dimensional assessment of the processes and product of translation.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Translation and Interpretation Strategies
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The preceding sections dealt with the theoretical base of translation and how it has evolved with the science of language and communication. This section links the science and art of translation to the strategies adopted for the different text types. From the onset, it is noted that some scholars of interpretation refer to strategies as techniques or methods of translation. In this chapter, a strategy of translation is considered like a procedure that helps to solve a problem encountered in translating a text or its segment (Baker, 2005). There are local strategies which deal with text segments and global ones which deal with whole texts. In both cases, when one is translating, a strategy or technique needs to be selected to tap into the translator's background knowledge, his/her awareness of the register, content, the relevant linguistic conventions and his/her mastery of the language. Below are some strategies that can be used for tackling different text types or dealing with a specific function/purpose of translation.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Domestication Strategy
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It is also known as "normalisation [or] naturalisation strategy". It is useful in "bridging gaps and achieving intelligibility in line with the hermeneutic approach which focuses on interpretation and grants the translator the right to manipulate the text so as to make it natural, comprehensible and readable" (Steiner, 1975, in As-Safi, 2011, pp. 297-413). The original text is subjected to an adaptation so as to be re-cast and made compliant with the target linguistic and cultural conventions and to accomplish the purpose of translation. This strategy is often adopted by liberal translators as seen in the following translation of proverbs from Runyankore: Tingasiga tasiga ntoni The drunkard never misses hard fist knocks (Interpretation: If you keep going to every bar where alcohol is, you will not miss getting a hard fist knock because where alcohol is, the chances of fighting are high). Mpora mpora ekahisya oтиnyongororwa aha iziba Slow steps led the earthworm to the well (Interpretation: Hard tasks are accomplished by taking the first step) (Source: Africansoulmag.com Accessed on 12/12/2013) The translator has accompanied the proverb with an interpretation that is readily understandable by a contemporary foreign audience.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Compensation Strategy
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This concerns the technique of making up for the translation loss of significant features of the source text (ST) by approximating and supplementing their effects in the target text (TT) (Hervey & Higgins, 1992). In many legal, political, scientific and technical texts where translation loss is anticipated, compensation has been frequently utilised to make up for that loss. In the texts that have translated the analysis of the Rwanda genocide, for instance Taylor (1999), although the direct meaning of "interahamwe" was known to be "those who work together", the terminology has been left in Kinyarwanda, with a supplement of "Interahamwe militia" to give the political connotation of their military orientation.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Elaboration and Explication Strategy
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In order to communicate the message in the ST when the translator cannot find the exact equivalence, she or he may resort to the elaboration or explanation of the segment (As-Sifa, 2011). Such explications have been used for similes, metaphors and technical terminologies, as shown below: Preterm labour (after 20 weeks, but before 37 weeks), □ □ (2) Kutandika kurumwa obwire butakahikire (bwanyima y'esande 20 - kwonka atakahikize esande 37) □ □ (2) Examples: Pre (eclampsia/eclampsia, (convulsions, severe headache, blurred vision, loss of consciousness).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Approximation and Compromise Strategy
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This strategy tries to create a balance between the SL aesthetic and cultural values which are acceptable or unacceptable in the TL. The difficulty with discretional approximation though has achieved "an equilibrium whereby the original aesthetic flavour is transferred into English without hindering genuine comprehension or producing something that can be rejected as totally un-English" (As-Safi, 2011). Many terms referring to cultural-bound values and practices of the Banyakitara have been approximated to equivalents which are accepted as natural" in English but do not exactly transfer the same meaning to the English speaking Munyakitara. Terms like "Omufumu" who should have been a "spiritual healer" was approximated to "diviner" or at worst "witchdoctor" and "okurunga" equated with "spicing" when it actually does not involve putting any of the modern spices in the food.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Equation and Substitution
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Using the words of Malone (2013), "the most obvious form of equation is that of the loan word, where equality would seem absolute". We now talk of going on "safari" using the "kompyuta" in Runyakitara and putting on "Busuti" like the Baganda and when you visit an Atesot friend you will drink their brew "ajono" and play "omweso". These events, dresses, foods, and sports have now become a familiar part of our daily life because of intercultural living and social proximity. However, Malone (2013, p. 1) warns, that " … … the term will not conjure up the same association as it does in the source language"... The second form of equation is provided by the "calque", where the target language adapts the source language term to its own morpho-phonological framework. The Runyankore "okupaminga" term for "perming hair" or "kalituusi" for eucalyptus have been accepted as common usage. Another example is the shout of acclaim "Encore!" from French in musical concerts in Uganda, which is dressed to cover the complexities of gender, plural and politeness markers that would otherwise be needed if another translation strategy was chosen for requesting a repeat. One of the most common risks associated with the word-for-word equation is that of false cognates (false friends), where the meanings of deceptively similar terms do not match across languages. The classic examples in Runyakore and Luganda are okushitama/okusitama, [sitting down/squatting] and kokareebe/koboine [it serves you right/what a pity] in Runyankore and Rutooro. To return to Malone's (2013) terminology, the antithesis of equation is substitution, adopted when there is no direct equivalence. For example, at a purely grammatical level, the Rutooro prepositional phrase replaces (substitutes) the English genitive: "Acts of the Apostles'" will be translated as Engeso z'Abakwenda. At a more semantic level, the proverb Atariho tagwerwa muti, in French is replaced by Les retardatires mangent les os [Literally: Late comers eat bones]. At the beginning of the Walt Disney Pictures version of 'Alice in Wonderland' (1951), Alice is given a song to sing, 'all about cats and rabbits'. If the film was to be done and Alice was to sing in Runyakitara, another simple and silly song would be chosen. The reasons for such changes are not merely linguistic or merely cultural relocation, but linguistic fidelity that can be rejected in the interest of a greater good, for the entertainment of children (Malone, 2013).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Divergence and Convergence
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The strategy of divergence focuses on choosing a suitable term from a potential range of alternatives. "A road" in Runyankore could be rendered by omuhanda, or oruguudo; while "to take" can be translated as "okutwara" or "okwihaho". Divergence represents a relationship of one-to-many. "Okuhindura", for instance, could mean to change, to exchange, to turn, or even, to translate. Where there is a whole set of possibilities, the translator's aim is to make the right choice. Convergence, on the other hand, represents a relationship of many-to-one. It is the opposite of Divergence. We could cite the case of French pronouns "Tu, Te, Toi, Vous" that all would converge into "You" when translating into English.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Amplification and Reduction
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Amplification requires the translator to add some element to the source text so as to improve comprehensibility. The most frequent form of amplification is the translator's note, be it in form of an endnote, or footnote or a parenthesis following the item in question. Sometimes, a single lexical item in one language needs a 'collocational' partner in the other. Certain components may be cultural, semantic, linguistic, or a mixture of all. The amplification device is also found in technical translation in order to aid comprehension. Reduction, as the term suggests, consists of omitting elements in a target text because they are redundant or even misleading. Thus, the 'blackboard' in Runyankore becomes merely orubaaho and a 'folktale' is ekigano.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Diffusion and Condensation
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A source text item is expanded without adding any extra layer of meaning, that is, it provides more or less elaboration in the target language. In Runyankore, a sentence which ends with shinta expresses a lot of doubt or fear or mistrust in the person who is the subject. Yaagira ngu naabireeta! shinta! He said he will bring them! I highly doubt it. In the case of condensation, a source text is contracted without omitting any layer of meaning (Melone, 2013). The target text expression should linguistically be more economic. Ekintu ky'omuhendo gw'ahansi = cheap
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Kushara emihendo
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= = Sale In the other direction, prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs are typical of this phenomenon: To do make up = okwesiiga To make up your mind = okusharaho To be obliged to have recourse to = = okuharirizibwa
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Re-ordering
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The strategy of re-ordering, is within the field of comparative syntax. At its simplest, it requires the translator to operate basic inversion procedures with, for example, the adjective-noun sequences: white horse / embaraasi erikwera, and the verb-object positioning: Ninkukunda / I love you. Set collocations of two or more items exist in both languages: okufa n'okukira / life and death; ekiine ebirikwera n'okwiragura/ black and white; ahagati y'amaino ga rufu n'ekituuro / (between) the devil and the grave. The foregoing examples indicate how such pairings can sometimes match perfectly or match partly but belong very definitely in the same semantic field, and match perfectly but in an inverted form. The very frequent use of the passive voice in English creates another need for re-ordering in translating into Runyakitara since it has: its own identical passive forms; e.g., Abantu boona nibamukunda / He is loved by everyone; an active form using verbs with impersonal agents whose nominal or pronominal identity never appears; e.g. Tibakakingambiraga I have never been told that/They have never told it to me.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: He is being interrogated
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= = Bariyo nibamubuиza With all these observations on strategies in mind, it becomes clear that a thorough mastery of the lexico-grammar of the source language and the target language is indispensable for a translator.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Interpreting Strategies
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In the preceding sections we have been looking at translation as a means of transferring values and the creation of equivalents through the written text. Interpretation deals with a similar process and product but orally. The two terms, are NOT interchangeable, as the general public tends to suggest. Interpretation is much more demanding than translation in terms of competences required. The major requirements for a competent translator could be summarised as the mastery of SL and TL, thorough knowledge of source and target cultures, familiarity with the topic/register, vocabulary wealth, and awareness of the three-phase process: SL decoding, trans-coding or SL-TL transfer, and TL encoding (As-Safi, 2011). Simultaneous interpreting, on the other hand, requires at least five more skills: short-term memory for storage and retrieval, acquaintance with prosodic features and different accents, quick thinking and paying full attention, and self-composure. For consecutive interpretation which is done segment by segment, with pauses in between, the interpreter requires in addition, the knowledge of shorthand writing skills.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Compensation Strategy in Interpreting
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Unlike the translator who enjoys the availability of time and resources, the interpreter has to work rapidly so as to keep up with the natural speaking speed of the floor language (speech of the orator), working out the sense equivalent and listening. The maximum acceptable relay-delay is 30 seconds after the floor language. The interpreter is therefore, often obliged to resort to compensation strategies in order to ease the burdens of constraint, achieve a smooth performance, maintain a fluidity of ideas and improve the pace of delivery. In this speech where the orator was making a list of the agricultural products of Mali, the interpreter compensated for the last item as it was unfamiliar to the Ugandan audience: .... les arachides, le mais, les haricots, le millet, et noix d'acajous .... groundnuts, maize, beans, rice, millet and other grain crops.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Syntactic Modification Strategy
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To eliminate or reduce delays and to counter the risk of lagging behind the SL speaker, the interpreter starts simultaneously uttering before he perceives the whole idea. This entails carrying out certain syntactic adjustments. For example, in interpreting from English into Runyankore, the interpreter can start the sentence with the subject, add a nominal clause to attribute the action and end with a verbal phrase. By doing so, she/he could reduce the time required to wait until the speaker utters the verb that might follow a long noun phrase with sometimes embedded phrases and clauses. For example: "The Ministers of Foreign Affairs of IGADD are gathered in Juba in negotiations to convince the warring factions in South Sudan to stop fighting and hold a national dialogue" (BBC World Service, Focus on Africa, 19 th th Dec 2013). "Nk'oku okurwana omuri Sudan Ey'Omumashuuma kuriyo nikweyongyera, ba Minista b'Enshonga ez'Aheeru ab' Ekigombe ky'Ebyentunguuka n'Okwerinda Ekyanda (IGADD), hati bari omu rukiiko Juba kuteesa n'abeebembezi b'Ebibiina ebirikurwanirira okurekyera aho orutaro reeru bakaza omu kigaaniro ky'okukoragana omuri eryo ihanga" (Translated by Natukunda-Togboa, 19-12-2013).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Segmenting and Chunking Strategy
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The interpreter can resort to this strategy when the SL speaker utters a lengthy sentence which has to be 'sliced' into sense-units so as to cope with the short-term memory (As-Safi, 2011). Conversely, she/he may combine short sentences into a compound one for coherence in delivery.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Lining-up or Queuing Strategy
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In order to reduce the constraint of time-lag, the interpreter may delay rendering a less significant information segment amidst a heavy load period of piled up information and then catch up in any lulls that occur later. It should be noted however, that the delayed segment may not be cohesively compatible with the flow of delivery and may thus disrupt the thematic progression (El-Shiyab & Hussien, 2000).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Calquing Strategy
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This is another strategy used to mitigate the effects of time constraints and to avert any anticipated lexical difficulty. The interpreter may imitate the SL lexical patterns and collocations and hence produce a literal, 'verbatim' rendition. An example of this is when frequently African proverbs and sayings are introduced 'verbatim' in political speeches: Nimbagambira nti, "Akati kainikwa kakiri kato". I am telling you, "a tree is bent when it is still young".
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Paraphrasing Strategy
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Conversely, the interpreter may resort to paraphrase in encountering a SL culturespecificity, hence it may be rightly called "Exegetic Strategy". For the same sentence above she/he may choose to say: Indeed, "a tree is trimmed at an early age".
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Approximation Strategy
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Due to speed constraint, when the interpreter does not find a direct TL equivalent or fails to remember it, she/he can produce an alternative that has common semantic features. For instance, opium poppy could be approximated to "enjaayi" (marijuana).
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Borrowing Strategy
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To cope with the speaker and maintain a rapid pace of delivery, the interpreter may have recourse to loan words through transliteration. Most frequently, this is done for technical terms like video, stadium, cinema, IGADD, UNESCO, boda-boda.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Ellipsis Strategy
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This is an economising strategy where some SL words are deleted when they are believed to be superfluous, repetitive or redundant, e.g. (I will) see you later. (If) God (is) willing. (May you) travel safely. All the strategies of interpretation that we have analysed arise directly from the constraints encountered in the interpretation process itself. It is essential for aspiring practitioners to understand the theoretical explanations in order to avoid making the same mistakes as their predecessors in practice. When teaching, the lecturer/instructor can actually pick and demonstrate strategies that can be used to overcome syntactic and semantic constraints, those for solving phonological, prosodic and phatic problems, and those to tackle paralinguistic and psychological constraints like tract and stage fear. In general, however, constant detailed reading assists the interpreter to familiarise with content and register, and to deal with the preliminary linguistic constraints. Other issues concerning accents, intonation, pitch, rhythm and tempo get to be solved as the practionner gets more accustomed to the profession. Indeed, as As-Safi (2011, p. 39) rightly observes, in the final analysis "translating/interpreting is an intercultural communication act that requires bicultural competence".
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Audio-Visual Translation
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I have decided to end this chapter with a section on audio-visual translation because it seems to me to be a new area that is technically located midway between translation and interpretation. Yet it is a field which is attracting a lot of media attention as it is a fashionable channel of popularising Runyakitara using the new digital technologies and social-media networks. The advent of digital technology, especially the mass production of DVDs in Third World Countries like Uganda, has meant an increase in films, television programmes which are mostly in English, frequently with subtitles. But there are increasingly those with a diagonal (different language) sub-titling including Runyakitara. In addition, the term used for the interpretation played over the DVD orally, is "dubbing" (Ghaemi & Benyamin, 2010). Both these processes are combined under the category of screen or audio-visual translation (AVT). Screen translation, a translation method which makes use of the acoustic channels, as recognised by Baker and Hochel (1998, p. 74) has undergone a lot of rapid growth over the last two decades. This is certainly linked to the fact that it is the quickest and most economical strategy of translation and interpretation. Subtitling is defined as "supplementing the original sound track with another voice, in another language". Similarly, audio-visual transfer denotes "the process by which a film or television programme is made comprehensible to a target audience who is unfamiliar with the original source" (Ghaemi & Benyamin, 2010, p. 40). Technically therefore, these are processes which involve literary and figurative translation and interpretation. According to Gottlieb (1998 cited in Schwarz 2003, pp. 5-6), a subtitler is faced with formal (quantitative) and textual (qualitative) constraints: "textual constraints are those imposed on the subtitles by the visual context of the film, whereas formal constraints are the space factors (a maximum of 2 lines and 35 characters) and the time factor". Schwarz (2003, p. 5) goes on to add that "the main problem in subtitling is caused by the difference between the speed of the spoken language and the speed in reading; both require a reduction of the text." In terms of benefits, scholars have demonstrated that, there are some advantages for watching subtitled language programmes. First, watching subtitled programmes fosters the practice of the language of the screen translation or interpretation. Secondly, such programmes can improve reading skills, in this case in Runyakitara. However, these benefits only apply if the subtitles meet the quality requirements. Pushing further Gottlieb's findings (2004), one can deduce that interlingual subtitling, which encompasses societal and language-political implications, is instrumental in improving reading skills, boosting language competences, facilitating easy and cheap intercultural exchange. Gottlieb goes on to propose the following translation strategies for subtitling films: Expansion is used when the original text requires an explanation because of some cultural nuance not retrievable in the target language. Paraphrase is resorted to in cases where the phraseology of the original cannot be reconstructed in the same syntactic way in the target language. Transfer refers to the strategy of translating the source text completely and accurately. Imitation maintains the same forms, typically with names of people and places. Transcription is used in those cases where a term is unusual even in the source text, for example, the use of a third language or nonsense language. Dislocation is adopted when the original employs some sort of special effect, e.g., a silly song in a cartoon film where the translation of the effect is more important than the content. Condensation would seem to be the typical strategy used, that is, the shortening of the text in the least obtrusive way possible. Decimation is an extreme form of condensation where perhaps for reasons of discourse speed, even potentially important elements are omitted. Deletion refers to the total elimination of parts of a text. Resignation describes the strategy adopted when no translation solution can be found and meaning is inevitably lost (Ghaemi & Benyamin, 2010). The most important challenge regarding subtitling in countries like Uganda, is the "lack of responsible institutions and educated professional subtitlers at work" (Ghaemi & Benyamin, 2010, p. 39). Secondly, most DVDs are subtitled using special software intended to exclude human interference. In situations where the technology is well developed, the quality of the translation is good. But in Uganda, where the subtitling in Runyakitara is mostly effected on pirated DVDs, using back street make-shift "studios", there is hardly any standard to be respected. Our interest in the present publication is to call on universities and other tertiary institutions to include the study of subtitling in translation and interpretation studies, so that professionals can be trained for such work. Educated subtitlers will not come into the realm of film, music and entertainment industry as long as screen translators and interpreters remain in the backstreet shadows hiding from law enforcement agents. They need to be recognized for their creative contribution to the image and sound productions and to be included in the curriculum of translation and interpretation studies.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Conclusion
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In conclusion to this chapter, we can observe that theoretical discussions on translation and interpretation are important because they widen the practitioners' and learners' 'perspective' for the use of systematic strategies in the translation and interpretation of texts. In terms of linking theory to practice in this chapter, the insights of Bassnett (2002) seem to be still pertinent to our conclusion: "To divorce theory from practice, to set the scholar against the practitioner as happened in other disciplines, would be tragic indeed" (Bassnett, 2002, p. 17). In this chapter we have tried to show that in the history of the discipline, the different theories that have been advanced and the strategies that have been proposed are crucial to training in translation and interpretation in Runyakitara. In the chapter, we have also illustrated how new areas in the discipline, like audio-visual translation and screen interpretation, which hitherto have not received serious attention, can bring forth economic, linguistic and socio-cultural benefits if they are promoted and formally incorporated in translation and interpretation studies.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: References
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Allot, N. (2003). Key terms in pragmatics. Retrieved from http//www.scribid.com/doc/305592132/key-terms-in-pragmatics As-Safi, A. B. (2011). Translation theories: Strategies and basic theoretical issues. Jordan: University of Petra. Baker, M., & Malmkjčr, K. (Eds.). (1998). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. Amsterdam & Pihiadelpia: Routledge. Bandia, P. F. (1993). Translation as culture transfer: Evidence from African creative writing. TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction, 6(2), 55-78. Bassnett, S. (2002). Translation studies (Rev. Edn.). London: Routledge. Bell, R. T. (1991). Translation and translating: Theory and practice. New York: Longman. Ghaemi, F. & Benyamin, J. (2010). Strategies used in the translation of interlingual subtitling. Journal of English Studies, 1(1), 39-49. Gottlieb, H. (1992). Subtitling: A new university discipline. In C. Dollerup, & A. Loddegaard (Eds.). Teaching translation and interpreting: training, talent, and experience (Vol. 5) (pp. 161-70). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Gottlieb, H. (2004). Language-political implications of subtitling. In P. Orero (Ed.). (2004). Topics in audiovisual translation (pp. 83-100). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Gutt, E. A. (2014). Translation relevance: Cognition and context. London & New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Hermans (1985). Full text of "System Theories". Retrieved from http//archive.org/stream/system Theories/system%20 theories.djvu.txt. Hervey, S. & Higgins, I. (1992). Thinking translation: A course in translation method: French-English. London: Routledge. Kelly, N., DePalma, D. A., & Vijayalaxmi, H. (2012). The need for translation in Africa. Massachusetts: Common Sense Advisory Inc. Lapajian, B. (2010). Translation, language and fiction publishing in Africa: The case of Uganda (MA Thesis, Utrecht University). Lavault, E. (1966) cited, in Shuttleworth, M. & Cowie, M. (2014). Dictionary of Translation Studies. New York: Routledge. Malone, S. (2013). Malone's translation strategies. Retrieved from http//:www.scribid.com/document/379899775/malone-s-translation strategies. Munday, J. (2001). Introducing translational studies: Theories and applications. London: Routledge. Natukunda, E. & Asiimwe, A. (2012a). ACCLAIM Men's Questionnaire. Translated 3rd October 2012. Natukunda, E. & Asiimwe, A. (2012b). ACCLAIM Women's Questionnaire Translated Oct-01-2012. Nida, E. A. (1976). A framework for the analysis and evaluation of theories of translation. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.). (1976). Translation (pp. 66-79). New York: Garden Press. Nida, E. & Taber, C. (1969). The theory and practice of translation. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Nord, C. (2007). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Palumbo, G. (2009). Key terms in translation studies. London: Continuum. Schwarz, B. (2003). Translation in a confined space: Film sub-titling with special reference to Dennis Potter's 'Lipstick on Your Collar' (part 2). Translation Journal, 7(1). Retrieved from http://accurapid.com/journal/23subtitles.htm. Shuttleworth, M. & Moiro, C. (2007). Dictionary of translation studies. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation, 1992-538. London: Oxford University Press. Taylor, C. (1999). Sacrifice as terror: The Rwandan genocide of 1994. Oxford: Berg Publication.
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Footnotes
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3 3 The fifth period was added by the author of this chapter. ↩
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Chapter 8
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THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF RUNYAKITARA Gilbert Gumoshabe & Oswald Ndoleriire
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Introduction
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Orthography is a set of rules or conventions put in place to prescribe how a language should be written. In other words, orthography is the system of representing the sounds of words by written symbols (Fromkin et al., 2003). The rules include how words that are in a spoken form should be spelt, punctuated and capitalized. Runyakitara, like any other human language, manifests itself in two forms: spoken and written. In the opinion of Fromkin and his colleagues (2003), these two forms are distinct in the following ways: The spoken language is the natural form of language while the written language is artificial. By referring to the spoken language as being natural, it means that it is innate (inborn) to human beings because when a child is exposed to it, that child will have the ability to communicate in that spoken medium. There is therefore, no teacher or instructor required to teach a child his/her mother tongue. On the other hand, written language is artificial because those who know it have to learn it in order to communicate using it. Written language is therefore, an invention of man that helps him to store information and disseminate it. Secondly, written language is not the original form of language. This is because it is a representation of the spoken form where human vocal symbols made by speech organs are represented on a piece of paper by graphic symbols. Because of that, it is impossible to find a written language which is not spoken, although it is possible to find a spoken language that is not written, especially if that language's orthography has not been developed. Thirdly, although a written language changes over time because the process of change is very slow, the spoken language easily changes. The written form of language is more conservative and resistant to change than the spoken form. Therefore, a written word is not only more permanent than a spoken one but is also rarely subjected to linguistic changes. Fourthly, in a written language, the user has a relatively wider range of graphic symbols which she/he uses. For example, there are more than 12 vowel sounds that are represented by only five vowels; a, e, i, o, and u. Written language is also uniform with all varieties of dialects of a language; for example, while the American English pronunciation is different from that of the British, the two forms do not significantly differ in spelling. This is not the case with the spoken form. Finally, spoken language cannot be informative per se mainly due to repetitions. This is because the spoken language does not have to follow the rules of grammar while the written language follows the rules as specified.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Principles of a good orthography
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Fromkin et al. (2003) explain different principles that make a good orthography. The first principle explains that a good writing system should accurately reflect the sound system of a language. It must be based on thorough analysis of the sounds of that language. It is not possible to make an accurate orthography without first analysing the sounds of that language. All contrastive sounds in a language should be represented and non-contrastive variations should not be represented. When the system is inaccurate, the reader is faced with a problem of guessing the meaning of the word. The orthography of Runyakitara has followed this principle as most sounds are represented by one symbol. The problem is on homonyms where more than two words are represented by one sound. A good orthography of a language should be consistent; there should be no contradictions within the system. This means that: a) The same sound should be represented by the same symbol. b) The symbol should never represent anything else except that sound. c) There should be no silent letters or letters that are without function. This is one of the principles that Runyakitara orthography adhered to. There are no two sounds that are represented by the same symbol The third principle is that a good orthography should be convenient to the extent that it is easy to write and symbols are easy to make. The symbols are also easy to print and type. Another principle of a good orthography is that it should conform to the orthography of the other languages in the region. It is not good for the orthography of a language to differ much with that of its neighbours. In the case of Runyakitara, the orthography conforms to all the neighbouring languages as they all use alphabetic writing system. The last principle of a good orthography is that it should be acceptable to the people who are going to use it. Often, people have strong opinions especially if there has already been an older orthography in use. Time must be taken to consult local opinion and to explain carefully the reasons for any proposed change. This was done in 1954 where disagreements emerged and Runyoro-Rutooro ended up writing their own and another conference was organised for Runyankore-Rukiga that got her orthography in 1964.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: The Need for Writing Uganda Indigenous Languages
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The history of writing dates as far back as 3000 BC when the Egyptians developed hieroglyphic writing for recording events in their lives. Although many languages all over the world have been written, there are still many African languages are not yet written. In Uganda, there are about 15 languages that are not yet written. The main question is, why do we need to write our languages? There are several reasons for that. These include the following:
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Preservation of Information
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For many traditional societies, the major form of transmission and preservation of information is by word of mouth (oral transmission). However, this method has proved very inadequate because as the information is passed from one source to another, it undergoes considerable transformations. In some instances, more information is added while in others, it is reduced or adulterated. Consequently, by the time the message gets to the intended recipient, it is no longer in its original form. Furthermore, for purposes of preservation of information, sometimes the only source of information might die without leaving any recording of his or her knowledge behind. Such occurrences confirm the West African saying that "when an elder dies, a library burns". Therefore, with such poor record-keeping methods, it is imperative that we write our languages.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Coverage
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Whereas the word of mouth needs face-to-face interaction and can only serve those people who are physically present, the written word can even be received by those who are not physically present. True, with modern technology, tape-recorded information and radio transmissions can cover a wider distance but given our Ugandan standard of living, few people can afford to buy radios and maintain their running as well. Furthermore, the radio has a schedule which the listener must follow. If he tunes at a wrong time, he/she will miss the programme. Yet with written material, it can be read at the recipient's will and can be referred to anytime one wants.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Education
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The most important factor with written materials is that people can be availed with education materials which can help them improve their lives. These written materials are of various disciplines and can be used for both academic and non-academic purposes, and may remain relevant for a long time. For instance, books on hygiene that were written in 1935 by the White Fathers Mission are still relevant and can be utilized to date to educate people on how they can improve their hygiene. With the availability of written materials in various fields in Ugandan indigenous languages, Ugandans can understand developmental issues better and participate meaningfully in their governance. For example, the provision of HIV prevention information in the local languages has created substantial awareness about HIV prevention and transmission among Ugandans.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Preservation of a language
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A language can best be preserved if it is written. When a language is unwritten, many indigenous words are lost while it is not easy to document words that have been incorporated. It is difficult to preserve a language in its oral form.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Cultural preservation
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Culture can best be preserved if it is written. Norms, roles, sanctions, beliefs and customs are easy to pass on from one generation to another if the culture of a specified language is written. However, with the ever-increasing socio-economic changes, it is easy to lose important components of culture, if it is not documented.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: It should be noted that at the end of the
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19th 19 th
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Century and during the early years of the
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20th 20 th Century, practically all the indigenous reading materials available in Uganda were in Luganda. At that time, it was even thought that Luganda would be the major language of communication and instruction throughout the region. However, the reality was that very few people understood Luganda in the whole of Western Uganda at that time. Furthermore, with the consolidation of the reinstated monarchy in Tooro (reinstated by the British in 1891) and the rise of nationalism in both Tooro and Bunyoro, it was felt more and more that Luganda should be replaced by Rutooro and Runyoro as the major language for communication in the two kingdoms respectively. The writing of Runyakitara (Rubongoya, 1965), started with the Runyoro-Rutooro dialects before it spread to Runyankore-Rukiga. The Protestant Missionaries of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) spearheaded the writing of our languages in Tooro. The first version of the New Testament was translated into Rutooro by the missionary H. E. Maddox during the early years of evangelisation, around 1900. The same author produced the first grammar of the language in 1902 called An Elementary Lunyoro Grammar which was based on the Runyamwenge (essentially using the Runyamwenge sub-dialect of Rutooro). The year 1913 was very important in the history of Runyakitara when Maddox produced the full bible translated in Rutooro, also based on Runyamwenge dialect. The first bible was used in the whole of Western Region and some areas of the present-day Democratic Republic of Congo. Other books were subsequently written by both the CMS missionaries and the RCM (Roman Catholic Missionaries) but were generally in the Runyamwenge subdialect. These included the well-known Grammar Ey'Orunyoro by the Rev. Fr. A. Caumartin which is still of much value up to this day. Books and manuals produced at this time were usually for schools or for religious purposes. Some written work also appeared during the early years in Runyankore, e.g Omuntu na Hygiene published by the White Fathers Mission, Mbarara in 1935 and was intended for primary schools. The full translated version of the bible in RunyankoreRukiga came out in the 1950s.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Efforts to Standardise the Orthography of Runyakitara
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It was, according to Rubongoya (1965), R. A. Snoxall, the then Acting Director of Education, who in 1946, after consultations with A. N. Tucker, an expert on Bantu languages at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London, who decided to introduce a new orthography. After discussions with missionaries and other educators in Buganda, the new orthography was adopted for Luganda. That very year, 1946, Snoxall organised another conference for the Western Region at Virika, Fort Portal, to discuss a standard orthography for the Runyoro language. It is in this conference that the representatives of Ankore and Kigezi stated categorically that their language was different from Runyoro and that accepting this new orthography would bring about the demise of their language which was already developing written materials. They added that the people in their areas were not prepared to read any book or newspaper written in Runyoro. According to Taylor (1960), the Virika Conference therefore, broke up without any decision being taken on the new orthography. However, from this period, as Betungura (1960) notes, Runyankore continued developing and came up with the first Runyankore-Rukiga orthography in a conference at Mbarara in 1954. This conference was chaired by Prof. A. N. Tucker and the secretary was K. S. M. Kikira. Thereafter, the colonial authorities started recognizing its importance in Ankore and Kigezi. In 1947 for instance, the Education Department of the Uganda Colonial Government authorized the use of Runyankore as a medium of instruction in Primary 1 and 2 in Ankore and Kigezi. This policy was clearly stated in the 1948 Education Report which recognized six vernaculars as media of instruction in Primary School. These were: Luganda, Lunyoro, Luo, Ateso, Lugbara and Swahili. The Education Report (1948) further explains that the limited production of literature made it clear that no further vernaculars can justify a claim to be regarded as media throughout the primary school system, but noted that the use of Runyankore dialect of Runyoro had been conceded for the first two years of primary school in Ankore, and would continue to be used only up to that level until when there would be sufficient materials written in Runyankore. This policy remained valid until the Castle Report of 1963 when RunyankoreRukiga was recognized as one of the six major vernaculars to be used in the school system (Swahili had ceased being recognized as a vernacular in Uganda in 1956). By this time, Runyankore-Rukiga had developed considerably and by the 1970s, it was somewhat in better position than Runyoro-Rutooro. After the break-up of the Virika meeting of 1946, the Banyoro and Batooro reconvened in Hoima in 1952 (six years later) to discuss again the problems of harmonizing the orthography, this time for Runyoro and Rutooro, which at this meeting had adopted the name Runyoro-Rutooro (rather than Runyoro) to cover the two dialects. At this meeting, the harmonization work involved such aspects as taking a common stand particularly concerning some of the symbols and signs used by the CMS missionaries and those used by the RCM. For instance, while CMS missionaries used the diacritic sign (-) to mark length on top of a vowel, the RCM (White Fathers) used (^) on top of the vowel. In accordance with the recommendations of the International African Institute, it was agreed that vowel length would be marked by two vowels. Some harmonization was also effected at the level of grammar to reflect the language usage of the Banyamwenge. We produce here some recommendations made at the Hoima meeting as reported by Rubongoya (1965). Many of the recommendations made in fact reflected both orthography and language (grammatical) usage. In the elaboration of standard orthographies, the authors were guided by the recommendations of the International Institute for African Languages and Culture which was formed in London in 1925. This later became The International African Institute. One of their pre-occupations was to elaborate workable orthographies in African languages. Because of the many sounds in African languages which did not exist in European languages, the tendency had been to utilise diacritical marks such as (, - - ^ .. : ) and many others on top, below or beside a given symbol so as to account for a given sound, e.g.: the (-) mark for the long vowel as seen earlier. For these orthographies to be workable, the Institute wanted, as much as possible, to have every sound represented by one symbol and to reduce to the minimum the use of diacritical signs or marks. Their work was somewhat simplified by what had already been done by the International Phonetic Association which was formed in Paris in 1886 and whose original name was L'Association Phonetique Internationale. This Association from its inception was made up of eminent linguists and phoneticians from various European countries such as Otto Jespensen from Denmark, Paul Passy from France (Ferender), and Henry Luncet from Britain. One of the major tasks of the Association was to identify all possible speech sounds as they exist in human languages. They then came out with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) where an effort was made to include as many of these sound symbols as they could imagine. The symbols used are basically Roman letters with a few from Greek. The International African Institute also made its own alphabet known as the International African Alphabet (IAA) to cater for sounds in African languages. Its authors borrowed heavily from the International Phonetic Alphabet although they made some modifications. For instance, whereas in the IPA, the palatal nasal is usually written as /n/, in the International African Alphabet it is written as /ny/. It is this latter alphabet that was the basis of the standardised orthographies of Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga. Meanwhile, the Banyankore and Bakiga who had broken away from the Runyoro-Rutooro orthography conference in 1946 organised their own orthography conference in Mbarara in 1954. The conference, which was attended by prominent writers and religious leaders from Ankole and Kigezi, was chaired by Professor A. N. Tucker. A report on standardisation of Runyankore-Rukiga orthography, which was being worked out after the breakup of the Virika Conference was presented in this conference, discussed and adopted with the necessary amendments and became the basis for the language's writing system. The rules of orthography adopted, according to Taylor (1960) were published with commendable speed and enabled the translation of the Bible to proceed. They also provided the writers with a stable and consistent orthography to write their texts. It was the basis for Taylor's A Teachers' Handbook of Runyankore-Rukiga orthography of 1960.
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Current Situation of the Orthography of Runyakitara
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The four dialects of Runyakitara (Runyankore-Rukiga and Runyoro-Rutooro) are being taught in the school curriculum at lower levels of primary education. Runyakitara is also being taught at secondary level as Runyoro-Rutooro and Runyankore-Rukiga but taught at University as Runyakitara, to produce language scholars and researchers. One of the areas that needs serious consideration is orthography, because a proper orthography of the language has not been reached despite several revisions. Currently, there are five official versions of the orthography of the language, namely: i) Runyankore-Rukiga Orthography (1960) by C. Taylor ii) Runyoro-Rutooro Orthography Rules (1963) by L. Rubongoya iii) Empandiika y'Orunyankore-Rukiga Egufuhazibwe (2005) by F. Karwemera iv) Runyoro-Rutooro Orthography (2002) by O. Ndoleriire et al. (Eds.) v) A Unified Standard Orthography of Runyakitara (2007) by O. Ndoleriire et al. While we may say that the five orthographies above are satisfactory to a certain extent, there is still need for more revisions for purposes of standardisation. The orthographical gap that still exists is mostly along dialectical differences and improper linguistic arguments. The main principle of Runyakitara orthography is that words are written the way they are pronounced or the way one hears them. The writing system adopted follows the principles of a good orthography that include accuracy. In this standardised orthography, all sounds are represented by symbols that do not leave any room for guesswork in pronunciation. The second principle followed is consistency where the same sound is represented by the same symbol with no silent letters. Convenience is the third principle that was followed. The symbols used to represent the sounds follow the alphabetic writing system. The fourth principle that was followed is conformity. The standardisation of this orthography ensured that it conforms to the orthography of other languages around the Runyakitara speaking area. The fifth principle is acceptability. Since the beginning of this writing system in 1954, it has been fully accepted by the users as required in linguistics. Following the linguistic requirements, what shall be considered as a unified standard Runyakitara orthography is as follows:
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grammar_instruction
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Explain the following grammar rule in Runyoro/Rutooro: Double Consonants
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(a) The voiced bilabial plosive The voiced bilabial plosive /b/ except when preceded by a nasal (nasal compound) is written as /bb/. In Runyankore-Rukiga, this usually occurs in loan and onomatopoeic words. The onomatopoeic words only exist in Runyoro-Rutooro as shown in the following examples: On the other hand, loan words take on /bb/ in Runyoro-Rutooro and RunyankoreRukiga as indicated in the examples below: In Runyoro-Rutooro a /b/ at the beginning of a sentence can sometimes be pronounced either as fricative or as plosive. But in this latter case, a single /b/ is used in spelling, for example: Baitu omwana araha? Banura agenzire. Binu bintu ki? Baraatugamba ki? Buganda okarugayo di? But where is the child? Banura has gone. What are these? What will they say about us? When did you leave Buganda? It is recommended that Runyankore-Rukiga adopts the same rule where onomatopoeic and loan words pronounced with a plosive are concerned, for example.: (b) The nasal
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grammar_instruction
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