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357059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Andr%C3%A9 | John André | John André (2 May 1750/1751 – 2 October 1780) was a major in the British Army and head of its Secret Service in America during the American Revolutionary War. He was hanged as a spy by the Continental Army for assisting Benedict Arnold's attempted surrender of the fort at West Point, New York, to the British. André is typically remembered favorably by historians as a man of honor, and several prominent American leaders of the time including Alexander Hamilton and Marquis de Lafayette did not agree with his fate.
Early life and education
André was born on 2 May in 1750 or 1751 in London to wealthy Huguenot parents Antoine André, a merchant from Geneva, Switzerland, and Marie Louise Girardot from Paris. He was educated at St Paul's School, Westminster School, and in Geneva. He was briefly engaged to Honora Sneyd. At age 20, he entered the British Army and joined the 7th of Foot (Royal Fusiliers) in British Canada in 1774 as a lieutenant.
Career
During the early days of the American Revolutionary War, before independence was declared by the Thirteen Colonies, André was captured at Fort Saint-Jean by Continental General Richard Montgomery in November 1775, and held prisoner at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He lived in the home of Caleb Cope, enjoying the freedom of the town, as he had given his word not to escape. In December 1776, he was freed in a prisoner exchange. He was promoted to captain in the 26th Foot on 18 January 1777, and to major in 1778.
He was a great favorite in colonial society, both in Philadelphia and New York, during those cities' occupation by the British Army. He had a lively and pleasant manner and could draw, paint, and create silhouettes, as well as sing and write verse. He was a prolific writer who carried on much of General Henry Clinton's correspondence, the British Commander-in-Chief of British armies in America. He was fluent in English, French, German, and Italian. He also wrote many comic verses. He planned the Mischianza when General Howe, Clinton's precursor, resigned and was about to return to England.
During his nearly nine months in Philadelphia, André occupied Benjamin Franklin's house, from which it has been claimed that he removed several valuable items on the orders of Major-General Charles Grey when the British left Philadelphia, including an oil portrait of Franklin by Benjamin Wilson. Grey's descendants returned Franklin's portrait to the United States in 1906, the bicentennial of Franklin's birth. The painting now hangs in the White House.
Intelligence work
Head of British Secret Service in America
In 1779, André became Adjutant General of the British Army in America with the rank of Major. In April of that year, he took charge of British Secret Service in America. By the next year (1780), he had briefly taken part in Clinton's invasion of the South, starting with the siege of Charleston, South Carolina.
Around this time, André had been negotiating with disillusioned American General Benedict Arnold. Arnold's Loyalist wife Peggy Shippen was one of the go-betweens in the correspondence. Arnold commanded West Point and had agreed to surrender it to the British for £20,000 (approximately £3.62 million in 2021).
André went up the Hudson River on the British sloop-of-war Vulture on Wednesday, 20 September 1780 to visit Arnold. The presence of the warship was discovered by two American privates, John Peterson and Moses Sherwood, the following morning on September 21. From their position at Teller's Point they began to assail the Vulture and a longboat associated with it with rifle and musket fire. Pausing to secure more aid, Peterson and Sherwood headed to Fort Lafayette at Verplanck's Point to request cannons and ammunition from their commander, Col. James Livingston. While they were gone, a small boat furnished by Arnold was steered to the Vulture by Joshua Hett Smith. At the oars were two brothers, tenants of Smith's who reluctantly rowed the boat six miles on the river to the sloop. Despite Arnold's assurances, the two oarsmen sensed that something was wrong. None of these men knew Arnold's purpose or suspected his treason; all were told that the purpose was to do good for the American cause. Only Smith was told anything specific, and that was the lie that it was to secure vital intelligence for the American cause. The brothers finally agreed to row after threats by Arnold to arrest them. They picked up André and placed him on shore. The others left and Arnold came to André on horseback, leading an extra horse for André's use.
The two men conferred in the woods below Stony Point on the river's west bank until nearly dawn, after which André accompanied Arnold several miles to the Joshua Hett Smith House (Treason House) in West Haverstraw, New York, owned by Thomas Smith and occupied by his brother Joshua. On the morning of 22 September, the two Americans, Peterson and Sherwood, launched a two-hour cannonade on the Vulture, which sustained many hits and was forced to retire down river. Their repulsion of the British sloop effectively stranded André on shore.
Taken into custody
To aid André's escape through U.S. lines, Arnold provided him with civilian clothes and a passport which allowed him to travel under the name John Anderson. He bore six papers hidden in his stocking, written in Arnold's hand, that showed the British how to take the fort. Joshua Hett Smith, who was accompanying him, left him just before he was captured.
André rode on in safety until 9 a.m. on 23 September, when he came near Tarrytown, New York, where armed militiamen John Paulding, Isaac Van Wart and David Williams stopped him.
André thought that they were Tories because one was wearing a Hessian soldier's overcoat. "Gentlemen," he said, "I hope you belong to our party." "What party?" asked one of the men. "The lower party," replied André, meaning the British. "We do," was the answer. André then told them that he was a British officer who must not be detained, when, to his surprise, they said that they were Continentals, and that he was their prisoner. He then told them that he was a U.S. officer and showed them his passport, but the suspicions of his captors were now aroused. They searched him and found Arnold's papers in his stocking. Only Paulding could read and Arnold was not initially suspected. André offered them his horse and watch, if they would let him go, but they declined. André testified at his trial that the men searched his boots for the purpose of robbing him. Paulding realized that he was a spy and took him to Continental Army headquarters in Sand's Hill (in today's Armonk, New York, a hamlet within North Castle situated on the Connecticut border of Westchester County).
The prisoner was at first detained at Wright's Mill in North Castle, before being taken back across the Hudson to the headquarters of the American army at Tappan, where he was held at a tavern today known as the '76 House. There he admitted who he really was.
At first, all went well for André since post commandant Lieutenant Colonel John Jameson decided to send him to Arnold, never suspecting that a high-ranking hero of the Revolution could be a turncoat. But Major Benjamin Tallmadge, head of Continental Army Intelligence, arrived, and persuaded Jameson to bring the prisoner back. He offered intelligence showing that a high-ranking officer was planning to defect to the British but was unaware of who it was.
Jameson sent General George Washington the six sheets of paper carried by André, but he was unwilling to believe that Benedict Arnold could be guilty of treason. He therefore insisted on sending a note to Arnold informing him of the entire situation. Jameson did not want his army career to be wrecked later for having wrongly believed that his general was a traitor. Arnold received Jameson's note while at breakfast with his officers, made an excuse to leave the room, and was not seen again. The note gave Arnold time to escape to the British. An hour or so later, Washington arrived at West Point with his party and was disturbed to see the stronghold's fortifications in such neglect, part of the plan to weaken West Point's defenses. Washington was further irritated to find that Arnold had breached protocol by not being about to greet him. Some hours later, Washington received the explanatory information from Maj. Tallmadge and immediately sent men to arrest Arnold, but it was too late.
According to Tallmadge's account of the events, he and André conversed during the latter's captivity and transport. André wanted to know how he would be treated by Washington. Tallmadge had been a classmate of Nathan Hale while both were at Yale, and he described the capture of Hale. André asked whether Tallmadge thought the situations similar; he replied, "Yes, precisely similar, and similar shall be your fate," referring to Hale having been hanged by the British as a spy.
Trial and execution
General Washington convened a board of senior officers to investigate the matter. The trial contrasted with Sir William Howe's treatment of Hale some four years earlier. The board consisted of major generals Nathanael Greene (presiding officer), Lord Stirling, Arthur St. Clair, Lafayette (who cried at André's execution), Robert Howe, Steuben, brigadier generals Samuel H. Parsons, James Clinton, Henry Knox, John Glover, John Paterson, Edward Hand, Jedediah Huntington, John Stark, and Judge Advocate General John Laurance.
André's defence was that he was suborning an enemy officer, "an advantage taken in war" (his words). However, he did not attempt to pass the blame onto Arnold. André told the court that he had neither desired nor planned to be behind American lines. He also asserted that, as a prisoner of war, he had the right to escape in civilian clothes. On 29 September 1780, the board found André guilty of being behind American lines "under a feigned name and in a disguised habit" and ordered that "Major André, Adjutant-General to the British Army, ought to be considered as a Spy from the enemy, and that agreeable to the law and usage of nations, it is their opinion, he ought to suffer death."
Glover was officer of the day at André's execution. Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander in New York, did all that he could to save André, his favourite aide, but refused to surrender Arnold in exchange for him, even though he personally despised Arnold. André appealled to George Washington to be executed as a gentleman by being shot rather than hanged as a "common criminal", but by the rules of war he was hanged as a spy at Tappan, New York on 2 October 1780.
A religious poem was found in his pocket after his execution, written two days beforehand.
While a prisoner, he endeared himself to American officers who lamented his death as much as the British. Alexander Hamilton wrote of him: "Never perhaps did any man suffer death with more justice, or deserve it less." The day before his hanging, André drew a likeness of himself with pen and ink, which is now owned by Yale College. André, according to witnesses, placed the noose around his own neck.
Eyewitness account
An eyewitness account of André's last day can be found in the book The American Revolution: From the Commencement to the Disbanding of the American Army Given in the Form of a Daily Journal, with the Exact Dates of all the Important Events; Also, a Biographical Sketch of the Most Prominent Generals by James Thacher, a surgeon in the American Revolutionary Army:
October 2d.-- Major André is no more among the living. I have just witnessed his exit. It was a tragical scene of the deepest interest. During his confinement and trial, he exhibited those proud and elevated sensibilities which designate greatness and dignity of mind. Not a murmur or a sigh ever escaped him, and the civilities and attentions bestowed on him were politely acknowledged. Having left a mother and two sisters in England, he was heard to mention them in terms of the tenderest affection, and in his letter to Sir Henry Clinton, he recommended them to his particular attention. The principal guard officer, who was constantly in the room with the prisoner, relates that when the hour of execution was announced to him in the morning, he received it without emotion, and while all present were affected with silent gloom, he retained a firm countenance, with calmness and composure of mind. Observing his servant enter the room in tears, he exclaimed, "Leave me till you can show yourself more manly!" His breakfast being sent to him from the table of General Washington, which had been done every day of his confinement, he partook of it as usual, and having shaved and dressed himself, he placed his hat upon the table, and cheerfully said to the guard officers, "I am ready at any moment, gentlemen, to wait on you." The fatal hour having arrived, a large detachment of troops was paraded, and an immense concourse of people assembled; almost all our general and field officers, excepting his excellency and staff, were present on horseback; melancholy and gloom pervaded all ranks, and the scene was affectingly awful. I was so near during the solemn march to the fatal spot, as to observe every movement, and participate in every emotion which the melancholy scene was calculated to produce.
Major André walked from the stone house, in which he had been confined, between two of our subaltern officers, arm in arm; the eyes of the immense multitude were fixed on him, who, rising superior to the fears of death, appeared as if conscious of the dignified deportment which he displayed. He betrayed no want of fortitude, but retained a complacent smile on his countenance, and politely bowed to several gentlemen whom he knew, which was respectfully returned. It was his earnest desire to be shot, as being the mode of death most conformable to the feelings of a military man, and he had indulged the hope that his request would be granted. At the moment, therefore, when suddenly he came in view of the gallows, he involuntarily started backward, and made a pause. "Why this emotion, sir?" said an officer by his side. Instantly recovering his composure, he said, "I am reconciled to my death, but I detest the mode." While waiting and standing near the gallows, I observed some degree of trepidation; placing his foot on a stone, and rolling it over and choking in his throat, as if attempting to swallow. So soon, however, as he perceived that things were in readiness, he stepped quickly into the wagon, and at this moment he appeared to shrink, but instantly elevating his head with firmness he said, "It will be but a momentary pang," and taking from his pocket two white handkerchiefs, the provost-marshal, with one, loosely pinioned his arms, and with the other, the victim, after taking off his hat and stock, bandaged his own eyes with perfect firmness, which melted the hearts and moistened the cheeks, not only of his servant, but of the throng of spectators. The rope being appended to the gallows, he slipped the noose over his head and adjusted it to his neck, without the assistance of the awkward executioner. Colonel Scammel now informed him that he had an opportunity to speak, if he desired it; he raised the handkerchief from his eyes, and said, "I pray you to bear me witness that I meet my fate like a brave man." The wagon being now removed from under him, he was suspended, and instantly expired; it proved indeed "but a momentary pang." He was dressed in his royal regimentals and boots, and his remains, in the same dress, were placed in an ordinary coffin, and interred at the foot of the gallows; and the spot was consecrated by the tears of thousands...
Aftermath
On the day of his capture, James Rivington published André's poem "The Cow Chase" in his gazette in New York. In the poem, André muses on his foiling of a foraging expedition in Bergen across the Hudson from the city. Nathan Strickland, André's executioner, who was confined at the camp in Tappan as a dangerous Tory during André's trial, was granted liberty for accepting the duty of hangman and returned to his home in the Ramapo Valley or Smith's Cove, and nothing further of him is known. Joshua Hett Smith, who was connected with André with the attempted treason, was also brought to trial at the Reformed Church of Tappan. The trial lasted four weeks and ended in acquittal for lack of evidence. The Colquhon brothers who were commanded by Benedict Arnold to bring André from the sloop-of-war Vulture to shore, as well as Major Keirs, under whose supervision the boat was obtained, were exonerated from all suspicion.
A pension was awarded by the British to his mother and three sisters not long after his death, and his brother William André was made a baronet in his honour in 1781 (see André baronets). In 1804 a memorial plaque by Charles Regnart was erected in the Grosvenor Chapel in London, to John's memory. In 1821, at the behest of the Duke of York, his remains, which had been buried under the gallows, were removed to England and placed among kings and poets at Westminster Abbey, in the nave, under a marble monument depicting Britannia mourning alongside a British lion over André's death. In 1879 a monument was unveiled on the place of his execution at Tappan.
The names of André's captors were John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wert. The United States Congress gave each of them a silver medal, known as the Fidelity Medallion, and a pension of $200 a year. That came close to the annually pay of an Continental Army's infantry ensign in 1778. All were honoured in the names of counties in Ohio, and in 1853 a monument was erected to their memory on the place where they captured André. It was re-dedicated in 1880 and today is located in Patriot's Park on U.S. Route 9 along the boundary between Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow in Westchester County. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.
"He was more unfortunate than criminal." – from a letter of George Washington to Comte de Rochambeau, 10 October 1780
"An accomplished man and gallant officer." – from a letter written by Washington to Colonel John Laurens on 13 October 1780
In popular culture
The 1798 play André, based on Major André's execution, is one of the earliest examples of American tragedy. Clyde Fitch's play Major André opened on Broadway in November 1903, but was not a success, possibly because the play attempted to portray André as a sympathetic figure.
The young adult fiction book Sophia's War by Avi is about a young girl becoming a spy and foiling his plot.
André has been portrayed several times in film and television: by Michael Wilding as an eloquent and dignified idealist in the 1955 Hollywood film The Scarlet Coat; by JJ Feild in the TV series Turn: Washington's Spies; by William Beckley in season 4, episode 26 of the sci-fi TV series Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea; by Eric Joshua Davis in the TV series Sleepy Hollow; and by John Light in the movie Benedict Arnold: A Question of Honor.
André appears as a non-playable character in the 2012 video game Assassin's Creed III.
See also
Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War
John Champe (soldier)
Jane Tuers
Notes
Bibliography
An Authentic Narrative of the Causes Which Led to the Death of Major Andre, Adjutant-General of His Majesty's Forces in North America, Joshua Hett Smith (London 1808)
Cray, Robert E. Jr., "Major John Andre and the Three Captors: Class Dynamics and Revolutionary Memory Wars in the Early Republic, 1780–1831", Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 17, No. 3. Autumn, 1997. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania (1858), vol vi, which contains a comprehensive essay by Charles J. Biddle
Andreana, H. W. Smith (Philadelphia, 1865)
Two spies, Lossing (New York, 1886)
Life and Career of Major John André, Sargent, new edition (New York, 1904)
The Secret is Out: True Spy Stories, T. Martini (Boston, 1990)
The Execution of MAJOR ANDRE, John Evangelist Walsh (New York, 2001)
Local History: British Agent Detained in Tarrytown, Executed in Rockland
Further reading
External links
"The Capture of Major John André" by A.C. Warren (1856)
Letters from André, including coded interchange between André and Arnold
More on his early life
1780 deaths
18th-century executions by the United States
18th-century executions by New York (state)
American Revolutionary War executions
British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War
English people of French descent
Executed people from London
Burials at Westminster Abbey
British people executed abroad
British military personnel killed in the American Revolutionary War
Cameronians officers
Executed spies
Benedict Arnold
British spies during the American Revolution
Huguenot participants in the American Revolution
People executed by the United States military by hanging
Royal Welch Fusiliers officers
1750s births |
357060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon%20Eben%20Baldwin | Simeon Eben Baldwin | Simeon Eben Baldwin (February 5, 1840 – January 30, 1927) was an American jurist, law professor, and politician who served as the 65th governor of Connecticut.
Education
The son of jurist, Connecticut governor and U.S. Senator Roger Sherman Baldwin and Emily Pitkin Perkins, Baldwin was born in New Haven, Connecticut, where he lived for much of his life. As a boy he attended the Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven, Connecticut. Active in all its alumni work, he was, more specifically, for many years president of its board of trustees; in 1910, on the occasion of the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the school, he delivered a discourse on its history; when shortly before his death it became necessary to house the school in new quarters, he was one of the largest, if not the largest, of the individual donors whose contributions made possible a set of modern buildings for what he was fond of referring to as the fourth oldest institution of learning in the United States.
From the Hopkins Grammar School he went to Yale College, from which he was graduated with the class of 1861. There is scant information as to his four years at college. During that period he kept a diary from which he read extracts on the fifty-fifth reunion of his class, but this diary is not at present available. That the studious traits which he later manifested were not altogether lacking at this time may be inferred from the fact that he was elected a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Skull & Bones. Such records as we have do not indicate that there was anything unusual about this young student who had among his classroom contemporaries the poet Edward Rowland Sill, and two others who like himself were later to have much to do with the life of the university, his friends Tracy Peck and Franklin Bowditch Dexter.
Early years
For the two years following his graduation from college he studied law at Yale, at Harvard, and in his father's office. In 1863 he was admitted to the bar and began the practice of law. His seventeen years of service as an associate justice and chief justice of the supreme court of his state and his four years as governor, coming as they did in the latter part of his life, may have had a tendency to obscure for his later contemporaries the fact that he was at least as much as anything else an eminently successful lawyer. In the practice of the law he won distinction both in his own state and outside, and with it the financial emoluments that usually accompany success at the bar. He was keenly alive to the practical side of the lawyer's work and never lost his zest for it. Till almost the very end of his life he maintained a law office, which he visited daily as long as his health would permit, and kept adding to his law library. As late as 1919 his book The Young Man and the Law revealed him still at heart a lawyer. In 1878, he was one of the founders of the American Bar Association and served as President of the American Bar Association from 1890–1891. For twelve years (1907–1919) he was the director of the American Bar Association's Comparative Law Bureau (as well as its Annual Bulletin'''s editor for general jurisprudence).
On 19 October 1865 he married Susan Mears Winchester, daughter of Edmund Winchester and Harriet Mears. Simeon and Susan had three children: Florence, Roger and Helen.
During the middle portion of his life he was actively engaged in teaching law. Here also he showed ability. One who studied law under him and like him became chief justice of the supreme court of errors of Connecticut says that his old pupils regard his work as a teacher "as more distinctive and weightier in influence upon human life than any other portion of his work. Probably in his day not a half dozen teachers of the law in our country could be placed in his class" (American Bar Association Journal, February 1927, p. 74).
To the same effect may be interpreted the action of the Association of American Law Schools, which in 1902 elected him its president. In 1869 he was appointed to the faculty of the Yale Law School, then in a moribund condition. His active participation in the affairs of that school was to continue for just fifty years, for it was not until 1919 that he retired as professor emeritus. The revival of the law school was largely his work. He increased the size of the faculty, instituted new courses, developed graduate work, and for a long time carried much of the financial responsibility for the school's existence (Yale Law Journal, March 1927, p. 680). It was characteristic of him that when shortly before his retirement the method of teaching was changed to the so-called "case system," to which Judge Baldwin, like most of his contemporaries, objected, he never for an instant changed his attitude of loyalty to the school, which some years later was to be most generously remembered in his will.
In addition to his work as lawyer and teacher he took an active part in the public affairs of New Haven. He served on the Public Parks commission, on the New Haven common council, and on the board of directors of the New Haven Hospital. Deeply interested in religious work, he was president of the New Haven Congregational Club and of the YMCA. From 1884 until 1896 he was president of the New Haven Colony Historical Society, for which he wrote many papers mostly on subjects of history.
Political life
Even more diversified than his activities in local affairs was his participation in those that concerned the state as a whole. Never a politician, and to the end of his days allowing such honors and offices as came to him to come unsought and unfought for, he nevertheless early became identified with the political life of his state. Starting as a Republican, he was nominated for state senator from the fourth district in 1867, but was not elected. In 1884 he was one of the "independents" who refused to support James G. Blaine, and was chosen president of the Republican organization in Connecticut. The greatest of his political honors came to him when he was an old man. Automatically retired from the position of chief justice of the supreme court, February 5, 1910, because he had reached the age limit of seventy years, he that year was nominated for governor on the Democratic ticket and was elected. At the Democratic National Convention in June 1912 he received twenty votes for the presidential nomination. In November of the same year he was elected governor of his state, nominally strongly Republican, for a second term of two years. He was Democratic candidate for United States senator from Connecticut for the term beginning March 4, 1915. Caught in a Republican landslide and defeated by incumbent Senator Frank B. Brandegee, he nevertheless ran ahead of his party ticket by several thousand votes.
It was inevitable that the high regard in which he was held as a lawyer should lead to his being named on various state commissions of reform. In 1872, less than a decade after he began to practice law, the Connecticut legislature elected him one of a commission of five that made the Revision of 1875, the General Statutes of the State of Connecticut. In the same year he was a member of a state commission appointed to revise the education laws. Six years later he was named by the governor of Connecticut acting under a resolution of the state legislature one of a commission of five to inquire into the feasibility of simplifying legal procedure. This commission drew up a set of rules and forms which were approved and adopted by the court as the basis of pleading in civil cases.
In 1886 a commission was appointed to report on a better system of state taxation. He was a member of that commission and drew the report. Again in 1915-17 he was chairman of a commission established by the State to revise its system of taxation. But his participation in state affairs was not merely political and legal; he was also actively associated with charitable and religious organizations. At one time or another he was a director of the General Hospital Society of Connecticut and a director of the Missionary Society of Connecticut; he served as moderator of the General Conference of Congregational Churches of Connecticut, and he was a delegate of the Congregational Churches to the national council.
His scholarship and his interest in questions of the day led him into affiliations with many of the learned societies. Nor were these affiliations perfunctory only. He regularly attended the society meetings, wrote papers for them, and rose to the highest places in their councils. He was president of the American Social Science Association (1897), International Law Association (1899), American Historical Association (1905), Political Science Association (1910), American Society for the Judicial Settlement of International Disputes (1911), Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Connecticut Society of the Archeological Institute of America (1914). He was vice-president of the Archeological Institute of America (1898) and of the social and economic science section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1903). He was an associate of the Institute of International Law. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1912. He was a member also of the National Institute of Arts and Sciences, American Philosophical Society, elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1893, and a corresponding member of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Colonial Society of Massachusetts, and L'Institut de Droit Comparé. Baldwin was among the incorporators of Connecticut College at its founding in 1911, and he served on its board of trustees through 1924.
His connections with national and international matters touching law and its ramifications were not restricted to membership in learned societies. In 1899 he was appointed by the State Department a delegate from the United States to the Sixth International Prison Congress, which met the next year at Brussels. Again in 1905 he was United States delegate to a similar congress held at Budapest and was made its vice-president. At this congress he presented his report on the question "By what principles and in what manner may convicts be given work in the fields, or other public work in open air?" In 1904, appointed by President Roosevelt one of the delegates to represent the United States, he was elected vice-president of the Universal Congress of Lawyers and Jurists held in connection with the St. Louis Exposition of that year.
His writings cover a number of fields. Among his more pretentious works are: A Digest of All the Reported Cases... of Conn. (2 vols., 1871, 1882), Cases on Railroad Law (1896), Modern Political Institutions (1898), American Railroad Law (1904), The American Judiciary (1905), The Relations of Education to Citizenship (1912), Life and Letters of Simeon Baldwin (1919), The Young Man and the Law (1919). He was a most prolific writer of articles and pamphlets. Some ten years before his death he collected and presented to the Yale Law School nearly a hundred of these in four bound volumes which he entitled in order of numbering: Law and Law Reform, Studies in History, International and Constitutional Law, and Studies in Legal Education and Social Sciences. While these titles very aptly classify his literary output the volumes themselves do not contain all his miscellaneous publications.
He was not above medium height, somewhat slight of figure and seemingly frail in physique, though this frailty was in appearance only as he was a man of tremendous, tireless energy. Although in no sense athletic, he made some sort of exercise in the open air each day almost a religious duty. At one time this took the form of bicycle rides, though he soon gave these up in favor of walking. His rule was to cover at least four miles a day, rain or shine, and there was no part of the less congested portions of New Haven and its environs over which he had not many times traveled as he walked unhurriedly alone, stooping somewhat, buried in thought, compelled by poor eyesight to keep his gaze fixed upon his path a few feet ahead of him. This methodical exercise he kept up until, in his last years, injuries received as the result of a fall confined him to his home.
His personality, externally at least, was cold, dignified, and grave. Some of those who knew him best say that he was in reality warm-hearted but the characteristics that made an impression on every one were his reserve and his austerity; in general he was an object of respect rather than of affection; he had none of the weaknesses that make men lovable. As deeply religious as any of his Puritan ancestors, he was most broadly tolerant of the beliefs of others. His conception of civic duty was Roman, but he was ever willing to oppose even the State in defending what he regarded as the constitutional and legal rights of the individual. He was frugal to such a degree that on one occasion when traveling as governor with his staff, instead of partaking of a sumptuous dinner in a dining car specially provided for them, he rode in a coach and ate a sandwich which he had brought from home. With this frugality he combined a generosity even more marked. Part of his life was lived in the days of high hats. Such hats, when they became old, were usually donated to the missionaries. To quote from one who for many years served with Judge Baldwin on the committee of a missionary society, "He used to turn in his old high hat at the shop for fifteen cents, but he would give $1,500 to the committee for missions." He was unyielding where a principle was involved; but in matters of mere policy he had the remarkable ability, once he was outvoted, to make the policy of the majority his own even though he had strenuously opposed it.
Quiet and unassuming in manner he could be aggressive when he deemed it necessary, as he did in his controversy with Roosevelt when the latter dared to ridicule his ability as a judge. Prompt and unfailing in meeting appointments, unimportant though they might be, he demanded the same consideration from others, even refusing to wait for dinner guests who might be late. Both by nature and training he was conservative, but not reactionary; his mind was open as well as active. If his plea for castration and whipping as generally applicable methods of punishing criminals savors of the archaic (Yale Law Journal, June 1899), he was capable also of starting nationwide comment, as on the radically new ideas embodied in his "The Natural Right to a Natural Death" (Journal of Social Science, 1889).
In January 1910 he published "The Law of the Airship" (American Journal of International Law), and in November "Liability for Accidents in Aerial Navigation" (Michigan Law Review, IX, 20). At his suggestion the Connecticut legislature (1911) passed a law regulating the use of flying machines, the first law to be enacted on this subject. France shortly afterward modeled her law on that of Connecticut.
In 1911 he had two articles on airship law in foreign journals (Revue de l'Institut de Droit Comparé and Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht). Notwithstanding his work in many fields, his real interest was always in modern law. He has been called an antiquarian, but his studies in this line did not go beyond colonial history, more particularly Connecticut history. Few men have played a more important part in so many activities that concerned their own community. When he was presented for the degree of LL.D. at the Yale Commencement in 1916 he was called, inter alia, "the first citizen of Connecticut." No designation could have fitted him better. ―George Edward Woodbine
He was the son of Roger Sherman Baldwin, brotherin-law of Dwight Foster (1828–1884), uncle of Edward Baldwin Whitney, grandson of Simeon Baldwin, and the great-grandson of Roger Sherman.
Notes
References
"Simeon Eben Baldwin. Dictionary of American Biography Base Set. American Council of Learned Societies, 1928–1936. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. 2005. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC
David O. White, Museum of Connecticut History, Connecticut State Library. Edited and revised by CSL Staff, September 2002. https://web.archive.org/web/20070203095604/http://www.cslib.org/gov/baldwins.htm Accessed March 14, 2008
Further reading
[Good likenesses of Baldwin in his later years in American Bar Association Journal, February 1927, p. 73, and in Yale Alumni Weekly, February 11, 1927, p. 555; for an estimate of the man and his achievements see the articles accompanying these and also Yale Law Journal, March 1927, p. 680; New Haven Journal-Courier, Hartford Times, Hartford Courant, January 31, February 1, 2, 1927; Who's Who in America, 1899–1927. There is a complete list of his writings in Yale University Library; partial lists, together with considerable biog. material, are given in the records of the class of 1861, Yale College, published by the class secretary, especially those for the years 1888, 1903, 1907, 1916. His legal bibliography, fairly complete through 1901, was printed in Yale Law Journal'', November 1901, pp. 14–16. His opinions and decisions written while he was on the bench will be found in Conn. Reports, volumes LXIII-LXXXIII. For the facts in regard to his controversy with Roosevelt, see Outlook, volume XCVII, Jan. 1911, pp. 240–244.
External links
Governor Simeon Eben Baldwin Connecticut State Library
Governor Simeon Eben Baldwin Connecticut Heritage Gateway
Baldwin Family Papers (MS 55). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
The Administration of Governor Simeon E. Baldwin, 1911–1915 Connecticut Heritage
Simeon Eben Baldwin: Lawyer, Social Scientist, Statesman by Frederick H. Jackson Jstor
Yale Law School - Center for Corporate Law Yale University
Religion still the Key to History - Presidential Address to the American Historical Association, 1906 American Historical Association
American Business Corporations Before 1786
Skull & Bones 1861 Digital Collections at Yale University
Sherman Genealogy Including Families of Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, England By Thomas Townsend Sherman
Baldwin-Greene-Gager family of Connecticut at Political Graveyard
Sherman-Hoar family at Political Graveyard
1840 births
1927 deaths
20th-century American politicians
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Chief Justices of the Connecticut Supreme Court
Connecticut Democrats
Connecticut Republicans
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Governors of Connecticut
Hopkins School alumni
Presidents of the American Bar Association
Presidents of the American Historical Association
Candidates in the 1912 United States presidential election
Yale College alumni
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Founding members of the American Bar Association
American Congregationalists |
357063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine%20code%20monitor | Machine code monitor | A machine code monitor ( machine language monitor) is software that allows a user to enter commands to view and change memory locations on a computer, with options to load and save memory contents from/to secondary storage. Some full-featured machine code monitors provide detailed control ("single-stepping") of the execution of machine language programs (much like a debugger), and include absolute-address code assembly and disassembly capabilities.
Machine code monitors became popular during the home computer era of the 1970s and 1980s and were sometimes available as resident firmware in some computers (e.g., the built-in monitors in the Commodore 128, Heathkit H89 and Zenith laptops). Often, computer manufacturers rely on their ROM-resident monitors to permit users to reconfigure their computers following installation of upgrade hardware, such as expanded main memory, additional disk drives, or different video displays.
It was not unheard of to perform all of one's programming in a monitor in lieu of a full-fledged symbolic assembler. Even after full-featured assemblers became readily available, a machine code monitor was indispensable for debugging programs. The usual technique was to set break points in the code undergoing testing (e.g., with a BRK instruction in 6502 assembly language) and start the program. When the microprocessor encountered a break point, the test program would be interrupted and control would be transferred to the machine code monitor. Typically, this would trigger a register dump and then the monitor would await programmer input. Activities at this point might include examining memory contents, patching code and/or perhaps altering the processor registers prior to restarting the test program.
The general decline of scratch-written assembly language software has made the use of a machine code monitor somewhat of a lost art. In most systems where higher-level languages are employed, debuggers are used to present a more abstract and friendly view of what is happening within a program. However, the use of machine code monitors persists, especially in the area of hobby-built computers.
References
Microcomputer software |
357064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman%20Beecher | Lyman Beecher | Lyman Beecher (October 12, 1775 – January 10, 1863) was a Presbyterian minister, and the father of 13 children, many of whom became noted figures, including Harriet Beecher Stowe, Henry Ward Beecher, Charles Beecher, Edward Beecher, Isabella Beecher Hooker, Catharine Beecher, and Thomas K. Beecher.
According to his son Henry Ward Beecher, his father was "largely engaged during his life-time in controversy".
Early life
Beecher was born in New Haven, Connecticut, to David Beecher, a blacksmith, and Esther Hawley Lyman. His mother died shortly after his birth, and he was committed to the care of his uncle Lot Benton, by whom he was adopted as a son, and with whom his early life was spent, blacksmithing and farming. But it was soon found that he preferred study. He was fitted for college by the Rev. Thomas W. Bray, and at the age of eighteen entered Yale College, graduating in 1797. He spent 1798 in Yale Divinity School under the tutelage of his mentor Timothy Dwight.
Ministry
Ministry on Long Island in New York (1798–1810)
In September 1798, he was licensed to preach by the New Haven West Association, and entered upon his clerical duties by supplying the pulpit in the Presbyterian church at East Hampton, Long Island, and was ordained in 1799. Here he married his first wife, Roxana Foote. His salary was $300 a year, after five years increased to $400 (), with a dilapidated parsonage. To eke out his scanty income, his wife opened a private school, in which he was an instructor. Following Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton's 1804 duel, Beecher gained popular recognition when he gave a sermon before the Presbytery of Long Island which was promptly published as: The Remedy for Duelling in 1806.
Ministry in Litchfield, Connecticut (1810–1826)
Finding his salary wholly inadequate to support his growing family, he resigned the charge at East Hampton, and in 1810 moved to Litchfield, Connecticut, where he was minister for 16 years at First Congregational Church of Litchfield, the town's Congregational church. There he started to preach Calvinism. He purchased the home built by Elijah Wadsworth and reared a large family.
Temperance
Alcohol intoxication or drunkenness, known as intemperance at the time, was a source of concern in New England as well as in other areas of the United States. Heavy drinking occurred even at some formal meetings of clergy, and Beecher resolved to take a stand against it. In 1826 he delivered and published six sermons on intemperance. They were sent throughout the United States, ran rapidly through many editions in England, and were translated into several languages in Europe, enjoying large sales even 50 years later.
Unitarian crisis and women's education
During Beecher's residence in Litchfield, the Unitarian controversy arose, and he took a prominent part. Litchfield was at this time the seat of the famous Litchfield Law School (1784–1833) and several other institutions of learning, and Beecher (now a doctor of divinity) and his wife undertook to supervise the training of several young women, who were received into their family. But here, too, he found his annual salary of $800 inadequate.
Ministry in Boston (1826–1832)
The rapid and extensive defection of the Congregational churches in Boston and vicinity, under the lead of William Ellery Channing and others in sympathy with him, had excited much anxiety throughout New England. In 1826 Beecher was called to Boston's Hanover Church, where he began preaching against the Unitarianism which was then sweeping the area.
Leadership of Lane Seminary in Cincinnati (1832–1852)
The religious public had become impressed with the growing importance of the great West; a theological seminary had been founded at Walnut Hills, near Cincinnati, Ohio, and named Lane Seminary, after one of its principal benefactors. Beecher's Hanover Street Church was severely damaged by fire in 1830, and the Board of Lane Seminary, hoping this might dispose him to a move, later that year offered him the presidency, with a salary of $20,000 (), but he turned it down. He accepted a second offer, in 1832. His mission there was to train ministers to win the West for Protestantism. Along with his presidency, he was also professor of sacred theology, and pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church of Cincinnati (later merged with First Presbyterian into modern-day Covenant First Presbyterian Church). He served as a pastor for the first ten years of his Lane presidency.
Beecher was also notorious for his anti-Catholicism, and soon after his arrival in Cincinnati authored the nativist tract "A Plea for the West". His sermon on this subject at Boston in 1834 was followed shortly by the burning of the Catholic Ursuline Sisters' convent there. Catholics blamed Lyman, and charged that the arsonists had been "goaded on by Dr. Lyman Beecher", but Lyman insisted that the sermon "to which the mob ascribed" was preached before his presence in Boston was generally known, and on the very evening of the riot, some miles distant from the scene, and that probably not one of the rioters had heard it or even "knew of its delivery". Nevertheless, the convent was burned, and just at the season when Lyman was alerting Massachusetts to danger from the "despotic character and hostile designs of popery".
Lane Debates
Beecher's term at Lane came at a time when slavery became an even larger issue, threatening to divide the Presbyterian Church, the state of Ohio, and the nation.
Like most important men of the 1820s, Beecher was a colonizationist, one who supported the American Colonization Society's program of helping free Blacks emigrate to West Africa and set up there a black colony. He is reported to have reacted positively to an announcement of the planned debates on that topic at Lane. However, a June 4, 1834, meeting of the Cincinnati Colonization Society "was addressed at length, by the Rev. Dr. Beecher, president of the Lane Seminary, who defended the society in an able manner, against some of the many charges brought against it, and endeavored to show the friends of abolition, that they might and ought to act in concert with the Colonization Society." He is quoted again as participating in a meeting of the same body on October 31, 1834.
But against a background of the Haitian Revolution, the French Revolution of 1830, the agitation in England for reform and against colonial slavery, and the punishment by American courts of citizens like Reuben Crandall who had dared to attack the slave trade carried on under the American flag, news about the brutal treatment of American slaves began to be heard. John Rankin's Letters on Slavery had begun to direct the attention of Americans to the evils of slavery, and a new organization, the American Anti-Slavery Society, held its initial meeting in Philadelphia in 1833. Its president, Arthur Tappan, through whose generous donations Beecher had been induced to head the new Lane Seminary, forwarded to the students a copy of the address issued by the convention, and the whole subject was soon under discussion.
In February 1834, students at Lane, with national publicity, for 18 consecutive nights debated the colonization issue: whether the American Colonization Society, which sought to settle freed slaves in Africa, was worthy of support. The students did not have permission for the debate, but they were not stopped ahead of time. Most of them abandoned colonization as a hoax, replacing it with abolitionism.
Many of the students were from the South, and an effort was made to stop the discussions and the meetings. Slaveholders from Kentucky came in and incited mob violence, and for several weeks Beecher lived in a turmoil, not knowing whether rioters might destroy the seminary and the houses of the professors. The Board of Trustees interfered during the absence of Beecher, and allayed the excitement of the mob by forbidding all further discussion of slavery in the seminary, even at meals, whereupon the students withdrew en masse. The group of about 50 students (who became known as the Lane Rebels) who left the seminary went to the new Oberlin Collegiate Institute, leaving Lane almost without students. Beecher believed himself blameless.
The well-reported events contributed significantly to the growth and spread of abolitionism in the northern United States. Beecher was neither aware of nor interested in Lane's key role in publicizing abolitionism.
Heresy trial over New School sympathies
Although earlier in his career he had opposed them, Beecher stoked controversy by advocating "new measures" of evangelism (including revivals and camp meetings) that ran counter to traditional Calvinist understanding. These new measures at the time of the Second Great Awakening brought turmoil to churches all across America. Joshua Lacy Wilson, pastor of First Presbyterian (later merged with Second Presbyterian into modern-day Covenant First Presbyterian) charged Beecher with heresy in 1835.
The trial took place in his own church, and Beecher defended himself, while burdened with the cares of his seminary, his church, and his wife at home on her deathbed. The trial resulted in acquittal, and, on an appeal to the general synod, he was again acquitted, but the controversy engendered by the action went on until the Presbyterian church was divided in two. Beecher took an active part in the theological controversies that led to the excision of a portion of the general assembly of the Presbyterian church in 1837-38, Beecher adhering to the New School Presbyterian branch of the schism.
Move from Cincinnati to New York City (1852–death in 1863)
After the slavery controversy, Beecher and his co-worker Calvin Ellis Stowe remained and tried to revive the prosperity of the seminary, but at last abandoned it. The great project of their lives was defeated, and they returned to the East, where Beecher went to live with his son Henry in Brooklyn, New York, in 1852. He wished to devote himself mainly to the revision and publication of his works. But his intellectual powers began to decline, while his physical strength was unabated. About his 80th year he suffered a stroke of paralysis, and thenceforth his mental powers only gleamed out occasionally. After spending the last years of his life with his children, he died in Brooklyn in 1863 and was buried at Grove Street Cemetery, in New Haven, Connecticut.
Legacy
Beecher was proverbially absent-minded, and after having been wrought up by the excitement of preaching was accustomed to relax his mind by playing "Auld Lang Syne" on the violin, or dancing the "double shuffle" in his parlor.
The Harriet Beecher Stowe House in Cincinnati, Ohio, was the home of her father Lyman Beecher on the former campus of the Lane Theological Seminary. Harriet lived here until her marriage. It is the only building of Lane still standing. It is open to the public and operates as an historical and cultural site, focusing on Harriet Beecher Stowe, the Lane Theological Seminary, and the Underground Railroad. The site also documents African-American history. The Harriet Beecher Stowe House is located at 2950 Gilbert Avenue, in Cincinnati, Ohio.
Personal life
In 1799, Beecher married Roxana Foote, the daughter of Eli and Roxana (Ward) Foote. They had nine children: Catharine Esther, William Henry, Edward, Mary, Harriet (1808–1808), George, Harriet Elisabeth, Henry Ward, and Charles. Roxana died on September 13, 1816. The following year, he married Harriet Porter and fathered four more children: Frederick C., Isabella Holmes, Thomas Kinnicut, and James Chaplin. Of the thirteen Beecher children, nine went on to become writers. Harriet Porter Beecher died on July 7, 1835. On September 23, 1836, he married Samuel Beals' daughter Lydia Beals (September 17, 1789 – 1869), who had previously been married to Joseph Jackson (1779/10 – December 1833). Lydia and Beecher had no children.
Works
Beecher was the author of a great number of printed sermons and addresses. His published works are:
He made a collection of those of his works which he deemed the most valuable (3 vols., Boston, 1852).
References
Further reading
External links
The Beecher Tradition: Lyman Beecher
Stowe house
Stowe House official site
Beecher Family Papers at Mount Holyoke College
1775 births
1863 deaths
American abolitionists
American Christian clergy
American temperance activists
19th-century Presbyterian ministers
American people of English descent
American people of Welsh descent
Beecher family
Religious leaders from New Haven, Connecticut
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Yale Divinity School alumni
American Presbyterian ministers
Critics of the Catholic Church
People of colonial Connecticut
Lane Theological Seminary faculty
Religious leaders from Cincinnati
People from Cincinnati
Presbyterian abolitionists
American evangelicals
19th-century American clergy |
357065 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiram%20Bingham | Hiram Bingham | Hiram Bingham may refer to:
Hiram Bingham I (1789–1869), American missionary to the Kingdom of Hawai'i
Hiram Bingham II (1831–1908), son of Hiram Bingham I, also a missionary to the Kingdom of Hawai'i
Hiram Bingham III (1875–1956), U.S. Senator from Connecticut and explorer best known for uncovering Machu Picchu
Hiram Bingham IV (1903–1988), U.S. Vice Consul in Marseille, France during World War II who rescued Jews from the Holocaust
Harry Payne Bingham (1887–1955), American financier and philanthropist
See also
Hiram (disambiguation)
Bingham (surname)
Bingham (disambiguation) |
357067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20Yorty | Sam Yorty | Samuel William Yorty (October 1, 1909 – June 5, 1998) was an American politician from Los Angeles, California. He served as a member of the United States House of Representatives and the California State Assembly, but he is most remembered for his turbulent three terms as the 37th Mayor of Los Angeles from 1961 to 1973. Though Yorty spent his political career as a Democrat, he became a Republican in 1980.
Early life
Sam Yorty was born and raised in Lincoln, Nebraska, the son of Frank Patrick and Johanna (Egan) Yorty. He began his political education as the son of a Democratic father in a Republican state, with a mother who also showed a strong interest in politics. The family moved to Southern California when Yorty completed high school. He retained his Midwestern inflection and was known for pronouncing the city's name as (with a hard "G").
Yorty enrolled at Southwestern University and later the University of California at Los Angeles, working for a time at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. He was admitted to the bar in 1939.
Elected as a Democrat to the California State Assembly in 1936, Yorty established himself as a politician with integrity, but watched his popularity plummet when he reported a bribery attempt on a pending bill. Yorty advocated state ownership of public utilities and strong labor unions, showing a liberal approach to politics. His support of the Republicans in Spain's civil war against General Francisco Franco and his fight against using the California Highway Patrol to end labor strikes helped earn him support of the local Communist Party United States of America organization. That support haunted Yorty in 1938, when he was branded a communist by Folsom Prison inmate Arthur Kent during testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee. Kent, who claimed to have been a local membership chairman of the Communist Party, proved to be untrustworthy and Yorty was vindicated. That episode, plus the refusal of the local Communist Party to endorse him for mayor of Los Angeles that year, began a shift of Yorty's political beliefs.
Losing a 1940 bid for U.S. Senator, when he ran unsuccessfully as a liberal internationalist against isolationist Republican and longtime incumbent Hiram Johnson, Yorty left politics during World War II to serve in the United States Army Air Corps in the Pacific Theater, attaining the rank of captain in the Intelligence Branch. He resumed his Assembly seat after his discharge. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1950 and was reelected in 1952, but again lost his race for the U.S. Senate in 1954. In that special election for the two years remaining of the term of Richard M. Nixon, Yorty received 1,788,071 votes (45.5%) to Senator Thomas H. Kuchel's 2,090,831 (53.2%). Kuchel, a liberal Republican, had been appointed to the seat in 1953 by then-Governor of California Earl Warren when Nixon became vice president.
Mayoralty
In 1960, Yorty endorsed fellow Californian Richard Nixon over Massachusetts Senator and fellow Democrat John F. Kennedy for president. This angered many in the Democratic Party.
Although municipal elections in California are non-partisan, the resources of the party were directed against him when he ran for mayor of Los Angeles the following year against incumbent Republican Norris Poulson. The bitter campaign was marked by Poulson's claim that Yorty was backed by members of organized crime, a comment that caused Yorty to sue Poulson for $3.3 million.
Yorty prevailed, however, running as a populist. He railed against "a little ruling clique" of "downtown interests" and promised to revise the city charter, which had become unwieldy with the city's growth from a quiet West Coast town to the third largest metropolis in the country. He was a strong advocate of expanding the freeway network. Perhaps his most popular promise was to end residents' sorting of wet and dry garbage; dry garbage was typically burned in backyard incinerators which contributed to the city's notorious smog. There had been two independent collections: wet garbage (including food waste), and bottles and cans; dry combustible trash was burned in incinerators until Los Angeles County ordered an end to backyard trash burning in 1957, when Poulson was still mayor. After that, there were three collections: wet garbage, bottles and cans, and dry garbage.
He made good on his waste management and highway promises, and oversaw the emergence of Los Angeles as a major city. He was a backer of the Los Angeles Music Center, business districts such as Little Tokyo, and of the Los Angeles Zoo. He also made frequent appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, which boosted his popularity. At the same time, he was a passionate anti-Communist, a critic of the Civil Rights Movement, and an outspoken opponent of desegregation busing and feminism.
In 1965, Yorty was reelected over Democratic Congressman James Roosevelt, son of the late President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt's campaign put up hundreds of billboards, handed out bales of bumper stickers and buttons, appeared often on television with 15-minute and half-hour shows, and was featured in so many other spots that his large presence in electronic media was criticized. Roosevelt's campaign cost around $450,000, but Yorty spent less than half that amount. Roosevelt called Yorty a stooge of Democrat Jesse "Big Daddy" Unruh, the controversial California Assembly speaker. He attacked Yorty's membership in a segregated private club and repeatedly criticized Yorty for having a bad temper. The often-irascible Yorty held his temper throughout the campaign, seeming almost cool in contrast to Roosevelt. He pointed to the fact that he had cut city taxes, streamlined city government and improved garbage pickups. He outpolled Roosevelt 392,775 (57.9 percent) to 247,313 (36.5 percent), with the remainder of votes going to six other candidates on the ballot.
Although Yorty was the first mayor to have a female deputy, Marion W. La Follette, and the first to have a racially integrated staff, his appeal did not extend to most of the city's large African-American population. Disaffection with high unemployment and racism contributed to the Watts Riots of August 11–17, 1965. Yorty's administration was criticized for failing to cooperate with efforts to improve conditions in neighborhoods such as Watts, but he accused other leaders of raising false hopes and of action by Communist agitators, having always categorically rejected any criticism of the city's police or fire departments.
After the riots, Yorty challenged incumbent Democratic Governor Edmund G. (Pat) Brown in the 1966 gubernatorial primary. He received 981,088 votes (37.6%) to Brown's 1,355,262 (51.9). Yorty's politics shifted toward the right. This change became evident when he joined the election-night celebration of Brown's successful opponent, Ronald W. Reagan. Yorty went to Vietnam to support the American troops and was thereafter dubbed "Saigon Sam" by his liberal opponents.
In 1967, Yorty was forced to deal with scandal after the Los Angeles Times published an exposé on the city's harbor commission. The investigation led to the indictment and conviction of four city commissioners for bribery, while another was found dead in Los Angeles Harbor. The newspaper, which had long feuded with the mayor, noted that all of the individuals had been appointed by Yorty.
Support among the white middle classes fell after Yorty was embroiled in the controversy following the 1968 assassination of Robert F. Kennedy at the Ambassador Hotel. Yorty outraged prosecutors in the case by freely commenting on the evidence. Kennedy had told his supporters only moments before he was shot, "Mayor Yorty has just sent me a message that we've been here too long already."
During the fall of 1968, Yorty refused to endorse Democratic presidential candidate Hubert Humphrey. The strategy behind this approach was that Yorty would be rewarded with a cabinet post by Richard Nixon for his lack of support of Humphrey, but Nixon declined to offer him a position in the new administration. Continuing their adversarial relationship, the Times published an editorial cartoon by Paul Conrad lampooning this failure and Yorty responded with an unsuccessful lawsuit.
In the 1969 mayoral primary, Yorty's popularity slipped well below that of Los Angeles City Council member Tom Bradley. The ensuing campaign between Yorty and Bradley, directed for Yorty by Henry Salvatori, proved one of the most bitter in the city's history. Yorty painted his opponent as a dangerous radical, alternately of the black power or Communist revolutionary varieties. The charges were not plausible since Bradley had spent much of his career in the Los Angeles Police Department, but they resonated among fearful voters, and Yorty was re-elected.
Despite winning another four years, Yorty showed obvious signs of boredom in his position. He ran again for governor in 1970 but was handily defeated in the Democratic primary by State Assembly Speaker Jesse Unruh, 1,602,690 (61.4 percent) to 659,494 (26.3 percent). Unruh in turn was defeated by Reagan, who secured his second term as governor by a narrower margin than his 1966 majority over Pat Brown. Yorty began to leave all but the most important decisions to his staff.
After spending almost 40 percent of his time away from Los Angeles during the last half of 1971, Yorty announced on November 15 of that year that he was running for the Democratic nomination for President in 1972. Yorty had received strong support from influential New Hampshire publisher William Loeb, stating that President Nixon had "caved in" to anti-war senators and that he had never agreed with the government's policy on the war. In response to the question of what he would do, Yorty noted that Dwight Eisenhower had helped bring an end to the Korean War by threatening to use nuclear weapons.
However, Yorty received just six percent of the vote in the New Hampshire primary and was never able to gain any momentum in his bid for the nomination. He finally ended his bid shortly before the California primary in June 1972, asking voters to support Humphrey because of the "radical" nature of anti-Vietnam War candidate George McGovern. Yorty picked up the support of a young Louisiana delegate to the Democratic convention, Louis E. "Woody" Jenkins. After McGovern won the Democratic nomination for president, Yorty began to support Republicans.
Yorty's previous race-baiting demagoguery came back to haunt him in 1973, when Bradley soundly defeated him in a rematch of their 1969 race. In 1974, he ran fourth in another bid for governor in the Democratic primary, far behind then-Secretary of State Jerry Brown, son of Pat Brown.
Later career
After leaving office, Yorty hosted a talk show on KCOP-TV for five years, later complaining that he was canceled in favor of the television program Hee Haw. After leaving work on the small screen, he returned to the political arena, but failed in a comeback bid for the Republican nomination for the U.S. Senate in 1980, having been defeated by the conservative Paul Gann, who in turn was badly beaten by incumbent liberal Democrat Alan Cranston. In 1981, Yorty failed again in a bid to unseat Bradley.
Afterward, Yorty retired from public life, aside from being a rainmaker for several law firms. He suffered a stroke on May 24, 1998, then contracted pneumonia. After treatment at the Encino-Tarzana Regional Medical Center, he was sent to his Studio City, California home, where he died on the morning of June 5, the 30th anniversary of Robert Kennedy's assassination and three months before Yorty's old rival, Tom Bradley, died. Prior to his death, Yorty had told his wife that he wanted no funeral service.
Legacy
In 1997, a survey of urban historians and political scientists conducted by Melvin Holli at the University of Illinois at Chicago rated Yorty the third-worst U.S. big-city mayor since 1960.
See also
Eighty-second United States Congress
Eighty-third United States Congress
Membership discrimination in California social clubs
Norris Poulson
Marguerite P. Justice, the second woman, and the first black woman to be named to the Los Angeles Police Commission, appointed by Yorty.
Tom Bradley
Watts Riots
City Council President L.E. Timberlake, often the acting mayor while Yorty was away from the state
References
Further reading
External links
Time: Mayor Yorty Cover, September 2, 1966
"Yorty's Chortle", Time Magazine. April 16, 1965
Author, Jennifer. "Sam Yorty Dead At 88", CNN, June 5, 1998
Meyerson, Harold. "Sam Yorty, 1909-1998", LA Weekly, June 12, 1998
Pearson, Richard. "Combative Politician Sam Yorty Dies at 88", The Washington Post, June 7, 1998
Oral history interview on California politics
City of Los Angeles archives for the Yorty administration
Join California Sam Yorty
Mayors of Los Angeles
Members of the California State Assembly
Members of the United States House of Representatives from California
1909 births
1998 deaths
Politicians from Lincoln, Nebraska
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
California Democrats
California Republicans
Military personnel from California
United States Army Air Forces officers
Candidates in the 1964 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1972 United States presidential election
20th-century American politicians
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
People from Studio City, Los Angeles |
357069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Whiting%20Boardman | William Whiting Boardman | William Whiting Boardman (October 10, 1794 – August 27, 1871) was a politician and United States Representative from Connecticut.
Biography
Born in New Milford, Connecticut, William Whiting Boardman was the son of Senator Elijah Boardman and Mary Ann Whiting Boardman; and nephew of David Sherman Boardman. He was an early graduate of Bacon Academy in Colchester, Connecticut. He graduated from Yale College in 1812 and then studied law first in Cambridge for some time and then at the Litchfield Law School in 1816 and 1817, before being admitted to the bar in 1818. He opened a law office in New Haven in 1820. His first major position was as a Judge of Probate in New Haven, Connecticut from 1825 to 1829.
Career
Boardman served as clerk of the Connecticut State Senate in 1820. His first major position was as a Judge of Probate in New Haven, Connecticut from 1825 to 1829. He was a member of the Connecticut State Senate for the fourth district from 1830 to 1832.
A member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from 1836 to 1839, in 1845, and from 1849 to 1851, he served as Speaker of the Connecticut State House of Representatives in 1836, 1839, and 1845.
Boardman was a delegate to Whig National Convention from Connecticut in 1839 and was a member of the Balloting Committee, and served as speaker. He was chosen as a Whig to the Twenty-sixth Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of William L. Storrs; reelected to the Twenty-seventh Congress and served from December 7, 1840, to March 3, 1843. He was chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds during the Twenty-seventh Congress.
As a member of the Governor's Foot Guard, Boardman rose to the rank of major. In 1864, he was member of the Common Council of New Haven City. He was a trustee of Trinity College from 1832 until 1871 and acted as the president of both the Gas Light Company of New Haven and the New Haven Water Company. He was member of the Episcopal Church and held offices among which were: Warden and vestryman of Trinity Church on the Green, New Haven; trustee of the General, Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church; Trustee of the Cheshire Academy; President of the Board of Bishops' Fund. He was a founder and Vice President of the General Hospital Society of New Haven (now called Yale New Haven Hospital). On July 28, 1857, he married Lucy Hall of Poland, Ohio. He and his wife had no children.
In 1897 Boardman's sister in law Mrs. Mary P. Wade gave Trinity Church on the Green, New Haven, Connecticut, an opalescent glass a window by the L.C. Tiffany Company in memory of William W. Boardman and Lucy H. Boardman. Trinity Church on the Green, New Haven, Connecticut.
Death
William Whiting Boardman died in New Haven, Connecticut of acute bronchitis, on August 27, 1871 (age 76 years) and is interred at Grove Street Cemetery.
References
Bibliography
(1871). "Obituary: William Whiting Boardman." New York Times. August 29, 1871.
(1880). Obituary Record of Graduates. New Haven: Yale University.
"William Whiting Boardman." Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
External links
1794 births
1871 deaths
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut
Connecticut state senators
Speakers of the Connecticut House of Representatives
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Connecticut Whigs
Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives
19th-century American politicians
Yale College alumni
Bacon Academy alumni |
357071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buonamico%20Buffalmacco | Buonamico Buffalmacco | Buonamico di [son of] Martino or Buonamico Buffalmacco (active c. 1315–1336) was an Italian painter who worked in Florence, Bologna and Pisa. Although none of his known work has survived, he is widely assumed to be the painter of a most influential fresco cycle in the Camposanto in Pisa, featuring The Three Dead and the Three Living, the Triumph of Death, the Last Judgement, the Hell, and the Thebais (several episodes from the lives of the Holy Fathers in the Desert). Painted some ten years before the Black Death spread over Europe in 1348, the cycle - a "painted sermon" (L. Bolzoni) - enjoyed an extraordinary success after that date, and was often imitated throughout Italy. The youngsters' party enjoying themselves in a beautiful garden while Death piles mounds of corpses all around is likely to have inspired the setting of Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron, written a few years after the Black Death.
Boccaccio (in his Decameron) and Franco Sacchetti (in his Il trecentonovelle) both describe Buonamico as being a practical joker. Boccaccio features Buonamico along with his friends and fellow painters Calandrino and Bruno in several tales (Day VIII, tales 3, 6, and 9; Day IX, tales 3 and 5). Typically in these stories, Buonamico uses his wits to play tricks on his friends and associates: convincing Calandrino that a stone he possesses (heliotrope) confers invisibility (VIII/3), stealing a pig from Calandrino (VIII, 6), convincing the physician Master Simone of an opportunity to ally himself with the devil (VIII, 9), convincing Calandrino that he has become pregnant (IX, 3), convincing Calandrino that a particular scroll can cause a woman to fall in love with him (IX, 5). Throughout the stories, Buonamico is frequently depicted at work painting in the houses of notable gentlemen in Florence but eager to take time to eat, drink and be merry.
Giorgio Vasari includes a biography of Buonamico in his Lives, in which he tells several anecdotes about his comic escapades. Vasari tells of Buonamico's youthful tricking of his master Tafi during his apprenticeship, various pranks and tricks that Buonamico played on his patrons, and his habit of embedding texts within his paintings. Dismissed by Vasari as just another of the witty painter's gags, which his "clumsy" contemporaries had misunderstood and foolishly imitated, the Camposanto frescoes are actually scattered with texts, a possible indication of the veracity of Vasari's remark. In the scroll over the cripple beggars in the center of The Triumph of Death, for instance, it says, "Since prosperity has completely deserted us, O Death, you who are the medicine for all pain, come to give us our last supper."
One of the Egyptian desert recluses, St Macarius the Great, a disciple of St Anthony the Great, is depicted on the right edge of the scene. A group of leisurely aristocrats and their animals occupy the central part of the fresco. These rich young men and women riding horses, surrounded by their decorative hunting dogs have gone on a pleasant journey. But suddenly, their path, somewhere deep in the wood, is barred by three open sarcophagi with bodies in different degrees of decomposition. Everybody in the scene including men, women and even the animals are horrified by this terrible and palpable presence of Death. The unsupportable stench hits their noses. The abhorring scene of cruel Truth dismays them. Only the wise and powerful by his faith St Macarius the Great, stands above them all. The mystic Saint man teaches the youngsters a lesson about life and death by reading from the scroll.
Vasari discusses various paintings by the artist which no longer exist, and many of which had already perished by the time of Vasari's writing in the sixteenth century. He describes a series of paintings at the convent of Faenza in Florence (already destroyed by the sixteenth century), works for the abbey of Settimo (now also lost), tempera paintings for the monks of the abbey of Certosa (also in Florence), and frescoes in the Badia at Florence. He describes a series of paintings depicting the life of Saint Catherine of Siena in a chapel in her honor in Assisi at the Basilica of Saint Francis (an attribution rejected by later scholars), and several prominent commissions at various abbeys and convents in Pisa. Vasari does not attribute the famed Pisan frescoes now associated with Buonamico to the painter, but rather, credits him with four frescoes at the Camposanto depicting the beginning of the world through the building of Noah's Ark, which later scholars have instead attributed to Piero di Puccio of Orvieto.
Vasari presents conflicting information regarding Buonamico's death, dating it to the year 1340, but also stating that he was still alive in 1351. In any case, he is said to have died at the age of 78, in poverty, and to have been buried at the hospital of Santa Maria Novella, in Florence.
Notes
References
Land, Norman, “Vasari’s Buffalmacco and the Transubstantiation of Paint,” Renaissance Quarterly, 58 (2005): 881-895.
See also
Calandrino
14th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Tuscany
Characters in The Decameron
Year of death uncertain
Year of birth unknown |
357072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingman%20Brewster%20Jr. | Kingman Brewster Jr. | Kingman Brewster Jr. (June 17, 1919 – November 8, 1988) was an American educator, president of Yale University, and diplomat.
Early life
Brewster was born in Longmeadow, Massachusetts, the son of Florence Foster (née Besse), a 1907 Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Wellesley College, and Kingman Brewster Sr., a 1906 Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Amherst College and a 1911 graduate of the Harvard Law School. He was a direct lineal descendant of Elder William Brewster (c. 1567 – April 10, 1644), the Mayflower passenger, Pilgrim colonist leader, and spiritual elder of the Plymouth Colony, through his son Jonathan Brewster. He was also descended from Mayflower passenger John Howland. He was a grandson of Charles Kingman Brewster and Celina Sophia Baldwin, and Lyman Waterman Besse and Henrietta Louisa Segee. His maternal grandfather, Lyman W. Besse, owned an extensive chain of clothing stores in the Northeast known as "The Besse System."
In 1923, when he was four, his parents separated and later divorced. He and his surviving sister, Mary, were raised by their mother first in Springfield, Massachusetts and later in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His mother was a firm influence but never overbearing. One of Brewster's friends characterized her as "one of those people whose presence you always felt when she was in the room." Another friend remembered that "she knew poetry, she knew music, she knew art, she knew architecture, and believe me, she knew Kingman."
Brewster wrote that his mother was a "marvelously speculative and philosophical type," a "free-thinking spirit... given to far-out enthusiasms and delighting in sprightly arguments with her more intellectually-conventional friends.
His mother remarried in 1932 to Edward Ballantine, a music professor at Harvard University and composer she had known since childhood. Ballantine had no children of his own and was not interested in a parental role. Brewster's uncle, Arthur Besse, stepped into the role of surrogate father.
Marriage and family
In 1942, while serving in the armed services, Brewster married Mary Louise Phillips in Jacksonville, Florida. Phillips was born August 30, 1920 in Providence, Rhode Island, the daughter of Mary and Eugene James Phillips, (he was a 1905 graduate of Yale College, and a 1907 graduate of Yale Law School). She graduated in 1939 from the Wheeler School and attended but did not graduate from Vassar College. She died on April 14, 2004 at her home in Combe, Berkshire, England, at 83. She was buried next to her husband in the Grove Street Cemetery.
Brewster and his wife had five children. Their granddaughter is actress Jordana Brewster. His first cousin was Janet Huntington Brewster (September 18, 1910 –December 18, 1998) who was an American philanthropist, writer, radio broadcaster, and relief worker during World War II in London. She was married to Edward R. Murrow (April 25, 1908 – April 27, 1965) who was an American broadcast journalist. His uncle, Stanley King, (May 11, 1883 – April 28, 1951) was the eleventh president of Amherst College, from 1932 to 1946.
Education and war years
After graduating from Belmont Hill School in Massachusetts, Brewster entered Yale College , joining the newly established Timothy Dwight residential college and graduating in 1941. Then, he became chairman of the Yale Daily News. During his junior year, he turned down an offer of membership in Skull and Bones becoming a legend in Yale undergraduate lore.
Like many students at the time, he was an ardent opponent of the US entering World War II and was an outspoken noninterventionist. He idolized fellow antiwar activist Charles Lindbergh, was entranced by Lindbergh's Trans-Atlantic flight, and remained (in his words) "bug-eyed about aviation" his entire life. He invited Lindbergh in 1940 to speak at Yale. At the time of the invitation, Lindbergh was the nation's best-known isolationist and the most prominent private citizen opposed to the war. He and Lindbergh strategized on the America First Committee, which Brewster had founded, along with other students at Yale, after the fall of France.
The founding members of the AFC included many of the East Coast universities' best and the brightest, from valedictorians to football all-Americans to campus newspaper editors. Many of the men later achieved national reputations. They included future President Gerald Ford; the first director of the Peace Corps, Sargent Shriver; future Supreme Court justice Potter Stewart, and US Representative Jonathan Brewster Bingham. The AFC became the most prominent organization in the struggle to keep America out of the European war.
Brewster also took great care to ensure that the noninterventionist movement on campus was not led by social outcasts or malcontents but by "students who had attained relative respect and prominence during their undergraduate years." He emphasized repeatedly that his group represented mainstream campus opinion and that its views were "in agreement with the great majority of Americans of all ages."
Before the end of his senior year, he had officially resigned from the committee after the passage of the Lend-Lease Act. He said at the time, "I still believe it outrageous to commit this country to the outcome of the war abroad and wish to limit that commitment as much as possible," he wrote Potter Stewart. However, "the question from now on is not one of principle it is one of military strategy and administrative policy."
Since the passage of Lend-Lease into law, "there is no room for an avowed pressure group huing a dogmatic line. Whether we like it or not America has decided what its ends are, and the question of means is not longer a legislative matter. A national pressure group therefore is not aiming to determine policy, it is seeking to obstruct it. I cannot be a part of that effort."
With the attack on Pearl Harbor on the morning of December 7, 1941, he immediately volunteered for service in the US Navy. During World War II he was a Navy aviator and flew on submarine-hunting patrols over the Atlantic. He served in the Navy from 1942 to 1946. After the war he entered Harvard Law School, becoming note editor and treasurer of the Harvard Law Review. In 1948, he received his law degree magna cum laude from Harvard Law School.
Career
Marshall Plan
Brewster's first job after graduating was to accompany Professor Milton Katz to Paris, France, to serve as his assistant at the European headquarters of the Marshall Plan. Professor Katz, was a teacher and scholar of international law at Harvard Law School and the administrator of the United States Marshall Plan. Though he flourished in the job, he stayed only one year. He returned in 1949, on Katz's advice, to be a research associate in MIT's Department of Economics and Social Science.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
From 1949 and 1950, Brewster was a research associate in the Department of Economics and Social Science at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Harvard University
From 1950 to 1953, he was an assistant professor of law at Harvard University. From 1953 to 1960, he was a full professor at Harvard Law School.
Yale
In 1960, Brewster accepted the post of provost at Yale, serving from 1960 to 1963. After the death of Yale's president, A. Whitney Griswold, despite the fact that Brewster was considered Griswold's logical successor, Yale conducted a lengthy, open, and (for Brewster) agonizing search, which lasted five months. On October 11, 1963, the Yale Corporation offered him the presidency by a vote of 13–2; the opposition came from two senior members of the Yale Corporation, who feared that the liberal Republican would push too hard for change in their beloved institution. He served as president of Yale University from 1963 to 1977.
Brewster was known for the improvements he made to Yale's faculty, curriculum, and admissions policies. He was president of the University when Yale began admitting women as undergraduates. Academic programs in various disciplines were expanded. He was also president when the faculty voted to terminate academic credit for the Reserve Officers Training Corps program in June 1971 because of the belief that the program made the University complicit in the war in Vietnam. Alumni relations grew testy at times, but fundraising increased throughout his tenure.
Brewster's appointment of liberal theologian Rev. William Sloane Coffin to the post of university chaplain is described in Coffin's autobiography, Once to Every Man. After his appointment, Coffin, a former CIA operative, Williams College chaplain and Skull & Bones alum, became an ardent antiwar activist. In 1967, along with Benjamin Spock, Yale 1925, he organized a mass protest in Boston, Massachusetts, and then sent hundreds of draft cards back to the US Justice Department in Washington, D.C. When Brewster defended Coffin, who was arrested in 1968 with Spock for encouraging draft resistance, he did so citing academic freedom. The action only complicated his dealings with an increasingly-wary alumni association.
Brewster was chairman of the National Policy Panel of the United Nations in 1968. He was a member of the President's Commission on Selective Service in 1966 and 1967 and of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice from 1965 to 1967.
Wallace affair
In 1963, Governor George Wallace was invited by the Yale Political Union to speak at Yale. Brewster asked the Yale Political Union to revoke its invitation for security reasons. The result was a massive outcry across campus. The Woodward Report on free speech, commissioned by Brewster in 1974 was issued in 1975. Historian C. Vann Woodward chaired the committee, which labeled the so-called "Wallace Affair" an outright failure.
Black Panthers
On April 23, 1970, during the New Haven Black Panther trials, Brewster spoke to the faculty at Yale. His remarks, which were leaked to the press, made that a day which would follow him for the rest of his life: "I am appalled and ashamed that things should have come to such a pass in this country that I am skeptical of the ability of black revolutionaries to achieve a fair trial anywhere in the United States." This remark, made one week before the tumultuous May Day protests of the Black Panther trials, was decried in editorials and speeches across the country. Vice President Spiro T. Agnew jumped into the fray calling for Brewster's immediate resignation.
McGeorge Bundy, the president of the Ford Foundation, addressed the Yale Club of Boston just days before the May Day demonstrations and assured his fellow alumni that "one of the things I have observed about my friend Brewster is that he will deal with anyone and surrender his responsibilities to nobody."
Brewster inevitably would be judged on May Day's outcome because he had opened his university to all those coming to New Haven to support the Panthers, even offering them food and shelter. Brewster knew that in the face of potential catastrophe, he had the support of other leaders cast from the same mold: friends and colleagues who shared his background and outlook.
On May 1, 1970, at ten minutes before midnight, bombers exploded three devices in the Yale hockey rink. Protesters threw rocks and bottles at the National Guardsmen and taunted the New Haven police. The authorities responded by tear-gassing the demonstrators. Yale chaplain, William Sloane Coffin, stated, "All of us conspired to bring on this tragedy by law enforcement agencies by their illegal acts against the Panthers, and the rest of us by our immoral silence in front of these acts." Fortunately, there were no fatalities that evening.
President Richard Nixon commenting on the events of May 1, 1970 to the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, stated that to be fair to the students, they were not entirely to be blamed for their actions that day: "What can we expect of students if a person in that position and of that stature (Brewster) engages in such acts?" Henry Kissinger, sitting just a few chairs away, mused aloud that Brewster was the one man whose assassination would benefit the United States. It was Brewster's handling of the May Day demonstrations and his actions after the crisis that made him a target of the Nixon White House.
Vietnam War
He is also well known for his skillful handling of the student protests on the Yale campus during the Vietnam War era, a war that he openly criticized and opposed. He never allowed such convictions to disrupt the University's operations, especially classes. His bold stewardship of the University during an era of political unrest is widely regarded as successful.
On May 12, 1972, Brewster made a public statement, printed in full on the front page of the Yale Daily News, prior to a campus visit by Richard Nixon's Secretary of State William P. Rogers. He is at once uncompromising about upholding free speech and unrestrained in showing his discontent with the Nixon administration. Brewster, on the one hand, threatened to expel students who might bar Rogers from speaking. Still, he also said that he "expects" disciplined picketing and asked that students appropriately protest Rogers's appearance. In the end, Rogers unexpectedly canceled his appearance for unknown reasons.
Admissions
As Yale's president, he appointed R. Inslee Clark Jr. ("Inky") as Director of Undergraduate Admissions. Under his tenure, he established academic credentials in the admissions process and the proportion of undergraduate African-Americans, Jews, and public high school graduates at Yale rose. Despite the alumni outrage over these policy changes, Clark held the position from 1965 to 1970.
No aspect of Brewster's presidency stirred more anger and debate than the overhaul of Yale's undergraduate admissions policy in the 1960s. He also had made it clear from the beginning of his presidency that he was not going to preside over a finishing school on Long Island Sound. Admissions became the battleground over the university's true purpose. The outcome of the battle, which was felt far beyond New Haven, was only a part of larger struggles in American society, the thorny debate over race, class, gender and leadership.
Diplomacy
While serving as Yale's president, he was nominated by President Jimmy Carter on April 7, 1977 to serve as U.S. Ambassador to the Court of St James's. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on April 29, 1977 and he served from 1977 to 1981.
Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, a member of the Yale Corporation, and a close personal friend, recommended him to President Carter for the position. Despite his lack of diplomatic experience, the British press was pleased with the appointment, calling Brewster potentially the best ambassador since David K. E. Bruce. They described him as a "New England Patrician" and expressed delight at his gold ring with his family motto in Norman French. "My role," he said at the time, "is trying to advise my Government on British attitudes and concerns in the fullest way possible."
He wasted no time in beginning his new responsibilities. He was called to step in and resolve difficulties between United Nations Ambassador Andrew Young and the British Foreign Office. This was followed by smoothing out American/British difficulties over policy toward Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), which helped lead to the end of minority white rule in that country. He reveled in the "good life" of London and took advantage of the range of social occasions from dinner with Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom to quaffing a pint of ale in a working class pub, saying, "Becoming aware of the richness and variety here is a lot of fun."
Later career
After stepping down as ambassador in 1981, Brewster was associated with the New York-based law firm of Winthrop, Stimson, Putnam & Roberts. In 1984, he became its resident partner in London. In 1986, Brewster served as a Special Master in the free agency case of NBA forward Albert King of the New Jersey Nets, ultimately ruling King could be a free agent.
Master of University College, Oxford
In 1986, Brewster was appointed Master of University College, Oxford, serving from 1986 until his death in Oxford in 1988. During this period, he was also the chairman of the Board of the United World Colleges.
Death
He died on November 8, 1988, at John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford, England. He was buried in the Grove Street Cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut.
In popular culture
He is thought to be the inspiration of Garry Trudeau's fictional character, President King, in the popular comic strip Doonesbury.
Honors
Brewster was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1956. He received several honorary Doctor of Laws degrees. They were awarded by Princeton University in 1964, the University of Pennsylvania in 1965, Boston College in 1968, Michigan State University in 1969, and Yale University in 1977.
Brewster received honorary degrees from 11 British universities while he was ambassador. He received an honorary doctorate from University of Cambridge in 1978 and became the second American master of University College, Oxford in 1985.
Works
He is the author of Anti-trust and American Business Abroad (1969) and coauthor of Law of International Transactions and Relations (1960).
Archives
Kingman Brewster, Jr., president of Yale University, records (RU 11). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
Kingman Brewster personal papers (MS 572). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
References
Sources
Cutter, W.R. (1910). Genealogical and personal memoirs relating to the families of the state of Massachusetts. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Company
Jones, Emma C. Brewster. (1908). The Brewster Genealogy, 1566–1907: a Record of the Descendants of William Brewster of the "Mayflower," ruling elder of the Pilgrim church which founded Plymouth Colony in 1620. New York: Grafton Press.
Kabaservice, Geoffrey. (2004). The Guardians: Kingman Brewster, His Circle, and the Rise of the Liberal Establishment. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ; 53145580
Karabel, Jerome. The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, 2005.
Kelley, Brooks Mather. (1999). Yale: A History. New Haven: Yale University Press. ; OCLC 810552
Sperber, A.M. "Murrow: His Life and Times". New York: Freundlich Books, 1986. Reprinted by Fordham University Press, 1998.
External links
Brewster, Kingman Jr. in Encyclopædia Britannica
"The Birth of a New Institution: How two Yale presidents and their admissions directors tore up the "old blueprint" to create a modern Yale" (Yale Alumni Magazine, December, 1999)
Brewster, Kingman Jr. in Encyclopædia Britannica
"Kingman Brewster's Leadership" by Bharat Ayyar A Student Curated Exhibit, Yale University Library (Spring 2009)
Profile at NNDB
"Brewster's Legacy: God, Country and Yale" by Sarah Raymond in the Yale Herald (1 October 2004)
1919 births
1988 deaths
People from Longmeadow, Massachusetts
American people of English descent
Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom
Harvard Law School alumni
Harvard Law School faculty
Masters of University College, Oxford
Presidents of Yale University
Yale University 1900s(Decade) alumni
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Massachusetts Republicans
Belmont Hill School alumni
20th-century American diplomats
United States Navy pilots of World War II
Military personnel from Massachusetts |
357074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Mead | Lake Mead | Lake Mead is a reservoir formed by the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River in the Southwestern United States. It is located in the states of Nevada and Arizona, east from Las Vegas Strip. It is the largest reservoir in the United States in terms of water capacity. Formed by the Hoover Dam on September 30, 1935, the reservoir serves water to the states of Arizona, California, and Nevada, as well as some of Mexico, providing sustenance to nearly 20 million people and large areas of farmland.
At maximum capacity, Lake Mead is long and at its greatest depth. Lake Mead has a surface elevation of above sea level. The surface area is , and Lake Mead contains of water.
The lake has remained below full capacity since 1983 due to drought and increased water demand. , Lake Mead held 35.17% of full capacity at , dropping below the reservoir's previous all-time low of recorded in July 2016. In a draft 2022 Colorado River annual operating plan, released by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, a "Shortage Condition" is expected to be declared for 2022, due to the lake level falling below , which will result in a projected curtailment in downstream water delivery.
History
The lake was named after Elwood Mead who was the commissioner of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation from 1924 to 1936, during the planning and construction of the Boulder Canyon Project that created the dam and lake. Lloyd Joseph Hudlow, an engineer with the Bureau of Reclamation, came to Boulder City in March 1933 to assist in the survey, and ended up as the project manager.
Lake Mead was established as the Boulder Dam Recreation Area in 1936, administered by the National Park Service. The name was changed to the Lake Mead National Recreation Area in 1947, and Lake Mohave and the Shivwits Plateau were later added to its jurisdiction. Both lakes and the surrounding area offer year-round recreation options.
The accumulated water from Hoover Dam forced the evacuation of several communities, most notably St. Thomas, Nevada, the last resident of which left the town in 1938. The ruins of St. Thomas are sometimes visible when the water level in Lake Mead drops below normal. Lake Mead also covered the sites of the Colorado River landings of Callville and Rioville, Nevada, and the river crossing of Bonelli's Ferry, between Arizona and Nevada.
At lower water levels, a high-water mark, or "bathtub ring", is visible in photos that show the shoreline of Lake Mead. The bathtub ring is white because of the deposition of minerals on previously submerged surfaces.
Geography
Nine main access points to the lake are available. On the west are three roads from the Las Vegas metropolitan area. Access from the north-west from Interstate 15 is through the Valley of Fire State Park and the Moapa River Indian Reservation to the Overton Arm of the lake.
The lake is divided into several bodies. The large body closest to the Hoover Dam is Boulder Basin. The narrow channel, which was once known as Boulder Canyon and is now known as The Narrows, connects Boulder Basin to Virgin Basin to the east. The Virgin River and Muddy River empty into the Overton Arm, which is connected to the northern part of the Virgin Basin. The next basin to the east is Temple Basin, and following that is Gregg Basin, which is connected to the Temple Basin by the Virgin Canyon. When the lake levels are high enough, a section of the lake farther upstream from the Gregg Basin is flooded, which includes Grand Wash Bay, the Pearce Ferry Bay and launch ramp, and about of the Colorado River within the lower Grand Canyon, extending to the foot of 240 Mile Rapids (north of Peach Springs, Arizona). In addition, two small basins, the Muddy River Inlet and the Virgin River Basin, are flooded when the lake is high enough where these two rivers flow into the lake. As of February 2015, these basins remain dry.
Jagged mountain ranges surround the lake, offering a scenic backdrop, especially at sunset. Two mountain ranges are within view of the Boulder Basin, the River Mountains, oriented northwest to southeast and the Muddy Mountains, oriented west to northeast. Bonelli Peak lies to the east of the Virgin Basin.
Las Vegas Bay is the terminus for the Las Vegas Wash which is the sole outflow from the Las Vegas Valley.
Drought and water usage issues
Lake Mead receives the majority of its water from snow melt in the Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah Rocky Mountains. Inflows to the lake are largely moderated by the upstream Glen Canyon Dam, which is required to release of water each year to Lake Mead. Hoover Dam is required to release of water each year, with the difference made up by tributaries that join the Colorado below Glen Canyon or flow into Lake Mead. Outflow, which includes evaporation and delivery to Arizona, California, Nevada, and Mexico from Lake Mead is generally in the range of , resulting in a net annual deficit of about .
Before the filling of Lake Powell (a reservoir of similar size to Lake Mead) behind Glen Canyon Dam, the Colorado River flowed largely unregulated into Lake Mead, making Mead more vulnerable to drought. From 1953 to 1956, the water level fell from . During the filling of Lake Powell from 1963 to 1965, the water level fell from . Many wet years from the 1970s to the 1990s filled both lakes to capacity, reaching a record high of in the summer of 1983.
In these decades prior to 2000, Glen Canyon Dam frequently released more than the required to Lake Mead each year. That allowed Lake Mead to maintain a high water level despite releasing significantly more water than it is contracted for. However, since 2000, the Colorado River has experienced the southwestern North American megadrought, with average or above-average conditions occurring in only five years (2005, 2008–2009, 2011 and 2014) in the first 16 years of the 21st century. Of any 16 year period in the last 60 years, 2000-2015 had the lowest water availability. Although Glen Canyon was able to meet its required minimum release until 2014, the water level in Lake Mead has steadily declined. The decreasing water level is due to the loss of the surplus water that once made up for the annual overdraft.
In June 2010, the lake was at 39% of its capacity, and on November 30, 2010, it reached , setting a new record monthly low. From mid-May 2011 to January 22, 2012, Lake Mead's water elevation increased from after a heavy snowmelt in the Rocky Mountains prompted the release of an extra from Glen Canyon into Lake Mead.
In 2012 and 2013, the Colorado River basin experienced its worst consecutive water years on record, prompting a low Glen Canyon release in 2014 – the lowest since 1963, during the initial filling of Lake Powell – in the interest of recovering the level of the upstream reservoir, which had fallen to less than 40% capacity as a result of the drought. Consequently, Lake Mead's level fell significantly, reaching a new record low in 2014, 2015 and 2016. In 2014, its record low was on July 10, 2014. On June 23, 2015, Lake Mead reached another new record low when it briefly fell below , the first official "drought trigger" elevation, for the first time since the lake was filled. If the lake is below this elevation at the beginning of the water year, an official shortage declaration by the Bureau of Reclamation will enforce water rationing in Arizona and Nevada. The water year begins October 1 to coincide with seasonal Rocky Mountain snowfall, which produces most of the Colorado River's flow.
Lake Mead's water level rebounded a few feet by October 2015 and avoided triggering the drought restrictions. However, the water level started falling in Spring 2016 and fell below the drought trigger level of 1,075 feet again in May 2016. It fell to a new record low of on July 1, 2016 before beginning to rebound slowly. Drought restrictions were narrowly avoided again when the lake level rose above 1,075 feet on September 28, 2016, three days before the deadline, and the Bureau of Land Reclamation did not issue a shortage declaration.
A reprieve from the steady annual decline occurred in 2017, when lake levels rose throughout the year due to heavier than normal snowfall in the Rocky Mountains. As a result of the large snowmelt, the lake regained the water levels it had in 2015 with a seasonal high of . The seasonal low of in 2017 was close to that experienced in 2014, safely above the drought trigger. However, that level was still below the seasonal low experienced in 2012, and the lake was projected to begin falling again in 2018.
Despite those and other predictions of an impending shortage determination by 2020, snowpack of 140% of average in the Upper Colorado River basin as of April 2019 resulted in 128% above average inflow into Lake Powell, resulting in water level on Lake Mead. In December 2019, Lake Mead water level reached , about above projections. As of April, 2020, the water level stood at , again benefiting from above average mountain snowpack (107% of average). Since 2018, Lake Mead water levels have remained well above the level that would trigger a shortage determination. In May 2020, the Bureau of Reclamation expected that the continued Colorado River basin drought would yield a Lake Mead level of by 2022.
As a result of the decreasing water level, marinas and boat launch ramps have either had to be relocated to another area of the lake or have closed down permanently. The Las Vegas Bay Marina was relocated in 2002 and the Lake Mead Marina was relocated in 2008 to Hemenway Harbor. Overton Marina and Echo Bay Marina have been closed due to low levels in the northern part of the Overton Arm. Government Wash, Las Vegas Bay, and Pearce Ferry boat launch ramps have also been closed. Las Vegas Boat Harbor and Lake Mead Marina in Hemenway Harbor/Horsepower Cove remain open, along with Callville Bay Marina, Temple Bar Marina, Boulder Launch Area (former location of the Lake Mead Marina) and the South Cove launch ramp.
Changing rainfall patterns, climate variability, high levels of evaporation, reduced snow melt runoff, and current water use patterns are putting pressure on water management resources at Lake Mead as the population relying on it for water, and the Hoover Dam for electricity, continues to increase. To lower the minimum lake level necessary to generate electricity from to , Hoover Dam was retrofitted with wide-head turbines, designed to work efficiently with less flow in 2015 and 2016. If water levels continue to drop, Hoover Dam would cease generating electricity when the water level falls below and the lake would stabilize at a level of when the water reaches the lowest water outlet of the dam. In order to ensure that the city of Las Vegas will continue to be able to draw its drinking water from Lake Mead, nearly $1.5 billion was spent on building a new water intake tunnel in the middle of the lake at the elevation of . The tunnel took seven years to build under the lake and was put into operation in late 2015.
Recreation and marinas
Lake Mead provides many types of recreation to locals and visitors. Boating is the most popular. Additional activities include fishing, swimming, sunbathing, and water skiing. Four marinas are located on Lake Mead: Las Vegas Boat Harbor and Lake Mead Marina (in Hemenway Harbor, NV) operated by the Gripentogs, and Callville Bay (in Callville Bay, NV) and Temple Bar (in Arizona), both operated by Guest Services, Inc. The area also has many coves with rocky cliffs and sandy beaches. Several small to medium-sized islands occur in the lake area depending on the water level. In addition, the Alan Bible Visitor Center hosts the Alan Bible Botanical Garden, a small garden of cactus and other plants native to the Mojave Desert. The Grand Wash is a recreational area located in the north side of the lake.
On October 28, 1971 Lake Mead hosted the 1st ever B.A.S.S Bassmaster Classic. This fishing site was a "mystery lake" and the 24 anglers were not told of the location of the tournament until their plane was in the air. The "winner take all" payout of $10,000 was won by Bobby Murray of Arkansas.
The Desert Princess, operated by Lake Mead Cruises, is a three-level paddle wheeler certified by the U.S. Coast Guard to carry 275 passengers. It cruises to the Hoover Dam five days a week.
In popular culture
The 2018 novel Lords of St. Thomas, by Jackson Ellis, tells the story of the last family to vacate the flooded town of St. Thomas in 1938, following construction of the Hoover Dam and creation of Lake Mead.
B-29 crash
At the bottom of the lake is a Boeing B-29 Superfortress that crashed in 1948 while testing a prototype missile guidance system known as "suntracker".
The wreckages of at least two smaller airplanes are also submerged in Lake Mead.
See also
List of drying lakes
List of reservoirs and dams in the United States
References
External links
1935 establishments in Arizona
1935 establishments in Nevada
Colorado River
Mead
Mead
Landmarks in Arizona
Landmarks in Nevada
Mead
Mead
Tourist attractions in Clark County, Nevada
Reservoirs in Nevada |
357075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann%20Buhl | Hermann Buhl | Hermann Buhl (21 September 1924 – 27 June 1957) was an Austrian mountaineer and is considered one of the best climbers of all time. He was particularly innovative in applying Alpine style to Himalayan climbing. His accomplishments include:
1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition – First ascent of Nanga Parbat, 8126 m (26,660 ft) (solo and without bottled oxygen). On the way back from the summit he was forced to stand erect on a rock ledge for the entire night at 8000 m altitude, in order to survive until the following morning.
1957 – First ascent of Broad Peak, 8051 m (26,414 ft).
Early life
Buhl was born in Innsbruck, the youngest of four children. After the death of his mother, he spent years in an orphanage. Before Scouting was banned in Austria, Hermann Buhl was a Cub Scout in Innsbruck. In the 1930s, as a sensitive (and not very healthy) teenager, he began to climb the Austrian Alps. In 1939, he joined the Innsbruck chapter of the Deutscher Alpenverein (the German Alpine association) and soon mastered climbs up to category 6. He was a member of the Mountain rescue team in Innsbruck (Bergrettung Innsbruck).
World War II interrupted his commercial studies, and he joined the Alpine troops, mostly on the Monte Cassino. After being taken prisoner by American troops, he returned to Innsbruck and earned his living doing odd jobs. At the end of the 1940s, he finally completed his training as a mountain guide.
Himalayas
Nanga Parbat
Before his successful 1953 Nanga Parbat expedition, 31 people had died trying to make the first ascent.
Buhl is the only mountaineer to have made the first ascent of an eight-thousander solo. His climbing partner, Otto Kempter, was too slow in joining the ascent, so Buhl struck off alone. He returned 41 hours later, having barely survived the arduous climb to the summit, 6.5 km (4 miles) distant from, and 1.2 km (4,000 feet) higher than, camp V.
Experienced climbers, upon hearing later of Buhl's near-death climb, faulted him for making the attempt solo. Regardless, his monumental efforts, along with spending the night standing on a tiny pedestal too small to squat upon, untethered, on the edge of a 60-degree ice slope, have become mountaineering legend.
Broad Peak
The first ascent of Broad Peak was made between June 8 and 9, 1957, by Fritz Wintersteller, Marcus Schmuck, Kurt Diemberger, and Buhl of an Austrian expedition led by Schmuck. A first attempt by the team had been made on May 29, when Fritz Wintersteller and Kurt Diemberger reached the forepeak (8030 m). This was also accomplished without the aid of supplemental oxygen, high-altitude porters or base camp support.
Chogolisa
Just a few weeks after the successful first ascent of Broad Peak, Buhl and Diemberger made an attempt on nearby, unclimbed Chogolisa (7665 m) in Alpine style. Buhl lost his way in an unexpected snow storm and walked over a huge cornice on the south-east ridge, near the summit of Chogolisa II (7654 m; also known as Bride Peak), subsequently triggering an avalanche that hurled him down 900 m over Chogolisa's north face. His body could not be recovered and remains in the ice.
Legacy
Hermann Buhl is still considered by alpinists and mountaineering historians to be the most complete and advanced mountaineer of his time. His ascents on rock and snow, solo and as a rope leader, his attitude towards the mountain and his physical elegance have been assessed by such contemporary luminaries as Kurt Diemberger, Marcus Schmuck, Heinrich Harrer, Walter Bonatti and Gaston Rébuffat. He was also an idol and hero of climbers of younger generations, such as Reinhold Messner, Peter Habeler and Hansjörg Auer.
Buhl can be considered a pioneer of Alpine style mountaineering in the Himalayas, a style defined by light-weight expedition gear, little to no fixed ropes and the relinquishing of bottled oxygen.
His expedition to Nanga Parbat was dramatized by Donald Shebib in the 1986 film The Climb, based in part on Buhl's own writings about the expedition and starring Bruce Greenwood as Buhl.
Publications
See also
List of famous Austrians
List of Austrian mountaineers
List of climbers
References
External links
Team Member of the Austrian OEAV Karakoram Expedition 1957
Hermann Buhl Page with biography and many photos, in German
1924 births
1957 deaths
Austrian mountain climbers
Mountaineering deaths
Sport deaths in Pakistan
Sportspeople from Innsbruck
Gebirgsjäger of World War II
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United States |
357076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famous%20People%20Players | Famous People Players | Famous People Players is a black light puppetry theatre company. It is based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and tours worldwide. It is a non-profit organization that employs people with physical and intellectual disabilities. Those individuals share duties in dining room management, arts administration, and theatrical and visual arts performances.
Since inception, the company has paid homage to the works of famous people within its own theatrical context, hence the name Famous People Players.
History
The Famous People Players was founded on June 1, 1974, by Diane Dupuy of Hamilton, Ontario. At inception, the company consisted of Dupuy and an assistant, eleven performers, and Dupuy's mother Mary Thornton; Thornton designed and built the costumes and props.
The company's original piece was Aruba Liberace, in which a life-size character of Liberace plays the piano. It is still the company's signature performance. Liberace attended a showing of Aruba Liberace, and was so impressed he invited Famous People Players to perform with him in Las Vegas. The company debuted in Las Vegas in October 1975; over the subsequent ten years, the company performed with Liberace both in Las Vegas and internationally.
As a result of the increasing popularity of Famous People Players, the company was featured as regulars on CBC Television's 1976-1977 variety series, The Wolfman Jack Show; the network also later produced and aired Carnival of the Animals. In 1980, Sorcerer Apprentice premiered at Radio City Music Hall in New York. In 1982, Famous People Players was invited to perform in the People's Republic of China. The company's first Broadway Show, A Little Like Magic, opened at the Lyceum Theatre in New York City and ran for 49 performances in 1985. They returned to New York in 1994 for a 4-week run, under the sponsorship of Phil Collins and actor Paul Newman, where they performed the show A Little More Magic for inner city kids to dream BIG!
Dine and Dream Theatre
In 1994, the company opened the Dine and Dream Theatre; Paul Newman funded the restaurant's development from some of the proceeds of Newman's Own products and Phil Collins funded the theatre's sound system. In 2009, facing the demolition of its 25-year location, the company moved further west to a new location. Despite damage caused by storms and unexpected costs from the city of Toronto, the company survived and opened its first show in its new location on October 23, 2009.
The Dine and Dream Theatre is located at the company's Toronto west-end headquarters. Guests first arrive to the restaurant for dinner, where they are served by individuals who also perform in Famous People Players productions. After dinner, they are led to the Phil Collins Theatre, where the main production is performed. The theatre is named after Phil Collins, who became a source of inspiration for the actors when he viewed a performance interpretation of his music. It is currently the only theatre in Canada exclusively devoted to puppetry performance.
Recognition
The troupe has been subject of numerous talk shows, specials and documentaries. A 1984 CBS movie-of-the-week entitled Special People was based on the company's early history. A Little Like Magic, which detailed the company's operation and success, was an Emmy Award-winning documentary. The company was also featured in the plot of an episode of the popular U.S. television drama 7th Heaven in 2002.
In co-production with Treehouse's "Roll Play" Famous PEOPLE Players program for the juice box set is hugely popular. The theatre troupe first broke into this market with their Toronto Dinner Theatre as a guest spot location for Treehouse kingpin "This is Daniel Cook."
Founder Diane Dupuy has been inducted as a member of the Order of Canada in recognition for her contributions to Canadian society through the company and mother Mary C. Thornton has won many accolades, most recently with The Toastmasters as woman of the year.
Productions
Famous People Players has created many productions over its 45-year history. (Note: The table below is currently incomplete.)
Leave the Porch Light On was the company's first original, full-length musical production and was created for the company's 25th-anniversary. The initial performance of Leave the Porchlight On was attended by a number of celebrities and other well-known people, including the Governor General of Canada. The production was very successful and is still occasionally performed at the company's theatre in Toronto and on tour. A sequel of sorts followed two years later, entitled Hide and Seek: A Game of Human Spirit.
References
External links
Famous People Players
Theatre companies in Toronto
Disability theatre
Puppetry |
357077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio%20Rossellino | Antonio Rossellino | Antonio Gamberelli (1427–1479), nicknamed Antonio Rossellino for the colour of his hair, was an Italian sculptor. His older brother, from whom he received his formal training, was the sculptor and architect Bernardo Rossellino.
Born in Settignano, now a part of Florence, he was the youngest of five brothers, sculptors and stonecutters. He is said to have studied under Donatello and is remarkable for the sharpness and fineness of his bas-relief. His most important works are the funeral monument of (1458) for the Blackfriar Church (today a museum), Forlì, and the monument of Infante James of Coimbra, cardinal of Portugal in the Basilica di San Miniato al Monte, Florence (1461–1467).
The portrait bust of Matteo Palmieri in the Bargello is signed and dated 1468. In 1470 he made the monument for Maria d'Aragona Duchess of Amalfi, in the Piccolomini chapel in Sant'Anna dei Lombardi in Naples; the relief of the Nativity over the altar in the same place is also probably his. A statue of John the Baptist as a boy is in the Bargello; also a delicate relief of the Madonna and Child, an Ecce Homo, and a bust of Francesco Sassetti. The so-called Madonna del Latte on a pillar in the Church of Santa Croce is a memorial to Francesco Nori, who fell by the stab intended for Lorenzo de' Medici. Other reliefs of the Madonna and Child are in the Via della Spada, Florence, and in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. In the latter place is the bust of Giovanni di San Miniato, a doctor of arts and medicine, signed and dated 1456. Working in conjunction with Mino da Fiesole, Rossellino executed the reliefs of the Assumption of Mary and the Martyrdom of St. Stephen for the pulpit at Prato. A marble bust of the boy Baptist in the Pinacoteca, Faenza, and a Christ Child in the Louvre are attributed to Rossellino by some authorities.
Giorgio Vasari includes a biography of Rossellino in his Lives.
References and sources
References
Sources
This article incorporates text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article "Antonio di Matteo di Domenico Rosselino" by M.L. Handley, a publication now in the public domain.
External links
Sculptures by Antonio Rossellino on Artcyclopedia
Italian Renaissance sculptors
Sculptors from Florence
1427 births
1479 deaths
15th-century people of the Republic of Florence
15th-century Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors |
357078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Powell | Lake Powell | Lake Powell is an artificial reservoir on the Colorado River in Utah and Arizona, United States. It is a major vacation spot visited by approximately two million people every year. It is the second largest artificial reservoir by maximum water capacity in the United States behind Lake Mead, storing of water when full. However, Lake Mead has fallen below Lake Powell in size several times during the 21st century in terms of volume of water, depth and surface area.
Lake Powell was created by the flooding of Glen Canyon by the Glen Canyon Dam, which also led to the 1972 creation of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, a popular summer destination of public land managed by the National Park Service. The reservoir is named for John Wesley Powell, a civil war veteran who explored the river via three wooden boats in 1869. It primarily lies in parts of Garfield, Kane, and San Juan counties in southern Utah, with a small portion in Coconino County in northern Arizona. The northern limits of the lake extend at least as far as the Hite Crossing Bridge.
Lake Powell is a water storage facility for the Upper Basin states of the Colorado River Compact (Colorado, Utah, Wyoming and New Mexico). The Compact specifies that the Upper Basin states are to provide a minimum annual flow of to the Lower Basin states (Arizona, Nevada, and California).
History
Planning
In the 1940s and early 1950s, the United States Bureau of Reclamation planned to construct a series of Colorado River dams in the rugged Colorado Plateau province of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. Glen Canyon Dam was born of a controversial damsite the Bureau selected in Echo Park, in what is now Dinosaur National Monument in Colorado. A small but politically effective group of objectors, led by David Brower of the Sierra Club, succeeded in defeating the Bureau's bid, citing Echo Park's natural and scenic qualities as too valuable to submerge. By agreeing to a relocated damsite near Lee's Ferry between Glen and Grand Canyons, however, Brower did not realize what he had traded away. At the time, Brower had not actually been to Glen Canyon. When he later saw Glen Canyon on a river trip, Brower discovered that it had the kind of scenic, cultural, and wilderness qualities often associated with America's national parks. Over 80 side canyons in the colorful Navajo Sandstone contained clear streams, abundant wildlife, arches, natural bridges, and numerous Native American archeological sites. By then, however, it was too late to stop the Bureau and its commissioner Floyd Dominy from building Glen Canyon Dam. Brower believed the river should remain free, and would forever after consider the loss of Glen Canyon his life's ultimate disappointment.
Glen Canyon Dam was built to solve the downstream delivery obligations of the Upper Basin states. Lake Powell is an "aquatic bank" built to fulfill the terms of the "Compact Calls" of Lower Basin. If the Compact had required the Upper Basin to deliver half the flow of the Colorado in low water years, rather than a fixed amount, the burden of drought would have been spread equally between the basins and there would have been no need to build the dam. It is ironic that the lake is named after John Wesley Powell, who planned to settle the West based on the facts of hydrology, not politics.
Construction
Construction on Glen Canyon Dam began with a demolition blast keyed by the push of a button by President Dwight D. Eisenhower at his desk in the Oval Office on October 1, 1956. The first blast started clearing tunnels for water diversion. On February 11, 1959, water was diverted through the tunnels so dam construction could begin. Later that year, the bridge was completed, allowing trucks to deliver equipment and materials for the dam, and also for the new town of Page, Arizona.
Concrete placement started around the clock on June 17, 1960. The last bucket of concrete was poured on September 13, 1963. Over 5 million cubic yards (4,000,000 m³) of concrete make up Glen Canyon Dam. The dam is 710 feet (216 m) high, with the surface elevation of the water at full pool being approximately 3700 feet (1100 m). Construction of the dam cost $155 million, and 18 lives were lost in the process. From 1970 to 1980, turbines and generators were installed for hydroelectricity. On September 22, 1966, Glen Canyon Dam was dedicated by Lady Bird Johnson.
Filling and operations
Upon completion of Glen Canyon Dam on September 13, 1963, the Colorado River began to back up, no longer being diverted through the tunnels. The newly flooded Glen Canyon formed Lake Powell. Sixteen years elapsed before the lake filled to the level, on June 22, 1980. The lake level fluctuates considerably depending on the seasonal snow runoff from the Rocky Mountains. The all-time highest water level was reached on July 14, 1983, during one of the heaviest Colorado River floods in recorded history, in part influenced by a strong El Niño event. The lake rose to above sea level, with a water content of .
21st century drought
Colorado River flows have been below average since 2000 as a result of the southwestern North American megadrought, leading to lower lake levels. In winter 2005 (before the spring run-off) the lake reached its then-lowest level since filling, an elevation of above sea level, which was approximately below full pool. After 2005, the lake level slowly rebounded, although it has not filled completely since then. Summer 2011 saw the third largest June and the second largest July runoff since the closure of Glen Canyon Dam, and the water level peaked at nearly , 77 percent of capacity, on July 30. However, water years 2012 and 2013 were, respectively, the third and fourth-lowest runoff years recorded on the Colorado River. By April 9, 2014, the lake level had fallen to , largely erasing the gains made in 2011.
Colorado River levels returned to normal during water years 2014 and 2015 (pushing the lake to by the end of water year 2015. The Bureau of Reclamation in 2014 reduced the Lake Powell release from 8.23 to 7.48 million acre-feet, for the first time since the lake filled in 1980. This was done due to the "equalization" guideline which stipulates that an approximately equal amount of water must be retained in both Lake Powell and Lake Mead, in order to preserve hydro-power generation capacity at both lakes. This resulted in Lake Mead declining to the lowest level on record since the 1930s.
Long-term water level decline continued, forcing an emergency release of water from the Flaming Gorge Reservoir in July 2021. and by February 28, 2022 Lake Powell was at 3,527.18 feet in elevation – just 25% of capacity. This marks the lowest water level for Lake Powell since it was filled in 1963.
Climate
These data are for the Wahweap climate station on Lake Powell just south of the Utah-Arizona border (Years 1961 to 2012).
Geology
Glen Canyon was carved by differential erosion from the Colorado River over an estimated 5 million years. The Colorado Plateau, through which the canyon cuts, arose some 11 million years ago. Within that plateau lie layers of rock from over 300 million years ago to the relatively recent volcanic activity. Pennsylvanian and Permian formations can be seen in Cataract Canyon and San Juan Canyon. The Moenkopi Formation, which dates from 230 million years ago (Triassic Period), and the Chinle Formation are found at Lees Ferry and the Rincon. Both formations are the result of the ancient inland sea that covered the area. Once the sea drained, windblown sand invaded the area, creating what is known as Wingate Sandstone.
The more recent (Jurassic Period) formations include Kayenta Sandstone, which produces the trademark blue-black "desert varnish" that streaks down many walls of the canyons. Above this is Navajo Sandstone. Many of the arches, including Rainbow Bridge, lie at this transition point. This period also includes light yellow Entrada Sandstone, and the dark brown, almost purple Carmel Formation. These latter two can be seen on the tops of mesas around Wahweap, and the crown of Castle Rock and Tower Butte. Above these layers lie the sandstone, conglomerate and shale of the Straight Cliffs Formation that underlies the Kaiparowits Plateau and San Rafael Swell to the north of the lake.
The confluences of the Escalante, Dirty Devil and San Juan rivers with the Colorado lie within Lake Powell. The slower flow of the San Juan river has produced goosenecks where of river are contained within on a straight line.
Landmarks and features
The lake's main body stretches up Glen Canyon, but has also filled many (over 90) side canyons. The lake also stretches up the Escalante River and San Juan River where they merge into the main Colorado River. This provides access to many natural geographic points of interest as well as some remnants of the Anasazi culture.
Glen Canyon Dam, the dam that keeps Lake Powell the way it is today. (Arizona)
Rainbow Bridge, one of the world's largest natural bridges. (Utah)
Hite Crossing Bridge, the only bridge spanning Lake Powell. Although the bridge informally marks the upstream limit of the lake, when the lake is at its normal high water elevation, backwater can stretch up to upstream into Cataract Canyon.
Defiance House ruin (Anasazi)
Castle Rock
Cathedral in the Desert
San Juan goosenecks
Gregory Butte
Gunsight Butte
Lone Rock
Alstrom Point
Kaiparowits Plateau
Hole-in-the-Rock crossing
the Rincon
Three-Roof Ruin
Padre Bay
Waterpocket Fold
Antelope Island lies mostly in Arizona just north of Page in the southwest part of Lake Powell.
Development
Access to the lake is limited to developed marinas because most of the lake is surrounded by steep sandstone walls:
Lee's Ferry
Page and Wahweap Marina
Antelope Point Marina
Halls Crossing, Utah Marina
Bullfrog Marina
Hite Marina
The following marinas are accessible only by boat:
Dangling Rope Marina
Rainbow Bridge National Monument
Escalante Subdistrict
Glen Canyon National Recreation Area draws more than two million visitors annually. Recreational activities include boating, fishing, waterskiing, jet-skiing, and hiking. Prepared campgrounds can be found at each marina, but many visitors choose to rent a houseboat or bring their own camping equipment, find a secluded spot somewhere in the canyons, and make their own camp (there are no restrictions on where visitors can stay).
The Castle Rock Cut is one of the most important navigational channels in the lake; it was blasted as early as the 1970s to allow boaters to bypass the winding canyons between the Glen Canyon Dam and reaches of Lake Powell further upstream – saving, on average, one hour of travel time. The cut has been deepened several times since then, to allow the use of the channel during droughts. During the protracted 21st-century drought, however, the lake has dropped so quickly on several occasions that the cut dried up during the summer tourist season, most recently in 2013. Continued deepening of the Castle Rock cut has been criticized for its high cost, but boaters and the National Park Service argue that it improves safety, saves millions of dollars in fuel, and improves emergency response time. In September 2021 the level of Lake Powell was 45 feet below the bottom of the Castle Rock cut.
Currently, most Marinas on the lake don't have Automatic Identification System monitoring stations that transmit boat positions to the AIS websites for the boating community. A substantial number of vessels on the lake do not have AIS transponders as there currently are no mandatory requirements for AIS usage for this body of water. Extra precautions must be taken with respect to boating safety, as the fractal nature of the lake's hydrologic surface area can allow vessels with limited charting equipment to become easily lost.
The burying of human (and pet) waste in Glen Canyon National Recreation Area is prohibited. Anyone who camps farther than a quarter of a mile from a marina must bring a portable toilet. Pet waste must also be packed out.
The southwestern end of Lake Powell in Arizona can be accessed via U.S. Route 89 and State Route 98. State Route 95 and State Route 276 lead to the northeastern end of the lake in Utah.
Fish species
Some of these fish species are on the US Endangered Species List. Currently most native species on the Colorado River Basin are subject to ongoing restoration efforts of some kind.
Bass
Smallmouth bass
Largemouth bass
Striped bass
Carp, pike and others
Crappie
Sunfish
Channel catfish
Northern pike
Walleye
Common carp
Razorback sucker
Brown trout
Bonytail chub
Gizzard shad
Invasive species
Zebra and quagga mussels first appeared in the United States in the 1980s.
The mussels were initially brought to the United States through the ballast water of ships entering the Great Lakes. These aquatic invaders soon spread to many bodies of water in the Eastern United States and have even made their way to the western United States. In January 2008, Zebra mussels have been detected in several reservoirs along the Colorado River system such as Lakes Mead, Mojave, and Havasu.
By the early 2000s Arizona, California, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Nevada and Utah have all confirmed the presence of larval zebra mussels in lakes and reservoirs.
Zebra and quagga mussels can be destructive to an ecosystem due to competition for resources with native species. The filtration of zooplankton by the mussels can negatively impact the feeding for some species of fish. Zebra and quagga mussels can attach to hard surfaces and build layers on underwater structures. The mussels are known to clog pipes including those in hydroelectric power systems, thus becoming a costly and time-consuming problem for water managers in the West.
Control policies have recently been introduced to alleviate the hydroelectric problems as well as ecological problems faced by Western infestation. Beginning in 1999 Lake Powell began to visually monitor for the mussels.
In 2001 hot water boat decontamination sites were established at Wahweap, Bullfrog, and Halls Crossing marinas. In January 2007, zebra mussels were detected in Lake Mead and new action plans were announced to prevent the spread of mussels to Lake Powell. In August 2007, preliminary testing was positive for zebra or quagga larvae in Lake Powell. These tests were deemed false positives, but adult quagga mussels were found in 2013.
In August 2010, Lake Powell was declared mussel free. Lake Powell introduced a mandatory boat inspection for each watercraft entering the reservoir beginning in June 2009. Effective June 29, 2009, every vessel entering Lake Powell must have a mussel certificate, although boat owners were allowed to self-certify. These measures were intended to help prevent vessels from transporting Zebra mussels into Lake Powell.
Despite these measures, quagga mussel DNA was detected in 2012 and live mussels were found at a number of sites including the Wahweap Marina in Spring and Summer 2013. In June 2013 the NPS was attempting a diver-based eradication program to find and remove mussels before the lake became infested.
Pipeline proposal
The Washington County Water Conservancy District has proposed building the Lake Powell Pipeline, which would have the capacity to extract up to per year from Lake Powell for distribution to municipal drinking water systems in the county.
References
Bibliography
Martin, Russell, A Story That Stands Like a Dam: Glen Canyon and the Struggle for the Soul of the West, Henry Holt & Co, 1989
McPhee, John, "Encounters with the Archdruid," Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1971
Nichols, Tad, Glen Canyon: Images of a Lost World, Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, 2000
Abbey, Edward, Desert Solitaire, Ballantine Books, 1985
Farmer, Jared, Glen Canyon Dammed: Inventing Lake Powell and the Canyon Country, Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1999
Stiles, Jim, The Brief but Wonderful Return of Cathedral in the Desert, Salt Lake Tribune, June 7, 2005
External links
Water Level in Lake Powell, slide show of ten years of images from NASA’s Landsat 5 satellite, showing dramatic fluctuations in water levels in Lake Powell.
Lake Powell Water Database – water level, basin snowpack, and other statistics
Lake Powell Resorts and Marinas
Friends of Lake Powell – organization opposed to decommissioning Glen Canyon Dam
Glen Canyon National Recreation Area (National Park Service)
Data visualization from Bureau of Reclamation (interactive)
Reclamation Information Sharing Environment (RISE) – Bureau of Reclamation database, with locations and time series on water levels and flows
Powell
Powell
Landmarks in Arizona
Colorado River
Powell
Tourist attractions in Coconino County, Arizona
Powell
Powell
Powell
Buildings and structures in Garfield County, Utah
Buildings and structures in Kane County, Utah
Buildings and structures in San Juan County, Utah
Powell
Glen Canyon National Recreation Area
Tourist attractions in San Juan County, Utah
Colorado River Storage Project
1963 establishments in Utah
1963 establishments in Arizona |
357082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardo%20Rossellino | Bernardo Rossellino | Bernardo di Matteo del Borra Gamberelli (1409 Settignano – 1464 Florence), better known as Bernardo Rossellino, was an Italian sculptor and architect, the elder brother of the sculptor Antonio Rossellino. As a member of the second generation of Renaissance artists, he helped to further define and popularize the revolution in artistic approach that characterized the new age.
Biography
Bernardo Rossellino was born into a family of farmers and quarry owners in the mountain village of Settignano, overlooking the Arno river valley and the city of Florence. His uncle, Jacopo di Domenico di Luca del Borra Gamberelli may have given him his first lessons in stonemasonry. By 1420, Bernardo was certainly down in Florence and apprenticed to one of that city's better-known sculptors, perhaps Nanni di Bartolo, called "il Rosso (the redhead)". Such a relationship might explain the nickname of "Rossellino (the little redhead) given to Bernardo and applied to his brothers, Antonio, Domenico, and Giovanni. Curiously, there is no record of Bernardo's entry into Florence's Guild of Stone and Woodworkers, although matriculation information exists for his brothers.
More than from any single master, Bernardo learned from the experimental atmosphere that suffused Florence in the 1420s. He seems to have been captivated by the "new wave" approaches being put into practice by Brunelleschi, Donatello, Ghiberti, and Masaccio. Perhaps more faithfully than their other followers, Bernardo Rossellino embraced and held true to the classical revival in both sculpture and architecture. Celebrated for his sculpture (the Leonardo Bruni Tomb, Empoli Annunciation group), he achieved particular distinction through his expanding role as an architect, achieving lasting fame for the work done or planned in Rome for Pope Nicholas V and, especially for the rebuilding of the town of Pienza for Pope Pius II. Part of his artistic importance also lay in his entrepreneurial skills which enabled him to assemble a large and highly successful workshop that dominated the stoneworking field in Florence during the 1450s and 1460s.
In 1433, Bernardo is recorded as being in Arezzo, employed by the Fraternita di Santa Maria della Misericordia to complete the facade of the Misericordia's headquarters. His first job presented a considerable challenge. The lower storey of this palace had been completed a half century earlier in the, then, popular Gothic style. Thus the problem confronting Bernardo was similar to that which Alberti encountered a quarter century later when asked to complete the facade of Santa Maria Novella. Bernardo's solution for the unfinished second storey was a three bay design which used a typically Gothic mixed-element frame in the central bay flanked by classical paired pilasters and aediculae, the features of which were taken from the most progressive sources available. Set within the Gothic frame of this second storey is a relief of the Madonna of Mercy, the protectress of Arezzo, spreading her mantle out over the community's citizenry. She is flanked by the kneeling saints Laurentius and Persentinus. Bernardo received his final payment for the project in June 1435, specifically for the two free standing figures of Saints Gregory and Donatus which occupy the aediculae on either side of the Misericordia relief. Rossellino's solution for the Arezzo palace facade fused Gothic and Renaissance elements in a deft, if somewhat awkward, combination aimed at achieving the Renaissance goal of unified harmony. He also clearly displayed, in this initial effort at both sculpture and architecture, a genius for the sort of creative eclecticism that became a major feature of the "Rossellino manner."
Bernardo Rossellino was back in Florence in 1436 to establish his own workshop and to join a crew of stonemasons already at work constructing the Aranci Cloister of the Badia. Payment records, supported by stylistic evidence, indicate that his principal contributions (1436–38) to this project included a handsome stone doorframe and an unusual cross window, both of which are identifiable today. It also is possible that he proposed the addition of the pilaster strips which divide the surfaces of the loggias of the two-storey courtyard into a systematic grid. Documents indicate that Bernardo assumed a more decisive role at the suburban monastery of Santa Maria alle Campora whose cloister (1436) challenges that of Michelozzo at San Marco as the first such structure to have been erected in accordance with a Renaissance aesthetic. In 1444, he received a commission to sculpt two altar figures for the oratory of the Annunciation in the church of St. Stephen in Empoli. In these two representations of the Virgin Annunciate and of the Archangel Gabriel, we find a further development of the artist's decoratively graceful and classical style as well as a recognition of the sculptural styles of Donatello, Ghiberti, and Michelozzo.
Although the stock in trade of the Rossellino shop would have been the supply of building material and simple tasks of stonemasonry, several projects, combining sculptural and architectural features, were of particular significance during the 1440s. One, undertaken in the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena called upon him to design a grand entry way into the Sala del Concistoro. This richly decorated and gracefully classical doorframe is arguably the finest example of the type done in the first half of the fifteenth century and it is certainly one of the most sumptuously elegant of the entire Renaissance. Another project was the triumphal arch wall tomb erected in Florence's church of Santa Croce for the historian and humanist scholar Leonardo Bruni (d.1444), who had served as the State Chancellor of Florence. No documentation survives for the tomb, but two early 16th-century sources credit Bernardo Rossellino for the project and his authorship generally has been accepted. There, however, has been debate concerning the dating of the tomb, with some supporting a date in the late 1440s and others, believing that Bernardo could not have conceived its classical character prior to his stay in Rome, preferring a date after 1455. There is, however, nothing in its design that would preclude the earlier dating. In fact the Bruni Tomb seems a logical continuation of the classicizing manner which Bernardo recently had displayed in his design for the Concistoro door frame in Siena. Accordingly, the Bruni Tomb might best be dated to the years 1446-48. Bernardo Rossellino's Bruni Tomb consisted of a shallow wall niche framed by pilasters and topped by a semi-circular arch. The effect suggests a triumphal arch leading to both the immortal fame desired by the humanist scholar and spiritual deliverance sought by the pious Christian. Bruni's sarcophagus is placed within the niche and it, in turn, supports a brocade-draped bier upon which rests Bernardo's portrait effigy of the statesman. A tondo containing the Madonna and Child flanked by half-length angels appears within the arch above the bier, while two large angelic putti, bearing Bruni's coat-of-arms ascend the archivolt. Bernardo drew upon a variety of sources in arriving at his design for the tomb, including 14th-century wall tombs in Rome done by members of the so-called Cosmati school, as well as the recently executed tomb of Baldassare Coscia (Antipope John XXIII) by Donatello and the Brancacci tomb by Michelozzo. What sets the Bruni tomb apart and established it as the "standard" upon which so many subsequent later Renaissance tombs were based (including that for Carlo Marsupini executed a few years later for Santa Croce by Bernardo's probable pupil, Desiderio da Settignano) was its sense of unity.
By any estimation, these two works (the Siena portal and the Bruni Tomb) stand out as highpoints in the evolution of the Renaissance style. Even before his trip to Rome in the 1450s and his contact with Alberti, Bernardo demonstrated a thorough appreciation for the nature of the antique revival that was so fundamental to the Renaissance movement. His understanding of the essential elements of antiquity is also apparent in the finest architectural achievement of Bernardo's early years, the Spinelli Cloister at Santa Croce in Florence (1448–51). No documents exist to connect Bernardo with this project but the entry portal is clearly a simplified version of his Siena door frame and his authorship of the Spinelli Cloister may be accepted. The rhythmic beauty of the cloister, perhaps the loveliest of the early Renaissance, is due to a carefully formulated series of mathematical ratios and Euclidean relationships that echo those employed by Brunelleschi at the Hospital of the Innocents. The crisply executed architectural sculptures of the Spinelli Cloister (doorframes, capitals and corbels, entry portal) are stylistic signatures of the "Rossellino manner" and are unique to his workshop. Bernardo's style is also to be found in the tabernacle he executed (1449–51) for the Florentine church of Santa Maria Nuova (since relocated to Sant'Egidio). In 1451, his shop received an important sculptural commission for a tomb for the Beata Villana in Santa Maria Novella (now dismembered and in fragmentary state). Its execution was left in the hands of Bernardo's brother, Antonio and other members of the workshop (including Desiderio da Settignano) due to Bernardo's departure for Rome.
During these same years, Bernardo was employed by the wealthy banker Giovanni Rucellai to remodel several old dwellings into a new family palace. This initial work for Rucellai involved internal systemization, the construction of a cross-vaulted passage leading from the street (the Via della Vigna nuova) to a new courtyard and loggia for which he also was responsible. Evidence of Bernardo's presence may found in one of the corbels in this corridor which is identical to those used in the Spinelli Cloister and was a probable "leftover" from that project.
Bernardo's career took an important turn when he traveled to Rome in 1451 to join the vast architectural team then engaged by Pope Nicholas V to revitalize the ancient city and its environs. Giorgio Vasari's mid-sixteenth century biography of the artist greatly exaggerated Bernardo's actual role in most of the projects. Although his retainer exceeded that of all other stonemasons in the papal employ, he is documented at only two projects: as furnishing hoists for the large round tower at the Vatican Palace and in doing restoration work at the early Christian church of San Stefano Rotondo (window and door frames, vaulting, stone paving). His primary task in Rome, apparently, was to draw up plans, likely under the supervision of Alberti, for rebuilding the Vatican and the Basilica of St. Peter's, projects which, due to the death of the pope in 1455, were never carried out. In spite of this, Bernardo's long sojourn in Rome had significant meaning for him, solidifying his commitment to reviving the spirit of antiquity in his works and exposing him to the concepts of Alberti.
During Bernardo's long absence his workshop had been left in the talented hands of Antonio Rossellino, together with his other brothers, Domenico and Giovanni, all of whom concentrated upon the sculptural side of the stonemasonry business. Once back in Florence, Bernardo assumed his oversight of the workshop's production but increasingly turned his attention to more lucrative architectural matters. Thus, those sculptural projects often associated with the Rossellino name such as the tombs for Giovanni Chelini in San Domenico, San Miniato al Tedesco, for the Beato Lorenzo da Ripafrata and for Filippo Lazzari, both in San Domenico, Pistoia, for Geminiano Inghirami in San Francesco, Prato, and for the Beato Marcolino, San Giacomo, Forlì, likely involved only his overall approval and not his chisel. This probably also was the case with the mortuary chapel and tomb monument for Cardinal James of Portugal constructed at the Florentine church of San Miniato al Monte which, in its multiplicity of artistic elements and multi-media impact, seems to predict the Baroque (i.e., Bernini's Cornaro Chapel). His involvement with the Tomb of Orlando de' Medici in Santissima Annunziata was more personal but its conception is more architectural than sculptural.
Among those Florentine building projects with which Bernardo was involved in this last phase of his career was the amalgamation of several buildings into a palace for his former patron at the Santa Croce monastery, Tomasso Spinelli. The unifying facade of the Spinelli Palace utilized the cost-saving technique of faux stonework incised into plaster but the entry corridor is remarkable for its use of illusionary perspective.
Bernardo also returned to Giovanni Rucellai's palace to apply a unifying front of stonework to its public face along the Via Vigna Nuova. It is this facade, divided into bays by three tiers of classically inspired pilasters rising above a base of mock stonework opus quadratum and topped by an abbreviated entablature, that sets this building apart from all other Florentine townhouses. While there is evidence pointing to Bernardo's involvement in constructing the Rucellai facade, the name of Alberti has most usually been connected with its design. In any case, Bernardo Rossellino's artistic prominence was recognized when he was appointed capomaestro (chief architect) of the Florence Cathedral in 1461 (by that time, largely an honorific title).
Despite his previous accomplishments, the true measure of Bernardo Rossellino's architectural place in history lies in the extraordinary project he undertook for Pope Pius II Piccolomini at Pienza between 1459 and 1464. There, in a sweeping transformation of a rural community, Bernardo erected an imposing family palace, a grand cathedral, town hall, bishop's palace and canons' house, all set compactly about a trapezoidal square and bringing together the architectural tastes of Florence, Siena, and Rome. He also supervised the construction or renovation of palaces and townhouses for several cardinals and members of the papal court, and a quantity of houses for the citizens of this transformed community. For the Piccolomini Palace, a massive three-storey block set about a spacious courtyard, he designed three articulated facades resembling the front of the Rucellai palace (which the Piccolomini Palace may well predate) and opened up a garden front of three tiers of loggias from which a splendid panorama might be viewed. At the Cathedral he affixed a classicizing exterior to a Teutonic "hall church" Within the Cathedral, the elegant Altar of St. Andrew and the ornate baptismal font in the lower church serve as reminders of the continuing sculptural output Bernardo's Florentine workshop. The real significance of Pienza, however, lies not in the merits of the individual units, but in Bernardo Rossellino's ability to see the various projects as an urban totality. The trapezoidal, or quattrocento form would later influence architect Michelangelo in his grand renovation of the piazza del campidoglio in Rome. The inspiration for Pienza may have come from the Albertian atmosphere of his earlier experience in Rome. While other architects of the Early Renaissance were forced to deal with townplanning on a theoretical basis, Bernardo was given the rare opportunity to actually put his ideas into practice. The result was one of the most pleasing and harmonious cityscapes in the history of urban design.
Final projects included designs for the Piccolomini-Todeschini Palace in Siena, a bell tower for the church of San Pietro in Perugia (modeled after that in Pienza), and possibly for the Piccolomini Palace built alongside the thermal pool at Bagno di Vignoni.
Bernardo died in Florence on 23 September 1464. His pupils/assistants included his younger brother Antonio, Desiderio da Settignano, Matteo Civitale, Buggiano, Mino da Fiesole. The workshop continued under the leadership of Antonio but accepted only commissions for sculpture.
Notes
References
Charles R. Mack, Pienza: The Creation of a Renaissance City, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987.
Leo Planiscig. Bernardo und Antonio Rossellino, Vienna: Anton Schroll, 1942.
Anne Markham Schulz, The Sculpture of Bernardo Rossellino and his Workshop, Princeton: Princeton University Press,1976.
Maryla Tyszkiewicz, Bernardo Rossellino, Florence: Stamperia Polacca, 1929.
External links
Works by Bernardo Rossellino
Italian Renaissance architects
Italian Renaissance sculptors
1409 births
1464 deaths
Architects from Florence
Sculptors from Florence
15th-century Italian architects
15th-century Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors |
357085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea%20Sansovino | Andrea Sansovino | Andrea dal Monte Sansovino or Andrea Contucci del Monte San Savino (1529) was an Italian sculptor active during the High Renaissance. His pupils include Jacopo Sansovino (no relation).
Biography
He was the son of Domenico Contucci of Monte Sansovino, and was born at Monte San Savino near Arezzo, hence his name, which is usually softened to Sansovino.
He was a pupil of Antonio Pollaiuolo, and at first worked in the style of 15th-century Florence. His early works are the terra cotta altarpiece in Santa Chiara at Monte San Savino, and the marble reliefs of the Annunciation, the Coronation of the Virgin, a Pietà, the Last Supper, and various statuettes in the Corbinelli chapel of Santo Spirito at Florence, all executed between the years 1488 and 1491.
From 1493 to 1500 Andrea worked in Portugal for the king, and some pieces of sculpture by him still exist in the monastic church of Coimbra. These early reliefs show strongly the influence of Donatello. His first known works after his return to Rome are a Madonna and a Baptist in Genoa Cathedral. The beginning of a more pagan style is shown in the statues of St. John Baptizing Christ over the east door of the Battistero di San Giovanni in Florence (1505). This group was, however, finished by the weaker hand of Vincenzo Danti. In this period he executed the marble font at Volterra, with good reliefs of the Four Virtues and the Baptism of Christ.
In 1504 Sansovino was invited to Rome by Pope Julius II to make the monument of Cardinal Manzi in Santa Maria in Aracoeli (influenced by the Lombard style of Andrea Bregno) and those of Cardinals Ascanio Maria Sforza and Girolamo Basso della Rovere for the retro-choir of Santa Maria del Popolo. The architectural parts of these monuments and their sculptured foliage are extremely graceful and executed with the most minute delicacy, but the recumbent effigies show the beginning of a serious decline in taste. These tombs became models which for many years were copied by most later sculptors with increasing exaggerations of their defects.
In 1512, while still in Rome, Sansovino executed a very beautiful group of the Madonna and Child with St. Anne, now over one of the side altars in the church of Sant'Agostino. From 1513 to 1528 he was at Loreto, where he cased the outside of the Santa Casa in white marble, covered with reliefs and statuettes in niches between engaged columns; a small part of this sculpture was the work of Andrea, but the greater part was executed by Raffaello da Montelupo, Tribolo and others of his assistants and pupils. Though the general effect is rich and magnificent, the individual pieces of sculpture are both dull and feeble. The earlier reliefs, those by Sansovino himself, are the best.
Works
References
Giorgio Vasari includes a biography of Sansovino in his Lives.
External links
Italian Renaissance sculptors
1460s births
1529 deaths
People from the Province of Arezzo
Sculptors from Tuscany
15th-century Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors
16th-century Italian sculptors
Catholic sculptors |
357087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Daggett | David Daggett | David Daggett (December 31, 1764 – April 12, 1851) was a U.S. senator, mayor of New Haven, Connecticut, Judge of the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors, and a founder of the Yale Law School. He helped block plans for the first college for African Americans in the United States and presided over the conviction of a woman running a boarding school for African Americans in violation of Connecticut's recently passed Black Law. He judged African Americans not to be citizens and supported their colonization to Africa.
Life
He was born in Attleboro, Massachusetts, December 31, 1764, the son of Thomas Daggett. The history of Daggett's family in Massachusetts is a distinguished one. The original Daggett, John, came over from England with Winthrop's company, in 1630, and settled in Watertown.
At the age of 16, David enrolled at Yale College, entering the junior class two years early. It appears likely that he entered Yale rather than Harvard, which was closer, because his father's cousin had been an officer at Yale. He graduated with high honor in 1783 and then earned a master's degree. Daggett was in the same class with Samuel Austin, Abiel Holmes and John Cotton Smith.
Upon receiving his master's degree, he received the unusual honor of having his commencement speech published. This marked the beginning of his reputation as a formidable orator.
In 1786, at the age of 21, he married Ann Munson. They were married for 53 years, until she died in July 1839 at the age of 72. Daggett had 19 children, but only 14 lived any considerable time, and only three survived him. One son was clergyman Oliver Ellsworth Daggett. One daughter, Susan Edwards Daggett, married Chaplain of the Senate Reverend Sereno Edwards Dwight, son of the President of Yale, Timothy Dwight IV.
After leaving Yale, he studied law under Charles Chauncey of New Haven (who later became a judge of the Superior Court). He supported himself by working as a butler and as a preceptor at Hopkins Grammar School. In January 1786, at the age of 21, he was admitted to the bar of New Haven County and immediately set up his own practice, turning down an offer to be a tutor at Yale.
While in his 20s, Daggett published and sold the "confession" of Joseph Mountain, an African American executed publicly before a crowd estimated at 10,000 in New Haven for rape.
Dagget was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815.
In November 1824, Daggett became an associate instructor of the New Haven Law School; and in 1826, he was appointed Kent Professor of Law at Yale. He held these positions until health conditions forced him to resign. In the autumn of 1826, he received from Yale the honorary degree of LL.D.
In May 1840, Daggett married Mary Lines, who was with him at the time of his death. He died in New Haven, Connecticut, and was interred at Grove Street Cemetery.
Politics
Daggett was admitted to the bar and entered into public life two years before the adoption of the Constitution of the United States. As did most of the people of New England, at that time, Dagget aligned himself with the Federalist Party.
In 1791, he was chosen to represent the town of New Haven in the General Assembly (Connecticut State House of Representatives), and was annually re-elected for six years, until 1797, when he was chosen a member of the Connecticut State Council, or Upper House. Though one of the youngest members of the House, he soon became one of the most influential, and in 1794, three years after he entered it, he was chosen to preside over it as Speaker, at the age of 29. Daggett returned to the House for a one-year term in 1805.
In 1797, Daggett was elected to the Connecticut State Council, and he retained his seat there for seven years, until he resigned it in 1804. He returned to the Council in 1809, retaining his seat until he was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1813.
As well as holding a seat on the Council, he was appointed State's Attorney for the county of New Haven in June 1811, and continued in that office until he resigned it when chosen Senator in 1813.
He was elected to the Senate as a Federalist to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Chauncey Goodrich and served from May 13, 1813, to March 4, 1819.
In May 1826, at age 62, he was chosen an associate judge of the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors. He was appointed to that office by a Legislature in which a decided majority was opposed to him in political principles and preferences, and yet the respect he had garnered as a public official and lawyer swayed their vote in his favor.
He served as the Mayor of New Haven, Connecticut, from 1828 to 1829.
In May 1832, he was made Chief Justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors. He continued in that office until December 31, 1834; 70 years was the limit that the state constitution assigned to the judicial office.
Daggett and race issues
In 1831, Simeon Jocelyn and others proposed establishing a college for negros in New Haven; there was none in the United States, and the admission of blacks into existing colleges was rare. Daggett led the opposition to this plan, which was scuttled at a town meeting when a resolution against it that Daggett helped draft was passed by a vote of a 700 to 4. At the same meeting an anti-abolitionism resolution he also helped draft was passed: "Sentiments favorable to the immediate emancipation of slaves in disregard of the civil institutions of the States in which they velong...[are] unwarrantable and dangerous interference with the internal concerns of other States, and ought to be discouraged."
After the "Negro college" affair, Daggett continued to oppose the expansion of education for blacks. In 1833, Prudence Crandall admitted a black student to her female academy. The citizens first warned her, then withdrew their daughters from the school. Crandall reopened the school exclusively for black women. Canterbury passed a bill stipulating that the selectmen of the town had to approve any out-of-state students of color seeking an education. Crandall was arrested for violating this law. Chief Justice Daggett ruled in 1833 that, since free black people could not be U.S. citizens, they could be prevented from being educated.
In 1835, Daggett undertook another town meeting linking states' rights, pro-colonization and anti-abolitionism. This meeting, held at the statehouse on September 9, 1835, found Noah Webster, Simeon Baldwin, and others helping to frame resolutions that condemned any interference by Congress with the treatment of slaves within any of the states, opposed the use of the mail for "transmission of incendiary information", proposed African colonization for "the free colored population", and "viewed with alarm the efforts of the abolitionists".
Throughout the 1830s, Daggett consistently opposed education and supported colonization for free blacks. During this time, he served as Chief Justice of Connecticut's Supreme Court and as Yale's only full professor of law. In 1844, however, Daggett voted to restore the vote to blacks in a state referendum.
References
External links
David Daggett papers (MS 162). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
1764 births
1851 deaths
People from Attleboro, Massachusetts
People of colonial Massachusetts
American people of English descent
Connecticut Federalists
Federalist Party United States senators from Connecticut
Speakers of the Connecticut House of Representatives
Members of the Connecticut General Assembly Council of Assistants (1662–1818)
Mayors of New Haven, Connecticut
Chief Justices of the Connecticut Supreme Court
Justices of the Connecticut Supreme Court
American white supremacists
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Yale University alumni
Yale Law School faculty
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery |
357089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortal%20sin | Mortal sin | A mortal sin (), in Catholic theology, is a gravely sinful act which can lead to damnation if a person does not repent of the sin before death. A sin is considered to be "mortal" when its quality is such that it leads to a separation of that person from God's saving grace. Three conditions must together be met for a sin to be mortal: "Mortal sin is sin whose object is grave matter and which is also committed with full knowledge and deliberate consent." The sin against the Holy Ghost and the sins that cry to Heaven for vengeance are considered especially serious. This type of sin is distinguished from a venial sin that simply leads to a weakening of a person's relationship with God. Despite its gravity, a person can repent of having committed a mortal sin. Such repentance is the primary requisite for forgiveness and absolution. Teaching on absolution from serious sins has varied somewhat throughout history. The current teaching for Catholics was formalized at the 16th-century Council of Trent.
Sacred Scripture
The term "mortal sin" is thought to be derived from the New Testament of the Bible. Specifically, it has been suggested that the term comes from the 1 John 5:16–17. In this particular verse, the author of the Epistle writes "There is a sin that leads to death."
Fathers of the Church
The concept is hinted at in some works of the early Fathers of the Church and explicit in others.
In AD 220, Tertullian in his De Modestia, 21 writes,
In AD 385, Pacian of Barcelona, in his Sermon Exhorting to Penance, gives contempt of God, murder, and fornication as examples of "mortal" or "capital sins."
In AD 393, St. Jerome writes:
Catholicism
In the moral theology of Catholicism, a mortal sin requires that all of the following conditions are met:
Its subject matter must be grave. (The term "grave sin" is used at times to indicate grave matter, and at times to indicate mortal sin. But it always remains true that the following two conditions are requisite for mortal sin.)
It must be committed with full knowledge (and awareness) of the sinful action and the gravity of the offense.
It must be committed with deliberate and complete consent.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church defines grave matter:
This would include worshiping other gods and blasphemy. Although the Church itself does not provide a precise list of grave sins or divide actions into grave and venial categories, Church documents do name certain "grave sins" as well as "offenses" and "actions" whose subject-matter is considered to be grave. For example, in the area of human sexuality, the Catechism of the Catholic Church notes that the following actions can involve increased gravity: extramarital sex, divorce (but not legitimate separation), and masturbation. The sins against the Holy Ghost and the sins that cry to Heaven for vengeance are considered especially serious.
With respect to a person's full knowledge of a certain act being a grave sin, the Catholic Church teaches that "unintentional ignorance can diminish or even remove the imputability of a grave offense. But no one is deemed to be ignorant of the principles of the moral law, which are written in the conscience of every man. The promptings of feelings and passions can also diminish the voluntary and free character of the offense, as can external pressures or pathological disorders (mental illness). Sin committed through malice, by deliberate choice of evil, is the gravest." Furthermore, Catholic teaching also holds that "imputability and responsibility for an action can be diminished or even nullified by ignorance, inadvertence, duress, fear, habit, inordinate attachments, and other psychological or social factors." In this regard, a sin committed while one is inebriated may lack the awareness and consent necessary for the sin to be mortal. But when one becomes aware of the danger of excessive drink, such drinking itself becomes a serious matter.
Grave sins should not to be confused with the seven deadly sins, which are so called because they lead to other sins; they are not necessarily grave sins.
Mortal sins are called "grave sins" under the Code of Canon Law due to the "grave" nature of all mortal sins, and the terms are used there interchangeably. This does not deny the distinction given above, that there may be grave matter but not a grave sin if the other conditions of knowledge and freedom are not present.
Mortal sins must be confessed by naming the specific offence along with how many times it was committed. Mention of how long since one's last confession is to establish whether one is truly penitent – has a purpose of amendment.
It is not necessary to confess venial sins although they may be confessed, a practice that began with the Irish monks around the 12th century. Venial sins are all sins that are not mortal. The Church encourages frequent, intelligent use of the sacrament of confession even if a person has only venial sins, in view of the benefits that might be derived.
According to the Catholic Church, no person can receive the Eucharist when in a state of mortal sin:
Some mortal sins cause automatic excommunication by the very deed itself, for example renunciation of faith and religion, known as apostasy, desecration of the Eucharistic species, and "a completed abortion". Those mortal sins are so serious that the Church through law has made them crimes. The Church forbids the excommunicated from receiving any sacrament (not just the Eucharist) and also severely restricts the person's participation in other Church liturgical acts and offices. A repentant excommunicated person may talk to a priest, usually in a confessional, about their excommunication to arrange for the remission. Remission cannot be denied to someone who has truly repented their actions and has also made suitable reparation for damages and scandal or at least has seriously promised to do so. However, even if excommunicated, a Catholic who has not been juridically absolved is still, due to the irrevocable nature of baptism, a member of the Catholic Church and therefore must still carry out their obligations of fulfilling their duties of attending Mass, Divine Liturgy, etc. on a Holy Day of Obligation, abstaining from meat on the Fridays of Lent, etc., albeit their communion with the Christ and the Church is gravely impaired. "Perpetual penalties cannot be imposed or declared by decree." However, "the following are expiatory penalties which can affect an offender either perpetually...."
Since the mid-twentieth century, some theologians have taught that a person who lives by a constant attitude of charity is unlikely to fall in and out of God's graces without being profoundly aware of the change. The term "fundamental option" arose and is used in a variety of senses.
Pope John Paul II reaffirmed traditional teaching going back to the Council of Trent in his encyclical Veritatis Splendor, as does the Catechism of the Catholic Church, which states: "The teaching of the Church affirms the existence of hell and its eternity. Immediately after death the souls of those who die in a state of mortal sin descend into hell, where they suffer the punishments of hell, 'eternal fire'." The Catechism then adds: "The chief punishment of hell is eternal separation from God, in whom alone man can possess the life and happiness for which he was created and for which he longs." However, the Catechism does not by name say a specific person is in Hell, but it does say that "...our freedom has the power to make choices for ever, with no turning back." Most significantly, the Catechism also proclaims that "There are no limits to the mercy of God..." and that "although we can judge that an act is in itself a grave offence, we must entrust judgment of persons to the justice and mercy of God." We cannot see into their mind to know if it was deliberate or committed in full knowledge. Also, like the father in the Parable of the Prodigal Son, God forgives those who repent sincerely. Vatican II, in its Dogmatic Constitution Lumen Gentium, reflects the traditional teaching of the Church on punishment, and on merit or reward for good deeds.
Mortal sin is ordinarily remitted by the priestly absolution in the Sacrament of Penance. However, the effectiveness of the absolution is dependent of the acts of the penitent starting with sorrow for sin or contrition. Perfect contrition (or imperfect contrition, also called attrition, in the Sacrament of Penance), coupled with the firm resolution to sin no more and to make recourse to the sacrament of Penance as soon as possible, can restore a person's relationship with God, as well as God's saving grace, that is, sanctifying grace. This teaching on perfect contrition is a reminder that God's mercy and forgiveness is available outside the Sacrament of Penance, yet, also indicates that Catholics who know about Christ's institution of the sacrament of Penance must intend to use it. Any human act that arises from a person's love of God, is inspired by God's prevenient action and is directed to doing as God requires. When perfect contrition is the means by which one seeks to restore one's relationship with God, there must also be a resolution to confess all mortal sins (that have not been confessed and absolved previously) in the Sacrament of Penance.
Eastern Catholic churches
Autonomous, self-governing (), Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, the Pope, are known as Eastern Catholic churches. They derive their theology and spirituality from some of the same sources as the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, yet use the Latin Catholic distinction between mortal and venial sin. However, names other than mortal and venial are often used.
Actions constituting grave matter
The following is a partial list of actions that are defined as constituting grave matter, according to the Catechism of the Catholic Church or like sources (such as declarations by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Apostolic Letters, or other sources printed by Church authorities).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width=140pt | Name
! width=500pt | Description
|-
|-
| Abortion
| "Direct abortion, that is, abortion willed as an end or as a means," is "gravely contrary to the moral law. The Church imposes the canonical penalty of excommunication for this crime against human life."
|-
| Encouragement of another's grave sins or vices
| "Every word or attitude is forbidden which by flattery, adulation, or complaisance encourages and confirms another in malicious acts and perverse conduct. Adulation is a grave fault if it makes one an accomplice in another's vices or grave sins. Neither the desire to be of service nor friendship justifies duplicitous speech. Adulation is a venial sin when it only seeks to be agreeable, to avoid evil, to meet a need, or to obtain legitimate advantages."
|-
| Adultery
| "... refers to marital infidelity. When two partners, of whom at least one is married to another party, have sexual relations – even transient ones – they commit adultery. Christ condemns even adultery of mere desire. The sixth commandment and the New Testament forbid adultery absolutely. The prophets denounce the gravity of adultery; they see it as an image of the sin of idolatry."
|-
| Apostasy
| "the total repudiation of the Christian faith"
|-
| Blasphemy
| "...is contrary to the respect due God and his holy name. It is in itself a grave sin."
|-
| Cheating and unfair wagers
| "Unfair wagers and cheating at games constitute grave matter, unless the damage inflicted is so slight that the one who suffers it cannot reasonably consider it significant."
|-
| Contraception
| "Similarly excluded is any action which either before, at the moment of, or after sexual intercourse, is specifically intended to prevent procreation – whether as an end or as a means."
"On the other hand, the Church does not consider at all illicit the use of those therapeutic means necessary to cure bodily diseases, even if a foreseeable impediment to procreation should result there from – provided such impediment is not directly intended for any motive whatsoever."
|-
| Detraction
| "who, without objectively valid reason, discloses another's faults and failings to persons who did not know them"
|-
| Defrauding a worker of a just wage
| "A just wage is the legitimate fruit of work. To refuse or withhold it can be a grave injustice. In determining fair pay both the needs and the contributions of each person must be taken into account. 'Remuneration for work should guarantee man the opportunity to provide a dignified livelihood for himself and his family on the material, social, cultural and spiritual level, taking into account the role and the productivity of each, the state of the business, and the common good.' Agreement between the parties is not sufficient to justify morally the amount to be received in wages."
|-
| Divorce
| "If civil divorce remains the only possible way of ensuring certain legal rights, the care of the children, or the protection of inheritance, it can be tolerated and does not constitute a moral offense." To attempt remarriage (outside the Church) without pursuing dissolution of the prior marriage would constitute adultery and so be a grave matter.
|-
| Endangerment of human life or safety
| ... endangering one's own life or the safety of others (e.g., by drunkenness, a love of speed on the road, at sea, or in the air, or gross negligence).
|-
| Participation in Freemasonry
| "The faithful who enroll in Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive Holy Communion."<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19831126_declaration-masonic_en.html Declaration on Masonic associations]</ref>
|-
| Envy
| ... if to the level of wishing grave harm to another.
|-
| Euthanasia
| ... of human beings. Euthanising animals is not considered an offense.
|-
| Extreme anger
| ... at the level of truly and deliberately desiring to seriously hurt or kill someone
|-
| Fornication
| ... is carnal union between an unmarried man and an unmarried woman."
"Among the sins gravely contrary to chastity are masturbation, fornication, pornography, and homosexual practices."
|-
| Hatred
| ... of a neighbor to the point of deliberately desiring him or her great harm
|-
| Heresy
| "the obstinate post-baptismal denial of some truth which must be believed with divine and catholic faith, or it is likewise an obstinate doubt concerning the same"
|-
| Homosexual actions
| "Among the sins gravely contrary to chastity are masturbation, fornication, pornography, and homosexual practices."
|-
| Incest
| "... corrupts family relationships and marks a regression toward animality."
|-
| Lying
| Can be a mortal sin. The gravity is measured by "the truth it deforms, the circumstances, the intentions of the one who lies, and the harm suffered by its victims." If not grave matter, lying is a venial sin.
|-
| Masturbation
| The gravity is measured by, "the affective immaturity, force of acquired habit, conditions of anxiety or other psychological or social factors that lessen, if not even reduce to a minimum, moral culpability."
"Among the sins gravely contrary to chastity are masturbation, fornication, pornography, and homosexual practices."
|-
| Missing Mass
| "[T]he faithful are obliged to participate in the Eucharist on days of obligation, unless excused for a serious reason (for example, illness, the care of infants) or dispensed by their own pastor. Those who deliberately fail in this obligation commit a grave sin."
"Even if in the earliest times [Mass attendance] was not judged necessary to be prescriptive, the Church has not ceased to confirm this obligation of conscience, which rises from the inner need felt so strongly by the Christians of the first centuries. It was only later, faced with the half-heartedness or negligence of some, that the Church had to make explicit the duty to attend Sunday Mass: more often than not, this was done in the form of exhortation...The present Code reiterates ... saying that 'on Sundays and other holy days of obligation the faithful are bound to attend Mass'. This legislation has normally been understood as entailing a grave obligation." But the gravity of this omission may be seldom realized in practice today.
|-
| Murder
| ... and aiding and abetting in murder. "The fifth commandment forbids doing anything with the intention of indirectly bringing about a person's death. The moral law prohibits exposing someone to mortal danger without grave reason, as well as refusing assistance to a person in danger. The acceptance by human society of murderous famines, without efforts to remedy them, is a scandalous injustice and a grave offense. Those whose usurious and avaricious dealings lead to the hunger and death of their brethren in the human family indirectly commit homicide, which is imputable to them. Unintentional killing is not morally imputable. But one is not exonerated from grave offense if, without proportionate reasons, he has acted in a way that brings about someone's death, even without the intention to do so." Self-defense or defense of others when there is no other, way may involve homicide but does not constitute murder. However, the death penalty is no longer seen, by the church's magisterium, as being justifiable.
|-
| Perjury
| "a perjury is committed when he makes a promise under oath with no intention of keeping it, or when after promising on oath he does not keep it."
|-
| Polygamy
| "... is contrary to the equal personal dignity of men and women who in matrimony give themselves with a love that is total and therefore unique and exclusive." The Christian who has previously lived in polygamy has a grave duty in justice to honor the obligations contracted in regard to his former wives and his children.
|-
| Pornography
| "... does grave injury to the dignity of its participants (actors, vendors, the public), since each one becomes an object of base pleasure and illicit profit for others. It immerses all who are involved in the illusion of a fantasy world. It is a grave offense."
|-
| Practicing magic or sorcery
| "All practices of magic or sorcery, by which one attempts to tame occult powers, so as to place them at one's service and have a supernatural power over others – even if this were for the sake of restoring their health – are gravely contrary to the virtue of religion. These practices are even more to be condemned when accompanied by the intention of harming someone, or when they have recourse to the intervention of demons. Wearing charms is also reprehensible. Spiritism often implies divination or magical practices; the Church for her part warns the faithful against it. Recourse to so-called traditional cures does not justify either the invocation of evil powers or the exploitation of another's credulity."
|-
| Profanity
| ... "failing in respect toward Him in one's speech; in misusing God's name. St. James condemns those 'who blaspheme that honorable name [of Jesus] by which you are called.' The prohibition of blasphemy extends to language against Christ's Church, the saints, and sacred things. ... [profanity in which one takes the name of the LORD in vain] is contrary to the respect due God and His holy name. It is in itself a grave sin. ... The second commandment enjoins respect for the Lord's name. The name of the Lord is holy."
|-
| Prostitution
| "While it is always gravely sinful to engage in prostitution, the imputability of the offense can be attenuated by destitution, blackmail, or social pressure."
|-
| Rape
| "... is the forcible violation of the sexual intimacy of another person. It does injury to justice and charity. Rape wounds the respect, freedom, and physical and moral integrity to which every person has a right. It causes grave damage that can mark the victim for life."
|-
| Sacrilege
| " ...consists in profaning or treating unworthily the sacraments and other liturgical actions, as well as persons, things, or places consecrated to God."
|-
| Scandal
| Deliberately causing someone to sin gravely.
|-
| Schism
| "... the refusal of submission to the Roman Pontiff or of communion with the members of the Church subject to him."
|-
| Simony
| Buying or selling spiritual things, such as sacraments.
|-
|Stealing / Theft
|"Unjustly taking and keeping the property of another, against the reasonable will of the owner. Stealing is a violation of the seventh commandment of God, "You shall not steal.""
|-
| Suicide
| "Grave psychological disturbances, anguish, or grave fear of hardship, suffering, or torture can diminish the responsibility of the one committing suicide."
"We should not despair of the eternal salvation of persons who have taken their own lives. By ways known to him alone, God can provide the opportunity for salutary repentance. The Church prays for persons who have taken their own lives."
|-
| Terrorism
| "Terrorism threatens, wounds, and kills indiscriminately; it is gravely against justice and charity."
|-
| Unjust prices
| "A just wage is the legitimate fruit of work. To refuse or withhold it can be a grave injustice. ...'Remuneration for work should guarantee man the opportunity to provide a dignified livelihood for himself and his family on the material, social, cultural and spiritual level, taking into account the role and the productivity of each, the state of the business, and the common good.'"
|}
Eastern Orthodoxy
According to Father Allyne Smith, "While the Roman Catholic tradition has identified particular acts as 'mortal' sins, in the Orthodox tradition we see that only a sin for which we don't repent is 'mortal.'"
According to the Mission of The Orthodox Church in America, in answer to a parishioner's query:
In the Orthodox Church there are no "categories" of sin as found in the Christian West. In the pre-Vatican II Catholic catechism, sins were categorized as "mortal" and "venial." In this definition, a "mortal" sin was one which would prevent someone from entering heaven unless one confessed it before death. ...These categories do not exist in the Orthodox Church. Sin is sin. Concerning Confession, having a list of deadly sins could, in fact, become an obstacle to genuine repentance. For example, imagine that you commit a sin. You look on the list and do not find it listed. It would be very easy to take the attitude that, since it is not on a list of deadly sins, it is not too serious. Hence, you do not feel the need to seek God's forgiveness right away. A week passes and you have completely forgotten about what you had done. You never sought God's forgiveness; as a result, you did not receive it, either. We should go to Confession when we sin – at the very least, we should ask God to forgive us daily in our personal prayers. We should not see Confession as a time to confess only those sins which may be found on a list.
Though not part of the dogma of the Orthodox Church the mortal–venial distinction is assumed by some Orthodox authors and saints as a theologoumenon. For example, Saint Ignatius Brianchaninov (1807–1867), who wrote primarily for monks, says in his book A Word on Death, in a chapter entitled "Mortal sin":
Similarly, the Exomologetarion'' of Nicodemus the Hagiorite (1749–1809) distinguishes seven classes of sin:
Pardonable
Near the pardonable
Non-mortal
Near the non-mortal
Between the mortal and the non-mortal
Near the mortal
Mortal
Nicodemus gives the following example for the seven classes of sin. "The initial movement of anger is pardonable; near to the pardonable is for someone to say harsh words and get hot-tempered. A non-mortal sin is to swear; near the non-mortal is for someone to strike with the hand. Between the non-mortal and the mortal is to strike with a small stick; near the mortal is to strike with a large stick, or with a knife, but not in the area of the head. A mortal sin is to murder. A similar pattern applies to the other sins. Wherefore, those sins nearer to the pardonable end are penanced lighter, while those nearer to the mortal end are more severely penanced."
He also stipulates seven conditions of sin:
Who is the doer of the sin
What sin was committed
Why was it committed
In what manner was it committed
At what time/age was it committed
Where was it committed
How many times was it committed
See also
Ancestral sin
Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost
Blood atonement
Original sin
Seven deadly sins
Sins that cry to heaven
Notes
References
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Sin
Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Contrition
Catechism of the Catholic Church from the official website of the Vatican
The Council of Trent - Session XIV - The fourth under the Supreme Pontiff, Julius III, celebrated on November 25, 1551 - The Most Holy Sacraments Of Penance And Extreme Unction
Excerpt from the Exomologetarion of Nicodemus the Hagiorite
Catholic doctrines
Christian hamartiology
Christian terminology
Sin |
357090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20Renaissance | High Renaissance | In art history, the High Renaissance was a short period of the most exceptional artistic production in the Italian states, particularly Rome, capital of the Papal States, and in Florence, during the Italian Renaissance. Most art historians state that the High Renaissance started around 1495 or 1500 and ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael, although some say the High Renaissance ended about 1525, or in 1527 with the Sack of Rome by the army of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, or about 1530 (see next section for specific art historians’ positions). The best-known exponents of painting, sculpture and architecture of the High Renaissance include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Bramante. In recent years, the use of the term has been frequently criticized by some academic art historians for oversimplifying artistic developments, ignoring historical context, and focusing only on a few iconic works.
Origin of term
The term High Renaissance was first used by Jacob Burckhardt in German (Hochrenaissance) in 1855 and has its origins in the "High Style" of painting and sculpture of the time period around the early 16th century described by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in 1764. Extending the general rubric of Renaissance culture, the visual arts of the High Renaissance were marked by a renewed emphasis upon the classical tradition, the expansion of networks of patronage, and a gradual attenuation of figural forms into the style later termed Mannerism.
Time period
Alexander Raunch in The Art of the High Renaissance and Mannerism in Rome and Central Italy, 2007, states the High Renaissance began in 1490, while Marilyn Stokstad in Art History, 2008, states it began in the 1490s. Frederick Hartt states that Leonardo's The Last Supper, the painting of which began in 1495 and concluded in 1498, makes a complete break with the Early Renaissance and created the world in which Michelangelo and Raphael worked, while Christoph Luitpold Frommel, in his 2012 article "Bramante and the Origins of the High Renaissance," states The Last Supper is the first High Renaissance work but adds that the peak period of the High Renaissance was actually 1505 to 1513. David Piper in The Illustrated History of Art, 1991, also cites The Last Supper writing the work announced the High Renaissance and was one of the most influential paintings of the High Renaissance, but contradictorily states that the High Renaissance began just after 1500. Burchkardt stated the High Renaissance started at the close of the 15th century, while Franz Kugler, who wrote the first "modern" survey text, Handbook of Art History in 1841, and Hugh Honour and John Fleming in The Visual Arts: A History, 2009, state the High Renaissance started at the beginning of the 16th century. Another seminal work of art which was created in the 1495–1500 timeframe was Michelangelo's Pietà, housed in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, which was executed in 1498–99.
In contrast to most of the other art historians, Manfred Wurdram, in Masterpieces of Western Art, 2007, actually states that the dawn of the High Renaissance was heralded by Leonardo's Adoration of the Magi of 1481, for which only the underpainting was completed.
As far as the end of the High Renaissance is concerned Hartt, Frommel, Piper, Wundrum, and Winkelman all state that the High Renaissance ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael. Honour and Fleming stated the High Renaissance was the first quarter of the 16th century meaning it would have ended in 1525. By contrast, Luigi Lanzi, in his History of Italian Painting, 1795–96, stated it ended with the Sack of Rome in 1527, when several artists were killed and many other dispersed from Rome, and Stokstad agrees. Raunch asserts that 1530 has been considered to be the end of the High Renaissance. Hartt adds that 1520 to 1530 was a transition period between the High Renaissance and Mannerism. Traditionally, the end of the High Renaissance in Florence is seen as marked by the end of the Republic of Florence and the beginning of the Duchy of Florence in 1532.
Architecture
High Renaissance style in architecture conventionally begins with Donato Bramante, whose Tempietto at S. Pietro in Montorio at Rome was begun in 1510. The Tempietto, signifies a full-scale revival of ancient Roman commemorative architecture. David Watkin writes that the Tempietto, like Raphael's works in the Vatican (1509–11), "is an attempt at reconciling Christian and humanist ideals".
Painting
The High Renaissance of painting was the culmination of the varied means of expression and various advances in painting technique, such as linear perspective, the realistic depiction of both physical and psychological features, and the manipulation of light and darkness, including tone contrast, sfumato (softening the transition between colours) and chiaroscuro (contrast between light and dark), in a single unifying style which expressed total compositional order, balance and harmony. In particular, the individual parts of the painting had a complex but balanced and well-knit relationship to the whole.
Painting of the High Renaissance is considered to be the absolute zenith of western painting and achieved the balancing and reconciliation, in harmony, of contradictory and seemingly mutually exclusive artistic positions, such as real versus ideal, movement versus rest, freedom versus law, space versus plane, and line versus colour. The High Renaissance was traditionally viewed as a great explosion of creative genius, following a model of art history first proposed by the Florentine Giorgio Vasari.
The paintings in the Vatican by Michelangelo and Raphael are said by some scholars such as Stephen Freedberg to represent the culmination of High Renaissance style in painting, because of the ambitious scale of these works, coupled with the complexity of their composition, closely observed human figures, and pointed iconographic and decorative references to classical antiquity, can be viewed as emblematic of the High Renaissance.
Even relatively minor painters of the period, such as Fra Bartolomeo and Mariotto Albertinelli, produced works that are still lauded for the harmony of their design and their technique. The elongated proportions and exaggerated poses in the late works of Michelangelo, Andrea del Sarto and Correggio prefigure so-called Mannerism, as the style of the later Renaissance is referred to in art history.
The serene mood and luminous colours of paintings by Giorgione and early Titian exemplify High Renaissance style as practiced in Venice. Other recognizable pieces of this period include Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Raphael's The School of Athens. Raphael's fresco, set beneath an arch, is a virtuoso work of perspective, composition and disegno.
In more recent years, art historians have characterised the High Renaissance as a movement as opposed to a period, one amongst several different experimental attitudes towards art in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century. This movement is variously characterised as conservative, as reflecting new attitudes towards beauty, a deliberate process of synthesising eclectic models, linked to fashions in literary culture, and reflecting new preoccupations with interpretation and meaning .
Sculpture
High Renaissance sculpture, as exemplified by Michelangelo's Pietà and the iconic David, is characterized by an "ideal" balance between stillness and movement. High Renaissance sculpture was normally commissioned by the public and the state, this becoming more popular for sculpture is an expensive art form. Sculpture was often used to decorate or embellish architecture, normally within courtyards where others were able to study and admire the commissioned art work. Wealthy individuals like cardinals, rulers, and bankers were the more likely private patrons along with very wealthy families; Pope Julius II also patronized many artists. During the High Renaissance there was the development of small scale statuettes for private patrons, the creation of busts and tombs also developing. The subject matter related to sculpture was mostly religious but also with a significant strand of classical individuals in the form of tomb sculpture and paintings as well as ceilings of cathedrals.
References
External links
Toward The High Renaissance at Smarthistory.
.
Art movements in Europe
Italian art movements
Italian Renaissance
Renaissance paintings
Renaissance sculptures |
357091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20W.%20Edwards | Henry W. Edwards | Henry Waggaman Edwards (October 1779July 22, 1847) was an American lawyer, a Democrat, and the 27th and 29th governor of the U.S. state of Connecticut.
Biography
Edwards was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the son of Pierpont Edwards and Frances Ogden. He graduated from Princeton University in 1797, and earned a law degree from the Litchfield Law School. He married Lydia Miller on October 4, 1801, and they had seven children.
Career
Edwards became a lawyer, was active in Democratic politics, and was the United States representative from Connecticut at-large from 1819 to 1823. He was appointed to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Elijah Boardman as a United States Senator and served from Connecticut from 1823 to 1827. He served as a member of Connecticut Senate at-large from 1828 to 1829. member of Connecticut state house of representatives from New Haven, in 1830, and the Speaker of the Connecticut House of Representatives in 1830. He was elected Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut in 1832, but was deprived of the office by a divided Assembly.
Elected in 1833, Edwards served as Governor of Connecticut from May 1, 1833 to May 7, 1834. Unsuccessful in his bid for the office in 1834, he was returned to office in 1835 and re-elected two more times, serving again from May 6, 1835 to May 2, 1838. During his tenure, a discriminatory education law was enacted, the railroad expanded, and the state funded a geological survey in 1835. When he did not win the Democratic party's nomination in 1838, he retired from public service.
Death
Edwards died in New Haven, Connecticut, and is interred at Grove Street Cemetery, New Haven, New Haven County, Connecticut.
References
External links
The Political Graveyard
National Governors Association
Litchfield Historical Society
1779 births
1847 deaths
People from New Haven, Connecticut
American people of English descent
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut
Democratic-Republican Party United States senators from Connecticut
Connecticut Democratic-Republicans
Jacksonian United States senators from Connecticut
Connecticut Jacksonians
Governors of Connecticut
Jacksonian state governors of the United States
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Connecticut Democrats
Speakers of the Connecticut House of Representatives
Connecticut state senators
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut |
357092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo%20Sansovino | Jacopo Sansovino | Jacopo d'Antonio Sansovino (2 July 1486 – 27 November 1570) was an Italian sculptor and architect, best known for his works around the Piazza San Marco in Venice. These are crucial works in the history of Venetian Renaissance architecture. Andrea Palladio, in the Preface to his Quattro Libri was of the opinion that Sansovino's Biblioteca Marciana was the best building erected since Antiquity. Giorgio Vasari uniquely printed his Vita of Sansovino separately.
Biography
He was born in Florence and apprenticed with Andrea Sansovino, whose name he subsequently adopted, changing his name from Jacopo Tatti.
In Rome he attracted the notice of Bramante and Raphael and made a wax model of the Deposition of Christ for Perugino to use.
He returned to Florence in 1511 where he received commissions for marble sculptures of St. James for the Duomo and a Bacchus, now in the Bargello. His proposals for sculpture to adorn the façade of the Church of San Lorenzo, however, were rejected by Michelangelo, who was in charge of the scheme, to whom he wrote a bitter letter of protest in 1518.
In the period of 1510-17 he shared a studio with the painter Andrea del Sarto, with whom he shared models. Like all sixteenth-century Italian architects, Sansovino devoted considerable energy to elaborate but temporary structures related to courtly ceremonies and festivities. The triumphal entry of Pope Leo X into Florence in 1515 was a highpoint of this genre. He subsequently returned to Rome where he stayed for nine years, leaving for Venice in the year of the Sack of Rome.
Career
In 1529, Sansovino became chief architect and superintendent of properties (Protomaestro or Proto) to the Procurators of San Marco, making him one of the most influential artists in Venice. The appointment came with a salary of 80 ducats and an apartment near the clocktower in San Marco. Within a year his salary was raised to 180 ducats per year.
His main achievements are a group of prominent structures and buildings in central Venice found near Piazza San Marco, specifically the rusticated Zecca (public mint), the highly decorated Loggetta and its sculptures adjoining the Campanile, and various statues and reliefs for the Basilica of San Marco. He also helped rebuild a number of buildings, churches, palaces, and institutional buildings including the churches of San Zulian, San Francesco della Vigna, San Martino, San Geminiano (now destroyed), Santo Spirito in Isola, and the church of the Incurabili. Among palaces and buildings are the Scuola Grande della Misericordia (early plans), Ca' de Dio, Palazzo Dolfin Manin, Palazzo Corner, Palazzo Moro, and the Fabbriche Nuove di Rialto.
His masterpiece is the Library of Saint Mark's, the Biblioteca Marciana, one of Venice's most richly decorated Renaissance structures, which stands in front of the Doge's palace, across the piazzetta. Construction spanned fifty years and cost over 30,000 ducats. In it he successfully made the architectural language of classicism, traditionally associated with severity and restraint, palatable to the Venetians with their love of surface decoration. This paved the way for the graceful architecture of Andrea Palladio.
He died in Venice and his tomb is in the Baptistery of St. Mark's Basilica. His most important follower in the medium of sculpture was Alessandro Vittoria; another disciple was the architect and sculptor Danese Cataneo.
Gallery
See also
Renaissance Classicism
References
Further reading
Boucher, Bruce. The Sculpture of Jacopo Sansovino. 2 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press) 1991. Monograph and catalogue raisonné of the sculpture.
Tafuri, Manfredo (Jessica Levine, translator). Venice and the Renaissance. (Cambridge MA: MIT Press) (1985) 1989. Sansovino's cultural context.
Deborah Howard. Jacopo Sansovino Architecture and Patronage in Renaissance Venice. Yale University Press 1975.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/522717/Jacopo-Sansovino
Hart, Vaughan, Hicks, Peter, Sansovino's Venice (New Haven: Yale University Press) 2017.
Italian Renaissance architects
Italian Renaissance sculptors
1486 births
1570 deaths
Architects from Florence
Sculptors from Florence
16th-century people of the Republic of Florence
16th-century Italian architects
16th-century Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors
Catholic sculptors |
357094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheria | Scheria | Scheria or Scherie (; or ), also known as Phaeacia () or the Land of the Faiakes (Φαίακες) was a region in Greek mythology, first mentioned in Homer's Odyssey as the home of the Phaeacians and the last destination of Odysseus in his 10-year journey before returning home to Ithaca. It is one of the earliest descriptions of a utopia. It is the foundation for many ideas of utopias ranging from Shakespeare's Propsero's Island from The Tempest as a brave new world to the Land of Oz.
From Ogygia to Scheria (Odysseus)
Before leaving Ogygia, Odysseus builds a raft and sails eastwards, instructed by Calypso to navigate using the stars as a celestial reference point. On the eighteenth day appear the shadowy mountains of the land of the Phaeacians, that looked like a shield in the misty deep. But Poseidon spots his raft and seeking vengeance for his son Polyphemus who was blinded by Odysseus, produces a storm that torments Odysseus. After three days of struggle with the waves, he is finally washed up on Scheria.
Odysseus meets Nausicaa
Meanwhile, the goddess Athena sneaks into the palace, disguised as a sea-captain's daughter, and instructs princess Nausicaa (the daughter of King Alcinous) in her sleep to go to the seashore and wash her clothes. The next morning, Nausicaa and her maids go to the seashore, and after washing the clothes, start to play a game on the beach, with laughs, giggles and shouts. Odysseus, who was exhausted from his adventure and sleeping nearby, is awakened by the shouts. He covers his nakedness with thick leaves and goes to ask for help from the group. Upon seeing the unkempt Odysseus in this state, the maids run away, but, Nausicaa, encouraged by Athena, stands her ground and talks to him. To excuse the maids, she admits that the Phaeacians are "the farthermost of men, and no other mortals are conversant with them", so they run away since they have never seen a stranger before. Nausicaa, being hospitable, provides clothes, food and drink to Odysseus, and then directs him to the palace of King Alcinous.
The palace of King Alcinous
Following Nausicaa's instructions, Odysseus sought to enter the palace of King Alcinous and plead for mercy from the queen, Arete, so he could make his way home. On his way to the palace, Odysseus meets Athena disguised as a local girl. In her disguised state, Athena advises him about how to enter the palace. Athena, knowing that the Phaeacians were hostile towards men from the outlands, cloaked Odysseus in a mist that hid him from the Phaeacians' gaze. Under Athena's protection, Odysseus passes through all of the protection systems of the palace and enters the chamber of King Alcinous. Odysseus throws his arms around the queen's legs and supplicates her. Naturally, Alcinous and his court are surprised to see a stranger walking into their secured palace. It was only after Echeneus, a Phaeacian elder, urged King Alcinous to welcome the stranger that they offered Odysseus hospitality.
The front doors of the palace are flanked with two dogs made of silver and gold, constructed by Hephaestus. The walls of the palace are made of bronze that "shines like the sun", with gates made of gold. Within the walls, there is a magnificent garden with apple, pear, and pomegranate trees that grow year-round. The palace is even equipped with a lighting system consisting of golden statues of young men bearing torches. After Odysseus tells Alcinous and his court the story of his adventures after the Trojan War, the Phaeacians take him to Ithaca on one of their ships.
The Phaeacian ships
The Phaeacians possessed remarkable ships. They were quite different from the penteconters, the ships used during the Trojan War, and they were steered by thought. King Alcinous says that Phaeacians carried Rhadamanthus to Euboea, "which is the furthest of any place" and came back on the same day.
He also explains to Odysseus what sort of information the Phaeacian ships require in order to take him home to Ithaca.
Homer describes the Phaeacian ships as fast as a falcon and gives a vivid description of the ship's departure.
Geographical location of Scheria
Many ancient and modern interpreters favour identification of Scheria with the island of Corfu, which is within 110 km (68 miles) of Ithaca. Thucydides, in his Peloponnesian War, identifies Scheria as Corfu or, with its ancient name, Corcyra. In I.25.4, he records the Corinthians' resentment of the Corcyraeans, who "could not repress a pride in the high naval position of an island whose nautical renown dated from the days of its old inhabitants, the Phaeacians." Locals on Corfu had long claimed this, based on the rock off the west coast of the island, which is supposedly the ship that carried Odysseus back to Ithaca, but was turned to stone by Poseidon, to punish the Phaeacians for helping his enemy,
The Phaeacians did not participate in the Trojan War. The Greek name Φαίακες is derived from phaiós (φαιός “gray”). The Phaeacians in the Odyssey did not know Odysseus (although they knew of him, as evidenced by the tales of Demodocus), so they called him a "stranger". Odysseus however was the king of the majority of the Ionian Islands, not only of Ithaca, but also "of Cephallenia, Neritum, Crocylea, Aegilips, Same and Zacynthus" so if Scheria was Corfu, it would be surprising that the citizens of one of the Ionian Islands did not know Odysseus. Furthermore, when Odysseus reveals his identity, he says to the nobles: "[…] if I outlive this time of sorrow, I may be counted as your friend, though I live so far away from all of you" indicating that Scheria was far away from Ithaca.
Many characteristics of the Phaeacians, including their seafaring and relaxed lifestyle are suggestive of Minoan Crete. Aside from the seafaring prowess, the palace walls that shone like the Sun are read to be covered not by bronze but orichalcum. The latter similarities make Scheria also suggestive of Plato's account of Atlantis. Helena Blavatsky proposed in her Secret Doctrine (1888) that it was Homer before Plato who first wrote of Atlantis. From the ancient times, some scholars having examined the work and the geography of Homer have suggested that Scheria was located in the Atlantic Ocean. Among them were Strabo and Plutarch.
Geographical account by Strabo
Approximately eight centuries after Homer, the geographer Strabo criticized Polybius on the geography of the Odyssey. Strabo proposed that Scheria and Ogygia were located in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
Notes
External links
Odyssey by Homer
Homer's Odyssey resources on the Web
Strabo: The Geography
Atlantis, Poseidonis, Ogygia and Scheria (on page 8)
Mythological islands
Geography of the Odyssey
Locations in Greek mythology
Corcyraean mythology |
357098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callimachus%20%28polemarch%29 | Callimachus (polemarch) | Callimachus ( Kallímakhos) was the Athenian polemarch at the Battle of Marathon, which took place during 490 BC. According to Herodotus he was from the Attica deme of Afidnes.
The Battle of Marathon
As polemarch, Callimachus had a vote in military affairs along with the 10 strategoi, including Miltiades. Miltiades convinced Callimachus to vote in favour of a battle when the strategoi were split evenly on the matter.
Miltiades is supposed to have said to Callimachus just before the polemarch cast his vote: “Everything now rests on you.”
During the battle, as polemarch, Callimachus commanded the right wing of the Athenian army as was the Athenian custom at that time. The right and left wings (the left wing commanded by the Plataeans) surrounded the Persians after a seemingly suicidal charge by the centre line.
Although the Greeks were victorious, Callimachus was killed during the retreat of the Persians while he was chasing them to their ships.
Plutarch, in his work: Moralia. Greek and Roman Parallel Stories mentions that Callimachus was pierced with so many spears that, even when he was dead, he continued to be in an upright posture.
There was a custom at Athens that the father of the man who had the most valorous death in a battle should pronounce the funerary oration in public. So, after the battle of Marathon, the father of Callimachus and the father of Cynaegirus had an argument about who of their sons were the bravest.
Callimachus was portrayed among the Athenian gods and heroes on the wall‐paintings of the Stoa Poikile. The Athenians erected a statue in honour of Callimachus, the "Nike of Callimachus".
According to some sources, before the battle, Callimachus promised that if the Greeks won, he would sacrifice to Artemis Agrotera as many goats as the number of Persians killed at the battlefield. Athenians kept his promise, in spirit, and every year sacrificed 500 goats, because they didn't have enough goats for every single Persian who was killed at the battle (6,400).
The statue of the "Nike of Callimachus"
After the battle of Marathon, Athenians created a statue in honour of Callimachus. The statue was the "Nike of Callimachus" and it was erected next to the Parthenon (not the Parthenon that we can see today, but the previous temple which was destroyed by the Persians) on the Acropolis of Athens.
The statue was severely damaged by the Persians when a decade later they conquered Athens and burned and destroyed the city. The statue depicts Nike (Victory), in the form of a woman with wings, on top of an inscribed column. Its height is 4.68 meters and was made of Parian marble. The head of the statue and parts of the torso and hands were never recovered.
On 26 October 2010, after the "Nike of Callimachus" was restored, it was displayed to the public for the first time as a complete monument at the Acropolis Museum. The statue has been affixed to a metal column that holds the various parts in place and is built so that additional fragments might be attached if they are found. The unveiling of the Nike monument was among a series of events scheduled by the culture and tourism ministry of Greece to celebrate the 2,500th anniversary since the Battle of Marathon. In the Museum in front of the original statue there is also a copy showing how the statue looked like when it was whole and undamaged.
See also
First Persian invasion of Greece
References
Further reading
490 BC deaths
5th-century BC Athenians
Ancient Greeks killed in battle
Athenians of the Greco-Persian Wars
Battle of Marathon
Year of birth unknown |
357100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingle%20Foot | Dingle Foot | Sir Dingle Mackintosh Foot, QC (24 August 1905 – 18 June 1978) was a British lawyer, Liberal and Labour Member of Parliament, and Solicitor General for England and Wales in the first government of Harold Wilson.
Biography
Born in Plymouth, Devon, Foot was educated at Bembridge School, a boys' independent school on the Isle of Wight, and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was President of the Oxford Union in 1928.
Foot was admitted to Gray's Inn on 19 November 1925 and called to degree of utter Barrister by Gray's Inn on 2 July 1930. He became a Master Bencher in 1952 and was appointed Queen's Counsel in 1954. He had been in active practice after having qualified a Barrister of England both in England and in several Commonwealth countries. He was called to the Bar or admitted as a solicitor or practitioner in the following countries such as Ghana (1948), Sri Lanka (1951), Northern Rhodesia (1956), Sierra Leone (1959), Supreme Court of India (as a Senior Advocate) (1960), Bahrain (1962) and Malaysia (1964). He also appeared regularly in the Courts of Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Nyasaland and Pakistan. In addition, he had been regularly engaged in the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council since 1945.
From 1931 to 1945 he was Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Dundee.
He was Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Economic Warfare in Winston Churchill's wartime coalition, and a member of the British delegation to San Francisco Conference in 1945. He visited Washington in June 1944, and secured an agreement with the US State Department, the new War Refugee Board and the Foreign Economic Administration to supply 550 tons of aid parcels a month over a three-month period to 'unassimilated civilian internees' in war-zones in Europe. At the 1945 election he lost his seat to Labour.
At the 1950 general election Foot defended the formerly Liberal seat of North Cornwall, following the defection of its member Tom Horabin to Labour in 1947, but he again lost, to the Conservative Harold Roper. He stood for the seat in 1951, losing again but by a narrower margin.
Foot left the Liberals and joined the Labour Party in 1956. He was Labour MP for Ipswich from a 1957 by-election until 1970. Following his appointment as Solicitor General in the first government of Harold Wilson, he was knighted and made a Privy Counsellor in 1964. He served in this post for almost 3 years, from 18 October 1964 until 24 August 1967, until he was replaced by Arthur Irvine following a major government reshuffle. In 1970 he was again defeated, this time by the Conservative candidate. His publications included Despotism in Disguise (1937) and British Political Crises (1976).
In the late 1940s and early 1950s Foot was often seen on BBC television as the moderator of the current affairs programme In the News. Often appearing with him were Michael Foot and Sir Bob Boothby.
Foot died on 18 June 1978 in a hotel in Hong Kong, after choking on a sandwich.
Family
Foot was the eldest son of Isaac Foot, who was a solicitor and founder of the Plymouth law firm, Foot and Bowden. Isaac Foot was an active member of the Liberal Party and was Liberal Member of Parliament for Bodmin in Cornwall between 1922 and 1924 and again from 1929 to 1935, and also a Lord Mayor of Plymouth. He married Dorothy Mary Elliston who died in 1989. Their ashes are together in St Margaret's, Westminster.
Dingle Foot had four brothers: Michael, a prominent figure in the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition from 1980 to 1983; John (Lord Foot), a Liberal politician; Hugh (Lord Caradon), Governor of Cyprus and British Ambassador to the United Nations and Christopher, a solicitor who joined the family firm. He also had two sisters. His nephew, Hugh's son, was the campaigning journalist Paul Foot.
Sources
Time
References
External links
The Papers of Sir Dingle Foot held at Churchill Archives Centre
1905 births
1978 deaths
20th-century British lawyers
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
English Queen's Counsel
Dingle
Knights Bachelor
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Members of Gray's Inn
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Dundee constituencies
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Ipswich
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Ministers in the Churchill wartime government, 1940–1945
Ministers in the Wilson governments, 1964–1970
People educated at Bembridge School
People from Plymouth
People from Suffolk
Presidents of the Oxford Union
Queen's Counsel 1901–2000
Scottish Liberal Party MPs
Solicitors General for England and Wales
UK MPs 1931–1935
UK MPs 1935–1945
UK MPs 1955–1959
UK MPs 1959–1964
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970 |
357101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel%20Playfair | Nigel Playfair | Sir Nigel Ross Playfair (1 July 1874 – 19 August 1934) was an English actor and director, known particularly as actor-manager of the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith, in the 1920s.
After acting as an amateur while practising as a lawyer, he turned professional in 1902 when he was 28. After a time in F. R. Benson's company he made steady professional progress as an actor, but the major change in his career came in 1918, when he became managing director of the Lyric, a run-down theatre on the fringe of central London. He transformed the theatre's fortunes, with a mix of popular musical shows and classic comedies, some in radically innovative productions, which divided opinion at the time but which have subsequently been seen as introducing a modern style of staging.
Life
Early years
Playfair was born in London on 1 July 1874, the younger son of the five children of the obstetric physician William Smoult Playfair (1835–1903), and his wife, Emily, née Kitson (1841–1916). He was educated at Winchester, Harrow, and University College, Oxford, where he took a third-class honours degree in modern history (1896). At Oxford he was a member of the Oxford University Dramatic Society. Destined for a career as a lawyer he was called to the bar by the Inner Temple in 1900, performing in his spare time with two well-known amateur societies, the Old Stagers and the Windsor Strollers, before giving up the law for the stage.
Playfair's first professional appearance was in Arthur Bourchier's company at the Garrick Theatre, London, in July 1902, playing Mr Melrose in a curtain-raiser, A Pair of Knickerbockers. In 1903 he played his first professional Shakespeare role, Dr Caius in Herbert Beerbohm Tree's production of The Merry Wives of Windsor at His Majesty's Theatre. At the same time his first play, a one-act piece called Amelia was staged as a curtain-raiser at the Garrick. The Era called it "a satire on cheap gentility which would have delighted Thackeray.
Playfair joined F. R. Benson's company touring in the West Indies, chiefly in comic Shakespearian parts. Back in London, in 1904, he first played his favourite role, Ralph, in The Knight of the Burning Pestle, and created the role of Hodson in Bernard Shaw's John Bull's Other Island at the Court Theatre. In 1905 he married the actress Annie Mabel Platts (1875–1948), the daughter of a senior officer in the Indian Imperial Police; her stage name was May Martyn. They had three sons.
In 1907 at His Majesty's, Playfair played Stephano in The Tempest, Clown in The Winter's Tale and First Gravedigger in Hamlet, and in 1910 at the same theatre played the Host in The Merry Wives of Windsor. His roles between then and the First World War included Flawner Bannel in Fanny's First Play (1911), Steward in The Winter's Tale (1912), Sir Benjamin Backbite in The School for Scandal (1913) and Bottom in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1914). During the war he appeared in light plays, fashionable at that time.
Lyric, Hammersmith
in 1918 the author Arnold Bennett, who had been active in the theatre before the war, resumed his theatrical interest. He became chairman, with Playfair as managing director, of the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith. A biographer of Playfair writes that the Lyric was "a derelict playhouse in what was then little more than a slum … this theatre seemed the last place in the world where high-class entertainment could possibly succeed". But the theatre prospered. Among the productions were Abraham Lincoln by John Drinkwater, and The Beggar's Opera, which, in Frank Swinnerton's phrase, "caught different moods of the post-war spirit", and ran for 466 and 1,463 performances respectively. In The Oxford Companion to the Theatre (1967) Phyllis Hartnoll comments that the Lyric became "one of the most popular and stimulating centres of theatrical activity".
In 1920 Playfair returned to the role of Ralph in The Knight of the Burning Pestle. Over the next twelve years he produced and acted in a wide range of plays. Classics included The Way of the World (1924), The Duenna (1924), The Rivals (1925), The Beaux' Stratagem (1927) She Stoops to Conquer (1928) and The Critic (1928). Playfair interspersed the classics with new musical shows with scores by Dennis Arundell, Thomas Dunhill and Alfred Reynolds and words by himself, A. P. Herbert and others: Riverside Nights (1926), Tantivy Towers (1931) and Derby Day (1932). The Times commented that these shows demonstrated that Playfair's "special method – a mingling of intimacy, brightness, and burlesque – was not applicable to the classics alone". Sharp writes that Playfair gathered "a loyal and happy team of young players, musicians, and designers who, under his genial leadership, not only began to make their reputations and confirm his, but also helped to create a specific Lyric style".
During his Hammersmith years Playfair continued to be active in other theatres. He produced As You Like It for the opening of the Shakespeare Festival at Stratford-upon-Avon in April 1919, and brought it to the Lyric in April 1920. He played Touchstone, in a production with set and costumes by Claud Lovat Fraser. It was a radical departure, inspired by the innovative ballet company the Ballets Russes. At the time, the text was usually heavily cut, but Playfair gave it almost complete. The scholar David Crystal describes the production as "bright, dynamic and musical, with young actors". At the time, some theatre-goers resented it, but Crystal comments that many critics now call it the first modern production of the play.
Playfair was the author of the English acting versions of Karel Čapek's R.U.R. and (with Clifford Bax) The Insect Play (both 1923), and he appeared in, and produced, many pieces outside his own theatre, including appearances in Prisoners of War at the Playhouse Theatre and The Green Hat at the Adelphi (both 1925), The Duchess of Elba at the Arts (1927), The Lady of the Camellias at the Garrick (1930). and Vile Bodies at the Arts (1931).
Fortnum & Masons sell a rich, bitter marmalade named in memory of Sir Nigel.https://www.thegentlemansjournal.com/article/heres-why-marmalade-is-the-preserve-of-the-gentleman/
Playfair was prominent in fund-raising for London voluntary hospitals and was a member of the committee of King Edward's Hospital Fund. He was knighted in 1928.
After a short illness and an unsuccessful operation Playfair died at King's College Hospital, London on 19 August 1934, aged 60. He was cremated and his ashes were buried in the Playfair family vault in St Andrews.
Memoirs
Playfair wrote two volumes of memoirs about the Lyric:The Story of the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith with an introduction by Arnold Bennett and an epilogue by A. A. Milne. (London: Chatto & Windus 1925) Hammersmith Hoy: A Book of Minor Revelations (London: Faber & Faber 1930)
Films
Playfair appeared in some films. He made several silents, and what his biographer Robert Sharp calls "four indifferent talkies":
Princess Clementina (1911, short)
Lady Windermere's Fan (1916)
Masks and Faces (1917)
Sunken Rocks (1919)
Perfect Understanding (1933)
Crime on the Hill (1933)
The Lady Is Willing (1934)
Little Stranger (1934)
Sharp rates Crime on the Hill'' as "perhaps his best, a country-house murder mystery in which he played the murderer.
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Play and acting roles on the Great War Theatre website
Portrait
Sir Nigel's Vintage Marmalade
Play and acting roles on the Great War Theatre website
1874 births
1934 deaths
Actors awarded knighthoods
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of University College, Oxford
English male stage actors
English theatre managers and producers
Actor-managers
Knights Bachelor |
357102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Goodyear | Charles Goodyear | Charles Goodyear (December 29, 1800 – July 1, 1860) was an American self-taught chemist and manufacturing engineer who developed vulcanized rubber, for which he received patent number 3633 from the United States Patent Office on June 15, 1844.
Goodyear is credited with inventing the chemical process to create and manufacture pliable, waterproof, moldable rubber.
Goodyear's discovery of the vulcanization process followed five years of searching for a more stable rubber and stumbling upon the effectiveness of heating after Thomas Hancock. His discovery initiated decades of successful rubber manufacturing in the Lower Naugatuck Valley in Connecticut, as rubber was adopted to multiple applications, including footwear and tires. The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company is named after him.
Early life
Charles Goodyear was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the son of Amasa Goodyear, and the oldest of six children. His father was a descendant of Stephen Goodyear, successor to Governor Eaton as the head of the company London Merchants, who founded the colony of New Haven in 1683.
In 1823, Charles left his home and went to Philadelphia to learn the hardware business. He worked industriously until he was twenty-five years old, and then, returning to Connecticut, entered into a partnership in his father's business in Naugatuck, CT where they manufactured not only ivory and metal buttons, but also a variety of agricultural supplements.
Marriage and early career
On August 3, 1824, he married Clarissa Beecher. Two years later the family moved to Philadelphia, and there Charles Goodyear opened a hardware store. This is where he did most of his work. His specialties were the valuable agricultural implements that his firm had been manufacturing, and after the first distrust of domestically made goods had worn away—for all agricultural implements were imported from England at that time—he found himself heading a successful business.
This continued to increase until it seemed that he was to be a wealthy man. Between 1829 and 1830 he broke down in health, being troubled with dyspepsia. At the same time, the failure of a number of business endeavors seriously embarrassed his firm. They struggled on, however, for some time, but were finally obliged to fail.
Between the years 1831 and 1832, Goodyear heard about gum elastic (natural rubber) and examined every article that appeared in the newspapers relative to this new material. The Roxbury Rubber Company, of Boston, had been for some time experimenting with the gum, and believed it had found means for manufacturing goods from it. It had a large plant and was sending its goods all over the country. It was some of Roxbury's goods that first attracted Goodyear's attention. Soon after this, Goodyear visited New York, and his attention went to life preservers, and it struck him that the tube used for inflation was not very effective nor well-made. Therefore, upon returning to Philadelphia, he made tubes and brought them back to New York and showed them to the manager of the Roxbury Rubber Company.
The manager was pleased with the ingenuity that Goodyear had shown in manufacturing the tubes. He confessed to Goodyear that the business was on the verge of ruin and that his products had to be tested for a year before it could be determined if they were perfect or not. To their surprise, thousands of US$ worth of goods that they had determined to be of good quality were being returned, the gum having rotted, making them useless. Goodyear at once made up his mind to experiment on this gum and see if he could overcome the problems with these rubber products.
However, when he returned to Philadelphia, a creditor had him arrested and imprisoned. While there, he tried his first experiments with India rubber. The gum was inexpensive then, and by heating it and working it in his hands, he managed to incorporate in it a certain amount of magnesia which produced a white compound that appeared to take away the stickiness.
He thought he had discovered the secret, and through the kindness of friends was able to improve his invention in New Haven. The first thing that he made was shoes, and he used his own house for grinding, calendering and vulcanizing, with the help of his wife and children. His compound at this time consisted of India rubber, lampblack, and magnesia, the whole dissolved in turpentine and spread upon the flannel cloth which served as the lining for the shoes. It was not long, however, before he discovered that the gum, even treated this way, became sticky. His creditors, completely discouraged, decided that he would not be allowed to go further in his research.
Goodyear, however, had no mind to stop here in his experiments. Selling his furniture and placing his family in a quiet boarding place, he went to New York and in an attic, helped by a friendly druggist, continued his experiments. His next step was to compound the rubber with magnesia and then boil it in quicklime and water. This appeared to solve the problem. At once it was noticed abroad that he had treated India rubber to lose its stickiness, and he received international acclamation. He seemed on the high road to success, until one day he noticed that a drop of weak acid, falling on the cloth, neutralized the alkali and immediately caused the rubber to become soft again. This proved to him that his process was not a successful one. He therefore continued experimenting, and after preparing his mixtures in his attic in New York, would walk three miles to a mill in Greenwich Village to try various experiments.
In the line of these, he discovered that rubber dipped in nitric acid formed a surface cure, and he made many products with this acid cure which were held in high regard, and he even received a letter of commendation from Andrew Jackson.
Exposure to harsh chemicals, such as nitric acid and lead oxide, adversely affected his health, and once nearly suffocated him by gas generated in his laboratory. Goodyear survived, but the resulting fever came close to taking his life.
Together with an old business partner, he built up a factory and began to make clothing, life preservers, rubber shoes, and a great variety of rubber goods. They also had a large factory with special machinery, built at Staten Island, where he moved his family and again had a home of his own. Just about this time, when everything looked bright, the panic of 1837 came and swept away the entire fortune of his associate and left Goodyear penniless.
His next move was to go to Boston, where he became acquainted with J. Haskins, of the Roxbury Rubber Company. Goodyear found him to be a good friend, who lent him money and stood by him when no one would have anything to do with the visionary inventor. A man named Mr. Chaffee was also exceedingly kind and ever ready to lend a listening ear to his plans, and to also assist him in a pecuniary way. About this time it occurred to Mr. Chaffee that much of the trouble that they had experienced in working India rubber might come from the solvent that was used. He therefore invented a huge machine for doing the mixing by mechanical means. The goods that were made in this way were beautiful to look at, and it appeared, as it had before, that all difficulties were overcome.
Goodyear discovered a new method for making rubber shoes and received a patent which he sold to the Providence Company in Rhode Island. However, a method had not yet been found to process rubber so that it would withstand hot and cold temperatures and acids, and so the rubber goods were constantly growing sticky, decomposing and being returned to the manufacturers.
Perfection and patent of vulcanization
From 1834 through 1839, Goodyear worked anywhere he could find investors, and often moved locations, mostly within New York, Massachusetts, Philadelphia, and Connecticut. In 1839, Goodyear was at the Eagle India Rubber Company in Woburn, Massachusetts, where he accidentally discovered that combining rubber and sulfur over a hot stove caused the rubber to vulcanize. For this Goodyear and Nathaniel Hayward received US patent number 1,090 on February 24 of the same year.
Several years earlier, Goodyear had started a small factory at Springfield, Massachusetts, to which he moved his primary operations in 1842. The factory was run largely by Nelson and his brothers. Charles Goodyear's brother-in-law, Mr. De Forest, a wealthy woolen manufacturer became involved as well. The work of making the invention practical was continued. In 1844, the process was sufficiently perfected and Goodyear received US patent number 3633, which mentions New York but not Springfield. Also in 1844, Goodyear's brother Henry introduced mechanical mixing of the mixture in place of the use of solvents. Goodyear sold some of these patents to Hiram Hutchinson who founded Hutchinson SA in France in 1853.
Court cases regarding vulcanization
In the year 1852, Goodyear went to Europe, a trip that he had long planned, and saw Thomas Hancock, then in the employ of Charles Macintosh & Company. Hancock claimed to have invented vulcanization independently, and received a British patent, initiated in 1843, but finalized in 1844. In 1855, in the last of three patent disputes with fellow British rubber pioneer, Stephen Moulton, Hancock's patent was challenged with the claim that Hancock had copied Goodyear. Goodyear attended the trial. If Hancock lost, Goodyear stood to have his own British patent application granted, allowing him to claim royalties from both Hancock and Moulton. Both had examined Goodyear's vulcanized rubber in 1842, but several chemists testified that it would not have been possible to determine how it was made by studying it. Hancock prevailed.
Despite his misfortune with patents, Goodyear wrote, “In reflecting upon the past, as relates to these branches of industry, the writer is not disposed to repine, and say that he has planted, and others have gathered the fruits. The advantages of a career in life should not be estimated exclusively by the standard of dollars and cents, as is too often done. Man has just cause for regret when he sows and no one reaps.”
Death and legacy
Goodyear died on July 1, 1860, while traveling to see his dying daughter. After arriving in New York, he was informed that she had already died. He collapsed and was taken to the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City, where he died at the age of 59. He is buried in New Haven at Grove Street Cemetery.
In 1898, almost four decades after his death, The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company was founded and named after Goodyear by Frank Seiberling.
On February 8, 1976, he was among six individuals selected for induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
In Woburn, Massachusetts, there is an elementary school named after him.
The Government of France made him a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur in 1855.
The ACS Rubber Division awards a medal named in Goodyear's honor, the Charles Goodyear Medal. The medal honors principal inventors, innovators, and developers whose contributions resulted in a significant change to the nature of the rubber industry.
The Goodyear welt, a technique in shoemaking, was named after and in honor of its inventor, Charles' son; Charles Goodyear Jr.
See also
Leverett Candee, first person to manufacture rubber footwear under the Goodyear vulcanization process.
William Henry Goodyear, his son
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
Vulcanization
References
External links
The Charles Goodyear Story
Today in Science History – Goodyear's U.S. Patent No. 240: Improvement in the Process of Divesting Caoutchouc, Gum-Elastic, or India-Rubber of its Adhesive Properties, and also of Bleaching the Same, and Thereby Adapting it to Various Useful Purposes.
1800 births
1860 deaths
Businesspeople from New Haven, Connecticut
19th-century American inventors
Polymer scientists and engineers
People from Staten Island
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
People of the Industrial Revolution
American people of English descent
Engineers from New York (state)
19th-century American engineers
19th-century American businesspeople |
357107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind%20carbon%20copy | Blind carbon copy | Blind carbon copy (abbreviated Bcc) allows the sender of a message to conceal the person entered in the Bcc field from the other recipients. This concept originally applied to paper correspondence and now also applies to email.
In some circumstances, the typist creating a paper correspondence must ensure that multiple recipients of such a document do not see the names of other recipients. To achieve this, the typist can:
Add the names in a second step to each copy, without carbon paper; Copy Circulation
Set the ribbon not to strike the paper, which leaves names off the top copy (but may leave letter impressions on the paper).
With email, recipients of a message are specified using addresses in any of these three fields:
To: Primary recipients
Cc: Carbon copy to secondary recipients—other interested parties
Bcc: Blind carbon copy to tertiary recipients who receive the message. The primary and secondary recipients cannot see the tertiary recipients. Depending on email software, the tertiary recipients may only see their own email address in Bcc, or they may see the email addresses of all primary and secondary recipients but will not see other tertiary recipients.
It is common practice to use the Bcc: field when addressing a very long list of recipients, or a list of recipients who should not (necessarily) know each other, e.g. in mailing lists.
Benefits
There are a number of reasons for using this feature:
Bcc is often used to prevent an accidental "Reply All" from sending a reply intended for only the originator of the message to the entire recipient list. Using Bcc can prevent an email storm from happening.
To send a copy of one's correspondence to a third party (for example, a colleague) when one does not want to let the recipient know that this is being done (or when one does not want the recipient to know the third party's e-mail address, assuming the other recipient is in the To: or Cc: fields).
To send a message to multiple parties with none of them knowing the other recipients. This can be accomplished by addressing a message to oneself (or, in some email clients, leaving the To: field empty) and filling in the actual intended recipients in the Bcc: field.
To tighten the focus of an existing email correspondence. By "moving people to BCC," a sender can remove non-essential parties from the recipient list so that future reply-all's will not include them. It is customary to include a parenthetical note indicating that certain recipients have been moved to BCC. This can be done out of courtesy to uninterested parties, or as a way of politely cutting off non-essential parties from the thread going forward.
To prevent the spread of computer viruses, spam, and malware by avoiding the accumulation of block-list e-mail addresses available to all Bcc: recipients, which often occurs in the form of chain letters.
Disadvantages
In some cases, the use of blind carbon copy may be viewed as mildly unethical. The original addressee of the mail (To: address) is left under the impression that communication is proceeding between the known parties, and is knowingly kept unaware of others participating in the primary communication.
A related risk is that by (unintentional) use of "reply to all" functionality by someone on Bcc, the original addressee is (inadvertently) made aware of this participation. For this reason, it is in some cases better to separately forward the original e-mail.
Depending on the particular email software used, the recipient may or may not know that the message has been sent via Bcc. In some cases, 'undisclosed recipients' placed in the To: line (by the software) shows that Bcc has been used. In other cases, the message appears identical to one sent to a single addressee. The recipient does not necessarily see the email address (and real name, if any) originally placed in the To: line.
When it is useful for the recipients to know who else has received a Bcc message,
their real names, but not their email addresses, can be listed in the body of the message, or
a meaningful substitute for the names can be placed in the body of the message, e.g. '[To General Manager and members of Remunerations Committee]', or '[To the whole Bloggs family]'.
Carbon vs. courtesy
The interpretation of "Bcc:" as "blind courtesy copy" is a backronym and not the original meaning; the historic RFC 733 has an explicit "blind carbon" annotation in its definition of the Bcc: header field syntax. "Cc:" and "Bcc:" mean "carbon copy" and "blind carbon copy" respectively.
See also
Carbon copy
References
External links
US-CERT Cyber Security Tip ST04-008, "Benefits of BCC"
Email
de:Header (E-Mail)#BCC
fr:Courrier électronique#Système de copie et de copie invisible |
357108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Hillhouse | James Hillhouse | James Hillhouse (October 20, 1754 – December 29, 1832) was an American lawyer, real estate developer, and politician from New Haven, Connecticut. He represented the state in both chambers of the US Congress. From February to March 1801, Hillhouse briefly served as President pro tempore of the United States Senate.
Early life
Hillhouse was born in Montville in the Connecticut Colony, the son of William Hillhouse and Sarah (Griswold) Hillhouse. At the age of seven, he was adopted by his childless uncle and aunt, James Abraham and Mary Lucas Hillhouse. He attended the Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven, Connecticut, and graduated from Yale College in 1773. At Yale, he was a member of the Linonian Society. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1775, and practiced law in New Haven.
Revolutionary War
During the Revolutionary War, Hillhouse served as captain of the Second
Company of the Governor's Foot Guard. During the successful British invasion of New Haven on July 5, 1779, he commanded troops alongside Aaron Burr, with Yale student volunteers.
Career
Hillhouse was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from 1780 to 1785. He was a member of the Connecticut council of Assistants from 1789 to 1790 and was elected as a US representative from Connecticut at large for the Second, Third, and Fourth Congresses and served from March 4, 1791, to his resignation, in the fall of 1796.
Elected as a US senator on May 12, 1796, to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Oliver Ellsworth, Hillhouse was re-elected in 1797, 1803, and 1809, and he served from December 1796 to June 10, 1810, when he resigned. During the Sixth Congress he was President pro tempore of the Senate.
In 1803, Hillhouse and several other New England politicians proposed secession of New England from the union because of the growing influence of Jeffersonian Democrats, especially after the Louisiana Purchase, which would further diminish Northern and Federalist influence.
Hillhouse was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1813.
In 1814, he was a Connecticut delegate to the Hartford Convention, and he was treasurer of Yale College from 1782 to 1832.
He died in 1832 in New Haven and is interred at the city's Grove Street Cemetery.
Hillhouse was a slaveholder.
Legacy
Hillhouse made major contributions to the beautification of New Haven. He was active in the drive to plant the elm trees, which gave New Haven the nickname of "Elm City." Hillhouse Avenue and James Hillhouse High School, in New Haven, are named after him.
He was a nephew of Matthew Griswold and an uncle of Thomas Hillhouse.
References
External links
James Hillhouse High School website
1754 births
1832 deaths
18th-century American politicians
19th-century American politicians
18th-century American lawyers
Members of the Connecticut General Assembly Council of Assistants (1662–1818)
Members of the Connecticut House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut
United States senators from Connecticut
Connecticut Federalists
Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate
Yale College alumni
Connecticut militiamen in the American Revolution
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
People from Montville, Connecticut
Businesspeople from New Haven, Connecticut
Federalist Party United States senators
Federalist Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Military personnel from Connecticut
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
People of colonial Connecticut |
357112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Humphreys%20%28soldier%29 | David Humphreys (soldier) | David Humphreys (July 10, 1752 – February 21, 1818) was an American Revolutionary War colonel and aide de camp to George Washington, a secretary and intelligence agent for Benjamin Franklin in Paris, American minister to Portugal and then to Spain, entrepreneur who brought Merino sheep to America and member of the Connecticut state legislature. A poet and author, he was one of the "Hartford Wits."
Early life
He was born in what was then Derby, Connecticut, and now a part of the neighboring town of Ansonia, in the First Congregational Church parsonage, a spacious two-story house at 37 Elm St. called the David Humphreys House. He was the youngest of five children (four sons and a daughter) of the Rev. Daniel and Sarah Riggs Bowers Humphreys.
Humphreys' father was parson of the church from 1733, the year after he graduated from Yale, to 1787—a run of 54 years. Daniel Humphreys was the second husband of Sarah Riggs Bowers, known in Derby as "Lady Humphreys" for her "dignity and refinement of character," according to author Leo T. Molloy.
As a boy, Humphreys was passionately fond of books. His father prepared both him and his brother, Daniel, for his own alma mater, Yale College, and entered both of them there. David was 15 years old when he entered the school and 19 when he graduated in 1771 with distinguished honors. While at Yale, he founded the Brothers in Unity, a debating society which came to prominence in the 1800s. Among his college friends were Timothy Dwight IV, who later became one of Yale's great presidents; John Trumbull, poet and lawyer (not the artist); and Joel Barlow, poet and diplomat.
After graduation, Humphreys became principal at the public school in Wethersfield, Connecticut for two years. He then worked as a tutor for the youngest of the 11 children of Col. Frederick Philipse at the Philipse Manor house in what is now Yonkers, New York.
Philipse was a prominent and outspoken Tory—which only roused the tutor's Patriot leanings. In 1774 Humphreys returned to New Haven, received a master of arts degree from Yale and was offered a position as an instructor, which he refused. He instead taught part-time at a private school run by his brother, Daniel, in New Haven. (Two contemporaries who also taught school in their early careers were John Adams and Nathan Hale.)
American Revolutionary War
In July 1776, Humphreys enlisted in the Continental Army as a volunteer adjutant in the 2nd Connecticut Regiment, then stationed in New York. The regiment consisted of several companies of "Derby men". He later saw action in the battle following the burning of Danbury, Connecticut and in a later raid on Sag Harbor, New York.
In that raid the Americans captured 90 prisoners, destroyed 12 enemy brigs and sloops, an armed vessel and an enormous quantity of stores, and returned to Connecticut without the loss of a single soldier. Humphreys was detailed to report the success directly to General Washington in New Jersey. It was probably the first meeting between the two.
Humphreys was promoted to captain and major. He served on the staffs of General Parsons, Israel Putnam and Nathanael Greene. On June 23, 1780, Humphreys was appointed aide-de-camp of Washington's headquarters staff, and he became a confidential friend and adviser to the general.
After the Battle of Yorktown, Washington entrusted the surrendered British colors, along with the general's report on the battle, to Humphreys and Tench Tilghman, a fellow aide who also delivered word of the Patriot victory to Congress. A painting of Humphreys arriving with them, titled "The Delivery of the Standards' to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, November, 1781," now hangs at the headquarters of the New Haven Museum and Historical Society, which also has a ceremonial sword that Congress voted be presented to Humphreys. The sword was presented in 1786 by Gen. Henry Knox. Humphreys was also commissioned a lieutenant-colonel, with his commission backdated to his appointment as an aide to Washington.
When Washington resigned his commission and presented himself before Congress, Humphreys was one of two aides who accompanied him into the chamber (the other was Benjamin Walker). Humphreys then traveled with Washington and Martha Washington back to Mount Vernon. Washington later recommended to Congress that it appoint Humphreys secretary of foreign affairs (the appointment went to John Jay instead).
After the war, Humphreys became an Original Member of the Connecticut Society of the Cincinnati.
Public service in the new nation
Humphreys was appointed to a commission to negotiate treaties of commerce with European nations. Other members of the commission were John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin. He became Franklin's secretary in 1784 in Paris, where he acted as an intelligence agent as well, and continued as a secretary to the legation under the Jefferson ministry.
In a letter of introduction to Franklin, Washington described Humphreys: "This gentleman was several years in my family as aide-de-camp -- his zeal in the cause of his country -- his good sense, prudence and attachment to me, rendered him dear to me; and I persuade myself you will find no confidence which you may think proper to repose in him, misplaced. He possesses an excellent heart, good natural and acquired abilities and -- sterling integrity -- to which may be added sobriety and an obliging disposition."
Back in Derby by 1786, Humphreys was elected to the October session of the Connecticut General Assembly. He was appointed head of the state militia and marched to West Springfield, Massachusetts to help deal with the civil strife and tumult of Shays' Rebellion, but by the time he had arrived, Massachusetts authorities were already in control of the situation.
In 1787 his mother died on July 27 and his father on September 2. At Washington's invitation, Humphreys stayed at Mount Vernon during the 1780s, acting as the general's private secretary and managing his correspondence. When Washington, elected president, took the oath of office in New York City, Humphreys accompanied him on the trip from Virginia and stood beside him during the ceremony. Humphreys acted as a speechwriter to Washington, helping add flourish to his speeches and correspondences before and during the presidency.
In 1791, Humphreys had the distinction of being the first minister appointed to a foreign country under the Constitution, when he was appointed minister to Portugal, the first neutral country to recognize the United States. In that post he negotiated the ransomed release of American prisoners from the Dey of Tripoli.
In 1796 he was appointed as minister to Spain, which then controlled the Mississippi River and all of Latin America except for Brazil. John Quincy Adams succeeded him in Lisbon. He remained minister to Spain until 1801, and during his stay there met and married Anne Frances Bulkeley, a cultured and wealthy English woman. Her father, John Bulkeley, was a banker, merchant and trader. In 1804, Humphreys was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.
Entrepreneur
The couple moved to Boston, where they bought a home on Chestnut Street on Beacon Hill and "entertained lavishly." But Humphreys bought a farm in Derby and managed to spend considerable time there. He also bought a factory and house in what is now Seymour, Connecticut that produced scythes and other iron tools. For a time, the community was called "Humphreysville."
Having seen poor conditions in mills in England, he was determined to avoid a similar situation in his Rimmons Falls plant in Seymour. He took in many boys from New York City at the mill, training, educating and clothing them. Humphreys established evening and Sunday schools for the boys and organized them into a uniformed military company which he drilled personally.
"It was largely through his efforts that the state inaugurated its efforts at factory inspection," according to Leo Molloy.
As a farmer, he was actively interested in agricultural improvements, and his farm became an experimental station. He helped found the Agriculture Society of Connecticut and became its first president.
Merino sheep
In 1802, Humphreys bought a herd of merino sheep in Spain and had them imported directly to Derby. Out of 25 rams and 75 ewes, five rams and two ewes died in the passage. They attracted a good deal of attention in town. "Humphreys considered their fleece of a superior quality and believed that their mixture with American sheep would eventually result in the production, through manufacture, of finer fabrics in America."
He sold some of the sheep, which then were resold in a flurry of speculation. He set up the first successful woollen mill factory in the new country, and it quickly achieved the reputation as the best producer of broadcloth in the United States. Coats made from the "golden fleece" were worn by President Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and Captain Isaac Hull. Humphreys "is regarded as the founder of the woollen industry" in America.
Poet and author
Humphreys is credited with composing the first American sonnet in 1776 with the title "Addressed to my Friends at Yale College, on my Leaving them to join the Army", but his most popular work was written in 1785, Happiness of America, which went to 10 editions in print between 1786 and1804.
Humphreys enjoyed writing and had a voluminous correspondence with Washington, now in the Library of Congress. He also wrote for the public and was the author of a "Life of General Israel Putnam," whose staff he served on. He was one of the writers called the Hartford Wits (the others were Joel Barlow, Timothy Dwight IV, John Trumbull and Lemuel Hopkins). In 1802, he wrote an anti-slavery poem entitled A Poem on the Industry of the United States of America. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1804.
He also served again as a member of the Connecticut state house of representatives, from 1812 to 1814. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in June 1807. In 1813, Humphreys was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.
His play The Yankey in England (c. 1814) was extremely influential in forging the stage character of the Yankee (often singing Yankee Doodle) that came to dominate American and English comedies in the period up to 1850, and comes with a seven-page glossary of the "peculiar idiom and pronunciation" of Americanisms, which is an important source for American historical dialectology.
In 1786 Humphreys wrote an account of the controversial confinement and proposed execution of British Captain Charles Asgill in a book entitled The conduct of General Washington : respecting the confinement of Capt. Asgill, placed in its true point of light.
Last years
He died in his room at Butler's Tavern, in New Haven, Connecticut, where he stayed when he was attending to affairs in Derby, and was interred at Grove Street Cemetery.
See also
David Humphreys House
List of the oldest buildings in Connecticut
Sources
Notes
External links
Humphreys House, now a museum
Society of the Cincinnati
The American Revolution Institute
Gallery
1752 births
1818 deaths
People from Derby, Connecticut
Yale University alumni
Ambassadors of the United States to Portugal
Ambassadors of the United States to Spain
Continental Army officers from Connecticut
American people of Welsh descent
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Fellows of the Royal Society
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
18th-century American diplomats
19th-century American diplomats
People of colonial Connecticut
Military personnel from Connecticut
Speechwriters for presidents of the United States
Aides-de-camp of George Washington |
357114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othniel%20Charles%20Marsh | Othniel Charles Marsh | Othniel Charles Marsh (October 29, 1831 – March 18, 1899) was an American professor of Paleontology in Yale College and President of the National Academy of Sciences. He was one of the preeminent scientists in the field of paleontology. Among his legacies are the discovery or description of dozens of new species and theories on the origins of birds.
Born into a modest family, Marsh was able to afford higher education thanks to the generosity of his wealthy uncle George Peabody. After graduating from Yale College in 1860 he traveled the world, studying anatomy, mineralogy and geology. He obtained a teaching position at Yale upon his return. From the 1870s to 1890s, he competed with rival paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in a period of frenzied Western American expeditions known as the Bone Wars. Marsh's greatest legacy is the collection of Mesozoic reptiles, Cretaceous birds, and Mesozoic and Tertiary mammals that now constitute the backbone of the collections of Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History and the Smithsonian Institution. Marsh has been called "both a superb paleontologist and the greatest proponent of Darwinism in nineteenth-century America."<ref>McCarren, Mark J. The Scientific Contributions of Othniel Charles Marsh',' p. 1, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 1993. .</ref>
Biography
Early life
Marsh was born October 29, 1831 in Lockport, New York, United States, to a family of modest means. His father, Caleb Marsh, was a farmer. His mother, Mary Gaines Peabody, was the younger sister of wealthy banker and philanthropist George Peabody, and died of cholera when Marsh was less than three years old. The financial backing of his uncle allowed Marsh to obtain a formal education. He graduated from Phillips Academy, Andover in 1856 and Yale College with his bachelor of arts degree with honors in 1860.
Marsh received a Berkeley Scholarship from Yale, and studied geology, mineralogy and chemistry at Yale's Sheffield Scientific School from 1860 to 1862, earning an MA in 1863. He next studied paleontology and anatomy in Berlin, Heidelberg and Breslau from 1862 to 1865. On his return to the United States in 1866 he was appointed professor of vertebrate paleontology at Yale University, making him the first professor of paleontology in the United States.
The same year, the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale was founded with a donation of US$150,000 from George Peabody, on Marsh's suggestion. Marsh served as a trustee of the Peabody Museum and was one of its three original curators.
Career
After receiving an inheritance of US$100,000 from his uncle, George Peabody, Marsh and his many fossil hunters were able to uncover about 500 new species of fossil animals, which were all named later by Marsh himself in the almost 400 scientific articles he published during his career. In May 1871, Marsh uncovered the first pterosaur fossils found in America. He also found early horses, flying reptiles, Cretaceous and Jurassic dinosaurs such as Triceratops, Stegosaurus, Brontosaurus, Apatosaurus and Allosaurus, and described the toothed birds of the Cretaceous Ichthyornis and Hesperornis.
Marsh discovered fossils showing the evolution of the horse. It was the ability to document Darwin's theory of evolution through the fossil record that made Marsh's efforts so significant. Marsh, more than anyone, produced the physical evidence to support Darwin's work. In 1876, English biologist and anthropologist Thomas Henry Huxley visited Marsh. Huxley's views on evolution were initially quite different from those of Marsh. However, Marsh showed him his collection of fossils and explained his conclusions. Huxley changed his opinions to match those of Marsh, and made them the basis of his famous New York lecture on the horse.McCarren, Mark J. The Scientific Contributions of Othniel Charles Marsh, pp. 44-6, 52-3, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 1993. .
In 1868, Marsh was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.
Marsh began uncovering a vast array of Jurassic specimens in 1877 in the Morrison Formation near Morrison, Colorado in what is now known as Dinosaur Ridge. Later that year, he learned of the fossils at Como Bluff, Wyoming, and his workers there produced more astounding results, continuing until 1889. Marsh's men also excavated near Canon City, Colorado, and in the Denver Beds of the Lance Formation. The Morrison workers sent back 230 large boxes of bones to Marsh at Yale. His Canon City workers sent back 270 boxes, and 480 boxes were sent from Como Bluff. Marsh biographer Charles Schuchert referred to this as "truly the richest harvest of dinosaurs ever garnered by a single paleontologist."
Marsh's work with early mammals is also quite significant. In early 1878, Marsh was ecstatic to find that one of his men at Como Bluff had found a mammal fossil from the Jurassic period. This led to further discoveries which increased the knowledge of Jurassic mammals exponentially. Marsh was able to describe new genera and species in every major mammalian group.
In 1880, Marsh caught the attention of the scientific world with the publication of Odontornithes: a Monograph on Extinct Birds of North America, which included his discoveries of birds with teeth. These skeletons helped bridge the gap between dinosaurs and birds, and provided invaluable support for Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin wrote to Marsh saying, "Your work on these old birds & on the many fossil animals of N. America has afforded the best support to the theory of evolution, which has appeared within the last 20 years" (since Darwin's publication of Origin of Species).
Marsh served as Vertebrate Paleontologist of the U.S. Geological Survey from 1882 to 1892. Thanks to John Wesley Powell, head of the USGS, and Marsh's contacts in Washington, Marsh was placed at the head of the consolidated government survey in the late 1880s.
Between 1883 and 1895, Marsh was President of the National Academy of Sciences.
The pinnacle of Marsh's work with dinosaurs came in 1896 with the publication of his two quartos, Dinosaurs of North America and Vertebrate Fossils, which demonstrated his unsurpassed knowledge of the subject.
On December 13, 1897, Marsh received the Cuvier Prize of 1,500 francs from the French Academy of Science.
Death
Marsh died on March 18, 1899, a few years after his great rival Cope. He was interred at the Grove Street Cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut.
Bone Wars
Marsh is also known for the so-called "Bone Wars" waged against Edward Drinker Cope. The two men were fiercely competitive, discovering and documenting more than 120 new species of dinosaurs between them.
In the winter of 1863, Marsh first met Cope while in Berlin. Marsh, age thirty-two, was attending the University of Berlin. He held two university degrees in comparison to Cope's lack of formal schooling past sixteen, but Cope had written 37 scientific papers in comparison to Marsh's two published works. While they would later become rivals, on meeting the two men appeared to take a liking to each other. Marsh led Cope on a tour of the city, and they stayed together for days. After Cope left Berlin the two maintained correspondence, exchanging manuscripts, fossils, and photographs.
Cope named Colosteus marshii for Marsh in 1867, and Marsh returned the favor, naming Mosasaurus copeanus for Cope in 1869.
In 1868, Marsh visited Cope in Haddonfield, New Jersey. Cope had been recovering fossils from the quarries since 1866, including those of Laelaps aquilungis which he described as a new species. Before he departed, Marsh contracted the owners of several marl pits to send any newly-discovered fossils to him, and not to Cope.
The two began to develop a rivalry when Marsh allegedly pointed out that Cope had placed the skull of Elasmosaurus at the end of its tail. Cope attempted to buy back the papers containing his flawed reconstruction, but Joseph Leidy exposed his cover-up at a meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences. This rivalry went on throughout their lives.
Marsh eventually "won" the Bone Wars by finding 80 new species of dinosaur, while Cope found 56. Cope did not take this lightly, and the two debated each other in scientific journals for many years to come.
Legacy
Marsh named the following dinosaur genera:
He named the suborders Ceratopsia (1890), Ceratosauria (1884), Ornithopoda (1881), Stegosauria (1877), and Theropoda.
He also named the families Allosauridae (1878), Anchisauridae (1885), Camptosauridae (1885), Ceratopsidae (1890), Ceratosauridae, Coeluridae, Diplodocidae (1884), Dryptosauridae (1890), Nodosauridae (1890), Ornithomimidae (1890), Plateosauridae (1895), and Stegosauridae (1880).
He also named many individual species of dinosaurs.
Dinosaurs named by others in honour of Marsh include Hoplitosaurus marshi (Lucas, 1901), Iaceornis marshi (Clarke, 2004), Marshosaurus (Madsen, 1976), Othnielia (Galton, 1977), and Othnielosaurus (Galton, 2007).
Marsh's finds formed the original core of the collection of Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History. The museum's Great Hall is dominated by the first fossil skeleton of Brontosaurus that he discovered, which was reclassified as Apatosaurus for a time. However, an extensive study published in 2015 concluded that Brontosaurus was a valid genus of sauropod distinct from Apatosaurus.
He donated his home in New Haven, Connecticut, to Yale University in 1899. The Othniel C. Marsh House, now known as Marsh Hall, is designated a National Historic Landmark. Marsh Hall serves as the home of the Yale School of Forestry at the Yale School of the Environment. The grounds are now known as the Marsh Botanical Garden.
Marsh was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1877.
Marsh formulated the Law of brain growth, which states that, during the tertiary period, many taxonomic groups presented gradual increase in the size of the brain. This evolutionary law remains being used due to its explanatory, and to a certain extent, predictive potential
Prior to Marsh's efforts, the entirety of fossil remains known in North America was quite small. As a result of the generosity of George Peabody, Marsh was able to keep discovery teams in the field almost continuously from 1870 until his death. The material recovered in his 30 years of collection was simply astonishing to the scientific community. At the Peabody Museum, Marsh was the first to create skeletal displays of dinosaurs, which are now common in countless museums of natural history.
Marsh biographer Mark J. McCarren summed it up this way, Marsh's "contributions to the understanding of extinct reptiles, birds and mammals are unequaled in the history of paleontology."
Marsh Butte, located in the Grand Canyon, was officially named in his honor in 1906.
See also
Dinosaur Wars
References
Further reading
The Scientific Contributions of Othniel Charles Marsh: Birds, Bones, and Brontotheres (Peabody Museum of Natural History Special Publication No 15) (Paperback) by Mark J. McCarren
External links
O. C. Marsh Papers. marsh.dinodb.com
View works by Othniel Charles Marsh online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library.
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
Scientist of the Day-Othniel Charles Marsh at Linda Hall Library
Othneil Charles Marsh papers (MS 343). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
1831 births
1899 deaths
Paleozoologists
American paleontologists
American taxonomists
19th-century American zoologists
19th-century American geologists
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
United States Geological Survey personnel
Heidelberg University alumni
Phillips Academy alumni
Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science alumni
Yale University faculty
People from Lockport, New York
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Scientists from New York (state)
Yale College alumni |
357125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary%20friend | Imaginary friend | Imaginary friends (also known as pretend friends, invisible friends or made-up friends) are a psychological and social phenomenon where a friendship or other interpersonal relationship takes place in the imagination rather than physical reality.
Although they may seem real to their creators, children usually understand that their imaginary friends are not real.
The first studies focusing on imaginary friends are believed to have been conducted during the 1890s. There is little research about the concept of imaginary friends in children's imaginations. Klausen and Passman (2007) report that imaginary companions were originally described as being supernatural creatures and spirits that were thought to connect people with their past lives. Adults in history have had entities such as household gods, guardian angels, and muses that functioned as imaginary companions to provide comfort, guidance and inspiration for creative work. It is possible the phenomenon appeared among children in the mid–19th century when childhood was emphasized as an important time for play and imagination.
Description
In some studies, imaginary friends are defined as children impersonating a specific character (imagined by them), or objects or toys that are personified. However, some psychologists will define an imaginary friend only as a separate created character. Imaginary friends can be people, but they can also take the shape of other characters such as animals or other abstract ideas such as ghosts, monsters, robots, aliens or angels. These characters can be created at any point during a lifetime, though Western culture suggests they are most acceptable in preschool- and school-age children.
They often function as tutelaries when played with by a child. They reveal, according to several theories of psychology, a child's anxieties, fears, goals and perceptions of the world through that child's conversations. They are, according to some children, physically indistinguishable from real people, while others say they see their imaginary friends only in their heads, and still others cannot see the friend at all but can sense his/her presence. Most research agrees that girls are more likely than boys to develop imaginary friends. Once children reach school age, boys and girls are equally likely to have an imaginary companion. Research has often reiterated that there is not a specific "type" of child that creates an imaginary friend.
Research has shown that imaginary friends are a normative part of childhood and even adulthood. Additionally, some psychologists suggest that imaginary friends are much like a fictional character created by an author.
As Eileen Kennedy-Moore points out, "Adult fiction writers often talk about their characters taking on a life of their own, which may be an analogous process to children’s invisible friends." In addition, Marjorie Taylor and colleagues have found that fiction writers are more likely than average to have had imaginary friends as children.
There is a difference between the common imaginary friends that many children create, and the imaginary voices of psychopathology. Often when there’s a psychological disorder and any inner voices are present, they add negativity to the conversation. The person with the disorder may sometimes believe that the imagined voices are physically real, not an imagined inner dialog.
Imaginary friends can serve various functions. Playing with imaginary friends enables children to enact behaviors and events they have not yet experienced. Imaginary play allows children to use their imagination to construct knowledge of the world. In addition, imaginary friends might also fulfill children's innate desire to connect with others before actual play among peers is common. According to psychologist Lev Vygotsky, cultural tools and interaction with people mediate psychological functioning and cognitive development. Imaginary friends, perceived as real beings, could teach children how to interact with others along with many other social skills. Vygotsky's sociocultural view of child development includes the notion of children's “zone of proximal development,” which is the difference between what children can do with and without help. Imaginary friends can aid children in learning things about the world that they could not learn without help, such as appropriate social behavior, and thus can act as a scaffold for children to achieve slightly above their social capability.
In addition, imaginary friends also serve as a means for children to experiment with and explore the world. In this sense, imaginary companions also relate to Piaget's theory of child development because they are completely constructed by the child. According to Piaget, children are scientific problem solvers who self-construct experiences and build internal mental structures based on experimentation. The creation of and interaction with imaginary companions helps children to build such mental structures. The relationship between a child and their imaginary friend can serve as a catalyst for the formation of real relationships in later development and thus provides a head start to practicing real-life interaction.
Research
It has been theorized that children with imaginary friends may develop language skills and retain knowledge faster than children without them, which may be because these children get more linguistic practice than their peers as a result of carrying out "conversations" with their imaginary friends.
Kutner (n.d.) reported that 65% of 7-year-old children report they have had an imaginary companion at some point in their lives. He further reported:
Imaginary friends are an integral part of many children's lives. They provide comfort in times of stress, companionship when they're lonely, someone to boss around when they feel powerless, and someone to blame for the broken lamp in the living room. Most important, an imaginary companion is a tool young children use to help them make sense of the adult world.
Taylor, Carlson & Gerow (c2001: p. 190) hold that:
despite some results suggesting that children with imaginary friends might be superior in intelligence, it is not true that all intelligent children create them.
If imaginary friends can provide assistance to children in developing their social skills, they must function as important roles in the lives of children. Hoff (2004 – 2005) was interested in finding out the roles and functions of imaginary friends and how they impacted the lives of children. The results of her study have provided some significant insight on the roles of imaginary friends. Many of the children reported their imaginary friends as being sources of comfort in times of boredom and loneliness. Another interesting result was that imaginary friends served to be mentors for children in their academics. They were encouraging, provided motivation, and increased the self-esteem of children when they did well in school. Finally, imaginary friends were reported as being moral guides for children. Many of the children reported that their imaginary friends served as a conscience and helped them to make the correct decision in times where morality was questioned.
Other professionals such as Marjorie Taylor feel imaginary friends are common among school-age children and are part of normal social-cognitive development. Part of the reason people believed children gave up imaginary companions earlier than has been observed is related to Piaget's stages of cognitive development. Piaget suggested that imaginary companions disappeared once children entered the concrete operational stage of development. Marjorie Taylor identified middle school children with imaginary friends and followed up six years later as they were completing high school. At follow-up, those who had imaginary friends in middle school displayed better coping strategies but a "low social preference for peers." She suggested that imaginary friends may directly benefit children's resiliency and positive adjustment.
Because imagination play with a character involves the child often imagining how another person (or character) would act, research has been done to determine if having an imaginary companion has a positive effect on theory of mind development. In a previous study, Taylor & Carlson (1997) found that 4-year-old children who had imaginary friends scored higher on emotional understanding measures and that having a theory of mind would predict higher emotional understanding later on in life. When children develop the realization that other people have different thoughts and beliefs other than their own, they are able to grow in their development of theory of mind as they begin to have better understandings of emotions.
Positive psychology
The article, "Pretend play and positive psychology: Natural companions" defined many great tools that are seen in children who engage pretend play. These five areas include creativity, coping, emotion regulation, empathy/emotional understanding and hope. Hope seems to be the underlying tool children use in motivation. Children become more motivated when they believe in themselves, therefore children will not be discouraged to come up with different ways of thinking because they will have confidence. Imaginary companionship displays immense creativity helping them to develop their social skills and creativity is frequently discussed term amongst positive psychology.
An imaginary companion can be considered the product of the child's creativity whereas the communication between the imaginary friend and the child is considered to be the process.
Adolescence
"Imaginary companions in adolescence: sign of a deficient or positive development?" explores the extent to which adolescents create imaginary companions. The researchers explored the prevalence of imaginary companions in adolescence by investigating the diaries of adolescents age 12-17. In addition they looked at the characteristics of these imaginary companions and did a content analysis of the data obtained in the diaries. There were three hypotheses tested: (1) the deficit hypothesis, (2) the giftedness hypothesis, (3) the egocentrism hypothesis. The results of their study concluded that creative and socially competent adolescents with great coping skills were particularly prone to the creation of these imaginary friends. These findings did not support the deficit hypothesis or egocentrism hypothesis, further suggesting that these imaginary companions were not created with the aim to replace or substitute a real-life family member or friend, but they simply created another "very special friend". This is surprising because it is usually assumed that children who create imaginary companions have deficits of some sort, and in addition for an adolescent to have an imaginary companion is unheard of.
Tulpa
Following the popularizing and secularizing of the concept of tulpa in the Western world, these practitioners, calling themselves "tulpamancers", report an improvement to their personal lives through the practice, and new unusual sensory experiences. Some practitioners use the tulpa for sexual and romantic interactions, though the practice is considered taboo. A survey of the community with 118 respondents on the explanation of tulpas found 8.5% support a metaphysical explanation, 76.5% support a neurological or psychological explanation, and 14% "other" explanations. Nearly all practitioners consider the tulpa a real or somewhat-real person. The number of active participants in these online communities is in the low hundreds, and few meetings in person have taken place.
Birth order
To uncover the origin of imaginary companions and learn more about the children who create them, it is necessary to seek out children who have created imaginary companions. Unfortunately young children cannot accurately self-report, therefore the most effective way to gather information about children and their imaginary companions is by interviewing the people who spend the most time with them. Often mothers are the primary caretakers who spend the most time with a child. Therefore, for this study 78 mothers were interviewed and asked whether their child had an imaginary friend. If the mother revealed that their child did not have an imaginary companion then the researcher asked about the child's tendency to personify objects.
In order to convey the meaning of personified objects the researchers explained to the mothers that it is common for children to choose a specific toy or object that they are particularly attached to or fond of. For the object to qualify as a personified object the child had to treat it as animate. Furthermore, it is necessary to reveal what children consider an imaginary friend or pretend play. In order to distinguish a child having or not having an imaginary companion, the friend had to be in existence for at least one month. In order to examine the developmental significance of preschool children and their imaginary companions the mothers of children were interviewed. The major conclusion from the study was that there is a significant distinction between invisible companions and personified objects.
A significant finding in this study was the role of the child's birth order in the family in terms of having an imaginary companion or not. The results of the interviews with mothers indicated that children with imaginary friends were more likely to be a first-born child when compared to children who did not have an imaginary companion at all. This study further supports that children may create imaginary friends to work on social development. The findings that a first-born child is more likely to have an imaginary friend sheds some light on the idea that the child needs to socialize therefore they create the imaginary friend to develop their social skills. This is an extremely creative way for children to develop their social skills and creativity is frequently discussed term amongst positive psychology. An imaginary companion can be considered the product of creativity whereas the communication between the imaginary friend and the child is the process.
In regards to birth order there is also research on children who do not have any siblings at all. The research in this area further investigates the notion that children create imaginary companions due to the absence of peer relationships. A study that examined the differences in self-talk frequency as a function of age, only-child, and imaginary childhood companion status provides a lot of insight to the commonalties of children with imaginary companions. The researchers collected information from college students who were asked if they ever had an imaginary friend as a child (Brinthaupt & Dove, 2012). There were three studies within the one study and they found that there were significant differences in self-talk between different age groupings.
Their first study indicated that only children who create imaginary companions actually engage in high levels of positive self-talk had more positive social development. They also found a gender difference within their study that women were more likely than men to have an imaginary companion. Their findings were consistent with other research supporting that it is more common for females to have imaginary companions. One possible explanation the researchers suggested that women may be more likely to have imaginary companions is because they are more likely to rely on feedback from other than themselves supporting the conclusions that men were found to have more self reinforcing self-talk.
Furthermore, other research has concluded that women seek more social support than men, which could be another possibility for creating these imaginary companions. The second study found that children without siblings reported more self-talk than children with siblings and the third study found that the students who reported having an imaginary friend also reported more self talk than the other students who did not have imaginary friends. Self-talk is often associated with negative effects such as increased anxiety and depression when the self-talk is specifically negative. The researchers found that "Individuals with higher levels of social-assessment and critical self-talk reported lower self-esteem and more frequent automatic negative self-statements".
However, there is also a positive side to positive self-talk and in this study they found that, "people with higher levels of self-reinforcing self-talk reported more positive self-esteem and more frequent automatic positive self-statements". They also found that men had a more frequent self-reinforcing self-talk than females. This particular finding is important because there are not many general findings comparing men and women in adult self-talk in today's research. Self-talk and imaginary companionship contain many similarities therefore it is possible that they can be related. Through positive self-talk children can increase their self-esteem, which leads to the possibility that a positive relationship with an imaginary companion could predict a similar outcome.
See also
Bicameral mentality
List of imaginary characters in fiction
Paracosm
Superstition
Tulpa
References
Further reading
Gleason, T. (2009). 'Imaginary companions.' In Harry T. Reis & Susan Sprecher (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Human Relationships (pp. 833–834). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hall, E. (1982). 'The fearful child's hidden talents [Interview with Jerome Kagan].' Psychology Today, 16 (July), 50–59.
Partington, J., & Grant, C. (1984). 'Imaginary playmates and other useful fantasies.' In P. Smith (Ed.), Play in animals and humans (pp. 217–240). New York: Basil Blackwell.
Imaginary Friends with Dr Evan Kidd podcast interview with Dr Evan Kidd of La Trobe University
Children's games
Developmental psychology
Interpersonal relationships
Friend
Stock characters
Hallucinations
Nonexistent things |
357126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithiel%20Town | Ithiel Town | Ithiel Town (October 3, 1784 – June 13, 1844) was an American architect and civil engineer. One of the first generation of professional architects in the United States, Town made significant contributions to American architecture in the first half of the 19th century. His work, in the Federal and revivalist Greek and Gothic revival architectural styles, was influential and widely copied.
Life and works
Town was born in Thompson, Connecticut to Archelaus Town, a farmer, and Martha (Johnson) Town. He trained with the eminent Asher Benjamin in Boston and began his own professional career with the Asa Gray House (1810).
His earliest important architectural works include Center Church (1812–1815), and Trinity Church (1813–1816), both on the New Haven Green in New Haven, Connecticut. He demonstrated his virtuosity as an engineer by constructing the spire for Center Church inside the tower and then raising it into place in less than three hours using a special windlass. Trinity Church, built from local seam-faced trap rock and topped with a square tower, was one of the earliest Gothic Revival churches in America.
In 1825, Town became one of the original members of the National Academy of Design and was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from Yale University.
Town's lattice bridge
On January 28, 1820, Town was granted a patent for a wooden lattice truss bridge, which became known as the Town Bridge. The design was of great importance because it could be built quickly by relatively unskilled workers from readily available material. The design also avoided the need for the heavy piers needed for stone arches. The design was widely known throughout the world and made Town wealthy (Town is said to have charged one to two dollars per foot in royalties for his designs). Town's design can still be seen in two of Connecticut's remaining covered bridges, Bull's Bridge in Kent and West Cornwall Covered Bridge in Cornwall and Sharon, and in the Eagleville Bridge and the Shushan Bridge in Washington County, New York. Many other extant covered bridges also employ Town's basic design. The lattice is sometimes called a truss, although it lacks vertical members.
Town and Davis
In 1829, Town formed one of the first professional architectural firms in the United States with Alexander Jackson Davis, together producing notable buildings in a range of new Revival styles, including Greek, Gothic, Tuscan, and Egyptian.
Town also traveled in Europe during this period (1829–30).
The firm lasted until 1835; for eighteen months in 1832 and 1833, it operated as Town, Davis, and Dakin, when James H. Dakin joined the firm. Their works included the state capitol in New Haven, the city hall and Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Connecticut, the capitol buildings of Indiana (1831–1840, demolished 1877), and North Carolina (1833–1840), and the U.S. Custom House, now Federal Hall National Memorial, in New York City (1833–1842). During this time, Town also designed the Potomac Aqueduct in Washington, D.C. (1833–1843), which allowed fully loaded canal boats to cross the Potomac River. It was considered one of the most remarkable engineering feats of the time.
Home and library
Town designed his New Haven home on Hillhouse Avenue in the Greek Revival style; here he kept what was then an extraordinary architectural library — an inspiration to many, including Davis and another noted New Haven architect, Henry Austin. His impressive library contained more than 11,000 volumes of architecture books and prints and was far larger than any other personal collection anywhere at the time, including that of Sir John Soane in London. The library was amassed at a time when only a handful of significant architecture books had been published in America.
Town left many of his books to Yale upon his death; the rest were sold.
In 1839, Town commissioned noted American painter Thomas Cole to execute a painting called The Architect's Dream, which now hangs in the Toledo Museum of Art.
Town's house was later owned by Joseph Earl Sheffield, benefactor of the Sheffield Scientific School and modified by Austin. Town designed a number of other stately homes on Hillhouse.
Death
Town died in New Haven on June 13, 1844, and is interred in Grove Street Cemetery, New Haven, Connecticut.
Selected works
Asa Gray House, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1810. Federal
Center Church, New Haven, Connecticut, 1812–1815. Federal
Trinity Church on the Green, New Haven, Connecticut, 1813–1816, Gothic Revival
Groton Monument, obelisk, 1826.
Samuel Wadsworth Russell House, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, 1828. Greek revival.
North Presbyterian Church (1831–1832), 273 Bleecker Street, Carmine Street, Greenwich Village—Founded in 1829, sanctuary built 1831-1832 to designs by Town & Davis. "Within a few years it changed its name to West Presbyterian Church (New York City)." It has since been demolished.
Skinner House, New Haven, Connecticut (now Yale International Center of Finance), Town and Davis, 1832. Greek revival.
Colonnade Row, New York, New York, 1832. Greek Revival.
North Carolina State Capitol, Raleigh, North Carolina, Town and Davis, 1840. Greek revival.
U. S. Custom House, now Federal Hall National Memorial, New York City, Town and Davis, 1833–1842. Greek revival.
Apthorp House, New Haven, Connecticut (now Evans Hall, Yale School of Management), Town and Davis, 1836
State capitol, New Haven, Connecticut, 1837. Greek revival. Razed
Indiana Statehouse, Town and Davis, 1840. Demolished in 1877.
Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, 1842. Gothic revival
Leake and Watt's Children's Home, New York, New York, 1843. Greek revival
Ithiel Town (Sheffield) Mansion, New Haven, Connecticut. Greek revival. Razed
Selected writings
A Description of Ithiel Town's Improvement in the Construction of Wood and Iron Bridges (New Haven, 1821)
A Detail of Some Particular Services Performed in America, During the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, and 1779, Compiled from Journals and Original Papers...taken from the Journal Kept on Board of the Ship 'Rainbow' Commanded By Sir George Collier (New York, 1835)
Atlantic Steamships. Ideas and Statements, The Result of Considerable Reflection on the Subject of Navigating the Atlantic Ocean with Steam-Ships of Large Tonnage. Also, the Arrival, Description, and Departure of the Two First British Steam-Ships (Wiley & Putnam/J. P. Wright, New York, 1838)
See also
New Hampshire Historical Marker No. 158: Cornish-Windsor Bridge
New Hampshire Historical Marker No. 190: Haverhill-Bath Bridge
References
External links
Ithiel Town papers (MS 499). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
1784 births
1844 deaths
19th-century American architects
American civil engineers
Architects from New Haven, Connecticut
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Greek Revival architects
Federalist architects
People from Thompson, Connecticut
Engineers from Connecticut |
357127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XEW-AM | XEW-AM | XEW-AM is a radio station in Mexico City, Mexico, broadcasting on the AM frequency of 900 kHz; it is branded as W Radio. XEW-AM serves as the originating station for other "W-Radio" stations around Mexico that carry some of its programs. The programming on XEW-AM is also simulcast on Mexico City FM radio station 96.9 XEW-FM.
History
XEW began regular broadcasts at 20:00 CST on September 18, 1930. Broadcasting from a room (later to become a proper studio) at the Olympia Cinema on 16 September Street in Mexico City, it initially had only 5 kW of transmitter power, although this was increased to 50 kW by 1934. With the installation of new transmitters, the power became 250 kW by 1935 and remained there for more than 80 years, making XEW-AM the most powerful AM radio station in North America. On February 10, 2016, XEW-AM was approved to relocate its transmitter to a site in Los Reyes Acaquilpan, La Paz Municipality, in the State of Mexico and to reduce power to 100,000 watts.
It was the first Mexico City station in Emilio Azcarraga Vidaurreta's Chain of the Americas, the forerunner to today's Televisa whose radio unit still owns XEW-AM. XEW-AM originally was affiliated with the NBC Radio Networks (NBC and Blue); its future sister stations would take affiliation with rival networks, XEQ-AM with CBS and XEX-AM with Mutual. As radio in Mexico evolved with the country's growth and more radio stations signed on, XEW-AM became flagship to the country's largest radio network. Several radio and television stations have derived their call signs from XEW radio and television, all of them affiliated at one time or another with Televisa.
In the United States, the call letters for KXEW, a commercial AM radio station in Tucson, Arizona, owned by Pan American Radio Corporation, that went on the air May 10, 1963, were chosen by its president and CEO, J. Carlos McCormick, because of his admiration of Vidaurreta, whom he had met as a teenager during a 1950 visit to Mexico City.
XEW-FM
The FM frequency, 96.9, received its concession on April 28, 1962; it was not launched until the 1970s, and by the end of that decade, it carried a disco format. By 1981, it had changed to "Rock Stereo". On September 9, 1985, it was renamed "WFM" with an English rock and pop format, being the direct competition of XHSON-FM (then known as "Rock 101"). Among the DJs that conformed the station were Alejandro González Iñárritu, Martha Debayle and Charo Fernández.
After 14 years, in 1999, the station changed its name and format to "W Radical", directed by the former head of "Rock 101", Luis Gerardo Salas, airing electronic music and eurodance. By 2001, it returned to its former WFM format with the slogan "Frecuencia Adictiva", but in late 2002, after the association of Televisa Radio and PRISA, it was decided to simulcast the same programming on AM and FM, and thus XEW-FM became a news and talk outlet, albeit musical programming can still be heard on overnights and weekends when there are not sports scheduled.
Personalities
Manuel "Maber" Bernal
Emilio Tuero
Juan Arvizu
Luis Arcaráz
Nicolás Urcelay
Alfonso Ortiz Tirado
Los Panchos
Juan García Esquivel
Mario Ruiz Armengol
Maria Luisa Landín
María Victoria
Mario Moreno Cantinflas
Germán Valdés "Tin-Tan"
José Sabre Marroquín
Agustín Lara
Toña la Negra
Angelines Fernández
Carmen Rey
Pedro Infante
Jorge Negrete
Pedro Vargas
Gustavo Adolfo Palma from Guatemala
Fernando Fernández
Eulalio González "Piporro"
Francisco Gabilondo Soler ("Cri-Cri")
Hugo Avendaño, Amparo Montes
Héctor Martínez Serrano
Antonio Aguilar
Paco Stanley
External links
XEW-AM, official page
References
Radio stations in Mexico City
Radiópolis
News and talk radio stations in Mexico
Radio stations established in 1930
Clear-channel radio stations |
357128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20B.%20Fancher | Frederick B. Fancher | Frederick Bartlett Fancher (April 2, 1852January 10, 1944) was an American politician who was the seventh Governor of North Dakota from 1899 to 1901.
Biography
Frederick B. Fancher was born in Orleans County, New York, on April 2, 1852. Educated in the public schools, he also attended Michigan State Normal School in Ypsilanti, Michigan. He married Florence S. Van Voorhies.
Career
Working in insurance in Illinois and North Dakota, Fancher first entered politics and was President of the North Dakota Constitutional Convention in 1889. He had moved to North Dakota in 1881 and began a large farming operation near Jamestown. He was State Insurance Commissioner from 1895 to 1899 and a trustee board member of the State Hospital for the Insane.
Securing the Republican nomination, he was elected Governor and served from 1899 to January 10, 1901. While he was in that office, a state board of pardons, and a twine plant in the state penitentiary were established.
After leaving office, he moved to Sacramento, California and had a retail and wholesale grocery business until his retirement in 1925.
Death
Fancher died in Los Angeles, California, on January 10, 1944, at age 91. He is buried in East Lawn Memorial Park in Sacramento, California. He was the last surviving Governor to have served in the 19th century.
References
External links
Biography for Frederick Fancher from the State Historical Society of North Dakota website.
The Political Graveyard
National Governors Association
Soylent Communications
1852 births
1944 deaths
Governors of North Dakota
American Protestants
North Dakota Republicans
Republican Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians
20th-century American politicians |
357133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Throssell | George Throssell | George Lionel Throssell (23 May 1840 – 30 August 1910) was the second Premier of Western Australia. He served for just three months, from 15 February to 27 May 1901, during a period of great instability in Western Australian politics.
George Throssell was born at Fermoy, County Cork, Ireland, on 23 May 1840. The son of a Pensioner Guard, he came to Western Australia on board the Scindian in 1850 with his parents, and was educated at the Perth Public School. He began his own business as a produce merchant, "Geo. Throssell & Co.", in the town of Northam in 1861 and served as the Northam postmaster from 1864 to 1874. Throssell became owner of a flour mill, farms and a chain of shops; in 1885 his company became "Throssell & Son" with the admission of his son Lionel, and the following year with the addition of W. J. Stewart, "Throssell, Son & Stewart". George was active in the Northam community; he was first elected to the Northam Municipal Council in 1880, of which he was chairman until 1883 and again from 1885 to 1887. He subsequently served as Mayor of Northam for broken periods until 1894. Throssell was popularly known as "the lion of Northam", and was Northam's first citizen in 1890 when was elected unopposed to the Legislative Assembly seat of Northam.
In 1897 Throssell joined Sir John Forrest's government as Commissioner of Crown Lands, a key responsibility in a rapidly developing colony. When Forrest resigned as premier to join the federal parliament, Throssell took over as premier and treasurer on 15 February 1901. However, in the election of the following April, the "ministerialists" or former Forrest supporters failed to attain a majority of seats. On 27 May Throssell resigned as premier and as the leader of his group, but continued as MLA for Northam. He did not contest the 1904 election for health reasons, but returned to parliament in 1907 after winning a by-election for the Legislative Council's East Province, the electoral region that included Northam. He served until his death on 30 August 1910.
George Throssell married Annie Morrell in 1861, and was the father of at least twelve children, one of whom was Captain Hugo Throssell VC. George Throssell was created a CMG in 1901.
Sources
References
1840 births
1910 deaths
Mayors of places in Western Australia
Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Council
Politicians from County Cork
Premiers of Western Australia
Treasurers of Western Australia
Australian flour millers and merchants
Settlers of Western Australia
Irish emigrants to Australia (before 1923)
People from Fermoy
19th-century Australian businesspeople |
357135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleomenes%20I | Cleomenes I | Cleomenes I (; Greek Κλεομένης; died c. 490 BC) was King of Sparta between c. 524 to c. 490 BC. One of the most important Spartan kings, Cleomenes was instrumental in organising the Greek resistance against the Persian Empire of Darius, as well as shaping the geopolitical balance of Classical Greece.
Historical significance
"Cleomenes," remarks historian J. B. Bury, "if he had not been a Spartan, might have been one of the greater figures in Grecian history." As it was, he stands as a shrewd policy maker whose policies were consistently rendered ineffective by the opposition of his co-King and the Spartan Ephorate. Nevertheless, he was the dominant figure in Spartan history throughout his adult lifetime. During his reign, which started around 519 BC, he pursued an adventurous and at times unscrupulous foreign policy aimed at crushing Argos and extending Sparta's influence both inside and outside the Peloponnese. He was a brilliant tactician. During his reign, he intervened twice successfully in Athenian affairs but kept Sparta out of the Ionian Revolt.
Family background and accession
Cleomenes was the son of Anaxandridas II, who belonged to the Agiad dynasty, one of the two royal families of Sparta (the other being the Eurypontids). As his father did not have a son from his first wife (his own niece), the ephors forced him to remarry another woman, without divorcing his first wife—an unprecedented occurrence in Sparta. The new wife likely came from the family of the ephor Chilon, an important reformer, whose office was perhaps in 556–555. Paul Cartledge points that the ephors' concern about Anaxandridas' descent is the first indication of Sparta's manpower problems, which became dire in the later centuries. Cleomenes was born from this new marriage, but then his father returned to his first wife and had three further sons from her: Dorieus, the future king Leonidas, and Cleombrotus—the latter two were perhaps twins. The name Dorieus ("the Dorian") explicitly refers to the Spartan ethnic identity, and might be a rejection of the ephor Chilon's policy of amicable relationship with the ethnically different Achaia in the northern Peloponnese.
The second wife's family immediately contested the legitimacy of Dorieus even before his birth, as the ephors attended his birth in order to certify the authenticity of the pregnancy. It shows that there were strong familial rivalries among Spartan royal circles; besides, at the same time, a cousin of Anaxandridas' second wife was also the bride of the future Eurypontid king Leotychidas. In turn, when his father died, Cleomenes' succession was contested by Dorieus, because of his superior "manly virtue". Perhaps this statement is related to a great performance during the agoge—the rigorous military training at Sparta—which Dorieus had to endure, while Cleomenes avoided it as heir-apparent (the only possible exemption). Dorieus could have also contested Cleomenes' legitimacy on the ground that he was issued from the king's first wife, who was additionally of royal descent. As Cleomenes was the eldest son, his claim was nevertheless deemed stronger and he became king. It prompted the departure of Dorieus to colonial ventures in Libya and Sicily, where he died in c.510.
The date of Cleomenes' accession had been debated among modern scholars for a long time, until David Harvey found that the Greek historian Diodoros of Sicily had confused the length of Cleomenes II's reign (370–309) with that of his earlier namesake, thus indirectly dating his beginnings from 524–523.
Reign
Encounter at Plataia (519 BC)
The first known deed of Cleomenes as king is his dealing with the city of Plataia, located between Thebes and Athens. In 519, Herodotus tells that Cleomenes happened to be in the vicinity of Plataia, when the Plataians requested an alliance with Sparta, which he rejected, but instead he advised them to ally with Athens, because he wanted to stir a border conflict between Thebes and Athens, two of the most powerful poleis of central Greece. The Plataians probably wished to avoid their forced incorporation into the Boiotian League, which was being built by Thebes at this time. Their Spartan alliance request perhaps indicates that they wanted to become member of the Peloponnesian League, which was likewise being put in place at this time. G. E. M. de Ste. Croix and Paul Cartledge call this move "a master-stroke" of diplomacy, but other modern scholars do not believe it was Cleomenes' intention to create a rift between Thebes and Athens.
Herodotus does not tell what Cleomenes was doing near Plataia. A number of theories have been advanced to explain it. Perhaps he was marching on Thebes to support an invasion from his ally Lattamyas of Thessaly, but as the Thebans had defeated the Thessalians at the Battle of Ceressus before he arrived, he took the opportunity to hurt them without engaging his forces. Another possibility is that he was trying to convince either Megara or Thebes to join the Peloponnesian League, or he was arbitrating between Megara and Athens over the island of Salamis.
The date of this event has long been challenged by some modern scholars, who have often suggested instead 509, as it would better fit with Cleomenes' latter involvements into Athenian politics, but the majority view remains in favour of 519.
Foreign embassies (516–514 BC)
In 516, Cleomenes received an embassy from Maeandrius of Samos asking him for help to expel the tyrant Syloson, a puppet of the Persian Empire, which was at the time subjugating the city-states of the eastern Aegean sea. Cleomenes however refused, with the support of the ephors; perhaps he did not want to commit the Peloponnesian League to long-distance wars, or he was not convinced by Maeandrius' intentions, as he probably coveted the tyranny in Samos.
Two years later, Cleomenes likewise heard an embassy from the Scythians offering him an alliance against Persia.
Interventions into Athenian politics (510–501 BC)
In 500s, Cleomenes meddled four times with Athenian politics, which ultimately led to the creation of democracy in Athens. The powerful, but exiled, Alcmaeonid family of Athens bribed to Oracle of Apollo at Delphi to advise the Spartans to intervene in order to remove the Pisistratid dynasty, who had ruled the city as tyrants for 50 years. The first Spartan expedition, headed by Anchimolus, took place in c.511, but was defeated by the tyrant Hippias, son of Pisistratus. Sparta sent a bigger force in 510, Cleomenes commanded the army and went to Attica by land. He captured the sons of Hippias by chance and forced him to go into exile to the Persian Empire. The war against Hippias is consistent with the policy of removing tyrants followed by Sparta during the 6th century. Moreover, the tyrants of Athens were known for their Persian sympathies (known as Medism), which Cleomenes started to vigorously fight throughout Greece at this point. Hippias' departure opened the way to Cleisthenes of the Alcmaeonid family, who passed a series of democratic reforms in Athens.
Cleisthenes and the Athenian aristocrat Isagoras then fought each other for control of Athens. Cleomenes came with an armed force to support Isagoras, and they forced Cleisthenes and the Alcmaeonidae family to go into exile for a second time. Cleomenes also abolished the Boule, a council set up by Cleisthenes, and occupied the Acropolis. The citizens of Athens objected to this and forced him out of the city. Cleomenes was ashamed about what happened in the Acropolis, so he gathered an army the following year with the aim of setting up Isagoras as tyrant of Athens. This army invaded Attica. The Corinthians in his force refused to proceed once the army got to Eleusis, so he was forced to withdraw. According to Pausanias, Cleomenes managed to get as far as Aegina. Pausanias claimed that Cleomenes arrested people who he thought had shown Persian sympathies while he was in Aegina.
Sparta then proposed to her allies to mount an expedition to restore Hippias as tyrant of Athens. Given that Sparta had been instrumental in the overthrow of Hippias this change in policy was justified because Sparta had discovered that they had been tricked by the Alcmaeonidae into overthrowing Hippias because the Delphic oracle had been bribed into asking them to do so. According to W G Forrest, it was Cleomenes who argued for this change of position with Sparta's allies. However, the allies, led by Corinth, rejected the proposal in the first act of the Peloponnesian League.
The Ionian Revolt and its Aftermath
In 499 BC, Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, came to Sparta to request help from King Cleomenes with the Ionian Revolt against Persia. Aristagoras nearly persuaded Cleomenes to help, promising an easy conquest of Persia and its riches, but Cleomenes sent him away when he learned about the long distance to the heart of Persia. Aristagoras attempted to bribe him by offering silver. Cleomenes declined, so Aristagoras began offering him more and more. According to Herodotus, once Aristagoras offered Cleomenes 50 talents of silver, Cleomenes's young daughter Gorgo warned him not to trust a man who threatened to corrupt him.
Around 494 BC, Cleomenes invaded and defeated Argos at the Battle of Sepeia. During the battle, when the Spartan herald announced anything to the Lacedemonians, the Argives followed without protest. Cleomenes assumed that the Argives were doing whatever the herald of the Lacedemonians proclaimed, so he took advantage of this by telling the Lacedemonians to attack the Argives once the herald proclaimed that they would get breakfast. Cleomenes was correct that the Argives would get breakfast based on the herald's announcement, so his army massacred the unarmed enemy forces while they were eating. He killed the retreating force, Herodotus says 6000 people were killed, by burning them to death in a sacred grove of Argus. But this number could be exaggerated for affect.
Cleomenes sent the majority of his army back to Sparta and took a thousand men to the temple of Hera to make a sacrifice. The priest forbade him, saying that strangers were not allowed to make sacrifices. Cleomenes ordered the Helots to scourge the priest and made the sacrifice anyway.
Argos would remain a bitter enemy of Sparta for decades after this attack. It is not clear why the attack on Argos took place. It may have been the result of Sparta's concerns over Argos and the city's pro-Persian tendencies, or due to proximity of Argos to the Spartans and thus being a growing threat to the security of the Spartan state.
When the Persians invaded Greece after putting down the Ionian revolt in 493 BC, many city-states quickly submitted to them fearing a loss of trade. Among these states was Aegina, so in 491 BC, Cleomenes attempted to arrest the major collaborators there. The citizens of Aegina would not cooperate with him and the Eurypontid Spartan king, Demaratus attempted to undermine his efforts. Cleomenes overthrew Demaratus, after first bribing the oracle at Delphi to announce that this was the divine will, and replaced him with Leotychidas.
Exile and death
Around 490 BC Cleomenes was forced to flee Sparta when his plot against his co-king Demaratus was discovered, but the Spartans allowed him to return when he began gathering an army in the surrounding territories. However, according to Herodotus he was by this time considered to be insane. The Spartans, fearing what he was capable of put him in prison. By the command of his half-brothers, Leonidas I and Cleombrotus, Cleomenes was placed in chains. He died in prison in mysterious circumstances, with the Spartan authorities claiming his death was suicide due to insanity.
While in prison, Cleomenes was found dead with his death being ruled as suicide by self-mutilation. He apparently convinced the helot guarding him into giving him a knife, with which he slashed his shins, thighs and belly in an especially brutal suicide. He was succeeded by the elder of his surviving half-brothers Leonidas I, who then married Cleomenes' daughter Gorgo.
Herodotus gives four different versions that circulated in Greece to explain Cleomenes' madness and suicide. The most common one was that of divine retribution for having bribed the oracle of Delphi. Alternatively, the Argives said it was for the massacre of the Argive soldiers refugeed in their sacred grove after the battle of Sepeia; the Athenians thought it was for his sacrilege of the groves of Eleusis; the Spartans told that the wine he drank unmixed with water—a taste he acquired from the Scythian ambassadors who visited him in 514—turned him insane. For Herodotus, Cleomenes paid for his removal of Demaratus. The Athenians' and Argives' versions were coined to suit their own grief against Cleomenes, whereas the Spartan version was designed to absolve Sparta from any accusation of impiety.
The suicide of Cleomenes has appeared suspect to modern scholars, who instead consider possible that he was murdered by his half-brother Leonidas, who was next in line. Cleomenes' daughter, Gorgo, seems to have transmitted to Herodotus the Spartan "official version" of her father's death, to which she might have participated as she married Leonidas.
Notes
Bibliography
Ancient sources
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica.
Herodotos, Histories.
Modern sources
John Boardman et al., The Cambridge Ancient History, volume IV, Persia Greece, and the Eastern Mediterranean, from c. 525 to 479 B.C., Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Robert J. Buck, A History of Boeotia, University of Alberta Press, 1979 .
Pierre Carlier, "La vie politique à Sparte sous le règne de Cléomène Ier. Essai d’interprétation", Ktèma, 1977, n°2, pp. 65–84.
Paul Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, A Regional History 1300–362 BC, London, Routledge, 2002 (originally published in 1979). ISBN 0-415-26276-3
——, Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.
George L. Cawkwell, "Cleomenes", Mnemosyne, XLVI, 4 (1993), pp. 506–527.
W. G. Forrest, History of Sparta, 950–192 B.C., New York/London, 1968.
Brenda Griffith-Williams, "The Succession to the Spartan Kingship, 520–400 BC", Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Vol. 54, No. 2 (2011), pp. 43–58.
Mogens Herman Hansen & Thomas Heine Nielsen (editors), An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis, Oxford University Press, 2004.
David Harvey, "Leonidas the Regicide, Speculations on the death of Kleomenes I", in Glen W. Bowersock, Walter Burkert, Michael C. J. Putnam (editors), Arktouros, Hellenic Studies presented to Bernard M. W. Knox on the occasion of his 65th birthday, Berlin/New York, de Gruyter, 1979,pp. 253–260.
——, "The Length of the Reigns of Kleomenes", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 58, H. 3 (2009), pp. 356–357.
Stephen Hodkinson, "Female property ownership and status in Classical and Hellenistic Sparta", Centre for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University, 2004.
Simon Hornblower, A Commentary on Thucydides, Volume I, Books I-III, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1991.
—— (editor), Herodotus, Histories, Book V, Cambridge University Press, 2013.
—— & Christopher Pelling (editors), Herodotus, Histories, Book VI, Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Andreas Konecny, Vassilis Aravantinos, Ron Marchese, et al., Plataiai, Archäologie und Geschichte einer boiotischen Polis, Vienna, Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut, Sonderschriften Band 48, 2013.
Anton Powell (editor), Classical Sparta, Techniques Behind Her Success, London, Routledge, 1989.
G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes I of Sparta", in Athenian Democratic Origins and other essays, edited by David Harvey and Robert Parker, Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 421–440 (transcription of a lecture made in 1972).
Lionel Scott, Historical commentary on Herodotus, Book 6, Leiden/Boston, Brill, 2005.
6th-century BC rulers
5th-century BC rulers
6th-century BC Spartans
5th-century BC Spartans
Agiad kings of Sparta
People who committed suicide in prison custody
Suicides by sharp instrument in Greece
Year of birth unknown
480s BC deaths
Spartans of the Greco-Persian Wars
Ancient Greeks who committed suicide |
357137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/594%20BC | 594 BC | The year 594 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 160 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 594 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
Events
Facing an economic crisis and popular discontent, the leaders of Athens appoint the poet-statesman Solon to implement democratic reforms and revive the city's constitution.
Solon establishes the Ecclesia, the principal assembly of democracy in Athens during its Golden Age.
Sappho returns from exile in Sicily.
Births
Deaths
References |
357138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behram%20Kur%C5%9Funo%C4%9Flu | Behram Kurşunoğlu | Behram Kurşunoğlu (14 March 1922 – 25 October 2003) was a Turkish physicist and the founder and the director of the Center for Theoretical Studies, University of Miami. He was best known for his works on unified field theory, energy and global issues. Moreover, he participated in the discovery of two different types of neutrinos in late 1950s. During his University of Miami career, he hosted several Nobel Prize laureates, including Paul Dirac, Lars Onsager and Robert Hofstadter. He wrote several books on diverse aspects of physics, the most notable of which is Modern Quantum Theory (1962).
Biography
Behram Kurşunoğlu was born in Çaykara district of Trabzon. While he was a third year student in the Department of Mathematics and Astronomy of İstanbul Yüksek Öğretmen Okulu, he was sent to University of Edinburgh through a scholarship of the Turkish Ministry of Education, in 1945.
After graduating from the University of Edinburgh, he completed his doctorate degree in physics at the University of Cambridge. During the period of 1956–1958, he served as the dean of the Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Technology at Middle East Technical University and a counselor to the office of Turkish General Staff. He held teaching positions at several universities in the United States, and starting from 1958, professorship at the University of Miami.
In 1965, he acted as one of the founders of the Center for Theoretical Studies of the University of Miami, of which he became the first director. During this period, he also worked in counseling positions for several research organizations and laboratories in Europe. With the invitation of Russian Academy of Sciences, he worked as a visiting professor in the USSR during 1968.
He continued his work at the Center for Theoretical Studies of the University of Miami until 1992, after which he became the director of the Global Foundation research organization.
Kursunoglu died on October 25, 2003 due to heart attack, shortly before that year's Coral Gables Conference which was a festschrift for Paul Frampton combined with a memorial for Kursunoglu in a conference series he had been organizing since 1964. He had three children, İsmet, Sevil and Ayda, from his wife Sevda Arif.
Publications
In Physical Review Letters:
1951 On Einstein's Unified Field Theory
1953 Derivation and Renormalization of the Tamm-Dancoff Equations
1953 Expectations from a Unified Field Theory
1953 Unified Field Theory and Born-Infeld Electrodynamics
In Physical Review:
1952 Gravitation and Electrodynamics
1954 Tamm-Dancoff Methods and Nuclear Forces
1956 Transformation of Relativistic Wave Equations
1957 Proton Bremsstrahlung
1963 Brownian Motion in a Magnetic Field
1964 New Symmetry Group for Elementary Particles. I. Generalization of Lorentz Group Via Electrodynamics
1967 Space-Time and Origin of Internal Symmetries
1968 Dynamical Theory of Hadrons and Leptons
In Physical Review D:
1970 Theory of Relativistic Supermultiplets. I. Baryon SpectroscopyElectrodynamics
1970 Theory of Relativistic Supermultiplets. II. Periodicities in Hadron Spectroscopy
1974 Gravitation and magnetic charge
1975 Erratum: Gravitation and magnetic charge
1976 Consequences of nonlinearity in the generalized theory of gravitation
1976 Velocity of light in generalized theory of gravitation
In Journal of Mathematical Physics:
1961 Complex Orthogonal and Antiorthogonal Representation of Lorentz Group
1967 Unitary Representations of U(2, 2) and Massless Fields
In Reviews of Modern Physics:
1957 Correspondence in the Generalized Theory of Gravitation
Awards
Fellow of the American Physical Society (1965)
TÜBİTAK Science Award (1972)
Award of Phi Kappa Phi honor society
Award of the Sigma Xi scientific research society
Sigma Pi Sigma award
"Science is Guidance" Award of the Atatürk Society of America (2001)
Further reading
References
External links
The Work of Behram Kursunoglu, talk presented at the 2003 Coral Gables conference by Philip D. Mannheim.
La Belle Epoque of High Energy Physics and Cosmology, webpage for the 2003 Coral Gables conference.
People from Çaykara
Turkish emigrants to the United States
Turkish physicists
1922 births
2003 deaths
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
University of Miami faculty
Middle East Technical University faculty
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Theoretical physicists
Recipients of TÜBİTAK Science Award
Members of the Turkish Academy of Sciences
American academics of Turkish descent
People from Bayburt |
357142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlalixcoyan | Tlalixcoyan | Tlalixcoyan (pronounced Tlah-lees-koh-yan) is a municipality in Veracruz, Mexico.
Tlalixcoyan is bordered by: Alvarado, Medellín, and Cotaxtla and is on Mexican Federal Highways 180 and 190.
Lorenzo Barcelata, composer, was born in Tlalixcoyan, Veracruz, and he died in Mexico City from cholera.
In Tlalixcoyan the main indigenous language is the Chinantec.
Populated places in Veracruz |
357147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable%20hyperbaric%20bag | Portable hyperbaric bag | A portable hyperbaric bag, of which one brand is the Gamow () bag, is an inflatable pressure bag large enough to accommodate a person. The patient can be placed inside the bag, which is then sealed and inflated with a foot pump. Within minutes, the effective altitude can be decreased by 1000 m to as much as 3000 m (3281 to 9743 feet) depending on the elevation. The bag is pressurised to ; the pressure gradient is regulated by pop-off valves set to the target pressure. It is primarily used for treating severe cases of altitude sickness, high-altitude cerebral edema, and high-altitude pulmonary edema. Like office-based hyperbaric medicine, the Gamow bag uses increased partial pressure of oxygen for therapy of hypobaric injury but has the advantage of portability for field use. Patients typically are treated in 1-hour increments and then are reevaluated.
History
The Gamow bag was named after its inventor, Igor Gamow, son of George Gamow. Igor Gamow originally designed a predecessor to the Gamow bag called "The Bubble" to study the effect of high altitude on stamina and performance in athletes. Gamow later re-designed "The Bubble" into a bag that could be used in high-altitude wilderness.
See also
Altitude tent
Wilderness medicine
References
Bags
Mountaineering and health
Inflatable manufactured goods |
357148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernivtsi%20Oblast | Chernivtsi Oblast | Chernivtsi Oblast (; ) is an oblast (province) in Western Ukraine, consisting of the northern parts of the regions of Bukovina and Bessarabia. It has an international border with Romania and Moldova. The oblast is the smallest in Ukraine by area and population.
The oblast has a large variety of landforms: the Carpathian Mountains and picturesque hills at the foot of the mountains gradually change to a broad partly forested plain situated between the Dniester and Prut rivers. It has a population of 896,566 as of 2020, and its capital is the city Chernivtsi. The region spans 8,100 km².
Geography
Chernivtsi Oblast covers an area of . It is the smallest oblast in Ukraine, representing 1.3% of Ukrainian territory.
In the oblast there are 75 rivers longer than 10 kilometers. The largest rivers are the Dniester (290 km, in the Oblast), Prut (128 km, in the Oblast) and Siret (113 km, in the Oblast).
The oblast covers three geographic zones: a forest steppe region between Prut and Dnister rivers, a foothill region between the Carpathian Mountains and Prut river, and a mountain region known as the Bukovinian part of the Carpathian Mountains.
Chernivtsi Oblast is bordered by Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast, Ternopil Oblast, Khmelnytskyi Oblast, Vinnytsia Oblast, Romania, and Moldova. Within the oblast the national border of Ukraine with Romania extends 226 km, and with Moldova .
History
Chernivtsi oblast was created on August 7, 1940 in the wake of the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. The oblast was organized out of the northeast part of Ținutul Suceava of Kingdom of Romania, joining parts of three historical regions: northern half of Bukovina, northern half of the Hotin County county of Bessarabia, and Hertsa region, which was part of the Dorohoi county (presently Botoșani County) of proper Moldavia.
Archaeological sites in the region date back to 43,000-45,000 BC, with finds including a mammoth bone dwelling from the Middle Paleolithic. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture flourished in the area. In the Middle Ages, the region was inhabited by East Slavic tribes White Croats and Tivertsi. From the end of the 10th century, it became a part of the Kievan Rus', then Principality of Halych, and in the mid-14th century of the Principality of Moldavia (which in the 16th century became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire). In 1775, two counties of Moldavia, since then known as Bukovina, were annexed by the Habsburg Monarchy as part of the Austrian Empire and its final iteration Austria-Hungary. In 1812, one half of Moldavia, since then known as Bessarabia, was annexed by the Russian Empire. Hertsa region remained in Moldavia until its union with Wallachia in 1859, a union which in 1881 became the Kingdom of Romania. In 1918 both provinces of Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania.
The Soviet occupation began on June 28, 1940. In addition to Bessarabia, the USSR demanded Northern Bukovina as compensation for the occupation of Bessarabia by Romania from 1918 to 1940. Hertsa region was not included in the demands that the Soviet Union addressed to Romania, but was occupied at the same time. Most of the occupied territories were organized on August 2, 1940 as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic, while the remainder, including the Chenivtsi Oblast, which was formed on August 7, 1940, were included in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.
Throughout 1940-1941 several tens of thousands of Bukovinians were deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan, some 13,000 of them on June 13, 1941 alone. This and later deportations were primarily based on social class difference, it targeted intellectuals, people employed previously by the state, businessmen, clergymen, students, railworkers. The majority of those targeted were ethnic Romanians, but there were many representatives of other ethnicities, as well. The protests of the Romanian population of Bukovina that found themselves under the Soviet rule brought about serious Soviet reprisals, including of ethnic character. In the winter and spring of 1941, the Soviet troops (NKVD) opened fire on many groups of locals trying to cross the border into Romania (for more, see: Lunca massacre and Fântâna Albă massacre).
Between September 17 and November 17, 1940, by a mutual agreement between USSR and Germany, 43,641 "ethnic Germans" from the Chernivtsi region were moved to Germany, although the total ethnic German population was only 34,500, and of these some 3,500 did not go to Germany. Upon their arrival in Germany, the Nazi government sent most of non-ethnic Germans to concentration camps. Only some of them were freed after the protests of the Romanian government.
During World War II, when the region returned under the control of the Romanian administration, the Jewish community of the area was largely destroyed by the deportations to ghettos and Nazi concentration camps, where about 60% died. Despite the anti-Semitic policies of the Ion Antonescu's government of Romania, the mayor of Cernăuți, Traian Popovici, now honored by Israel's Yad Vashem memorial as one of the Righteous Among the Nations, saved approximately 20,000 Jews.
In 1944, when the Soviet troops returned to Bukovina, many inhabitants fled to Romania, and Soviet persecutions resumed, with the result that the region was seriously depopulated. In demographic terms, these war-time and post-war-time factors changed the region's ethnic composition. Today the number of Jews, Germans and Poles is negligible, while the number of Romanians has decreased substantially.
Ruthenian communities in Bukovina date back to at least 16th century. In 1775, Ukrainians (Ruthenians) represented some 8,000 out of a 75,000 population of Bukovina. By 1918, as a result of immigration of Ukrainian peasants from nearby villages in Galicia and Podolia, there were over 200,000 Ukrainians, out of a total of 730,000. Most of Ukrainians settled in the northern parts of Bukovina. Their number was especially large in the area between the Dniester and Prut rivers, where they became a majority. A similar process occurred in Northern Bessarabia. Throughout the history of the region, there were no inter-ethnic clashes, while the city of Chernivtsi was known for its German-style architecture, for a highly cultivated society, and for ethnic tolerance. Small ethnic disputes were, however, present on occasion. In 1918, many Ukrainians in Bukovina wanted to join an independent Ukrainian state. After an initial period of free education in Ukrainian language, in late 1920s Romanian authorities attempted to switch all education to the Romanian language. In 1940-1941, the Soviet reprisals were more massive in the parts of the Chernivsti oblast were Romanians predominated; when, however, after 1944, Ukrainian anti-Soviet resistance rose up, Romanians and Ukrainians fought alongside against NKVD.
Many Ukrainians in the south-western mountain area of the Chernivtsi region belong to the Hutsul ethnic sub-group, a sophisticated cultural community inhabiting an area in the Carpathian Mountains in both Ukraine and Romania.
When the Soviet Union collapsed, Chernivtsi Oblast, then part of the Ukrainian SSR, became part of the newly independent (August 24, 1991) Ukraine. It has a Ukrainian ethnic majority. In the referendum on December 1, 1991, 92% of Chernivtsi Oblast residents supported the independence of Ukraine, a wide support from both Ukrainians and Romanians.
Subdivisions
Since July 2020, Chernivtsi Oblast is administratively subdivided into 3 raions (districts). These are
Chernivtsi Raion;
Dnistrovskyi Raion;
Vyzhnytsia Raion.
At the locality level, the territory of the oblast is divided among 11 cities, 8 urban-type settlements, and 252 communes.
Urban settlements
Population and demographics
According to the latest Ukrainian Census (2001), Ukrainians represent about 75% (689.1 thousands) of the population of Chernivtsi Oblast. 12.5% (114.6 thousands) reported themselves as Romanians, 7.3% (67.2 thousand) as Moldovans, and 4.1% (37.9 thousands) as Russians. The other nationalities, such as Poles, Belarusians, and Jews sum up to 1.2%.
The separate categories for the Moldovans and Romanians as two ethnicities has been criticized by Romanian organizations in Ukraine. However, all census respondents had to write in their ethnicity (no predetermined set of choices existed), and could respond or not to any particular census question, or not answer any questions at all. Also, no allegation of counting fraud were brought up. However, Interregional Union, one of Romanian communities in Ukraine criticized what they see as the continuous usage of Romanians and Moldovans as two separate ethnic groups.
According to the Romanian census of 1930, the territory of the future Chernivtsi Oblast had 805,642 inhabitants in that year, out of which 47.6% were Ukrainians, and 28.2% were Romanians. The rest of the population was 88,772 Jews, 46,946 Russians (among them an important community of Lipovans), around 35,000 Germans, 10,000 Poles, and 10,000 Hungarians.
During the inter-war period, Cernăuți County had a population of 306,975, of which 136,380 were Ukrainians, and 78,589 were Romanians. Storojineţ County had 77,382 Ukrainians and 57,595 Romanians. (The three other counties of Bukovina, which remained in Romania, had a total of 22,368 Ukrainians). The northern part of the Hotin County had approximately 70% Ukrainians and 25% Romanians. The Hertsa region, smaller by area and population, was virtually 100% Romanian.
Major demographic changes occurred during the Second World War. Immediate after the Soviet takeover of the region in 1940 the Soviet government deported or killed about 41,000 Romanians (see Fântâna Albă massacre), while at the same time further encouraging an influx of Ukrainians from the Ukrainian SSR. Most Poles were deported by the Soviet authorities, while most Germans forcibly returned to Germany. After the Kingdom of Romania took control of the region during the war (1941–1944), the Jewish community of the area was largely destroyed by the deportations to ghettos and concentration camps.
The languages of the population closely reflect the ethnic composition with over 90% within each of the major ethnic groups declaring their national language as the mother tongue.
Age structure
0-14 years: 16.7% (male 77,507/female 73,270)
15-64 years: 69.7% (male 304,793/female 325,677)
65 years and over: 13.6% (male 41,980/female 80,871) (2013 official)
Median age
total: 36.9 years
male: 34.5 years
female: 39.4 years (2013 official)
Attractions
On the territory of the Chernivtsi region there are 836 archeological monuments (of which 18 have national meanings), 586 historical monuments (2 of them have national significance), 779 monuments of architecture and urban development (112 of them national significance), 42 monuments of monumental art.
Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans, UNESCO World Heritage Site
Khotyn Fortress State historical-architectural preserve
House of Olha Kobylianska
Caves of Oleksa Dovbush
Chernivtsi architectural complex of Olha Kobylianska Street
Several archaeological sites of the Trajan's Wall
Church of the Nativity of The Most Holy Theotokos in Rukhotyn
References
External links
Chernivtsi Oblast Administration (official website)
Chernivtsi Oblast Council (official website)
Statistics Committee of Chernivtsi Oblast
See also
List of Canadian place names of Ukrainian origin
Oblasts of Ukraine
Bukovina
Romanian-speaking countries and territories
States and territories established in 1940
1940 establishments in Ukraine |
357152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer%20%28disambiguation%29 | Transformer (disambiguation) | A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another.
Transformer may also refer to:
Art and entertainment
Transformer (Lou Reed album), 1972
Transformer (Bruce Kulick album), 2003
"Transformer", a song by Gnarls Barkley from St. Elsewhere
Transformer (film), a 2017 Canadian documentary
Transformer, a 1986 Sega arcade game
Science and technology
Transformer (gene), a family of genes that regulate sex determination in some insects
Transformer (flying car), a DARPA military project
Asus Transformer, a series of hybrid tablet computers
"Electronic transformer", a term commonly used in extra-low-voltage lighting applications for a Switched-mode power supply.
TrikeBuggy Transformer, a U.S. powered hang glider
Transformer (machine learning model), a deep learning architecture
Other uses
Transformer (spirit-being), an indigenous tradition of the Pacific Northwest of North America
Prada Transformer, a building in Seoul, South Korea
See also
Transformers (disambiguation) |
357153 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anissa%20Jones | Anissa Jones | Mary Anissa Jones (rhyming with Lisa, not Melissa) (March 11, 1958 – August 28, 1976) was an American child actress known for her role as Buffy Davis on the CBS sitcom Family Affair, which ran from 1966 to 1971. She died from combined drug intoxication at the age of 18.
Early life
Jones was born in Lafayette, Indiana. Her maternal grandparents were Lebanese, and Jones' middle name means "Little Friend" in Arabic.
At the time of her birth, Jones' father John Paul Jones was an engineering graduate and faculty board member at Purdue University, where her mother Mary Paula Jones (née Tweel) was a zoology student. Soon after the birth of Anissa's brother John Paul Jones, Jr. (called "Paul" by the family), the family moved to Playa Del Rey, California, where John Paul, Sr. took a job in aerospace engineering and Anissa attended Paseo del Rey Elementary School, then Orville Wright Junior High School.
Career
When Jones was two years old, her mother enrolled her in dance classes. In 1964, when Jones was six, Mary Paula took her daughter to an open audition for a breakfast cereal commercial, which became Jones' first television appearance.
Jones was eight when her acting skills drew the attention of television producers, and she was cast as Ava Elizabeth "Buffy" Patterson-Davis on the CBS sitcom Family Affair (1966). In the opening plotline, Buffy, her twin brother Jody (Johnny Whitaker), and older sister Cissy (Kathy Garver) are sent to live with their Uncle Bill (Brian Keith) and his valet Mr. French (Sebastian Cabot) a year after the children's parents die in a car accident (the DVD collection notes mistakenly state "plane accident"). By July 1969, the series had become a hit, and Jones became a popular child celebrity. She also played the role of Carol Bix in the Elvis Presley comedy film The Trouble with Girls (1969).
Though she stated on The Dick Cavett show (air date 02/25/1971) that she filmed Family Affair only in the summer, the show was still a full-time, year-'round job for Jones, as she was used in promoting the show throughout the year. The summer filming schedule was grueling. Through each of its first three seasons, up to 30 episodes of Family Affair were filmed. This contrasts with later American episodic television that produced runs of 24 shows per season or fewer, allowing more breaks in filming and requiring fewer promotional appearances for the principal actors.
In April 1969, Jones broke her right leg in a playground accident and re-broke the leg later that August in an accident on the beach near her home. The producers had her injury written into the show's scripts.
Jones' Buffy character had a doll named Mrs. Beasley, which Buffy claimed talked to her. The doll's funny comments proved popular with audiences, and when the show became a hit, a talking Mrs. Beasley doll was marketed by Mattel (with Georgia Schmidt providing the doll's voice), becoming a best-seller in North America. Mattel also marketed two other dolls patterned after Buffy: one in the size of its "Tutti" line of dolls and another in its talking "Small Talk" line, which featured eight different phrases (using Jones' voice). Jones took part in several other lucrative Family Affair product marketing campaigns such as Buffy paper dolls, lunch boxes, two clothing lines, coloring books, and a 1971 cookbook with her picture on the cover.
Jones appeared on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In (three cameos) on March 11, 1968, was featured twice on The Mike Douglas Show (March 6, 1969 and December 22, 1969), and then featured on The Dick Cavett Show on February 25, 1971, along with actor/singer Sammy Davis Jr. and pianist Garrick Ohlsson. The Cavett appearance was her final appearance on television.
Family Affair was cancelled abruptly by CBS' "rural purge" campaign in 1971, after five seasons and 138 episodes. By then, Jones was 13 years old and said she was happy at the thought of no longer needing to be seen with the Mrs. Beasley doll. She wanted to act in films, but Jones could not find the kind of work she wanted: she auditioned for the part of Regan MacNeil in the film The Exorcist (released in 1973), but the director, William Friedkin, felt that with Family Affair still in popular consciousness at the time through syndicated daytime reruns, movie audiences might have thought "Buffy" was the one being possessed. Linda Blair was cast instead.
Meanwhile, Brian Keith kept in touch with Jones through letters and offered her a young-adult role on The Brian Keith Show (1972–1974). Keith told her she would not need to audition for the part, but by then, Jones no longer wanted to work in television.
Teen years
Jones believed she had been typecast. She enrolled in Los Angeles' Westchester High School and returned to a life outside the entertainment industry.
Jones' parents had initiated a bitter divorce in 1965 and carried on a long feud over the custody of Anissa and her younger brother, Paul. In 1973, custody of both children was awarded to their father.
While her brother went to live with their mother, Jones moved in with a friend and began skipping school. Jones was reported by her mother to the police as a runaway, was arrested and sent to juvenile hall, where she spent many months in state custody, after which she was allowed to live with her mother.
However, Jones soon began shoplifting and taking drugs. In 1975, she dropped out of high school altogether and briefly worked at a Winchell's Donuts shop in Playa Del Rey. She reportedly felt embarrassed whenever customers recognized who she was.
On her 18th birthday, on March 11, 1976, Jones gained control of her saved earnings from her work on Family Affair, about $180,000 ($ today) as well as an undetermined amount, though in excess of $100,000 ($ today), of U.S. Savings Bonds, both of which had been held for her in a trust fund. Jones and her brother Paul then rented an apartment together in Playa Del Rey, not far from their mother.
Death
Shortly before noon on August 28, 1976, after partying in the beach town of Oceanside, California, with her new boyfriend, Allan "Butch" Koven, and others, Jones was found dead in a bedroom of a house belonging to the father of a 14-year-old friend named Helen Hennessy. During the final moments when Jones was alive, others at the party ranged in age from 12 to 22, as police later determined. The coroner's report listed Jones’ death as a drug overdose, later ruled accidental; cocaine, PCP, Quaalude, and Seconal were found in her body during an autopsy toxicology examination. The police report also indicated a small vial of blue liquid next to Jones at the scene, which was never identified. The coroner who examined Jones reported she died from one of the most severe drug overdoses he had ever seen. Jones was 18 years old.
Jones was given a small, private service. She was cremated and her ashes were scattered over the Pacific Ocean. She left $63,000 in cash and more than $100,000 in savings bonds when she died (equivalent to $ today).
Six days after Jones's death, Dr. Don Carlos Moshos was arrested and charged with illegally prescribing Seconal to Jones, among other drugs-for-profit charges from a concurrent undercover criminal investigation. An envelope with Moshos's business address was present at Jones' scene of death, specifying a drug found in Anissa's toxicology report (Seconal), its dosage (1.5 gr), quantity (50), and the recipient's last name (Jones). Moshos was charged with 11 offenses; while awaiting trial, Moshos died on December 27, 1976, four months after Jones. Although the murder charges were dropped before his death, Moshos's estate was sued by Jones's surviving family for $400,000; in July 1979, the verdict found him 30% liable and Jones 70% responsible for her death, and the resulting judgment was reduced to $79,500 ($ today).
Anissa's father, John Paul Jones, died on March 7, 1974, age 44. On March 15, 1984, Jones's brother, Paul, died of a drug overdose. He was 24 years old. Jones's mother, Mary Paula Jones, died in Detroit, Michigan of natural causes on January 14, 2012.
Filmography
References
External links
Accidental deaths in California
Actresses from Indiana
American child actresses
American film actresses
American television actresses
American people of Lebanese descent
Cocaine-related deaths in California
Drug-related deaths in California
1958 births
1976 deaths
20th-century American actresses
People from Lafayette, Indiana |
357156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airmail | Airmail | Airmail (or air mail) is a mail transport service branded and sold on the basis of at least one leg of its journey being by air. Airmail items typically arrive more quickly than surface mail, and usually cost more to send. Airmail may be the only option for sending mail to some destinations, such as overseas, if the mail cannot wait the time it would take to arrive by ship, sometimes weeks. The Universal Postal Union adopted comprehensive rules for airmail at its 1929 Postal Union Congress in London. Since the official language of the Universal Postal Union is French, airmail items worldwide are often marked Par avion, literally: "by airplane".
For about the first half century of its existence, transportation of mail via aircraft was usually categorized and sold as a separate service (airmail) from surface mail. Today it is often the case that mail service is categorized and sold according to transit time alone, with mode of transport (land, sea, air) being decided on the back end in dynamic intermodal combinations. Thus even "regular" mail may make part of its journey on an aircraft. Such "air-speeded" mail is different from nominal airmail in its branding, price, and priority of service.
History
Early airmails
Specific instances of a letter being delivered by air long predate the introduction of Airmail as a regularly scheduled service available to the general public.
Although homing pigeons had long been used to send messages (an activity known as pigeon mail), the first mail to be carried by an air vehicle was on January 7, 1785, on a hot air balloon flight from Dover to France near Calais. It was flown by Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries. The letter was written by an American Loyalist William Franklin to his son William Temple Franklin who was serving in a diplomatic role in Paris with his grandfather Benjamin Franklin.
During the first aerial flight in North America by balloon on January 9, 1793, from Philadelphia to Deptford, New Jersey, Jean-Pierre Blanchard carried a personal letter from George Washington to be delivered to the owner of whatever property Blanchard happened to land on, making the flight the first delivery of air mail in the United States. The first official air mail delivery in the United States took place on August 17, 1859, when John Wise piloted a balloon starting in Lafayette, Indiana, with a destination of New York. Weather issues forced him to land near Crawfordsville, Indiana, and the mail reached its final destination via train. In 1959, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 7 cent stamp commemorating the event.
Balloons also carried mail out of Paris and Metz during the Franco-Prussian War (1870), drifting over the heads of the Germans besieging those cities. Balloon mail was also carried on an 1877 flight in Nashville, Tennessee.
Introduction of the aeroplane
Starting in 1903 the introduction of the aeroplane generated immediate interest in using them for mail transport. An unofficial airmail flight was conducted by Fred Wiseman, who carried three letters between Petaluma and Santa Rosa, California, on February 17, 1911.
The world's first official airmail flight came the next day, at a large exhibition in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, British India. The organizer of the aviation display, Sir Walter Windham, was able to secure permission from the postmaster general in India to operate an airmail service in order to generate publicity for the exhibition and to raise money for charity. Mail from people across the region was gathered in at Holy Trinity Church and the first airmail flight was piloted by Henri Pequet, who flew 6,500 letters a distance of from Allahabad to Naini – the nearest station on the Bombay-Calcutta line to the exhibition. The letters bore an official frank "First Aerial Post, U.P. Exhibition, Allahabad. 1911". The aircraft used was a Humber-Sommer biplane, and it made the journey in thirteen minutes.
The first official American airmail delivery was made on September 23, 1911, by pilot Earle Ovington under the authority of the United States Post Office Department.
The first official air mail in Australia was carried by French pilot Maurice Guillaux. On July 16–18, 1914, he flew his Blériot XI aircraft from Melbourne to Sydney, a distance of 584 miles (940 km), carrying 1785 specially printed postcards, some Lipton's Tea and some O.T. Lemon juice. At the time, this was the longest such flight in the world.
Scheduled services
The world's first scheduled airmail post service took place in the United Kingdom between the London suburb of Hendon, North London, and the Postmaster General's office in Windsor, Berkshire, on September 9, 1911, as part of the celebrations for King George V's coronation and at the suggestion of Sir Walter Windham, who based his proposal on the successful experiment he had overseen in India.
The service ran for just under a month, transporting 35 bags of mail in 16 flights; four pilots operated the aircraft including Gustav Hamel, who flew the first service in his Blériot, covering the 21 miles between Hendon and Windsor in just 18 minutes. The service was eventually terminated due to constant and severe delays caused by bad weather conditions. Similar services were intermittently run in other countries before the war, including in Germany, France and Japan, where airmail provision was briefly established in 1912, only to meet with similar practical difficulties.
The range, speed and lifting capacity of aircraft were transformed through technological innovation during the war, allowing the first practical air mail services to finally become a reality when the war ended. For instance, the first regularly scheduled airmail service in the United States was inaugurated on May 15, 1918. The route, which ran between Washington, D.C., and New York City, with an intermediate stop in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was designed by aviation pioneer Augustus Post. In 1925, the U.S. Postal service issued contracts to fly airmail between designated points. In 1931, 85% of domestic airline revenue was from airmail.
In Germany, dirigibles of the 1920s and 1930s were used extensively to carry airmail; it was known as Zeppelin mail, or dirigible mail. The German Zeppelins were especially visible in this role, and many countries issued special stamps for use on Zeppelin mail.
The 1928 book So Disdained by Nevil Shute — a novel based on this author's deep interest in and thorough knowledge of aviation — includes a monologue by a veteran pilot, preserving the atmosphere of these pioneering times: "We used to fly on the Paris route, from Hounslow to Le Bourget and get through as best as you could. Later we moved on to Croydon. (...) We carried the much advertised Air Mails. That meant the machines had to fly whether there were passengers to be carried or not. It was left to the discretion of the pilot whether or not the flight should be cancelled in bad weather; the pilots were dead keen on flying in the most impossible conditions. Sanderson got killed this way at Douinville. And all he had in the machine was a couple of picture postcards from trippers in Paris, sent to their families as a curiosity. That was the Air Mail. No passengers or anything — just the mail".
International services
In the aftermath of the war, the Royal Engineers (Postal Section) and the Royal Air Force pioneered the first scheduled international airmail service between Folkestone, Kent and Cologne, Germany. The service operated between December 1918 and mid-1919; its purpose was to provide troops of the British Army stationed in Germany with a fast mail service. (see more at British Forces Post Office) Throughout the 1920s the Royal Air Force continued to develop air routes through the Middle East.
On 25 December 1918, the Latécoère Airlines (later becoming the famed Aéropostale) became the first civilian international airmail service, when mail was flown from Toulouse, France, to Barcelona, Spain. Less than 2 months later, on 19 February 1919, the airmail service was extended to Casablanca, Morocco, making the Latécoère Airlines the first transcontinental airmail service. The first airmail service established officially by an airline occurred in Colombia, South America, on 19 October 1920. Scadta, the first airline of the country, flew landing river by river delivering mail in its destinations.
Australia's first airmail contract was awarded to Norman (later Sir) Brearley's Western Australian Airlines (WAA). The first airmail was carried between Geraldton and Derby in Western Australia on December 5, 1921.
Philately
Since stamp collecting was already a well-developed hobby by this time, collectors followed developments in airmail service closely, and went to some trouble to find out about the first flights between various destinations, and to get letters onto them. The authorities often used special cachets on the covers, and in many cases the pilot would sign them as well.
The first stamps designated specifically for airmail were issued by Italy in 1917, and used on experimental flights; they were produced by overprinting special delivery stamps. Austria also overprinted stamps for airmail in March 1918, soon followed by the first definitive stamp for airmail, issued by the United States in May 1918.
Air-speeded
A postal service may sometimes opt to transport some regular mail by air, perhaps because other transportation is unavailable. It is usually impossible to know this by examining an envelope, and such items are not considered "airmail." Generally, airmail would take a guaranteed and scheduled flight and arrive first, while air-speeded mail would wait for a non-guaranteed and merely available flight and would arrive later than normal airmail.
Names
A letter sent via airmail may be called an aerogramme, aerogram, air letter or simply airmail letter. However, aerogramme and aerogram may also refer to a specific kind of airmail letter which is its own envelope; see aerogram.
Some forms of airletter, such as aerogram, may forbid enclosure of other material so as to keep the weight down.
The choice to send a letter by air is indicated either by a handwritten note on the envelope, by the use of special labels called airmail etiquettes (blue stickers with the words "air mail" in French and in the home language), or by the use of specially-marked envelopes. Special airmail stamps may also be available, or required; the rules vary in different countries.
The study of airmail is known as aerophilately.
Media
See also
Airmail etiquette
Airmails of the United States
Air Mail scandal
Airmail stamps of Denmark
American Air Mail Society
L-mail
Mail plane
Nellie Brimberry
Onionskin
Surface mail
V-mail
LAPE
References and sources
References
Sources
Richard McP. Cabeen, Standard Handbook of Stamp Collecting (Collectors Club, 1979), pp. 207–221
Schiff, Stacy. Benjamin Franklin and the Birth of America. Bloomsbury, 2006.
Further reading
Newall, Alexander S. (1990) Airmail Stamps: Fakes & Forgeries. United Kingdom: Newall Consultants.
External links
UKweekly.com article on early airmail service
British Postal Museum & Archive Information Sheet - Airmail (Wayback Machine archive)
The Flying Mail's Big Debt to War: America again takes front rank in the air with machines of mighty power, Popular Science monthly, February 1919, page 78,
Flight by Maurice Guillaux in Australia. 16–18 July 1914
Articles containing video clips |
357158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorbing | Zorbing | Zorbing (also known as globe-riding, sphereing, orbing) is the recreation or sport of rolling downhill inside an orb, typically made of transparent plastic. Zorbing is generally performed on a gentle slope but can also be done on a level surface, permitting more rider control. In the absence of hills, some operators have constructed inflatable, wooden, or metal ramps. Due to the buoyant nature of the orbs, Zorbing can also be carried out on water, provided the orb is inflated properly and sealed once the rider is inside. "Water walking" using such orbs has become popular in theme parks across the UK.
There are two types of orbs: harnessed and non-harnessed. Non-harnessed orbs carry up to three riders, while the harnessed orbs are constructed for one to two riders. The first zorbing site was established in Rotorua, New Zealand, by ZORB Ltd.
History
A Russian article on the Zorb mentions a similar device having debuted in 1973. In the early 1980s, the Dangerous Sports Club constructed a giant sphere (reportedly across) with a gimbal arrangement supporting two deck chairs inside. This device was eventually cut up for scrap. Human spheres have been depicted in mass media since 1990 when the Gladiators event "Atlaspheres" first aired, albeit with steel balls.
In 1994, three investors created the firm ZORB Limited in New Zealand to create suitable spheres for humans and to commercialize sphereing. Their business model was to develop the activity via a franchise system. Zorbing entered the Concise Oxford English Dictionary in 2001 where it was defined as: "a sport in which a participant is secured inside an inner capsule in a large, transparent ball which is then rolled along the ground or down hills".
Construction
The orb is double-sectioned, with one ball inside the other with an air layer in between (unlike the water walking ball, which is usually a single thin-walled ball). This acts as a shock absorber for the rider. Orbs are lightweight and made of flexible plastic. Many orbs have straps to hold the rider in place, while others leave the rider free to walk the orb around or be tossed about freely by the rolling motion. A typical orb is about in diameter with an inner orb size of about , leaving a 50–60 centimetre (20–24 in) air cushion around the riders. The plastic is approximately thick. The inner and outer orbs are connected by small nylon strings. Orbs have one or two tunnel-like entrances.
Facilities
'Hill-rolling' and 'globe riding' are generic names for this activity which is practised in the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Sweden, Estonia, Canada, the Czech Republic, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Japan, Kochi in India, Phuket in Thailand, and Slovenia. In the United States, there are facilities in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee, Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin, Amesbury, Massachusetts, and Roundtop Mountain Resort, Lewisberry and Pennsylvania.
Records
The Guinness Book of World Records recognises five sphereing records:
The longest distance travelled in a single roll is held by Steve Camp, of South Africa, who travelled .
The fastest sphereing ride is held by New Zealand's Keith Kolver, who reached a speed of .
The fastest in a Zorb is 23.21 seconds; it is held by James Duggan, of Dunmanway, County Cork, Ireland, who broke the record during the Sam Maguire Harvest Festival on the September 8, 2019.
Injuries and deaths
Although the cushioning design of the orbs prevents many serious injuries, light injuries such as bruises and grazes can often be sustained by colliding with objects or tripping whilst the orb is rolling down an incline. Even though severe injury is rare, there have been cases of children passing out due to lack of air and even some deaths. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has urged consumers to stop using water walking balls "due to the potential risks of suffocation and drowning" and reports that several states have banned their use.
In June 2009, a teacher died (and a pupil was severely injured) in the Czech Republic while zorbing.
In January 2013 at a ski resort in Dombay, Russia, a man died from a broken neck, and another was badly injured when the Zorb he was in rolled out of control down a mountain, hitting rocks and eventually coming to a stop a kilometre away on a frozen lake. The incident was caught on camera and uploaded to the Internet. After the incident made international headlines, Russian authorities called for tougher safety laws.
See also
Water ball
Hamster ball
Bubble football
References
Hybrid sports
Games and sports introduced in 1994
Sports originating in New Zealand
Outdoor recreation |
357164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newseum | Newseum | The Newseum was an American museum dedicated to news and journalism that promoted free expression and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, while tracing the evolution of communication.
The purpose of the museum, funded by the Freedom Forum nonpartisan U.S. foundation dedicated to freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of thought for was to help the public and the media understand each other.
The seven-level, museum was located in Washington, D.C., and featured fifteen theaters and fifteen galleries. Its Berlin Wall Gallery included the largest display of sections of the wall outside Germany. The Today's Front Pages Gallery presented daily front pages from more than 80 international newspapers. The Today's Front Pages Gallery is still available on the Newseum's website, along with a few other galleries.
Other galleries presented topics including the First Amendment, world press freedom, news history, the September 11 attacks, and the history of the Internet, TV, and radio.
It opened at its first location in Rosslyn, Virginia, on April 18, 1997, and on April 11, 2008, it opened at its last location. As of December 31, 2019, the Newseum closed its doors and is seeking a new site, while many exhibits and artifacts went into storage or were returned to their owners.
The Newseum attracted more than 815,000 visitors a year, and its television studios hosted news broadcasts. There was an admission fee for adults. The institution saw years of financial losses. In February 2018, these losses led to an exploration of selling its building or moving to another location. In January 2019, the Freedom Forum announced The Johns Hopkins University would purchase the building for $372.5 million in order to use the space for several graduate programs. The Newseum closed in December 2019 and, as of 2021, is seeking a new location.
History
Freedom Forum is a non-profit organization founded in 1991 by publisher Al Neuharth, founder of the newspaper, USA Today, based on the previous Gannett Foundation. Freedom Forum opened the Newseum in Arlington, Virginia, in 1997. Prior to opening in Virginia, it maintained exhibition galleries in Nashville and Manhattan, the latter in the lobby of the former IBM Building at 590 Madison Avenue. In 2000, Freedom Forum decided to move the museum across the Potomac River to downtown Washington, D.C. The original site was closed on March 3, 2002, to allow its staff to concentrate on building the new, larger museum. The new museum, built at a cost of $450 million, opened its doors to the public on April 11, 2008.
Tim Russert, a Newseum trustee, said, "The Newseum made a pretty good impression in Arlington, but at your new location on Pennsylvania Avenue, you will make an indelible mark."
The Newseum on Pennsylvania Avenue shares a block adjacent to the Canadian Embassy.
After obtaining a landmark location at Pennsylvania Avenue and Sixth Street NW, the former site of National Hotel, the Newseum board selected noted exhibit designer Ralph Appelbaum, who had designed the original site in Arlington, Virginia, and architect James Stewart Polshek, who designed the Rose Center for Earth and Space with Todd Schliemann at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, to work on the new project.
This design team had the following goals:
To design a building that would be an architectural icon, easily recognized and remembered by visitors from around the world;
To create a museum space three times as large as the original, with the capacity for more than two million visitors a year; and
To celebrate the First Amendment to the United States Constitution – in particular, its freedom of the press and freedom of speech protections.
Highlights of the building design unveiled October 2002 include a façade featuring a "window on the world", , which looks out on Pennsylvania Avenue and the National Mall while letting the public see inside to the visitors and displays. It features the 45 words of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, etched into a four story tall stone panel facing Pennsylvania Avenue.
One feature carried over from the prior Arlington site was the Journalists Memorial, a glass sculpture listing the names of 2,291 journalists from around the world killed in the line of duty. It is updated and rededicated annually.
The museum website is updated daily with images and PDF versions of newspaper front pages from around the world. Images are replaced daily, but an archive of front pages from notable events since 2001 is also available. Hard copies of selected front pages, including one from every U.S. state and Washington, D.C., were displayed in galleries within the museum and outside the front entrance.
Jerry Frieheim, a 1956 graduate of the University of Missouri School of Journalism, was the first executive director of the Newseum and claims to have coined the name.
Building
The 643,000-square-foot (60,000 m2) Newseum included a high atrium, seven levels of displays, 15 theaters, a dozen major galleries, many more smaller exhibits, two broadcast studios, and an expanded interactive newsroom. The structural engineer for this project was Leslie E. Robertson Associates.
The building featured an oval, 500-seat theater; approximately gross of housing facing Sixth and C streets; of office space for the staff of the Newseum and Freedom Forum; and more than of conference center space on two levels located directly above the museum's main atrium. The building was also known for the largest and tallest hydraulic passenger elevators in the world, with a capacity of capable of carrying up to 72 passengers when fully loaded, and a travel distance of that covers 7 floors. A curving glass memorial to slain journalists was located above the ground floor.
Showcase environments throughout the museum were climate controlled by four microclimate control devices. These units provided a flow of humidified air to the cases through a system of distribution pipes.
ABC's This Week began broadcasting from a new studio in the Newseum on April 20, 2008, with George Stephanopoulos as host. ABC moved This Week back to its Washington, D.C. bureau in June 2013 citing the network's infrequent use of the Newseum studio compared to the cost of operating and maintaining a studio there. The studio was later home to Al Jazeera America's Washington, D.C. bureau which also had editing facilities and office space in the building.
Sharing the building with the Newseum were The Source, a Wolfgang Puck Restaurant, and the Newseum Residences, a collection of 135 luxury apartment homes. The building's amenities include a rooftop terrace, which shared the Newseum's views of the National Mall, Washington Monument and the United States Capitol.
Critical response
Journalist Alan Rusbridger of The Guardian wrote that visitors would have "a great family day out"; considered some of the exhibits, such as a red dress worn by Helen Thomas, as "faintly ridiculous" while praising others such as a large chunk of the actual Berlin Wall. Although writing that the Newseum displayed "self-glorification, pomposity and vanity" in an "overwhelmingly American-centric" way, he described the building design as "uplifting" and generally commended the features. Michael Landauer of the Dallas Morning News praised its interactive exhibits, writing: "While the free Smithsonian museums do a fine job of housing our important artifacts, I believe the Newseum on Pennsylvania Avenue does an unparalleled job of telling our nation's story." Bonnie Wach, writing for the San Francisco Chronicle praised the Newseum's interactive exhibits, calling it "a marvel of technological innovation" and citing its "seven floors of touch-screens, theaters, film and video, state-of-the-art studios, computer games, interactive kiosks, documentary footage and hands-on multimedia exhibits."
Other reviewers were more critical. Nicolai Ouroussoff, architecture critic for the New York Times, panned the second Newseum building as "the latest reason to lament the state of contemporary architecture in" Washington, D.C. Writing on the Newseum's content, Times culture critic Edward Rothstein wrote that "a good portion of the museum’s earnestly sought attention is well deserved" but "the museum’s preening does call for some skepticism." Gannett's USA Today noted that while reviews of the building's architecture had been mixed, the high number of visitors was a sign that the Newseum was successful, even in a capital city full of museums. James Bowman of National Review Online criticized the Newseum's interaction-heavy exhibits as overly stylistic and superficial, writing that it focuses on headline-based reporting of major world events rather than details of the events themselves. The AIA Guide to the Architecture of Washington DC describes the view from the Avenue as a "barrage, with numerous elements vying for your attention. ... a virtual national television set (or computer screen)."
An exhibit at the Newseum discussed the "effort to avoid bias" by journalists. It included a 2006 Gallup poll in which 44% of Americans called the media "too liberal" while only 19% found it "too conservative" as well as other comments on possible political media bias, many of which came from Fox News contributors. Jonathan Schwarz of Mother Jones criticized the exhibit and called it an example of corporate propaganda from Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation. He also argued that most of the U.S. news media is controlled by businesses who shut out stories that would counter their interests. Kevin D. Williamson of National Review Online defended the Newseum, calling the criticism "nonsense concentrate" and arguing that media-owning companies have an interest in promoting non-conservative causes.
Jack Shafer, co-editor of Slate, criticized the Newseum's exhibit about the career of the late NBC reporter Tim Russert. He argued that Russert's "mundane" work-space was not worthy of preservation in a museum and that Russert's accomplishments "begin at being a pretty good interviewer and end at having a lot of celebrity friends." He concluded that the Newseum is "a place where journalist celebrities begin to be worshipped as miracle-producing saints."
Al Aqsa TV controversy
In the May 2013 rededication ceremony of the Journalist Memorial, the Newseum first decided to honor two Al Aqsa TV members as part of the memorial, and then withdrew them after criticism from pro-Israeli organizations. After a year-long review of the circumstances surrounding their deaths, the Newseum, in partnership with other journalism organizations decided their names would remain on the Journalists Memorial wall.
Ilene Prusher, columnist for the Israeli newspaper Haaretz, said that the Newseum stepped into the "minefield" of the Arab–Israeli conflict. Al-Aqsa TV is affiliated with Hamas in the Gaza Strip, and the two deceased journalists were killed by Israeli fire in a car marked "TV". Israeli Defense Forces spokeswoman, Lt. Col. Avital Leibovich, said that they were killed deliberately, not accidentally, because they "have relevance to terror activity.”
Nearly all journalistic organizations hold that the men were killed in the line of duty, including the Committee to Protect Journalists, Reporters Without Borders, the International Federation of Journalists and the World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers. Human Rights Watch said that their investigation in Gaza showed no evidence that the men were involved in militant activity. NBC News chief foreign correspondent Richard Engel said at the Newseum's dedication ceremony that it was difficult to draw the line, and several reporters on the list were Syrians who were also activists who were trying to topple Bashar al-Assad's government. David Carr of the New York Times said that "the evidence so far suggests that they were journalists, however partisan.”
Permanent exhibits
The New York Times—Ochs-Sulzberger Family Great Hall: Located in the atrium, a 90-foot-high screen showed the latest headlines from around the globe. A satellite replica and a Bell helicopter (formerly used by KXAS-TV in Dallas) were also suspended in the atrium.
News Corporation News History Gallery: A timeline showcased the extensive collection of newspapers and magazines. Touch-screen computers housed hundreds of digitized publications, allowing for close-up viewing, as well as interactive games, and access to a database of journalists. Hundreds of artifacts and memorabilia from remarkable news events were in cases around the gallery. Included in this gallery was a 1603 English broadsheet showing the coronation of James I; a 1787 copy of the Maryland Gazette containing the new United States Constitution; The Charleston Mercurys 1860 extra enthusiastically proclaiming, “The Union Is Dissolved!”; a copy of the 1948 Chicago Daily Tribune mistakenly announcing, “Dewey Defeats Truman.”
NBC News Interactive Newsroom: The Interactive Newsroom let visitors play the role of a photojournalist, editor, reporter, or anchor. Touch-screen stations provided simulated tools and techniques needed to be in the broadcast business. Visitors could also pick up a microphone and step in front of the camera.
9/11 Gallery Sponsored by Comcast: This gallery explored the coverage of September 11, 2001. A tribute to photojournalist William Biggart, who died covering the attacks, was included. Visitors got to hear his story and see some of the final photographs he took. A giant wall was covered with worldwide front pages published the following morning, and a portion of the communications antenna from the roof of the World Trade Center was on display with a timeline of the reports and bulletins that were issued as the day unfolded. A film gave additional first-person accounts from reporters and photographers who covered the story.
Bloomberg Internet, TV and Radio Gallery: News increases as technology improves. This gallery traced the evolution of electronic media. Two high media walls showed memorable television clips, a multimedia timeline, and a memorial to Edward R. Murrow.
Pulitzer Prize Photographs Gallery: The Newseum put on display the most comprehensive collection of Pulitzer Prize-winning photographs ever gathered. It included every Pulitzer Prize winning entry since 1942. Many of the photographers were interviewed in a documentary film, providing context for the pictures and insight into their craft. Some photographs included are: Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, Burst of Joy (the joyful reunion of a returning prisoner of war and his family), a firefighter cradling a mortally injured infant after the Oklahoma City bombing. Visitors could access a database of 300 video clips, 400 audio clips and 1,000 prize photos. The gallery underwent a month long renovation and reopened in September 2016 with an updated display of 40 large-scale photographs tracing the history of the award.
Berlin Wall Gallery: The Newseum had procured the largest display of the original wall outside of Germany. There were eight high concrete sections of wall, each weighing about three tons, and a three-story East German guard tower from Checkpoint Charlie (or "Checkpoint C"), the name given by Western Allies to Berlin's best-known East–West crossing.
Cox Enterprises First Amendment Gallery: This gallery explored the role that the First Amendment's guarantee of rights (religion, speech, press, assembly and petition) has played in the United States over the past 200 years. The exhibit presented historical news clips that exemplify the five freedoms. "Our liberty depends on the freedom of the press," said Thomas Jefferson, "and that cannot be limited without being lost."
Time Warner World News Gallery: In this gallery, a large map, rating 190 countries, illustrated the differences in press freedom around the world. Newspaper Headlines and international television feeds were available for examination. International journalists who risked their lives on the job were also heralded here.
Today's Front Pages Gallery: The Newseum received digital submissions of over 700 front pages from around the world. Roughly 80 were enlarged and printed for display in this space and additional papers line the entrance of the building. One from every state and the District of Columbia was chosen as well as a sampling of international newspapers.
FBI Exhibit: The "Inside Today's FBI" exhibit gave visitors a view into the FBI's work, with a focus on the fight against terrorism and cybercrime in the post 9/11 world. Artifacts in the exhibit included the Unabomber's cabin, a car belonging to the 9/11 hijackers that was found abandoned in a Virginia airport parking lot, engine parts from the plane that crashed into the World Trade Center South Tower on 9/11, and running shoes belonging to a Boston Globe reporter who went from running in the Boston Marathon to covering the terrorist attack.
Journalists Memorial: Memorialized journalists who died in the course of their duties. This exhibit displayed artifacts from hazardous journalistic missions. Included was the laptop computer used by Daniel Pearl, the bloodstained notebook of Michael Weisskopf, and the 1976 Datsun 710 belonging to Don Bolles that was bombed in Phoenix, Arizona. Also featured was a sobering display of more than 1,800 names written in a glass tablet, marking the deaths of those who died in pursuit of the news. The gallery also contained photographs of hundreds of those journalists and access to more detailed information on every honored journalist.
Hank Greenspun Terrace on Pennsylvania Avenue: The Newseum terrace offered a panoramic view of Washington, DC overlooking one of America's most iconic streets, Pennsylvania Avenue. The view included landmarks and monuments such as the U.S. Capitol, the National Gallery of Art, the National Archives Building and the Washington Monument. On the terrace visitors could read about the events that played a role in developing Pennsylvania Avenue, from presidential parades and funeral processions to celebrations and protests. The 2009 Obama Inauguration parade was covered by cable news outlets from the Terrace.
The Bancroft Family Ethics Center: In the Ethics Center, computers allowed visitors to debate journalistic dilemmas and compare their answers with reporters and other visitors.
Financial losses and building closure
Despite a substantial revenue stream of rents, museum admissions, and event fees, the Newseum lost a significant amount of money. In 2011, ticket sales offset just 10 percent of expenses. In 2015, the museum lost more than $2.5 million on revenue of $59 million.
The Freedom Forum reported that the losses had led to controversial proposals for strategies that might improve the museum's finances. The issues, in part, reached back to the Washington location's construction, which had significant cost overruns. Furthermore, the numerous free museums in the National Mall area, such as those of the Smithsonian Institution and National Gallery of Art, made it difficult for visitors to justify paying the Newseum's steep entry fees. In August 2017, the Newseum's president, Jeffrey Herbst, resigned in the face of the museum's financial problems.
In February 2018, The Washington Post reported that the Newseum was exploring the sale of its building or a move. The Freedom Forum informed The Washington Post that it had been financing over $20 million a year in continued operating expenses. In January 2019, the Freedom Forum announced that it would sell the Newseum building to The Johns Hopkins University for $372.5 million. The Washington Post subsequently published a detailed account of the financial difficulties that the museum had encountered, which included a loss of over $100 million at the time of sale due to the facility's cost having risen to $477 million. The museum closed to the public on December 31, 2019.
On July 12, 2019, Johns Hopkins presented designs that showed the removal of the First Amendment etched stone panel from the building's façade. In March 2021, the Freedom Forum announced that they would donate the , panel, which was in the process of being dismantled, to the National Constitution Center on Independence Mall in Philadelphia, where it is planned to be reinstalled on a wall in the center's second-floor atrium. The building was gutted in 2021 to prepare for construction of the Hopkins facility.
See also
List of museums in Washington, D.C.
References
Further reading
External links
Newseum Residences
Newseum at Google Cultural Institute
History museums in Washington, D.C.
Journalism
Mass media museums in the United States
Museums established in 1997
Museums disestablished in 2019
Telecommunications museums in the United States
Northwest (Washington, D.C.)
2008 establishments in Washington, D.C.
2019 disestablishments in Washington, D.C. |
357170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Appelbaum%20Associates | Ralph Appelbaum Associates | Ralph Appelbaum Associates (RAA) is one of the world's longest-established and largest museum exhibition design firms with offices in New York City, London, Beijing, Berlin, Moscow, and Dubai.
Overview
The firm was founded in 1978 by Ralph Appelbaum (born 1942), a graduate of Pratt Institute and former Peace Corps volunteer (in Peru). Appelbaum currently directs RAA's undertakings, and retains daily involvement in selected commissions.
The New York Times reported in 1999 that the firm was composed of "architects, designers, editors, model builders, historians, childhood specialists, one poet, one painter and one astrophysicist."
The company's best-known project is the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., which is the United States' official memorial to the Holocaust. Established in 1993, the museum has been described as a "turning point in museology".
Major projects
Selected works
See also
Local Projects, U.S. firm
Event Communications, U.K. firm
Gallagher & Associates, U.S. firm
Xenario, Shanghai/U.S. firm
Cultural tourism
Exhibit design
Exhibition designer
References
External links
Ralph Appelbaum Associates website
1978 establishments in New York (state)
Design companies established in 1978
Companies based in New York City
Museum companies
Museum designers
Exhibition designers
Environmental design
American companies established in 1978 |
357177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo%20Barcelata | Lorenzo Barcelata | Lorenzo Barcelata (July 24, 1898 – July 13, 1943) was a Mexican composer and actor born in Tlalixcoyan, Veracruz. He died in Mexico City from cholera, shortly before his 45th birthday.
Barcelata came from a musically oriented family. He wrote his first song, "Arroyito", at the age of 14. He later moved to Tampico where he formed the Cuarteto Tamaulipeco with composer Ernesto Cortázar. Their fame quickly spread throughout the region and they received international fame when the Mexican government sent them on a tour of Cuba. While there, they were signed to perform a 52-week tour of the United States. After two of the members were fatally injured in an automobile accident, Barcelata returned to Mexico. He reformed the quartet as his fame continued to grow. Beginning in 1932, he entered the Mexican film industry and became a prominent film composer until his death. He also achieved fame as an actor as he played roles in several films.
His most famous song is "María Elena", (many know her as "yours is my heart" in Mexico) originally written for Lucia Martínez García at the request of Ernesto Soto Reyes, Lucía's husband and for which he paid $10,000 pesos from then, shortly after Before registering it, Barcelata shows it to his businessman friend Anacarsis "Carcho" Peralta who loves it and curiously it appears shortly afterwards as "María Elena", the name of a girlfriend the businessman had. "Maria Elena" was featured in the 1936 Mexican film of the same name. A version of it was also included on the soundtrack to the 1935 American film Bordertown. It was later translated into English and performed by the Lawrence Welk orchestra. Another English version was recorded by Jimmy Dorsey. Dorsey's version topped the charts in 1941. Wayne King also recorded an English version which reached the No. 2 position during the week of June 14, runner-up only to the Dorsey version. A vocal version by Tony Pastor also reached the Top 10 during that month. "Maria Elena" has since been recorded internationally by several different musicians. In 1958, the Brazilian group Los Indios Tabajaras recorded a version that became popular throughout Latin America and later (in 1963) reached the No. 6 position in the US charts & No. 5 in the UK charts.
The popularity of "Maria Elena" in the US in the early-1940s resulted in Barcelata touring the country once again. He returned to Mexico in 1943 where he was scheduled to produce several radio programs. However, he died on July 13, before recording could begin. In total, he left behind a catalog of 214 songs, including "Por ti aprendí a querer", and "El Cascabel", among others.
A recording of "El Cascabel" was one of the pieces of music on the Voyager Golden Record. This version was a mariachi interpretation performed by Antonio Maciel y Las Aguilillas with El Mariachi México de Pepe Villa. The 12 inch album (complete with stylus, cartridge and instructions for use) which was launched into deep space aboard the Voyager space probes in the late 1970s.
References
External links
Lorenzo Barcelata recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
Recording of "Maria Elena with Orquesta"
1898 births
1943 deaths
Deaths from cholera
Infectious disease deaths in Mexico
Male songwriters
Mexican expatriates in the United States
Mexican songwriters
Mexican musicians
People from Veracruz
20th-century male musicians |
357178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinantecan%20languages | Chinantecan languages | The Chinantec or Chinantecan languages constitute a branch of the Oto-Manguean family. Though traditionally considered a single language, Ethnologue lists 14 partially mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinantec. The languages are spoken by the indigenous Chinantec people who live in Oaxaca and Veracruz, Mexico, especially in the districts of Cuicatlán, Ixtlán de Juárez, Tuxtepec and Choapan, and in Staten Island, New York.
Internal classification
Egland and Bartholomew (1978) established fourteen Chinantec languages on the basis of 80% mutual intelligibility. Ethnologue found that one that had not been adequately compared (Tlaltepusco) was not distinct, but split another (Lalana from Tepinapa). At a looser criterion of 70% intelligibility, Lalana–Tepinapa, Quiotepec–Comaltepec, Palantla–Valle Nacional, and geographically distant Chiltepec–Tlacoatzintepec would be languages, reducing the count to ten. Lealao Chinantec (Latani) is the most divergent.
Phonology
Chinantecan languages have ballistic syllables, apparently a kind of phonation.
All Chinantec languages are tonal. Some, such as Usila Chinantec and Ojitlán Chinantec, have five register tones (in addition to contour tones), with the extreme tones deriving historically from ballistic syllables.
Grammar
Grammars are published for Sochiapam Chinantec, and a grammar and a dictionary of Palantla (Tlatepuzco) Chinantec.
Example phrase:
ca¹-dsén¹=jni chi³ chieh³
‘I pulled out the hen (from the box).
The parts of this sentence are: ca¹ a prefix which marks the past tense, dsén¹ which is the verb stem meaning "to pull out an animate object", the suffix -jni referring to the first person, the noun classifier chi³ and the noun chieh³ meaning chicken.
Whistled speech
The Chinantec people have practiced whistled speech since the pre-Columbian era. The rhythm and pitch of normal Chinantec speech allow speakers of the language to have entire conversations only by whistling. The sound of whistling carries better than shouting across the canyons of mountainous Oaxaca. It enables messages to be exchanged over a distance of up to . Whistled speech is typically only used by Chinantec men, although women also understand it. Use of the whistled language is declining, as modern technology such as walkie-talkies and loudspeakers have made long-distance communication easier.
Media
Chinantec-language programming is carried by the CDI's radio stations XEOJN, broadcasting from San Lucas Ojitlán, Oaxaca, and XEGLO, broadcasting from Guelatao de Juárez, Oaxaca.
References
External links
The Chinantec language family (SIL-Mexico)
Feist, Timothy & Enrique L. Palancar. (2015). Oto-Manguean Inflectional Class Database: Tlatepuzco Chinantec. University of Surrey. doi:10.15126/SMG.28/1.01
Indigenous peoples in Mexico |
357181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20Schlossberg | Edwin Schlossberg | Edwin Arthur Schlossberg (born July 19, 1945) is an American designer, author, and artist. He specializes in designing interactive experiences, beginning in 1977 with the first hands-on learning environment in the U.S. for the Brooklyn Children's Museum. Schlossberg continues to work in the field and publishes often on the subject. He is the husband of Caroline Kennedy, daughter of John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. He has published eleven books, including Einstein and Beckett and Interactive Excellence: Defining and Developing New Standards for the Twenty-first Century. His artwork has been presented in many solo shows and museum exhibits. In 2011, he was appointed to the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts by President Barack Obama, serving until 2013.
Early life
Schlossberg was born in New York City to an Orthodox Jewish family. Both his parents—Alfred I. Schlossberg and Mae Hirsch—were children of Ukrainian immigrants. Alfred founded a textile-manufacturing business and was president of the Park East Synagogue on New York's Upper East Side, where Ed studied Hebrew and celebrated his Bar Mitzvah.
Education
Schlossberg attended New York's PS 166 and graduated from the Birch Wathen School and Columbia College of Columbia University in 1967. He was a classmate of New York City Schools Chancellor and United States Assistant Attorney General Joel Klein. He also received his masters and doctoral degrees from Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.
Career
Schlossberg's multi-disciplinary design firm, ESI Design, is based on Fifth Avenue in New York City. It has produced award-winning interactive experiences for institutional and corporate clients.<ref name="nymag">Jeffery Hogrefe, "The family man", New York, April 30, 2001.</ref> Signature projects include:
Terrell Place, Washington, D.C.
Barclays Center Media Experience, Brooklyn, NY
Best Buy – Concept Stores
Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate
Ellis Island – American Family Immigration History Center
Playa Vista
Pope John Paul II Cultural Center
Reuters Spectacular at 3 Times Square
Sony Plaza and Sony Wonder Technology Lab
Time Warner Home to the Future installation
World Financial Center Breezeway Media Walls
World Trade Center and World Financial Center Informational Kiosks
Schlossberg has been singled out as a "leader in interactive design" by Wired magazine.
Schlossberg's plans for a redesign of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland received public attention when ESI was engaged to lead the project in 2007,"Rock Hall has designs for concert atmosphere", Associated Press in Toledo Blade, April 20, 2007. but the Hall of Fame ultimately chose a different design because of cost considerations.
Personal life
Schlossberg married attorney Caroline Kennedy on July 19, 1986, his 41st birthday. They have three children, all born in New York:
Rose Schlossberg (born June 25, 1988)
Tatiana Schlossberg (born May 5, 1990)
Jack Schlossberg (born January 19, 1993)
At the time of a 60 Minutes interview in with Caroline in April 2015, Schlossberg and his wife were living in two separate New York homes. Ed was living in an apartment in Manhattan's West Village, while Caroline was residing in a mansion on Park Avenue. The 60 Minutes'' interview generated social media gossip about the state of their marriage, which has a history of divorce rumors.
Bibliography
References
External links
ESI Design
330 Hudson
American designers
Bouvier family
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Jewish American writers
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Kennedy family
Living people
Writers from New York City
1945 births
New York (state) Democrats
Birch Wathen Lenox School alumni |
357182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalupe%20Victoria | Guadalupe Victoria | Guadalupe Victoria (; 29 September 178621 March 1843), born José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix, was a Mexican general and political leader who fought for independence against the Spanish Empire in the Mexican War of Independence. He was a deputy in the Mexican Chamber of Deputies for Durango and a member of the Supreme Executive Power following the downfall of the First Mexican Empire. After the adoption of the Constitution of 1824, Victoria was elected as the first President of the United Mexican States.
As President he established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, the United States, the Federal Republic of Central America, and Gran Colombia. He also founded the National Museum, promoted education, and ratified the border with the United States of America. He decreed the expulsion of the Spaniards remaining in the country and defeated the last Spanish stronghold in the castle of San Juan de Ulúa.
Victoria was the only president to complete his full term in more than 30 years of an independent Mexico. He died in 1843 at the age of 56 from epilepsy in the fortress of Perote, where he was receiving medical treatment. On 8 April of the same year, it was decreed that his name would be written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies.
Childhood and education
Guadalupe Victoria was born as José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix on 29 September 1786 in Tamazula in the province of Nueva Vizcaya, New Spain (now the Mexican state of Durango). His parents, who died early in his childhood, were Manuel Fernández and Alejandra Félix. He was baptized by his paternal uncle Agustín Fernández, at that time the priest of Tamazula, with whom he lived after being orphaned.
He studied at the Seminary of Durango. Having no resources to pay for food, he made copies of a Latin grammar text to sell to other students for two reales. In 1807, he went to Mexico City, where he enrolled in the college of San Ildefonso to pursue degrees in Canon Law and Civil Law. He studied under a tense atmosphere, because the school was militarized by a colonial order. On 24 April 1811, he submitted his review and graduated as a Bachelor of Laws.
Mexican War of Independence
In 1812, he joined the insurgent forces of Hermenegildo Galeana and fought alongside José María Morelos at the Siege of Cuautla. He also participated in the assault on Oaxaca and joined the troops of Nicolás Bravo in Veracruz. He dedicated himself and his troops to controlling the passage of El Puente del Rey and became famous for his successful attacks on military convoys until 1815, when he was defeated.
Assault of Oaxaca
The assault on Oaxaca took place on 25 November 1812. Insurgents led by José María Morelos defeated the royalist forces of Lieutenant General Gonzalez Saravia.
Other members of the insurgent forces that participated in the assault of Oaxaca were Hermenegildo Galeana, Nicolás Bravo, Mariano Matamoros, Manuel Mier y Terán, and Vicente Guerrero.
Guadalupe Victoria engaged in the battle in the Juego de Pelota, which was surrounded by a moat that insurgent soldiers did not dare to cross; Guadalupe Victoria threw his sword across the moat and said ¡Va mi espada en prenda, voy por ella! (There goes my sword as pledge, I'm going for it!). He swam across the moat and cut the rope of a bridge to allow the insurgent troops into the city.
The loss of Oaxaca was a heavy blow to the colonial government, because it gave great military prestige to Morelos, as well as a privileged geographical position because of the roads and towns that could be controlled from that site.
Due to his success in Oaxaca, by order of the Congress of Chilpancingo, Victoria was granted the command of the insurgent army in Veracruz. At the same time, José Miguel Fernández y Félix decided to change his name to Guadalupe due to his devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe, and Victoria for the victory.
Veracruz
In 1815, Victoria commanded insurgents in the region of Veracruz. Using guerrilla warfare tactics, he obtained control of the Puente del Rey ("King's Bridge"), a strategic position that connected Xalapa to the port of Veracruz. When he learned that royalist troops were coming to fight, he reinforced the defenses on the bridge, but was still forced to retreat to Nautla in July of that year.
To have a point of supply from the Gulf of Mexico, Victoria took control of the Boquilla de Piedras, a port located between Tuxpan and the port of Veracruz. This port was fitted with docks, warehouses and batteries for defense and remained under the control of Victoria until November 1816, when it was retaken by the royalist army. Shortly afterwards, Naolinco became the headquarters of the insurgents, and from there they controlled the area of Misantla, Puente Nacional and Huatusco.
Also in 1816, when the new viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca arrived at New Spain, Victoria attacked his convoy to Mexico City and came very close to capturing him.
In late 1816, Victoria regained Nautla, defeating the royalist garrison. He also occupied Barra de Palmas, Barra Nueva and La Laguna. The strong royalist offensive, as well as a lack of military equipment, resulted in the occupied positions being recovered by the Spaniards in February 1817.
By mid-1817, Guadalupe Victoria had lost all the towns of his command. After his defeat in Palmillas, he was abandoned by his men and faced intense persecution. He hid in the jungle, where he survived eating herbs, fruits and animals. He refused to accept a pardon from the Viceroy for his actions and remained hidden in the jungles of Veracruz, where he developed epilepsy. His sporadic appearances in the towns turned him into a legend among the inhabitants of the region.
Plan of Iguala and Treaty of Córdoba
Guadalupe Victoria spent almost four years hiding in the jungle. They were difficult years for the independence movement and the colonial government thought that the movement had been suppressed. During this time most of the insurgents accepted a viceregal pardon; only Vicente Guerrero kept up the fight.
The installation of the Cortes of Cádiz in Spain and the deterioration of the Spanish monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula helped revitalize the struggle for Mexican independence at the end of 1820. Victoria was informed about the progress of the insurrection and reappeared on 30 December of that year in the town of Soledad, where a small garrison quickly joined him.
On 24 February 1821, Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero proclaimed the Plan of Iguala. Iturbide began a tour of the Bajío region to spread the movement. Several royalist military leaders joined the Plan of Iguala and so did some retired insurgent leaders, including Nicolás Bravo and Ignacio López Rayón. Guadalupe Victoria also joined. On 6 April, Victoria proclaimed independence in the town of Soledad. In late May, with the exception of the capital, the province of Veracruz was up in arms.
The Army of the Three Guarantees was created on 24 February 1821 as part of the Plan of Iguala and continued battling Spanish royalist forces that refused to accept Mexican independence. These battles continued until 21 August 1821, when Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba.
On 27 September 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, forming a column headed by Agustín de Iturbide. Among the officers who entered the city that day were Pedro Celestino Negrete, Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo, Anastasio Bustamante, Melchor Múzquiz, José Joaquín de Herrera, Manuel Mier y Terán, Luis Quintanar, Miguel Barragán, Vicente Filisola, Antonio López de Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria. On 28 September 1821, the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire was signed.
Mexican Empire
Guadalupe Victoria met with Agustín de Iturbide on 17 June 1821 in San Juan del Río and asked him to adopt the Plan of Iguala to create a republican government. Victoria recommended as ruler a former insurgent who was unmarried and had not accepted the pardon. This man would marry an indigenous Guatemalan woman to unite both territories into a single nation. Iturbide refused the proposition. Both men supported independence, but felt a mutual distrust.
A regency was created to serve as executive, led by Iturbide, who ruled until 18 May 1822, when he was proclaimed emperor. Iturbide chose all members of the Provisional Governing Board, which would serve as Legislative and rule until 24 February 1822, when the First Constituent Congress was installed. Almost all members were notable for their social position, wealth and titles. They were also all former fervent supporters of the Spanish rule. None of the former insurgents, such as Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo, Ignacio López Rayón, Guadalupe Victoria and Andrés Quintana Roo, were called to participate.
In early 1822, some of the former insurgents with republican ideas began meeting at the house of Miguel Domínguez in Querétaro. They wrote to Pedro Celestino Negrete inviting him to participate, but he thought that it was a conspiracy and told Iturbide. Seventeen people were arrested, including Guadalupe Victoria, Nicolás Bravo and Miguel Barragán. The "conspiracy" was only meetings during which they talked about the future of government. Almost immediately, participants were released, with the exception of Guadalupe Victoria, who remained jailed, but who soon after escaped from prison and hid in Veracruz.
Congress asked to review the case of Guadalupe Victoria, who had been elected deputy by Durango. Victoria was a fugitive, indicted on charges of conspiracy. He was requested to present himself to congress, but he preferred to stay hidden.
On 21 July 1822, Agustín de Iturbide was crowned Emperor of Mexico, but the workings of the Constitutional Empire soon demonstrated the incompatibility of its two main components, the Emperor and the Constituent Congress. The deputies were imprisoned after expressing their disagreement with Iturbide and finally, Iturbide decided to eliminate the Congress, establishing instead a National Board.
Plan of Casa Mata
The lack of a Congress, the arbitrary actions of the Emperor, and the absence of solutions to the serious problems that the country was facing, increased conspiracies to change the imperial system. Antonio López de Santa Anna proclaimed the Plan of Casa Mata and was later joined by Vicente Guerrero and Nicolás Bravo.
On 6 December 1822, Guadalupe Victoria came out of hiding to join the movement. Knowing his reputation and popularity, Santa Anna appointed him leader of the movement and together they proclaimed the Plan of Veracruz.
On 31 December, Santa Anna was defeated by General Calderón. Forced to retreat, on 24 December he met with a group of 300 troops of Guadalupe Victoria in Puente del Rey. Santa Anna again took advantage of the popularity of Guadalupe Victoria by encouraging people to join the cause.
When Santa Anna and Victoria were defeated, Santa Anna tried to flee to the United States and Victoria said to him:"
On 22 January 1823, Santa Anna reported to Victoria: I was attacked from all directions by the imperial forces. On 1 February 1823, a radical shift occurred when the imperial Generals Echeverría, Lobato and Cortázar signed the Plan of Casa Mata.
Iturbide was forced to reinstate the Congress. In a vain attempt to keep a favorable situation for his supporters, he abdicated the crown of the Empire on 19 March 1823.
Supreme Executive Power
On 26 March 1823, it was determined that Iturbide would have to leave the country with his family. He was escorted by General Nicolás Bravo as requested by the former emperor.
On 31 March 1823, Congress met and granted the Executive role to a triumvirate named the Supreme Executive Power. Its members were Pedro Celestino Negrete, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria, with alternates being Miguel Domínguez, Mariano Michelena and Vicente Guerrero. On 7 April 1823, Congress nullified the designation of Iturbide as Emperor (and therefore the recognition of his abdication) and made it seem as if the coronation of Iturbide was a logical mistake in the establishment of Independence. Congress abolished the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba, leaving the country free to choose any system of government it wished.
Despite being elected to be part of the Supreme Executive Power, Victoria remained in military control of Veracruz, where he oversaw the transportation of Iturbide to Europe and organized resistance against Spanish attacks from San Juan de Ulúa.
The Supreme Executive Power was commissioned to direct the former provinces, now Free States, to create the Federal Republic and also to call elections for a new constituent congress. The Executive had to overcome a series of political difficulties, such as the case of the Central American provinces that chose not to join Mexican Federation, and the provinces of Oaxaca, Yucatán, Jalisco and Zacatecas that declared themselves free and sovereign states. They also faced a conspiracy of supporters of Iturbide and an anti-Spanish rebellion.
On 31 January 1824, the Constitutive Act of the Federation was approved, which was an interim status of the new government. The nation formally assumed sovereignty and was made up of free, sovereign and independent states. During the following months, the constitutional debates continued.
On 4 October 1824, the Federal Constitution of United Mexican States was proclaimed.
Presidency (1824–1829)
The Congress called for presidential elections in August 1824. Each state legislature would appoint two candidates, and the two who received the most votes would be elected as president and vice president. The results were announced on 1 October and by majority of 17 states, Guadalupe Victoria was elected president of the Republic.
On 2 October 1824, Guadalupe Victoria was declared the first president of the United Mexican States for the period 1825–1829. On 8 October, the president and vice-president Nicolás Bravo swore the constitution.
Guadalupe Victoria took office as interim president from 10 October 1824 to 31 March 1825. His constitutional term in office began on 1 April 1825. The inauguration was solemn and austere as required by his republicanism. That day, Victoria affirmed ¡La Independencia se afianzará con mi sangre y la libertad se perderá con mi vida! (Independence will be reinforced with my blood and freedom will be lost with my life).
Domestic issues
As president of the new Republic, Victoria was in charge of rebuilding an economy devastated by the long war of independence and the economic blockade promoted by the Spanish Crown. To resolve the lack of supplies, a result of the trade embargo, he created the country's merchant marine, which opened trade routes with the ports of the countries of the Americas that had recognized the national independence and with which diplomatic relations were established. However, his main concern was to achieve recognition from European countries.
The government of Victoria was hampered by severe financial problems. His expenses averaged $18 million spanish dollars—colloquially known as pesos—annually, but he was only collecting half that amount in revenues. In order to resolve that problem, Victoria was forced to seek foreign aid. The United Kingdom, knowing how hard-pressed Victoria was (the Army alone accounted for $12 million of the budget), persuaded him to accept two loans, each of over £3 million pounds. These loans, negotiated through banking houses such as Barclay and Goldschmidt, averted bankruptcy and helped retain social peace, factors that undoubtedly enabled Victoria to serve out his full term.
Despite these financial problems, there were some highly positive aspects to Victoria's administration. Two of the first president's most positive achievements were the establishment of the National Treasury when he held for the first time the Grito de Dolores. In addition, he established the Military Academy, restored Mexico City, improved education, accorded amnesty to political prisoners, laid plans for a canal in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, opened new ports for shipping, began construction on the National Museum, garrisoned Yucatán to thwart a contemplated Cuba-based Spanish invasion, and unmasked a conspiracy led by a monk named Joaquín Arenas to restore Spanish rule.
Victoria also facilitated the activities of the Lancasterian Society, which was dedicated to education, and he created the naval force that enabled his greatest achievement: the complete independence of Mexico, when on 18 November 1825, general Miguel Barragán took the last Spanish stronghold, the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa in Veracruz.
In politics, his actions were conciliatory. He tried to apply policies that would attract different sides and formed his cabinet with prominent members of the different factions. However, the old conflicts since the days of Iturbide resurfaced. Victoria faced the contradiction of religious intolerance against freedom of speech and press, which were declared in the Constitution, and which he scrupulously observed.
On 20 December 1827, he decreed the expulsion of Spaniards of the Republic. The suppressed rebellion of Joaquín Arenas sparked a wave of outrage against the wealthy Spaniards who had sponsored it. Though Lucas Alamán, his Secretary of the Interior, tried to dissuade him, American ambassador Joel R. Poinsett encouraged Victoria to order the expulsion of the Spaniards, which caused serious economic problems, because most of those expelled were traders who brought their fortunes to Spain.
San Juan de Ulúa
The War of Independence ruined fields, towns, trade and mining. The government had no effective ways of collecting additional customs taxes, and the government operated under debit and salary arrears. Under these conditions it was difficult to undertake an effective strategy for the surrender of San Juan de Ulúa.
Despite this, Victoria's government purchased some ships to form the basis of the first Mexican Navy. They included the schooners Iguala, Anáhuac, Chalco, Chapala, Texcoco, Orizaba, Campechana and Zumpango. The schooners Tampico, Papaloapan and Tlaxcalteca were added later.
Finally, on 23 November 1825, frigate Captain Pedro Sainz de Baranda achieved the capitulation of San Juan de Ulúa, the last Spanish bastion in Mexico.
Northern Territories
Guadalupe Victoria rejected two bids over Texas offered by American ambassador Joel R. Poinsett, including one for $5 million.
On 18 August 1824, the General Colonization Law was issued to populate the Northern Territories of (Alta California, Nuevo México and the north side of the state of Coahuila y Tejas). The decree left the administration of public lands in the hands of the states. On 24 March 1825, the congress passed a law to open the doors to foreign colonization fully; the law gave the settlers land privileges and exemption from taxes for ten years.
The immigration of Americans was abundant and communities quickly formed that retained their language, religion and customs, resulting in weak links with the rest of the country. They disobeyed the laws and continued slavery in Mexican territory. In 1826, the first attempt at separatism was made when empresario Haden Edwards declared independence from state of Coahuila y Tejas and created the Republic of Fredonia near Nacogdoches, Texas. The rebellion was quickly quelled.
As a direct result of Edwards's actions, Victoria authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General Manuel de Mier y Terán, to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action. Mier y Terán's reports led to the Laws of 6 April 1830, which severely restricted immigration into Texas.
Nicolás Bravo's rebellion
During his term, Guadalupe Victoria faced several attempted coups d'état against his government. Seven months after starting his administration, the first attempt was discovered. Another was discovered in late 1827.
On 23 December 1827, the Scottish Lodge declared the Plan of Montaño in Tulancingo, (now state of Hidalgo) which was based on 4 points:
The extinction of secret societies.
The change of government.
The expulsion of U.S. ambassador Joel R. Poinsett.
Strict compliance of the Constitution.
Vice-President Nicolás Bravo, head of the revolt, claimed that his sole purpose was to release the Congress and the government of Victoria from the influence of the Yorkist Lodge. The plan called mainly for the reorganization of government, which had showed serious deficiencies in the control of public revenues and expulsion of the United States representative on the grounds that country meddled in domestic affairs. (Joel R. Poinsett was expelled from Mexico on 3 January 1830 for that reason).
The uprising was suppressed by Vicente Guerrero on 6 January 1828 after a weak resistance. Nicolás Bravo was expelled from the country while other mutineers were imprisoned.
Mutiny of La Acordada
See also Motín de la Acordada.
The Mutiny of La () was a revolt staged on 30 November 1828 by General José María Lobato, Colonel Santiago García and Lorenzo de Zavala against the government of Guadalupe Victoria when they learned that he supported the candidacy of Manuel Gómez Pedraza in presidential elections.
For the elections of 1828, the Yorker Lodge presented as candidate to the Minister of War Manuel Gómez Pedraza. The Scottish Lodge presented as candidate to Vicente Guerrero, independence hero and victor in the last conspiracy against government. The elections were held on 1 September 1828, and the winner was Manuel Gómez Pedraza. Vicente Guerrero rejected the results and organized a revolution.
The revolutionary troops demanded the resignation of President Victoria and that he be replaced by Guerrero. Meanwhile, Gómez Pedraza fled from Mexico City, waiving his right to the presidency. That was seized upon by the mob which went to El Parian, the core of Mexican trade, and began looting and burning shops and stores, ruining hundreds of Spanish, Mexican and foreign traders.
As a result, in early 1829, Congress annulled the election of 1828 and elected Vicente Guerrero as president. Victoria delivered the presidency to him when his term ended on 1 April 1829.
Foreign affairs
One of the main goals of Guadalupe Victoria was recognition of Mexico as an independent nation by the principal foreign powers. He finally got that recognition following the establishment of diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the Federal Republic of Central America, and Gran Colombia. That reduced the problems caused by the economic embargo imposed by the Spanish crown. The economic problems were further reduced when several British companies began mining operations in Mexico, which resulted in a large influx of capitals.
He also ratified the contents of the Adams–Onís Treaty and thus the border with the United States.
Victoria declared that no proposals would be heard from Spain until it recognized Mexican independence and the form of government established and agreed to, and never ask for indemnification for the loss of Mexico.
Another memorable international accomplishment of Guadalupe Victoria was his support for the Pan American Union proposed by Simón Bolívar, which resulted in the signing of an agreement called the Tratado de Unión, Liga y Confederación Perpetua (Treaty of Union, League and Perpetual Confederation) between the republics of Colombia, Central America, Perú and the United Mexican States. He also provided financial assistance to Simón Bolívar to help obtain Peru's total independence from Spain.
Later life
After completing his term, Victoria retired from public life to manage personal affairs in his hacienda El Jobo in Veracruz. When Victoria gave the presidency to his successor, Vicente Guerrero, he said:
In 1832, the government of the republic, aware of his diplomatic and negotiating skills, asked him to assist in the pacification of Santa Anna, who had taken up arms to demand that the presidency to be delivered to General Manuel Gómez Pedraza. A year later, in 1833, he was elected senator for the states of Veracruz and Durango, joining the Public Debt Committee of the Senate. At the same time, he fought against rebellions in Veracruz and Oaxaca. While serving as senator, his health began to seriously deteriorate and he began having recurrent seizures which prevented him from completing his term as governor of Puebla, a position that he held for less than five months.
Victoria returned to the Senate and in 1835 was elected president of the Senate. He undertook a vigorous fight against a proposal that sought to change the federal republic to a centralized republic. A few days before returning to the Senate, in Puebla, he stated his position:
In November 1836, he was appointed military commander of Veracruz, but he resigned in December to show disagreement to the proclamation of the first Central Republic.
In 1838, his diplomatic intervention was crucial to avoid a war against the French in the incident known as the Pastry War. On 9 March 1839, he was successful with the signing of a peace treaty with France. That was his last public activity.
Death and legacy
In 1841, he married María Antonieta Bretón y Velázquez, and very soon, his health was broken by his epileptic condition. He moved to the Castle of Perote to receive medical treatment. He died there on 21 March 1843, where by he was buried.
Victoria was declared by Congress Benemérito de la Patria (Worthy of the Nation) on 25 August 1843, and his name was written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies.
In 1863, his remains were moved from Puebla by General Alejandro García and were placed in the Column of Independence in Mexico City.
On 15 August 2010, in celebration of the bicentennial of the beginning of the independence of Mexico, his remains were moved to National Palace and remained on display until 20 July 2011, when they were returned to the Column of Independence.
Victoria is considered a national hero, and there are many monuments, statues, schools, hospitals, libraries, cities, towns, streets, and other places named after him in Mexico. The most prominent are Ciudad Victoria, the capital of the state of Tamaulipas; the capital city of Victoria de Durango, Tamazula de Victoria, and Ciudad Guadalupe Victoria in the state of Durango; Guadalupe Victoria in the state of Puebla; Victoria City and Victoria County, in the United States; the frigate ARM Victoria (F-213); and General Guadalupe Victoria International Airport.
Coins, stamps, and monuments
A bust was presented to the City of Los Angeles of the United States in 1997 by the Mexican state of Durango. The bust is currently in Lincoln Park in the Lincoln Heights neighborhood.
See also
History of Mexico
References
Further reading
External links
Mexico connect: History of Mexico: Guadalupe Victoria – Presidente Desconocido
Presidents of Mexico
Mexican generals
Mexican independence activists
1786 births
1843 deaths
1820s in Mexico
Candidates in the 1824 Mexican presidential election
Governors of Puebla
Governors of Veracruz
Military personnel from Durango
Politicians from Durango
Ciudad Victoria
Deaths from epilepsy
Neurological disease deaths in Mexico
19th-century Mexican people
19th-century rulers in North America
19th-century Mexican military personnel
19th-century Mexican politicians |
357184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20television%20stations%20in%20Quebec | List of television stations in Quebec | This is a list of broadcast television stations serving cities in the Canadian province of Quebec. Digital channels as of November 2011.
Defunct stations
Channel 30: CFVO-TV - TVA - Hull
See also
Media in Canada
Ottawa-licensed stations in the list of television stations in Ontario; the majority of these transmit from Ryan Tower at Camp Fortune, Quebec.
List of television stations in Canada
References
Quebec
Television stations |
357185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Leake | George Leake | George Leake (3 December 1856 – 24 June 1902) was the third Premier of Western Australia, serving from May to November 1901 and then again from December 1901 to his death.
Leake was born in Perth, into a prominent local family. Studying law, he was called to the bar in 1880, and in 1883 was appointed Crown Solicitor and Public Prosecutor (the equivalent of solicitor-general). Leake first entered parliament in 1886, when he served briefly in the Legislative Council. He was again briefly a member of that body in 1888. In 1890, Leake was elected unopposed to the Legislative Assembly (representing the seat of Roebourne), but he resigned shortly after in order to continue as Crown Solicitor.
In 1894, Leake re-entered the Legislative Assembly, representing the seat of Albany. An opponent of the government of Sir John Forrest, he began to be regarded as the Leader of the Opposition, although that position was unofficial at the time. Forrest eventually resigned as premier in 1901 to enter federal politics, and was initially replaced by George Throssell. Throssell's government was short-lived, however, and he was replaced as premier by Leake, who also appointed himself attorney-general.
Leake's first government lasted five months before being defeated on a no-confidence motion. Alf Morgans was appointed as his successor, but was unable to form a government, resulting in Leake being recommissioned as premier after just a month out of office. Leake's second government lasted until his sudden death from pneumonia in June 1902, aged 45. He is the only Premier of Western Australia to have died in office.
Early life and background
George Leake was born on 3 December 1856 in Perth in what was then the British colony of Western Australia. The Leake family was prominent in the development of Perth and Western Australia; his father George Walpole Leake (1825-1895) was a barrister and politician, his uncle Sir Luke Samuel Leake (1828-1886) was the first Speaker of the Western Australian Legislative Council. Their uncle George Leake (1786-1849) had arrived in what was then the Swan River Colony in 1829, and settled as a merchant.
Young George was educated at the Church of England Collegiate School (now Hale School) and at St Peter's College in Adelaide. On 1 December 1876, George was on board the steamer SS Georgette when it sank off Margaret River, he survived. He had been on the ship travelling to St Peter's in Adelaide to undergo a law course. In 1880 he was admitted to the Western Australian bar and became a partner in his father's law firm. The following year he married Louisa Emily Burt, daughter of the late Chief Justice, Sir Archibald Burt. In 1883 he was appointed Crown Solicitor and Public Prosecutor. Leake also took a keen interest in the gold mining industry, and was a member of the syndicate that successfully sent Harry Anstey to find gold in the Yilgarn in 1887.
Career
In September 1886, Leake was appointed acting Attorney-General, and was subsequently nominated to the colony's Legislative Council. He remained in the position until December. On 28 November 1890, Leake was elected unopposed to the Legislative Assembly seat of Roebourne. He was offered a position in John Forrest's ministry, but declined, and resigned shortly afterwards on 30 December 1890 to avoid forfeiting his position as Crown Solicitor.
On 23 June 1894, Leake was elected as Legislative Assembly member for Albany, and in the following year became Leader of the Opposition. He was an enthusiastic proponent of federation and was president of the Federation League. In 1897 he was chosen as a Western Australian delegate to the Federal Convention, and attended meetings in Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne. He became a Queen's Counsel in 1898.
On 2 August 1900, Leake resigned his seat for business reasons, and travelled to Europe. After his return, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly as member for West Perth on 24 April 1901. No party won clear support in that election, and the incumbent premier George Throssell resigned office before parliament met, rather than test his support. Leader of the Opposition Frederick Illingworth was then invited to form a government, but could not do so because Leake refused to serve under him and some other members refused to serve without Leake. Eventually it was agreed that Leake would become premier, and Illingworth would be treasurer and colonial secretary. Leake became Premier and Attorney-General on 27 May.
Leake's government did not have the support of the majority of parliament, but it was allowed to govern for five months until finally being defeated in November. Alf Morgans then formed a government, but in the subsequent ministerial by-election, supporters of Leake stood against Morgans' new cabinet, and three of the six new ministers were defeated. Morgans then resigned and Leake returned as Premier and Attorney-General on 23 December 1901, this time with much clearer support.
Last days and death
In June 1902, Leake caught pneumonia. He died on 24 June 1902, to date the only Western Australian premier to die in office. Two days later it was announced in The Times that King Edward VII had intended to make him a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG), and the award was made posthumously.
Footnotes
References
Further reading
Chapman, Jenny. (1965) Perserverando : the Leake family in the political, economic and social life of W.A., 1829–1902, with particular reference to George Leake (1786–1849), Sir Luke Samuel Leake (1828–1886), and George Leake (1856–1902) held in Battye Library.
Leake family tree.
1856 births
1902 deaths
Attorneys-General of Western Australia
Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Australian people of English descent
People educated at Hale School
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly
Premiers of Western Australia
Australian federationists
Burials at East Perth Cemeteries
People educated at St Peter's College, Adelaide
Australian barristers
People from Perth, Western Australia
19th-century Australian politicians
Goldfields Water Supply Scheme
Australian Queen's Counsel |
357186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom%20of%20Heaven%20%28film%29 | Kingdom of Heaven (film) | Kingdom of Heaven is a 2005 epic historical fiction drama film directed and produced by Ridley Scott and written by William Monahan. It stars Orlando Bloom, Eva Green, Ghassan Massoud, Jeremy Irons, David Thewlis, Brendan Gleeson, Edward Norton, Marton Csokas, Liam Neeson, Michael Sheen, Velibor Topić and Alexander Siddig.
The story is set during the Crusades of the 12th century. A French village blacksmith goes to the aid of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in its defence against the Ayyubid Muslim Sultan, Saladin, who is fighting to claim back the city from the Christians; this leads to the Battle of Hattin. The screenplay is a heavily fictionalised portrayal of the life of Balian of Ibelin (ca. 1143–93).
Filming took place in Ouarzazate, Morocco, where Scott had previously filmed Gladiator and Black Hawk Down, and in Spain, at the Loarre Castle (Huesca), Segovia, Ávila, Palma del Río, and Seville's Casa de Pilatos and Alcázar. The film was released on May 6, 2005, by 20th Century Fox in North America and United Kingdom and by Warner Bros. Pictures in Germany and received mixed reviews upon theatrical release. It grossed $218 million worldwide. On 23 December 2005, Scott released a director's cut, which received critical acclaim, with many reviewers calling it the definitive version of the film.
Plot
In 1184 France, Balian, a blacksmith, is haunted by his wife's recent suicide, after the death of their unborn child. A Crusader passing through the village introduces himself as Balian's father, Baron Godfrey of Ibelin, and asks him to return with him to the Holy Land, but Balian declines. After the town priest (Balian's half-brother) reveals that he ordered Balian's wife's body beheaded before burial, Balian inspects the priest thoroughly, noticing the priest had stolen his wife's necklace and kills him before fleeing the village.
Balian joins his father, hoping to gain forgiveness and redemption for himself and his wife in Jerusalem. Soldiers sent by the bishop arrive to arrest Balian, but Godfrey refuses to surrender him, and in the ensuing attack, Godfrey is struck by an arrow that breaks off in his body.
In Messina, they have a contentious encounter with Guy de Lusignan, prospective future king of Jerusalem. Godfrey knights Balian, names him the new Baron of Ibelin, and orders him to serve the King of Jerusalem and protect the helpless, then succumbs to his arrow wound and dies. During the journey to Jerusalem, Balian's ship runs aground in a storm, leaving him as the only survivor. Balian is confronted by a Muslim cavalier, who attacks in a fight for his horse. Balian is forced to slay the cavalier but spares his servant, who tells him that this mercy will gain him fame and respect among the Saracens.
Balian becomes acquainted with Jerusalem's political arena: the leper King Baldwin IV; Tiberias, the Marshal of Jerusalem; the King's sister, Princess Sibylla, who is Guy's wife and also mother to a little boy from an earlier marriage. Guy supports the anti-Muslim brutalities of the Knights Templar and intends to break the fragile truce between the King and the sultan Saladin to make war on the Muslims. Balian travels to his inherited estate at Ibelin and finds the residents struggling and the land almost barren from lack of water. He quickly gets to work, using his knowledge of engineering to irrigate the dry and dusty lands, while working right alongside the workers. The land quickly turns into lush farmland which both improves the residents' lives and earns Balian the love and respect of his people. During that time Sibylla visits him and watches him as he interacts with his tenants, and they become lovers.
In 1185 Guy and his ally, the cruel Raynald of Châtillon, attack a Saracen caravan, and Saladin advances on Raynald's castle Kerak in retaliation. At the king's request, Balian defends the villagers, despite being overwhelmingly outnumbered. Captured, Balian encounters the servant he had freed, who he learns is actually Saladin's chancellor Imad ad-Din. Imad ad-Din releases Balian in repayment of his earlier mercy. Saladin arrives with a massive army to besiege Kerak, and Baldwin meets them with his own. They negotiate a Muslim retreat, and Baldwin swears to punish Raynald, though the exertion of these events weakens him.
Baldwin asks Balian to marry Sibylla and take control of the army, but Balian refuses because it will require the execution of Guy and the Templars. Baldwin soon dies and is succeeded by his nephew, Sybilla's son, now Baldwin V. Sybilla, as regent, intends to maintain her brother's peace with Saladin. Shortly, her son, like his uncle before him, begins to develop leprosy. Devastated and driven by the common belief of eternal damnation for lepers, Sybilla makes the heartrending decision to end her son's life by pouring poison into his ear while he sleeps in her arms; she then hands the crown to her husband Guy and withdraws in private to mourn.
As King of Jerusalem, Guy releases Raynald, who gives him the war he desires by murdering Saladin's sister. Sending the severed heads of Saladin's emissaries back to him, Guy declares war on the Saracens in 1187 and attempts to assassinate Balian, who barely survives. Guy marches to war with the army, despite Balian's advice to remain near Jerusalem's water sources. The Saracens later annihilate the tired and dehydrated Crusaders in the ensuing desert battle. Saladin takes Guy captive, executes Raynald, and marches on Jerusalem. Tiberias leaves for Cyprus, believing Jerusalem lost, but Balian remains to protect the people in the city, and knights every fighting man to inspire them. After an assault that lasts three days, a frustrated Saladin parleys with Balian. When Balian reaffirms that he will destroy the city if Saladin does not accept his surrender, Saladin agrees to allow the Christians to leave safely. They ponder if it would be better if the city were destroyed, as there would be nothing left to fight over.
In the city, Balian is confronted by the humiliated Guy, and defeats him in a sword fight, though he spares Guy's life, telling him to "rise a knight" as if he never were. In the marching column of citizens, Balian finds Sibylla, who has renounced her claim as queen. After they return to France, English knights en route to Jerusalem ride through the town to enlist Balian, now the famed defender of Jerusalem. Balian tells the crusader that he is merely a blacksmith again, and they depart. Balian is joined by Sibylla, and they pass by the grave of Balian's wife as they ride toward the unknown. An epilogue notes that "nearly a thousand years later, peace in the Kingdom of Heaven still remains elusive".
Cast
Many of the characters in the film are fictionalised versions of historical figures:
Orlando Bloom as Balian of Ibelin
Eva Green as Sibylla of Jerusalem
Jeremy Irons as Raymond III of Tripoli (“Tiberias”)
David Thewlis as The Hospitaller
Brendan Gleeson as Raynald of Châtillon (“Reynald”)
Marton Csokas as Guy de Lusignan
Edward Norton as King Baldwin IV of Jerusalem
Michael Sheen as Priest
Liam Neeson as Barisan of Ibelin (“Godfrey”)
Velibor Topić as Amalric
Ghassan Massoud as Saladin
Alexander Siddig as Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani
Khaled Nabawy as Mullah
Kevin McKidd as English Sergeant
Michael Shaeffer as Young Sergeant
Jon Finch as Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem
Ulrich Thomsen as Gerard de Ridefort (“Templar Master”)
Nikolaj Coster-Waldau as Village Sheriff
Martin Hancock as Gravedigger
Nathalie Cox as Balian's Wife
Eriq Ebouaney as Firuz
Jouko Ahola as Odo
Giannina Facio as Saladin's sister
Philip Glenister as Squire
Bronson Webb as Apprentice
Steven Robertson as Angelic Priest
Iain Glen as Richard I of England (Richard Coeur de Lion)
Angus Wright as Richard's Knight
Production
Cinematography
The visual style of Kingdom of Heaven emphasises set design and impressive cinematography in almost every scene. It is notable for its "visually stunning cinematography and haunting music".
Cinematographer John Mathieson created many large, sweeping landscapes, where the cinematography, supporting performances, and battle sequences are meticulously mounted.
The cinematography and scenes of set-pieces have been described as "ballets of light and color", drawing comparisons to Akira Kurosawa.
Director Ridley Scott's visual acumen was described as the main draw of Kingdom of Heaven, with the "stellar" and "stunning" cinematography and "jaw-dropping combat sequences" based on the production design of Arthur Max.
Visual effects
British visual effects firm Moving Picture Company completed 440 effects shots for the film. Additionally, Double Negative also contributed to complete the CGI work on the film.
Music
The music differs in style and content from the soundtrack of Scott's earlier 2000 film Gladiator and many other subsequent films depicting historical events. A combination of medieval, Middle Eastern, contemporary classical, and popular influences, the soundtrack is largely the work of British film-score composer Harry Gregson-Williams. Jerry Goldsmith's "Valhalla" theme from The 13th Warrior and "Vide Cor Meum" (originally used by Scott in Hannibal and composed by Patrick Cassidy and Hans Zimmer), sung by Danielle de Niese and Bruno Lazzaretti, were used as replacements for original music by Gregson-Williams.
Reception
Critical response
Upon its release it was met with a mixed reception, with many critics being divided on the film. Critics such as Roger Ebert found the film's message to be deeper than that of Scott's Gladiator.
The cast was widely praised. Jack Moore described Edward Norton's performance as the leper-King Baldwin as "phenomenal", and "so far removed from anything that he has ever done that we see the true complexities of his talent". The Syrian actor Ghassan Massoud was praised for his portrayal of Saladin, described in The New York Times as "cool as a tall glass of water". Also commended were Eva Green, who plays Princess Sibylla "with a measure of cool that defies her surroundings", and Jeremy Irons.
Lead actor Bloom's performance generally elicited a lukewarm reception from American critics, with the Boston Globe stating Bloom was "not actively bad as Balian of Ibelin", but nevertheless "seems like a man holding the fort for a genuine star who never arrives". Other critics conceded that Balian was more of a "brave and principled thinker-warrior" than a strong commander, and that he used brains rather than brawn to gain advantage in battle.
Bloom had gained 20 pounds for the part, and the extended director's cut (detailed below) of Kingdom of Heaven reveals even more complex facets of Bloom's role, involving connections with unknown relatives. Despite the criticism, Bloom won two awards for his performance.
Online, general criticism has been also divided. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 39% based on reviews from 191 critics, with an average rating of 5.60/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Although it's an objective and handsomely presented take on the Crusades, Kingdom of Heaven lacks depth." Review aggregator Metacritic gives the film a 63/100 rating based on 40 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews" according to the website's weighted average system.
Academic critique
In the time since the film's release, scholars have offered analysis and criticisms through a lens situating Kingdom of Heaven within the context of contemporary international events and religious conflict, including: broad post-9/11 politics, neocolonialism, Orientalism, the Western perspective of the film, and the detrimental handling of differences between Christianity and Islam.
Academic criticism has focused on the supposed peaceful relationship between Christians and Muslims in Jerusalem and other cities depicted. Crusader historians such as Jonathan Riley-Smith, quoted by The Daily Telegraph, described the film as "dangerous to Arab relations", calling the film "Osama bin Laden's version of history," which would "fuel the Islamic fundamentalists". Riley-Smith further commented against the historical accuracy, stating that "the fanaticism of most of the Christians in the film and their hatred of Islam is what the Islamists want to believe. At a time of inter-faith tension, nonsense like this will only reinforce existing myths", arguing that the film relied on the romanticized view of the Crusades propagated by Sir Walter Scott in his book The Talisman, published in 1825 and now discredited by academics, "which depicts the Muslims as sophisticated and civilized, and the Crusaders are all brutes and barbarians. It has nothing to do with reality". Paul Halsall defended Ridley Scott, claiming that "historians can't criticize filmmakers for having to make the decisions they have to make ... [Scott is] not writing a history textbook".
Thomas F. Madden, Director of Saint Louis University's Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, criticised the film's presentation of the Crusades:
Scott himself defended this depiction of the Muslim–Christian relationship in footage on the DVD version of the movie's extra features—Scott sees this portrayal as being a contemporary look at the history. He argued that peace and brutality are concepts relative to one's own experience, and since contemporary society is so far removed from the brutal times in which the movie takes place, he told the story in a way that he felt was true to the source material, yet was more accessible to a modern audience. In other words, the "peace" that existed was exaggerated to fit modern ideas of what such a peace would be. At the time, it was merely a lull in Muslim–Christian violence compared to the standards of the period. The recurring use of "Assalamu Alaikum", the traditional Arabic greeting meaning "Peace be with you", is spoken both in Arabic and English several times.
The "Director's Cut" of the film is a four-disc set, two of which are dedicated to a feature-length documentary called The Path to Redemption. This feature contains an additional featurette on historical accuracy called "Creative Accuracy: The Scholars Speak", where a number of academics support the film's contemporary relevance and historical accuracy. Among these historians is Dr. Nancy Caciola, who said that despite the various inaccuracies and fictionalised/dramatized details, she considered the film a "responsible depiction of the period."
Screenwriter William Monahan, who is a long-term enthusiast of the period, has said "If it isn't in, it doesn't mean we didn't know it ... What you use, in drama, is what plays. Shakespeare did the same."
Caciola agreed with the fictionalisation of characters on the grounds that "crafting a character who is someone the audience can identify with" is necessary in a film. She said that "I, as a professional, have spent much time with medieval people, so to speak, in the texts that I read; and quite honestly there are very few of them that if I met in the flesh I feel that I would be very fond of."
John Harlow of the Times Online wrote that Christianity is portrayed in an unfavorable light and the value of Christian belief is diminished, especially in the portrayal of Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem.
Box office
The film was a box office disappointment in the US and Canada, earning $47.4 million against a budget of around $130 million, but did better in Europe and the rest of the world, earning $164.3 million, with the worldwide box office earnings totalling at $211,643,158. It was also a success in Arabic-speaking countries, especially Egypt. Scott insinuated that the US failure of the film was the result of poor advertising, which presented the film as an adventure with a love story rather than as an examination of religious conflict. It has also been noted that the film was altered from its original version to be shorter and follow a simpler plot line. This "less sophisticated" version is what hit theatres, although Scott and some of his crew felt it was watered down, explaining that by editing, "You've gone in there and taken little bits from everything".
Accolades
Extended director's cut
Unhappy with the theatrical version of Kingdom of Heaven (which he blamed on paying too much attention to the opinions of preview audiences, and acceding to Fox's request to shorten the film by 45 minutes), Ridley Scott supervised a director's cut of the film, which was released on 23 December 2005 at the Laemmle Fairfax Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Unlike the mixed critical reception of the film's theatrical version, the Director's Cut received overwhelmingly positive reviews from film critics, including a four-star review in the British magazine Total Film and a ten out of ten from IGN DVD. Empire magazine called the reedited film an "epic", adding, "The added 45 minutes in the director's cut are like pieces missing from a beautiful but incomplete puzzle." One reviewer suggested it is the most substantial director's cut of all time and James Berardinelli wrote that it offers a much greater insight into the story and the motivations of individual characters. "This is the one that should have gone out," reflected Scott.
The DVD of the extended director's cut was released on 23 May 2006. It comprises a four-disc box set with a runtime of 194 minutes, and is shown as a roadshow presentation with an overture and intermission in the vein of traditional Hollywood epic films. The first Blu-ray release omitted the roadshow elements, running at 189 minutes, but they were restored for the 2014 'Ultimate Edition' release.
Scott gave an interview to STV on the occasion of the extended edition's UK release, when he discussed the motives and thinking behind the new version. Asked if he was against previewing in general in 2006, Scott stated: "It depends who's in the driving seat. If you've got a lunatic doing my job, then you need to preview. But a good director should be experienced enough to judge what he thinks is the correct version to go out into the cinema."
Significant subplots were added as well as enhanced character relationships. The priest Balian kills at the beginning of the film is revealed to be his half-brother, while the lord presiding over Balian's hometown is revealed to be Godfrey's brother. Battle scenes are depicted with more violence than in the theatrical cut. More scenes with the Hospitaller offering guidance to Balian were added back in. The most significant addition was the subplot involving Sybilla's son Baldwin V, who becomes the first to inherit the throne of Jerusalem following the passing of Baldwin IV, but is shown to be afflicted with leprosy just like his uncle before him, so Sybilla peacefully poisons him to prevent him from suffering as his predecessor did. The gravedigger from Balian's hometown is given more attention: he is shown to be philosophical at the beginning of the film, and is shown to follow Balian to Jerusalem to seek salvation like Balian, who acknowledges his presence and personally knights him before the final siege. Finally, a final fight is shown between Balian and Guy, where Balian wins but spares Guy, leaving him dishonored.
Historical accuracy
Scott, possibly anticipating criticism of historical accuracy, said: "Story books are what we base our movies on, and what we base our characters on." The story of Balian of Ibelin was heavily fictionalized; the historical Balian was not a French artisan but a prominent lord in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The characters of Godfrey of Ibelin and the Hospitaller were wholly invented, while the stories of others were "tweaked"; for example, Raynald of Châtillon's responsibility for the Christian defeat is downplayed in order to make Guy "more of an autonomous villain".
The historical Sibylla was devoted to Guy, but the filmmakers wanted the character to be "stronger and wiser". Some have said that the character of Sibylla was reimagined to fit the trope of exotic Middle Eastern woman, whereas historically Sibylla and Baldwin belonged to a distinctly Western class that sought to set themselves apart from Middle Eastern culture. Moreover, while described in contemporary accounts as a young man vigorous in spite of his leprosy, King Baldwin is portrayed in the film as passive, androgynous, and bound to his chamber.
See also
List of Islam-related films
Lists of historical films
Battle of Hattin
Siege of Jerusalem (1187)
References
Bibliography
External links
2005 films
2000s action drama films
2000s action war films
2000s historical action films
2000s war drama films
20th Century Fox films
Action films based on actual events
American action drama films
American epic films
American films
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Arabic-language films
British epic films
British action drama films
British films
British historical action films
British war drama films
Crusades films
Cultural depictions of Richard I of England
Cultural depictions of Saladin
Drama films based on actual events
English-language films
English-language German films
Epic films based on actual events
Films about Christianity
Films scored by Harry Gregson-Williams
Films about death
Films about Islam
Films about religion
Films about violence
Films directed by Ridley Scott
Films set in Jerusalem
Films set in Palestine (region)
Films set in Israel
Films set in France
Films set in Sicily
Films set in Cyprus
Films set in the 12th century
Films shot in Morocco
Films with screenplays by William Monahan
Fratricide in fiction
German epic films
German films
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Latin-language films
American historical action films
Scott Free Productions films
War epic films
War films based on actual events
Films shot in the province of Ávila
Historical epic films
2005 drama films
Films shot in the province of Huesca |
357190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kondo%20effect | Kondo effect | In physics, the Kondo effect describes the scattering of conduction electrons in a metal due to magnetic impurities, resulting in a characteristic change i.e. a minimum in electrical resistivity with temperature.
The cause of the effect was first explained by Jun Kondo, who applied third-order perturbation theory to the problem to account for scattering of s-orbital conduction electrons off d-orbital electrons localized at impurities (Kondo model). Kondo's calculation predicted that the scattering rate and the resulting part of the resistivity should increase logarithmically as the temperature approaches 0 K. Experiments in the 1960s by Myriam Sarachik at Bell Laboratories provided the first data that confirmed the Kondo effect. Extended to a lattice of magnetic impurities, the Kondo effect likely explains the formation of heavy fermions and Kondo insulators in intermetallic compounds, especially those involving rare earth elements such as cerium, praseodymium, and ytterbium, and actinide elements such as uranium. The Kondo effect has also been observed in quantum dot systems.
Theory
The dependence of the resistivity on temperature , including the Kondo effect, is written as
where is the residual resistivity, the term shows the contribution from the Fermi liquid properties, and the term is from the lattice vibrations: , , and are constants independent of temperature. Jun Kondo derived the third term with logarithmic dependence on temperature and the experimentally observed concentration dependence.
Background
Kondo's solution was derived using perturbation theory resulting in a divergence as the temperature approaches 0 K, but later methods used non-perturbative techniques to refine his result. These improvements produced a finite resistivity but retained the feature of a resistance minimum at a non-zero temperature. One defines the Kondo temperature as the energy scale limiting the validity of the Kondo results. The Anderson impurity model and accompanying Wilsonian renormalization theory were an important contribution to understanding the underlying physics of the problem. Based on the Schrieffer-Wolff transformation, it was shown that the Kondo model lies in the strong coupling regime of the Anderson impurity model. The Schrieffer-Wolff transformation projects out the high energy charge excitations in the Anderson impurity model, obtaining the Kondo model as an effective Hamiltonian.
The Kondo effect can be considered as an example of asymptotic freedom, i.e. a situation where the coupling becomes non-perturbatively strong at low temperatures and low energies. In the Kondo problem, the coupling refers to the interaction between the localized magnetic impurities and the itinerant electrons.
Examples
Extended to a lattice of magnetic ions, the Kondo effect likely explains the formation of heavy fermions and Kondo insulators in intermetallic compounds, especially those involving rare earth elements such as cerium, praseodymium, and ytterbium, and actinide elements such as uranium. In heavy fermion materials, the non-perturbative growth of the interaction leads to quasi-electrons with masses up to thousands of times the free electron mass, i.e., the electrons are dramatically slowed by the interactions. In a number of instances they are superconductors. It is believed that a manifestation of the Kondo effect is necessary for understanding the unusual metallic delta-phase of plutonium.
The Kondo effect has been observed in quantum dot systems. In such systems, a quantum dot with at least one unpaired electron behaves as a magnetic impurity, and when the dot is coupled to a metallic conduction band, the conduction electrons can scatter off the dot. This is completely analogous to the more traditional case of a magnetic impurity in a metal.
Band-structure hybridization and flat band topology in Kondo insulators have been imaged in angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy experiments.
In 2012, Beri and Cooper proposed a topological Kondo effect could be found with Majorana fermions, while it has been shown that quantum simulations with ultracold atoms may also demonstrate the effect.
In 2017, teams from the Vienna University of Technology and Rice University conducted experiments into the development of new materials made from the metals cerium, bismuth and palladium in specific combinations and theoretical work experimenting with models of such structures, respectively. The results of the experiments were published in December 2017 and, together with the theoretical work, lead to the discovery of a new state, a correlation-driven Weyl semimetal. The team dubbed this new quantum material Weyl-Kondo semimetal.
References
External links
Kondo Effect - 40 Years after the Discovery - special issue of the Journal of the Physical Society of Japan
The Kondo Problem to Heavy Fermions - Monograph on the Kondo effect by A.C. Hewson ()
Exotic Kondo Effects in Metals - Monograph on newer versions of the Kondo effect in non-magnetic contexts especially ()
Correlated electrons in δ-plutonium within a dynamical mean-field picture, Nature 410, 793 (2001). Nature article exploring the links of the Kondo effect and plutonium
Electrical resistance and conductance
Correlated electrons
Electric and magnetic fields in matter
Physical phenomena |
357198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniparental%20disomy | Uniparental disomy | Uniparental disomy (UPD) occurs when a person receives two copies of a chromosome, or of part of a chromosome, from one parent and no copy from the other parent. UPD can be the result of heterodisomy, in which a pair of non-identical chromosomes are inherited from one parent (an earlier stage meiosis I error) or isodisomy, in which a single chromosome from one parent is duplicated (a later stage meiosis II error). Uniparental disomy may have clinical relevance for several reasons. For example, either isodisomy or heterodisomy can disrupt parent-specific genomic imprinting, resulting in imprinting disorders. Additionally, isodisomy leads to large blocks of homozygosity, which may lead to the uncovering of recessive genes, a similar phenomenon seen in inbred children of consanguineous partners.
UPD has been found to occur in about 1 in 2,000 births.
Pathophysiology
UPD can occur as a random event during the formation of egg cells or sperm cells or may happen in early fetal development. It can also occur during trisomic rescue.
When the child receives two (different) homologous chromosomes (inherited from both grandparents) from one parent, this is called heterodisomic UPD. Heterodisomy (heterozygous) indicates a meiosis I error if the gene loci in question didn't cross over.
When the child receives two (identical) replica copies of a single homologue of a chromosome, this is called an isodisomic UPD. Isodisomy (homozygous) indicates either a meiosis II (if the gene loci in question didn't cross over) or postzygotic chromosomal duplication.
A meiosis I error can result in isodisomic UPD if the gene loci in question crossed over, for example, a distal isodisomy would be due to duplicated gene loci from the maternal grandmother that crossed over and due to an error during Meiosis I, ended up in the same gamete.
A meiosis II error can result in heterodisomy UPD if the gene loci crossed over in a similar fashion.
Phenotype
Most occurrences of UPD result in no phenotypical anomalies. However, if the UPD-causing event happened during meiosis II, the genotype may include identical copies of the uniparental chromosome (isodisomy), leading to the manifestation of rare recessive disorders. UPD should be suspected in an individual manifesting a recessive disorder where only one parent is a carrier.
Uniparental inheritance of imprinted genes can also result in phenotypical anomalies. Although few imprinted genes have been identified, uniparental inheritance of an imprinted gene can result in the loss of gene function, which can lead to delayed development, mental retardation, or other medical problems.
The most well-known conditions include Prader–Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome. Both of these disorders can be caused by UPD or other errors in imprinting involving genes on the long arm of chromosome 15.
Other conditions, such as Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome, are associated with abnormalities of imprinted genes on the short arm of chromosome 11.
Chromosome 14 is also known to cause particular symptoms such as skeletal abnormalities, intellectual disability, and joint contractures, among others.
UPD has rarely been studied prospectively, with most reports focusing on either known conditions or incidental findings. It has been proposed that the incidence may not be as low as believed, rather it may be under-reported.
All chromosomes
Genome wide UPD, also called uniparental diploidy, is when all chromosomes are inherited from one parent. Only in mosaic form can this phenomenon be compatible with life. As of 2017, there have only been 18 reported cases of genome wide UPD.
History
The first clinical case of UPD was reported in 1988 and involved a girl with cystic fibrosis and short stature who carried two copies of maternal chromosome 7. Since 1991, out of the 47 possible disomies, 29 have been identified among individuals ascertained for medical reasons. This includes chromosomes 2, 5–11, 13–16, 21 and 22.
See also
Aneuploidy
References
External links
T. Liehr: Cases with uniparental disomy
UPD Animations: UPD Animations
This article incorporates public domain text from The U.S. National Library of Medicine
Cytogenetics
Articles containing video clips |
357200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%20of%20Sheba | Queen of Sheba | The Queen of Sheba (, Malkaṯ Šəḇāʾ; ; ) is a figure first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. In the original story, she brings a caravan of valuable gifts for the Israelite King Solomon. This account has undergone extensive Jewish, Islamic and Ethiopian elaborations, and it has become the subject of one of the most widespread and fertile cycles of legends in the Middle East.
Modern historians identify Sheba with the South Arabian kingdom of Saba in present-day Yemen. The queen's existence is disputed among historians.
Narratives
Biblical
The Queen of Sheba, (, in the Hebrew Bible, in the Septuagint, , ) whose name is not stated, came to Jerusalem "with a very great retinue, with camels bearing spices, and very much gold, and precious stones" (I Kings 10:2). "Never again came such an abundance of spices" (10:10; II Chron. 9:1–9) as those she gave to Solomon. She came "to prove him with hard questions", which Solomon answered to her satisfaction. They exchanged gifts, after which she returned to her land.
The use of the term ḥiddot or 'riddles' (I Kings 10:1), an Aramaic loanword whose shape points to a sound shift no earlier than the sixth century B.C., indicates a late origin for the text. Since there is no mention of the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, Martin Noth has held that the Book of Kings received a definitive redaction around 550 BC.
Sheba was quite well known in the classical world, and its country was called Arabia Felix. Around the middle of the first millennium B.C., there were Sabaeans also in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in the area that later became the realm of Aksum. There are five places in the Bible where the writer distinguishes Sheba (), i.e. the Yemenite Sabaeans, from Seba (), i.e. the African Sabaeans. In Ps. 72:10 they are mentioned together: "the kings of Sheba and Seba shall offer gifts". This spelling differentiation, however, may be purely factitious; the indigenous inscriptions make no such difference, and both Yemenite and African Sabaeans are there spelled in exactly the same way.
Although there are still no alphabetic inscriptions found from South Arabia that furnish evidence for the Queen of Sheba herself, the term mlkt ("queen", Sabaean: 𐩣𐩡𐩫𐩩) was mentioned in Sabaean inscriptions. And in the north of Arabia, Assyrian inscriptions repeatedly mention Arab queens. Queens are well attested in Arabia, though according to Kitchen, not after 690 B.C. Furthermore, Sabaean tribes knew the title of mqtwyt ("high official", Sabaean: 𐩣𐩤𐩩𐩥𐩺𐩩). Makada or Makueda, the personal name of the queen in Ethiopian legend, might be interpreted as a popular rendering of the title of mqtwyt. This title may be derived from Ancient Egyptian m'kit (𓅖𓎡𓇌𓏏𓏛) "protectress, housewife".
The queen's visit could have been a trade mission. Early South Arabian trade with Mesopotamia involving wood and spices transported by camels is attested in the early ninth century B.C. and may have begun as early as the tenth.
The ancient Sabaic Awwām Temple, known in folklore as Maḥram ("the Sanctuary of") Bilqīs, was recently excavated by archaeologists, but no trace of the Queen of Sheba has been discovered so far in the many inscriptions found there. Another Sabean temple, the Barran Temple (), is also known as the 'Arash Bilqis ("Throne of Bilqis"), which like the nearby Awam Temple was also dedicated to the god Almaqah, but the connection between the Barran Temple and Sheba has not been established archaeologically either.
Bible stories of the Queen of Sheba and the ships of Ophir served as a basis for legends about the Israelites traveling in the Queen of Sheba's entourage when she returned to her country to bring up her child by Solomon.
Christian
Christian scriptures mention a "queen of the South" (, ), who "came from the uttermost parts of the earth", i.e. from the extremities of the then known world, to hear the wisdom of Solomon (Mt. 12:42; Lk. 11:31).
The mystical interpretation of the Song of Songs, which was felt as supplying a literal basis for the speculations of the allegorists, makes its first appearance in Origen, who wrote a voluminous commentary on the Song of Songs. In his commentary, Origen identified the bride of the Song of Songs with the "queen of the South" of the Gospels (i.e., the Queen of Sheba, who is assumed to have been Ethiopian). Others have proposed either the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh's daughter, or his marriage with an Israelite woman, the Shulamite. The former was the favorite opinion of the mystical interpreters to the end of the 18th century; the latter has obtained since its introduction by Good (1803).
The bride of the Canticles is assumed to have been black due to a passage in Song of Songs 1:5, which the Revised Standard Version (1952) translates as "I am very dark, but comely", as does Jerome (Latin: Nigra sum, sed formosa), while the New Revised Standard Version (1989) has "I am black and beautiful", as the Septuagint ().
One legend has it that the Queen of Sheba brought Solomon the same gifts that the Magi later gave to Christ. During the Middle Ages, Christians sometimes identified the queen of Sheba with the sibyl Sabba.
Coptic
The story of Solomon and the queen was popular among Copts, as shown by fragments of a Coptic legend preserved in a Berlin papyrus. The queen, having been subdued by deceit, gives Solomon a pillar on which all earthly science is inscribed. Solomon sends one of his demons to fetch the pillar from Ethiopia, whence it instantly arrives. In a Coptic poem, queen Yesaba of Cush asks riddles of Solomon.
Ethiopian
The fullest and most significant version of the legend appears in the Kebra Nagast (Glory of the Kings), the Ethiopian national saga, translated from Arabic in 1322. Here Menelik I is the child of Solomon and Makeda (the Ethiopic name for the queen of Sheba; she is the child of the man who destroys the legendary snake-king Arwe) from whom the Ethiopian dynasty claims descent to the present day. While the Abyssinian story offers much greater detail, it omits any mention of the Queen's hairy legs or any other element that might reflect on her unfavourably.
Based on the Gospels of Matthew (12:42) and Luke (11:31), the "queen of the South" is claimed to be the queen of Ethiopia. In those times, King Solomon sought merchants from all over the world, in order to buy materials for the building of the Temple. Among them was Tamrin, great merchant of Queen Makeda of Ethiopia. Having returned to Ethiopia, Tamrin told the queen of the wonderful things he had seen in Jerusalem, and of Solomon's wisdom and generosity, whereupon she decided to visit Solomon. She was warmly welcomed, given a palace for dwelling, and received great gifts every day. Solomon and Makeda spoke with great wisdom, and instructed by him, she converted to Judaism. Before she left, there was a great feast in the king's palace. Makeda stayed in the palace overnight, after Solomon had sworn that he would not do her any harm, while she swore in return that she would not steal from him. As the meals had been spicy, Makeda awoke thirsty at night and went to drink some water, when Solomon appeared, reminding her of her oath. She answered: "Ignore your oath, just let me drink water." That same night, Solomon had a dream about the sun rising over Israel, but being mistreated and despised by the Jews, the sun moved to shine over Ethiopia and Rome. Solomon gave Makeda a ring as a token of faith, and then she left. On her way home, she gave birth to a son, whom she named Baina-leḥkem (i.e. bin al-ḥakīm, "Son of the Wise Man", later called Menilek). After the boy had grown up in Ethiopia, he went to Jerusalem carrying the ring and was received with great honors. The king and the people tried in vain to persuade him to stay. Solomon gathered his nobles and announced that he would send his first-born son to Ethiopia together with their first-borns. He added that he was expecting a third son, who would marry the king of Rome's daughter and reign over Rome so that the entire world would be ruled by David's descendants. Then Baina-leḥkem was anointed king by Zadok the high priest, and he took the name David. The first-born nobles who followed him are named, and even today some Ethiopian families claim their ancestry from them. Prior to leaving, the priests' sons had stolen the Ark of the Covenant, after their leader Azaryas had offered a sacrifice as commanded by one God's angel. With much wailing, the procession left Jerusalem on a wind cart led and carried by the archangel Michael. Having arrived at the Red Sea, Azaryas revealed to the people that the Ark is with them. David prayed to the Ark and the people rejoiced, singing, dancing, blowing horns and flutes, and beating drums. The Ark showed its miraculous powers during the crossing of the stormy Sea, and all arrived unscathed. When Solomon learned that the Ark had been stolen, he sent a horseman after the thieves and even gave chase himself, but neither could catch them. Solomon returned to Jerusalem and gave orders to the priests to remain silent about the theft and to place a copy of the Ark in the Temple, so that the foreign nations could not say that Israel had lost its fame.
According to some sources, Queen Makeda was part of the dynasty founded by Za Besi Angabo in 1370 BC. The family's intended choice to rule Aksum was Makeda's brother, Prince Nourad, but his early death led to her succession to the throne. She apparently ruled the Ethiopian kingdom for more than 50 years.
In the Ethiopian Book of Aksum, Makeda is described as establishing a new capital city at Azeba.
Edward Ullendorff holds that Makeda is a corruption of Candace, the name or title of several Ethiopian queens from Meroe or Seba. Candace was the name of that queen of the Ethiopians whose chamberlain was converted to Christianity under the preaching of Philip the Evangelist (Acts 8:27) in 30 A.D. In the 14th century (?) Ethiopic version of the Alexander romance, Alexander the Great of Macedonia (Ethiopic Meqédon) is said to have met a queen Kandake of Nubia.
Historians believe that the Solomonic dynasty actually began in 1270 with the emperor Yekuno Amlak, who, with the support of the Ethiopian Church, overthrew the Zagwe Dynasty, which had ruled Ethiopia since sometime during the 10th century. The link to King Solomon provided a strong foundation for Ethiopian national unity. "Ethiopians see their country as God's chosen country, the final resting place that he chose for the Ark – and Sheba and her son were the means by which it came there". Despite the fact that the dynasty officially ended in 1769 with Emperor Iyoas, Ethiopian rulers continued to trace their connection to it, right up to the last 20th-century emperor, Haile Selassie.
According to one tradition, the Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel, "Falashas") also trace their ancestry to Menelik I, son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. An opinion that appears more historical is that the Falashas descend from those Jews who settled in Egypt after the first exile, and who, upon the fall of the Persian domination (539–333 B.C.) on the borders of the Nile, penetrated into the Sudan, whence they went into the western parts of Abyssinia.
Several emperors have stressed the importance of the Kebra Negast. One of the first instances of this can be traced in a letter from Prince Kasa (King John IV) to Queen Victoria in 1872. Kasa states, "There is a book called Kebra Nagast which contains the law of the whole of Ethiopia, and the names of the shums (governors), churches and provinces are in this book. I pray you will find out who has got this book and send it to me, for in my country my people will not obey my orders without it." Despite the historic importance given to the Kebra Negast, there is still doubt to whether or not the Queen sat on the throne.
Jewish
According to Josephus (Ant. 8:165–173), the queen of Sheba was the queen of Egypt and Ethiopia, and brought to Israel the first specimens of the balsam, which grew in the Holy Land in the historian's time. Josephus (Antiquities 2.5‒2.10) represents Cambyses as conquering the capital of Aethiopia, and changing its name from Seba to Meroe. Josephus affirms that the Queen of Sheba or Saba came from this region, and that it bore the name of Saba before it was known by that of Meroe. There seems also some affinity between the word Saba and the name or title of the kings of the Aethiopians, Sabaco.
The Talmud (Bava Batra 15b) insists that it was not a woman but a kingdom of Sheba (based on varying interpretations of Hebrew mlkt) that came to Jerusalem, obviously intended to discredit existing stories about the relations between Solomon and the Queen. Baba Bathra 15b: "Whoever says malkath Sheba (I Kings X, 1) means a woman is mistaken; ... it means the kingdom (מַלְכֻת) of Sheba". This is explained to mean that she was a woman who was not in her position because of being married to the king, but through her own merit.
The most elaborate account of the queen's visit to Solomon is given in the Targum Sheni to Esther (see: Colloquy of the Queen of Sheba). A hoopoe informed Solomon that the kingdom of Sheba was the only kingdom on earth not subject to him and that its queen was a sun worshiper. He thereupon sent it to Kitor in the land of Sheba with a letter attached to its wing commanding its queen to come to him as a subject. She thereupon sent him all the ships of the sea loaded with precious gifts and 6,000 youths of equal size, all born at the same hour and clothed in purple garments. They carried a letter declaring that she could arrive in Jerusalem within three years although the journey normally took seven years. When the queen arrived and came to Solomon's palace, thinking that the glass floor was a pool of water, she lifted the hem of her dress, uncovering her legs. Solomon informed her of her mistake and reprimanded her for her hairy legs. She asked him three (Targum Sheni to Esther 1:3) or, according to the Midrash (Prov. ii. 6; Yalḳ. ii., § 1085, Midrash ha-Hefez), more riddles to test his wisdom.
A Yemenite manuscript entitled "Midrash ha-Hefez" (published by S. Schechter in Folk-Lore, 1890, pp. 353 et seq.) gives nineteen riddles, most of which are found scattered through the Talmud and the Midrash, which the author of the "Midrash ha-Hefez" attributes to the Queen of Sheba. Most of these riddles are simply Bible questions, some not of a very edifying character. The two that are genuine riddles are: "Without movement while living, it moves when its head is cut off", and "Produced from the ground, man produces it, while its food is the fruit of the ground". The answer to the former is, "a tree, which, when its top is removed, can be made into a moving ship"; the answer to the latter is, "a wick".
The rabbis who denounce Solomon interpret I Kings 10:13 as meaning that Solomon had criminal intercourse with the Queen of Sheba, the offspring of which was Nebuchadnezzar, who destroyed the Temple (comp. Rashi ad loc.). According to others, the sin ascribed to Solomon in I Kings 11:7 et seq. is only figurative: it is not meant that Solomon fell into idolatry, but that he was guilty of failing to restrain his wives from idolatrous practises (Shab. 56b).
The Alphabet of Sirach avers that Nebuchadnezzar was the fruit of the union between Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. In the Kabbalah, the Queen of Sheba was considered one of the queens of the demons and is sometimes identified with Lilith, first in the Targum of Job (1:15), and later in the Zohar and the subsequent literature. A Jewish and Arab myth maintains that the Queen was actually a jinn, half human and half demon.
In Ashkenazi folklore, the figure merged with the popular image of Helen of Troy or the Frau Venus of German mythology. Ashkenazi incantations commonly depict the Queen of Sheba as a seductive dancer. Until recent generations, she was popularly pictured as a snatcher of children and a demonic witch.
Islamic
In the above verse (ayah), after scouting nearby lands, a bird known as the hud-hud (hoopoe) returns to King Solomon relating that the land of Sheba is ruled by a Queen. In a letter, Solomon invites the Queen of Sheba, who like her followers had worshipped the sun, to submit to God. She expresses that the letter is noble and asks her chief advisers what action should be taken. They respond by mentioning that her kingdom is known for its might and inclination towards war, however that the command rests solely with her. In an act suggesting the diplomatic qualities of her leadership, she responds not with brute force, but by sending her ambassadors to present a gift to King Solomon. He refuses the gift, declaring that God gives far superior gifts and that the ambassadors are the ones only delighted by the gift. King Solomon instructs the ambassadors to return to the Queen with a stern message that if he travels to her, he will bring a contingent that she cannot defeat. The Queen then makes plans to visit him at his palace. Before she arrives, King Solomon asks several of his chiefs who will bring him the Queen of Sheba's throne before they come to him in complete submission. An Ifrit first offers to move her throne before King Solomon would rise from his seat. However, a man with knowledge of the Scripture instead has her throne moved to King Solomon's palace in the blink of an eye, at which King Solomon exclaims his gratitude towards God as King Solomon assumes this is God's test to see if King Solomon is grateful or ungrateful. King Solomon disguises her throne to test her awareness of her own throne, asking her if it seems familiar. She answers that during her journey to him, her court had informed her of King Solomon's prophethood, and since then she and her subjects had made the intention to submit to God. King Solomon then explains that God is the only god that she should worship, not to be included alongside other false gods that she used to worship. Later the Queen of Sheba is requested to enter a palatial hall. Upon first view she mistakes the hall for a lake and raises her skirt to not wet her clothes. King Solomon informs her that is not water rather it is smooth slabs of glass. Recognizing that it was a marvel of construction which she had not seen the likes of before, she declares that in the past she had harmed her own soul but now submits, with King Solomon, to God (27:22–44).
The story of the Queen of Sheba in the Quran shares some similarities with the Bible and other Jewish sources. Some Muslim commentators such as Al-Tabari, Al-Zamakhshari and Al-Baydawi supplement the story. Here they claim that the Queen's name is Bilqīs (), probably derived from or the Hebraised pilegesh ("concubine"). The Quran does not name the Queen, referring to her as "a woman ruling them" (), the nation of Sheba.
According to some, he then married the Queen, while other traditions say that he gave her in marriage to a King of Hamdan. According to the scholar Al-Hamdani, the Queen of Sheba was the daughter of Ilsharah Yahdib, the Himyarite king of Najran. In another tale, she is said to be the daughter of a jinni (or peri) and a human. According to E. Ullendorff, the Quran and its commentators have preserved the earliest literary reflection of her complete legend, which among scholars complements the narrative that is derived from a Jewish tradition, this assuming to be the Targum Sheni. However, according to the Encyclopaedia Judaica Targum Sheni is dated to around 700 similarly the general consensus is to date Targum Sheni to late 7th- or early 8th century, which post-dates the advent of Islam by almost 200 years. Furthermore, M. J. Berdichevsky explains that this Targum is the earliest narrative articulation of Queen of Sheba in Jewish tradition.
Yoruba
The Yoruba Ijebu clan of Ijebu-Ode, Nigeria, claim that she was a wealthy, childless noblewoman of theirs known as Oloye Bilikisu Sungbo. They also assert that a medieval system of walls and ditches, known as the Eredo and built sometime around the 10th century, was dedicated to her.
After excavations in 1999 the archaeologist Patrick Darling was quoted as saying, "I don't want to overplay the Sheba theory, but it cannot be discounted ... The local people believe it and that's what is important ... The most cogent argument against it at the moment is the dating."
In art
Medieval
The treatment of Solomon in literature, art, and music also involves the sub-themes of the Queen of Sheba and the Shulammite of the Song of Songs. King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba was not a common subject until the 12th century. In Christian iconography Solomon represented Jesus, and Sheba represented the gentile Church; hence Sheba's meeting with Solomon bearing rich gifts foreshadowed the adoration of the Magi. On the other hand, Sheba enthroned represented the coronation of the virgin.
Sculptures of the Queen of Sheba are found on great Gothic cathedrals such as Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, and Wells. The 12th century cathedrals at Strasbourg, Chartres, Rochester and Canterbury include artistic renditions in stained glass windows and doorjamb decorations. Likewise of Romanesque art, the enamel depiction of a black woman at Klosterneuburg Monastery. The Queen of Sheba, standing in water before Solomon, is depicted on a window in King's College Chapel, Cambridge.
Renaissance
The reception of the queen was a popular subject during the Italian Renaissance. It appears in the bronze doors to the Florence Baptistery by Lorenzo Ghiberti, in frescoes by Benozzo Gozzoli (Campo Santo, Pisa) and in the Raphael Loggie (Vatican). Examples of Venetian art are by Tintoretto (Prado) and Veronese (Pinacotheca, Turin). In the 17th century, Claude Lorrain painted The Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba (National Gallery, London).
Piero della Francesca's frescoes in Arezzo (c. 1466) on the Legend of the True Cross contain two panels on the visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon. The legend links the beams of Solomon's palace (adored by Queen of Sheba) to the wood of the crucifixion. The Renaissance continuation of the analogy between the Queen's visit to Solomon and the adoration of the Magi is evident in the Triptych of the Adoration of the Magi (c. 1510) by Hieronymus Bosch.
Literature
Boccaccio's On Famous Women () follows Josephus in calling the Queen of Sheba Nicaula. Boccaccio goes on to explain that not only was she the Queen of Ethiopia and Egypt, but also the queen of Arabia. She also is related to have had a grand palace on "a very large island" called Meroe, located someplace near the Nile river, "practically on the other side of the world". From there Nicaula crossed the deserts of Arabia, through Ethiopia and Egypt and up the coast of the Red Sea, to come to Jerusalem to see "the great King Solomon".
O. Henry's short story "The Gift of the Magi" contains the following description to convey the preciousness of the female protagonist's hair: "Had the queen of Sheba lived in the flat across the airshaft, Della would have let her hair hang out the window some day to dry just to depreciate Her Majesty's jewels and gifts."
Christine de Pizan's The Book of the City of Ladies continues the convention of calling the Queen of Sheba "Nicaula". The author praises the Queen for secular and religious wisdom and lists her besides Christian and Hebrew prophetesses as first on a list of dignified female pagans.
Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus refers to the Queen of Sheba as Saba, when Mephistopheles is trying to persuade Faustus of the wisdom of the women with whom he supposedly shall be presented every morning.
Gérard de Nerval's autobiographical novel, Voyage to the Orient (1851), details his travels through the Middle East with much artistic license. He recapitulates at length a tale told in a Turkish cafe of King Soliman's love of Balkis, the Queen of Saba, but she, in turn, is destined to love Adoniram (Hiram Abif), Soliman's chief craftsman of the Temple, owing to both her and Adoniram's divine genealogy. Soliman grows jealous of Adoniram, and when he learns of three craftsmen who wish to sabotage his work and later kill him, Soliman willfully ignores warnings of these plots. Adoniram is murdered and Balkis flees Soliman's kingdom.
Léopold Sédar Senghor's "Elégie pour la Reine de Saba", published in his Elégies majeures in 1976, uses the Queen of Sheba in a love poem and for a political message. In the 1970s, he used the Queen of Sheba fable to widen his view of Negritude and Eurafrique by including "Arab-Berber Africa".
Rudyard Kipling's book Just So Stories includes the tale of "The Butterfly That Stamped". Therein, Kipling identifies Balkis, "Queen that was of Sheba and Sable and the Rivers of the Gold of the South" as best, and perhaps only, beloved of the 1000 wives of Suleiman-bin-Daoud, King Solomon. She is explicitly ascribed great wisdom ("Balkis, almost as wise as the Most Wise Suleiman-bin-Daoud"); nevertheless, Kipling perhaps implies in her a greater wisdom than her husband, in that she is able to gently manipulate him, the afrits and djinns he commands, the other quarrelsome 999 wives of Suleimin-bin-Daoud, the butterfly of the title and the butterfly's wife, thus bringing harmony and happiness for all.
The Queen of Sheba appears as a character in The Ring of Solomon, the fourth book in Jonathan Stroud's Bartimaeus Sequence. She is portrayed as a vain woman who, fearing Solomon's great power, sends the captain of her royal guard to assassinate him, setting the events of the book in motion.
In modern popular culture, she is often invoked as a sarcastic retort to a person with an inflated sense of entitlement, as in "Who do you think you are, the Queen of Sheba?"
Film
Played by Gabrielle Robinne in La reine de Saba (1913)
Played by Betty Blythe in The Queen of Sheba (1921)
Played by France Dhélia in Le berceau de dieu (1926)
Played by Dorothy Page in King Solomon of Broadway (1935)
Played by Leonora Ruffo in The Queen of Sheba (1952)
Played by Gina Lollobrigida in Solomon and Sheba (1959)
Played by Winifred Bryan in Queen of Sheba Meets the Atom Man (1963)
Played by Anya Phillips in Rome '78 (1978)
Music
Solomon (composed in 1748; first performed in 1749), oratorio by George Frideric Handel; the "Arrival of the Queen of Sheba" from this work is often performed as a concert piece
La reine de Saba (1862), opera by Charles Gounod
Die Königin von Saba (1875), opera by Karl Goldmark
La Reine de Scheba (1926), opera by Reynaldo Hahn
Belkis, Regina di Saba (1931), ballet by Ottorino Respighi
Solomon and Balkis (1942), opera by Randall Thompson
"Black Beauty" (1970), song by Focus
“Leila, the Queen of Sheba” (1981), song by Dolly Dots
Machine Gun (1993), by Slowdive
"Aïcha" (1996), by Khaled
"Makeda" (1998), French R&B by Chadian duo Les Nubians
"Balqis" (2000), song by Siti Nurhaliza
Television
Played by Halle Berry in Solomon & Sheba (1995)
Played by Vivica A. Fox in Solomon (1997)
Played by Andrulla Blanchette in Lexx, Season 4, Episode 21: "Viva Lexx Vegas" (2002)
Played by Amani Zain in Queen of Sheba: Behind the Myth (2002)
Played by Yetide Badaki in American Gods as Bilquis
See also
Arwa al-Sulayhi
Biblical and Quranic narratives
Bilocation
Hadhramaut
Legends of Africa
List of legendary monarchs of Ethiopia
Minaeans
Qahtanite
Qataban
Sudabeh
References
Bibliography
Thaʿlabī, Qiṣaṣ ̣(1356 A.H.), 262–4
Kisāʾī, Qiṣaṣ (1356 A.H.), 285–92
G. Weil, The Bible, the Koran, and the Talmud ... (1846)
G. Rosch, Die Königin von Saba als Königin Bilqis (Jahrb. f. Prot. Theol., 1880) 524‒72
M. Grünbaum, Neue Beiträge zur semitischen Sagenkunde (1893) 211‒21
E. Littmann, The legend of the Queen of Sheba in the tradition of Axum (1904)
L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, 3 (1911), 411; 4 (1913), 143–9; (1928), 288–91
H. Speyer, Die biblischen Erzählungen im Qoran (1931, repr. 1961), 390–9
E. Budge, The Queen of Sheba and her only son Menyelek (1932)
J. Ryckmans, L'Institution monarchique en Arabie méridionale avant l'Islam (1951)
E. Ullendorff, Candace (Acts VIII, 27) and the Queen of Sheba (New Testament Studies, 1955, 53‒6)
E. Ullendorff, Hebraic-Jewish elements in Abyssinian (monophysite) Christianity (JSS, 1956, 216‒56)
D. Hubbard, The literary sources of the Kebra Nagast (St. Andrews University Ph. D. thesis, 1956, 278‒308)
La Persécution des chrétiens himyarites au sixième siècle (1956)
Bulletin of American Schools of Oriental Research 143 (1956) 6–10; 145 (1957) 25–30; 151 (1958) 9–16
A. Jamme, La Paléographique sud-arabe de J. Pirenne (1957)
R. Bowen, F. Albright (eds.), Archaeological Discoveries in South Arabia (1958)
Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Bible (1963) 2067–70
T. Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (1972) 1270–1527
W. Daum (ed.), Die Königin von Saba: Kunst, Legende und Archäologie zwischen Morgenland und Abendland (1988)
J. Lassner, Demonizing the Queen of Sheba: Boundaries of Gender and Culture in Postbiblical Judaism and Medieval Islam (1993)
M. Brooks (ed.), Kebra Nagast (The Glory of Kings) (1998)
J. Breton, Arabia Felix from the Time of the Queen of Sheba: Eighth Century B.C. to First Century A.D. (1999)
D. Crummey, Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: From the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Century (2000)
A. Gunther (ed.), Caravan Kingdoms: Yemen and the Ancient Incense Trade (2005)
External links
10th-century BC biblical rulers
10th-century BC women rulers
Ancient history of Yemen
Ancient Jewish women
Arab queens
Beta Israel
Books of Kings people
Converts to Judaism from paganism
Ethiopian Jews
Jewish monarchs
Jews and Judaism in Ethiopia
Jinniyyat
Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible
People whose existence is disputed
Rulers of Yemen
Sheba
Solomon
Unnamed people of the Bible
Women in the Bible
10th-century BC Semitic people |
357210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas%20Papandreou | Andreas Papandreou | Andreas Georgiou Papandreou (, ; 5 February 1919 – 23 June 1996) was a Greek economist, politician and a dominant figure in Greek politics, known for founding the political party PASOK, which he led from 1974 to 1996. He served two terms as prime minister of Greece.
Papandreou's party win in the 1981 election was a milestone in the political history of Greece, since it was the first time that the elected government had a predominantly socialist political program. The achievements of his first two governments include the official recognition of the leftist and communist resistance groups of the Greek Resistance (EAM/ELAS) against the Axis occupation, the establishment of the National Health System and the Supreme Council for Personnel Selection (ASEP), the passage of Law 1264/1982 which secured the right to strike and greatly improved the rights of workers, the constitutional amendment of 1985–1986 which strengthened parliamentarism and reduced the powers of the indirectly-elected president, the conduct of an assertive and independent Greek foreign policy, the expansion in the power of local governments, many progressive reforms in Greek law and the granting of permission to the refugees of the Greek Civil War, of Greek ethnicity, to return home in Greece.
The Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), which he founded and led, was the first non-communist political party in Greek history with a mass-based organization, introducing an unprecedented level of political and social participation in Greek society. In a poll conducted by Kathimerini in 2007, 48% of those polled called Papandreou the "most important Greek Prime Minister". In the same poll, the first four years of Papandreou's government after Metapolitefsi were voted as the best government Greece ever had. His father, Georgios Papandreou, and his son, George Papandreou have both also served as Prime Ministers of Greece.
Early life and career
Papandreou was born on the island of Chios, Greece, the son of Zofia (Sofia) Mineyko (1883–1981) and the leading Greek liberal politician George Papandreou. His maternal grandfather was Polish-Lithuanian-born public figure Zygmunt Mineyko, and his maternal grandmother was Greek. Before university he attended Athens College, a leading private school in Greece. He attended the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens from 1937 until 1938 when, during the authoritarian, right-leaning Metaxas dictatorship, he was arrested for purported Trotskyism. Following representations by his father, he was allowed to leave for the US.
In 1943, Papandreou received a PhD degree in economics from Harvard University. Immediately after getting his doctorate, Papandreou joined America's war effort and volunteered for the US Navy, serving as an examiner of models for repairing warships, and as a hospital corpsman at the Bethesda Naval Hospital for war wounded. He returned to Harvard in 1946 and served as a lecturer and associate professor until 1947. He then held professorships at the University of Minnesota, Northwestern University, the University of California, Berkeley (where he was chair of the Department of Economics), Stockholm University and York University in Toronto where he worked alongside long term advisor professor Christos Paraskevopoulos.
Personal life
He was married to Christina Rasia from 1941 to 1951. In 1948, he entered into a relationship with University of Minnesota journalism student Margaret Chant, born in 1924, daughter of Douglas Chant and wife Hulda Pfund.
After Chant obtained a divorce, and after his own divorce from his first wife Christina Rasia, Papandreou and Chant were married in 1951. They had three sons and a daughter. Papandreou also had, with Swedish actress and TV presenter Ragna Nyblom, a daughter out of wedlock, Emilia Nyblom, who was born in 1969 in Sweden.
Papandreou divorced his second wife Margaret Chant in 1989, and married Dimitra Liani who was 37 years his junior. He died in 1996. His will generated much discussion because he left everything to his 41-year-old third wife. He left nothing to his second wife, to whom he was married to for 38 years, their four children, or his illegitimate Swedish daughter.
Political career
Papandreou returned to Greece in 1959, where he headed an economic development research program, by invitation of Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis. In 1960, he was appointed chairman of the board of directors, general director of the Athens Economic Research Center, and advisor to the Bank of Greece. In 1963, his father George Papandreou, head of the Center Union, became prime minister of Greece. Andreas became his chief economic advisor. He renounced his American citizenship and was elected to the Greek Parliament in the 1964 Greek legislative election. He immediately became Minister to the First Ministry of State (in effect, assistant Prime Minister).
Papandreou took publicly a neutral stand during the Cold War and wished for Greece to be more independent from the United States. He also criticized the massive presence of American military and intelligence in Greece, and sought to remove senior officers with anti-democratic tendencies from the Greek military. He disagreed also with the American policy on the Cyprus dispute.
In 1965, while the "Aspida" conspiracy within the Hellenic Army (alleged by the political opposition to involve Andreas personally) was being investigated, Georgios Papandreou decided to remove the defense minister and assume the post himself. Constantine II of Greece refused to endorse this move and essentially forced George Papandreou's resignation during the events of the Apostasia of 1965. Greece entered a period of political polarisation and instability which ended with the coup d'état of 21 April 1967.
When the Greek colonels led by Georgios Papadopoulos seized power in April 1967, Andreas was incarcerated. Gust Avrakotos, a high- ranking CIA officer in Greece who was close to the colonels who led the coup, advised them to "shoot the motherfucker because he's going to come back to haunt you". His father George Papandreou was put under house arrest. George, already at advanced age, died in 1968. Under heavy pressure from American academics and intellectuals, such as John Kenneth Galbraith, a friend of Andreas since their Harvard days, the military regime released Andreas on condition that he leave the country. Papandreou then moved to Sweden with his wife, four children, and mother. There he accepted a post at Stockholm University. In Paris, while in exile, Andreas Papandreou formed an anti-dictatorship organization, the Panhellenic Liberation Movement (PAK), and toured the world rallying opposition to the Greek military regime. Despite his former American citizenship and academic career in the United States, Papandreou held the Central Intelligence Agency responsible for the 1967 coup and became increasingly critical of the federal government of the United States, often stating that Greece was under "US occupation".
In the early 1970s, during the latter phase of the dictatorship in Greece, Papandreou, along with most leading Greek politicians in exile or in Greece, opposed the process of political normalisation attempted by Georgios Papadopoulos and his appointed PM, Spyros Markezinis. On 6 August 1974, Andreas Papandreou called an extraordinary meeting of the National Congress of PAK in Winterthur, Switzerland, which decided its dissolution without announcing it publicly.
Papandreou returned to Greece after the events in Cyprus and the fall of the junta in 1974, during metapolitefsi. He was offered the leadership of his father's old party, which had evolved into Centre Union – New Forces. However, he not only turned it down, but rejected his father's ideological heritage as a Venizelist liberal, declaring himself a democratic socialist. To that end, he formed a new "radical" party, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK). Most of his former PAK companions, as well as members of other leftist groups such as the Democratic Defense joined in the new party. He also testified in the first of the Greek Junta Trials about the alleged involvement of the junta with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
In the 1974 elections, PASOK received only 13.5% of the vote, but in 1977 it polled 25%, and Papandreou became leader of the opposition.
The "Change"
At the 1981 elections, PASOK won a landslide victory over the conservative New Democracy party, and Papandreou became Greece's first socialist prime minister. The party's main slogan was Allagí (change).
In office, Papandreou backtracked from much of his campaign rhetoric and followed a more conventional approach. Greece did not withdraw from NATO, United States troops and military bases were not ordered out of Greece, and Greek membership in the European Economic Community continued, largely because Papandreou proved very capable of securing monetary aid for Greece. In domestic affairs, Papandreou's government immediately carried out a massive programme of wealth redistribution upon coming into office that immediately increased the availability of entitlement aid to the unemployed and lower wage earners. Pensions, together with average wages and the minimum wage, were increased in real terms, and changes were made to labour laws which up until 1984 made it difficult for employers to make workers redundant. The impact of the PASOK Government's social and economic policies was such that it was estimated in 1988 that two-thirds of the decrease in inequality that occurred in Greece between 1974 and 1982 took place between 1981 and 1982.
During its time in office, Papandreou's government carried through sweeping reforms of social policy by introducing a welfare state, significantly expanding welfare measures, expanding health care coverage (the "National Health System" was instituted, which made modern medical procedures available in rural areas for the first time,) promoting state-subsidized tourism (social tourism) for lower-income families, index-linking pensions, and funding social establishments for the elderly. Rural areas benefited from improved state services, the rights and income of low paid workers were considerably improved, and refugees from the Civil War living in exile were allowed to return with impunity. He also officially recognized the role of leftist partisan groups in the Greek Resistance during the Axis Occupation. The first law recognizing the Greek Resistance was passed in 1949 excluding partisan groups that fought against the Greek State in the Greek Civil War (A.N. 971) In 1982 his government passed the 1285 law that abolished this exception.
A more progressive taxation scheme was introduced and budgetary support for artistic and cultural programmes was increased. The government also introduced a wage indexation system which helped to close the gap modestly between the highest and lowest paid workers, while the share of GNP devoted to social welfare, social insurance, and health was significantly increased. Other major policy changes included the establishment of parental leave for both parents and child care centres, maternity allowances, community health centres, and the encouragement of women to join agricultural cooperatives as full members, an option which previously had not been open to women.
As part of Papandreou's "Social Contract", new liberalising laws were introduced which decriminalised adultery, abolished (in theory) the dowry system, eased the process for obtaining a divorce, and enhanced the legal status of women.
In 1984, for instance, women were guaranteed equal pay for equal work. Papandreou also introduced various reforms in the administration and curriculum of the Greek educational system, allowing students to participate in the election process for their professors and deans in the university, and abolishing tenure. The university system was expanded, with the number of students doubling between 1981 and 1986, while the system was reorganised to provide the departments with more power and permit greater participation in their management. The effect of these reforms was however, limited by poor research facilities, a shortage of qualified teaching staff, a lack of resources, and often inefficient administration.
In a move strongly opposed by the Church of Greece, Papandreou introduced, for the first time in Greece, the process of civil marriage. Prior to the institution of civil marriages in Greece, the only legally recognized marriages were those conducted in the Church of Greece. Couples seeking a civil marriage had to get married outside Greece, generally in Italy. Under PASOK, the Greek State also appropriated real estate properties previously owned by the Church.
A major part of Papandreou's ("change") involved driving out the "old families" (, literally "hearths", using the traditional Greek expression for the genealogy of families), which dominated Greek politics and economy and belonged to the traditional Greek right.
Papandreou was comfortably re-elected in the 1985 Greek legislative election with 46% of the vote, and won still further popularity in March 1987 by his strong leadership during the 1987 Greek-Turkish crisis in the Aegean Sea. However, from the summer of 1988, his premiership became increasingly clouded by controversy, as the Bank of Crete scandal exploded. In 1989, he divorced his wife Margaret Papandreou and married Dimitra Liani (Florina, 30 April 1955), without issue.
"Koskotas scandal", trial and return to power
In 1989, after the arrest of George Koskotas in the US, he was indicted by the Hellenic Parliament in connection with a US$200 million Bank of Crete embezzlement scandal, and was accused of facilitating the embezzlement by ordering state corporations to transfer their holdings to the Bank of Crete, where the interest was allegedly skimmed off to benefit PASOK, and possibly some of its highest functionaries.
Following the many repercussions of the so-called Koskotas scandal, PASOK was roundly defeated at the June 1989 elections, losing 36 seats in one of the largest defeats of a sitting government in modern Greek history. However, due to changes made in electoral law one year before the elections by the then reigning PASOK administration, New Democracy was not able to form a government despite finishing with the most seats. The new law required a party to win 50 percent of the vote to govern alone, and ND had come up just short of that threshold. As a result, even though New Democracy finished 20 seats ahead of PASOK, it was unable to garner support from the five MPS it needed to make its leader, Konstantinos Mitsotakis, prime minister. The ensuing deadlock led to fresh elections in November 1989 Greek legislative election. Papandreou's PASOK's won 40% of the popular vote, compared to the rival New Democracy's 46%. As before, even though New Democracy finished well ahead of PASOK in seat count, it was not able to form a government. A third election in 1990 followed, and Mitsotakis eventually received enough support to form a government.
In the wake of three consecutive elections between 1989 and 1990, the New Democracy leader, Constantine Mitsotakis, eventually received sufficient support to form a government. In January 1992, Papandreou himself was cleared of any wrongdoing in the Koskotas scandal after a 7–6 vote in the specially convened Supreme Special Court trial.
After 3 years of Mitsotakis' government, Papandreou and PASOK won again the 1993 election, and returned to power; in 1994, his government decided to impose an economic embargo on the Republic of Macedonia. In 1995, an interim accord was signed between the two countries.
However, his fragile health kept him from exercising firm political leadership. He was hospitalized with advanced heart disease and renal failure on 21 November 1995 and finally retired from office on 16 January 1996. He died on 23 June 1996, with his funeral procession producing crowds, ranging from "hundreds of thousands" to "millions" to bid farewell to Andreas. In 1999, Papandreou was posthumously awarded the Swedish Order of the Polar Star.
Economic policies
The expenditure programme of the Papandreou government during 1981–1990 has been described as excessive by its conservative critics. The excessive expenditures were not accompanied by corresponding revenue increases and this led to increases in budget deficits and the public debt. Many economic indicators worsened during 1981–1990 and the economic policies of his government were condemned as a failure by his critics. Various nationalizations of enterprises and the increase of the public sector was another point of critic by the conservatives.
On the other hand, according to his supporters they were successful, drastically increasing the purchasing power of the vast majority of Greeks, with personal incomes growing by 26% in real terms during the course of the 1980s. Papandreou's increased spending in his early years in power (1981–1985) was necessary in order to heal the deep wounds of the Greek society, a society that was still deeply divided by the brutal memories of the Civil War and the right-wing repression that followed; furthermore, the postwar government philosophy of the Greek conservatives simply saw the state as a tool of repression, with very little money spent on health or education. Furthermore, Papandreou's governments managed to handle the inflation and unemployment rate, maintain the growth of the economy, while according to his supporters the external debt in 1989 was in normal levels (around 65% of GDP).
International politics
Papandreou was praised for conducting an independent and multidimensional foreign policy, and proved to be a master of the diplomatic game, thus increasing the importance of Greece in the international system. He was co-creator in 1982 of, and subsequently an active participant in, a movement promoted by the Parliamentarians for Global Action, the Initiative of the Six, which included, besides the Greek PM, Mexico's president Miguel de la Madrid, Argentina's president Raúl Alfonsín, Sweden's prime minister Olof Palme, Tanzania's president Julius Nyerere and India's prime minister Indira Gandhi. The movement's stated objective was the "promotion of peace and progress for all mankind". After various initiatives, mostly directed at pressuring the United States and the Soviet Union to stop nuclear testing and reduce the level of nuclear arms, it eventually disbanded.
Papandreou's rhetoric was at times antagonistic to the United States. He was the first western prime minister to visit General Wojciech Jaruzelski in Poland. According to the Foreign Affairs magazine Papandreou went on record as saying that since the USSR is not a capitalist country "one cannot label it an imperialist power." According to Papandreou, "the Soviet Union represent[ed] a factor that restrict[ed] the expansion of capitalism and its imperialistic aims". This antagonistic stance made him extremely popular, because the previous conservative governments were seen by the Greek people as slavishly loyal to US interests.
Papandreou's government was the first in post-war Greece that redirected the nation's defense policy to suit its own security needs, and not those of the United States. According to historian Marion Sarafis, from 1947 until 1981, the US had more influence in Greece's military policy than the indigenous Greek high command, largely due to the decisive role played by the US in the Greek Civil War.
Papandreou supported the causes of various national liberation movements in the world, and agreed for Greece to host representatives offices of many such organisations. He also supported the cause of Palestinian liberation, met repeatedly with PLO chairman Yasser Arafat and condemned Israeli policies in the occupied territories. He was a supporter of the two-state solution for the conflict.
Papandreou's image and influence in Greek popular culture
Among both his supporters and his opponents, Papandreou was referred to simply by his first name, "Andreas", a unique situation in Greek political history, and a testament to his charisma and popularity. Andreas was also famous for wearing his business suits with turtleneck sweaters (ζιβάγκο in Greek), instead of the traditional white shirt and tie; he thus created a huge fashion, mainly but not exclusively among his political supporters. His first appearance in the Greek Parliament with a black turtleneck instead of shirt and tie caused a massive uproar in the conservative press, who considered him disrespectful of Parliament; however, the whole issue only added to his popularity.
Legacy
Papandreou exercised a more independent foreign policy elevating Greece's profile among non-aligned nations. He affirmed Greece's independence in setting her own policy agenda, both internally and externally, free from any foreign domination.
His opponents on the left, on the other hand, including the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), accused him of supporting, in practice, the agenda of NATO and the United States.
Andreas Papandreou is widely acknowledged as having shifted political power from the traditional conservative Greek Right, which had dominated Greek politics for decades, to a more populist and centre-left locus. This included the so-called pariahs in politics as of the end of the Greek Civil War, which were given a chance to prove themselves in democratically elected governments. This shift in the Greek political landscape helped heal some of the old civil war wounds; Greece became more pluralistic, and more in line with the political system of other western European countries. Papandreou also systematically pursued inclusionist politics which ended the sociopolitical and economic exclusion of many social classes in the post-civil war era.
It is also acknowledged that Papandreou, along with Karamanlis, played a leading role in establishing democracy in Greece during metapolitefsi. He is described as both prudent and a realist, despite his appearance as a leftist ideologue, and charismatic orator. His choices to remain in the European Union and NATO, both of which he vehemently opposed for many years, proved his pragmatic approach. Even his approach of negotiating the removal of the US bases from Greece was diplomatic, because although it was agreed to remove them, some of the bases remained. His skillful handling of these difficult policies had the effect of providing common policy goals to the political forces of Greece. Complementing this political realism, Andreas' ability to publicly say no to the Americans gave Greeks a sense of national independence and psychological self-worth.
Perhaps his most important achievement was the establishment of political equality among Greeks; during his years in power the defeated left-wingers of the Civil War were no longer treated like second-class citizens and a vital part of national memory was reclaimed.
Papandreou's successor in office, Costas Simitis, broke with a number of Papandreou's approaches.
Papandreou's son, George Papandreou, was elected leader of PASOK in February 2004 and prime minister during the October 2009 general elections. A common slogan among PASOK followers in political rallies, invokes Andreas' legacy with the chant "Andrea, zis! Esi mas odigis!" ("Andreas, you are still alive! You're leading us!").
In two separate polls, conducted in 2007 and 2010, Andreas Papandreou was voted as the best prime minister of Greece since the restoration of democracy in 1974.
Theodore Katsanevas
Until their divorce in 2000, Papandreou's daughter Sofia was married to the academic and politician Theodore Katsanevas. In Papandreou's will, he accused Katsanevas of being a "disgrace to the family" ()
and claimed that "his aim was to politically inherit the history of struggle of Georgios Papandreou and Andreas Papandreou".
Works
The Location and Scope of the Entrepreneurial Function, Harvard University, 1943
Economics and the social sciences, Economic Journal, 1950
An experimental test of an Axiom in the Theory of Choice, Econometrica, 1953
Competition and its regulation, Prentice-Hall, 1954
A Test of a Stochastic Theory of Choice, Econometrica, 1957
Economics as a Science, Lippincott, 1958
Fundamentals of model construction in macro-economics, Center of Economic Research, 1962
A Strategy for Greek Economic Development, Center of Economic Research, 1962
Democracy and National Rebirth, Fexis, Athens, 1966
The Political Element in Economic Development, Almqvist & Wiksell, 1966
Toward a Totalitarian World?, Norstedts, Stockholm, 1969
Man's freedom, Columbia University Press, New York, 1970
Democracy at gunpoint: The Greek Front (I Dimokratia sto apospasma), Doubleday & Co., New York, 1970
Paternalistic Capitalism, The University of Minnesota Press, 1972
Economic Development - Rhetoric and Reality, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 1973
Project Selection for National Plans, Praeger Publishers, New York, 1974
The Impact Approach to Project Selection, Praeger Publishers, New York, 1974
The Method of Repercussions in Investment Selection, Praeger Publishers, New York, 1974
Imperialism and Economic Development, Athens, 1975
Greece to the Greeks, Athens, 1976
Transition to Socialism, Athens, 1977
Mediterranean Socialism, Lerici, Cosenza, 1977
Decorations and awards
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (1983)
Order of the Polar Star (1999)
References
Further reading
Clogg, Richard. "Andreas Papandreou–A political profile." Mediterranean Politics 1#3 (1996): 382–387.
Kariotis, Theodore C., ed. The Greek Socialist Experiment: Papandreou's Greece, 1981-1989. (Pella Publishing Company, 1992).
Wilsford, David, ed. Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp. 361–68.
External links
The Andreas Papandreou Foundation
Biography from pasok.gr
Tribute to Andreas Papandreou
Clara Thomas Archives and Special Collections – Archival photographs of Andreas Papandreou from the Toronto Telegram Fonds – Clara Thomas Archives and Special Collections, York University
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357213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%20v.%20United%20States | Myers v. United States | Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52 (1926), was a United States Supreme Court decision ruling that the President has the exclusive power to remove executive branch officials, and does not need the approval of the Senate or any other legislative body. It was distinguished in 1935 by Humphrey's Executor v. United States. However, in Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2020), the Supreme Court interpreted Myers as establishing that the President generally has unencumbered removal power. Myers was the first Supreme Court case to address the President's removal powers.
Claim
In 1920, Frank S. Myers, a First-Class Postmaster in Portland, Oregon, was removed from office by President Woodrow Wilson. An 1876 federal law provided that "Postmasters of the first, second, and third classes shall be appointed and may be removed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate." Myers argued that his dismissal violated this law, and he was entitled to back pay for the unfilled portion of his four-year term.
Opinion
Chief Justice William Howard Taft, writing for the Court, noted that the Constitution does mention the appointment of officials, but is silent on their dismissal. He proceeded to conduct a voluminous examination on the history of the President's removal power. First, Taft examined the notes of the Constitutional Convention, and found their silence on the subject to be intentional: the Convention did discuss the dismissal of executive-branch staff, and believed it was implicit in the Constitution that the President did hold the exclusive power to remove his staff, whose existence was an extension of the President's own authority.
Second, Taft discussed the Decision of 1789 and said that the decision indicated that a "considerable majority" of Congress were in "favor of declaring the power of removal to be in the President." He then analyzed subsequent congressional debates over the issue.
The Court therefore found that the statute was unconstitutional, for it violated the separation of powers between the executive and legislative branches. In reaching this decision, it also expressly found the Tenure of Office Act, which had imposed a similar requirement on other Presidential appointees and famously played a key role in the impeachment of Andrew Johnson during the Reconstruction era, to have been invalid; it had been repealed by Congress some years before this decision.
Important to subsequent cases, dicta in Taft's opinion suggested Congress could never qualify the President's removal power.
Dissents
In a lengthy dissent, Justice McReynolds used an equally exhaustive analysis of quotes from members of the Constitutional Convention, writing that he found no language in the Constitution or in the notes from the Convention intended to grant the President the "illimitable power" to fire every appointed official, "as caprice may suggest", in the entire government with the exception of judges.
In a separate dissent, Justice Brandeis wrote that the fundamental case deciding the power of the Supreme Court, Marbury v. Madison, "assumed, as the basis of decision, that the President, acting alone, is powerless to remove an inferior civil officer appointed for a fixed term with the consent of the Senate; and that case was long regarded as so deciding."
In a third dissent, Justice Holmes noted that it was within the power of Congress to abolish the position of Postmaster entirely, not to mention to set the position's pay and duties, and he had no problem believing Congress also ought to be able to set terms of the position's occupiers.
Precedential value
Myers was the first case to concern congressional limitations on the President's removal power. In 1935, in Humphrey's Executor v. United States, the Supreme Court distinguished Myers and disavowed its dicta. Humphrey's distinguished executive officers from officers occupying "quasi-legislative" or "quasi-judicial" positions. The majority opinion stated that:
In Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2020), the Court "interpreted Myers as establishing a general rule of unencumbered presidential removal authority for all executive officers."
See also
Humphrey's Executor v. United States
Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 272
References
External links
1926 in United States case law
Appointments Clause case law
United States separation of powers case law
United States Supreme Court cases of the Taft Court
United States Postal Service litigation
History of Portland, Oregon
Presidency of Woodrow Wilson |
357217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-winged%20pratincole | Black-winged pratincole | The black-winged pratincole (Glareola nordmanni) is a wader in the pratincole bird family, Glareolidae. The genus name is a diminutive of Latin glarea, "gravel", referring to a typical nesting habitat for pratincoles. The species name commemorates the Finnish-born zoologist and explorer Alexander von Nordmann.
Description
It is long, with short legs, long pointed wings and a forked tail. It has a short bill, which is an adaptation to aerial feeding. The back and head are brown, and the wings are brown with black flight feathers. The belly is white and the underwings are black. Very good views are needed to distinguish this species from other pratincoles, such as the collared pratincole and the oriental pratincole which may occur in its range. It is marginally larger than the collared pratincole, and is shorter-tailed and longer legged. Although the dark underwing and lack of a white trailing edge to the wing are diagnostic, these features are not always readily seen in the field, especially as the chestnut underwing of the collared pratincole appears black unless excellent views are obtained.
Distribution and habitat
The black-winged pratincole is a bird of open country and is often seen near water in the evening, hawking for insects. This pratincole is found in warmer parts of south-east Europe and south-west Asia. It is migratory, wintering in tropical Africa, and is rare north or west of the breeding range.
Behaviour
Breeding
Its 2–4 eggs are laid on the ground.
Feeding
An unusual feature of the pratincoles is that, although classed as waders, they typically hunt their insect prey on the wing like swallows, although they can also feed on the ground.
Conservation
The black-winged pratincole is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.
The Acanthocephalan parasite Apororhynchus paulonucleatus was discovered in the intestine of the black-winged pratincole.
References
External links
Glareola nordmanni photos and records at Shumkar (in Russian)
Black-winged pratincole species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
black-winged pratincole
Birds of Central Asia
Birds of Southern Africa
Birds of West Africa
black-winged pratincole
Taxa named by Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim |
357219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing%20in%20the%201970s | Boxing in the 1970s | During the 1970s, boxing was characterized by dominating champions and history-making rivalries. The decade had many superstars, who also had fierce rivals. Alexis Argüello, for example, who won the world Featherweight and Jr. Lightweight titles in the '70s, had to overcome Alfredo Escalera twice before the decade was over.
At least six divisions had world champions who could be considered dominant: The Bantamweights had Carlos Zárate; the Super Bantamweights, (a division created in 1976) had Wilfredo Gómez winning the title in 1977 and keeping it until he left it vacant in 1983; the Lightweights had Roberto Durán, who won the title in 1972 and vacated it in 1979 to seek championships at other weights; the Jr. Welterweights had Antonio Cervantes, who reigned twice; the Middleweights had Carlos Monzón, sometimes referred to as King Carlos because of his seven-year reign as champion; the Light-Heavyweights had Bob Foster. The Heavyweights, of course, had Muhammad Ali, who ruled twice between 1974 and 1979.
Another aspect of boxing in the 1970s is that the decade is considered by a few to be the best ever for the Heavyweight division: Ali returned in 1970 from his forced retirement, and Joe Frazier was world champion when Ali returned. Former world champions Jimmy Ellis and Floyd Patterson as well as George Foreman, Oscar Bonavena, Jerry Quarry, Earnie Shavers, Leon Spinks, Ken Norton, as well as Larry Holmes, Ron Stander, Chuck Wepner, José Roman, Light Heavyweight champ Foster, John Tate, Jimmy Young, Ron Lyle, Joe Bugner, Scott LeDoux and many others added intrigue to the division. Don King surged as a leading boxing promoter, and champions Duran, Monzon and Ali had historic rivalries with Esteban De Jesús, Rodrigo Valdez and Frazier, respectively.
1970
February 16 – Joe Frazier becomes world Heavyweight champion by knocking out Jimmy Ellis in five rounds at New York City's Madison Square Garden.
April 18 – Rubén Olivares begins his trilogy of world championship fights with Chucho Castillo by defeating Castillo with a fifteen-round unanimous decision in Inglewood.
May 9 – Vicente Saldivar returns to the ring, with only one fight in the last two years, to win the WBC world Featherweight championship with a fifteen-round unanimous decision over Johnny Famechon in Rome, Italy.
August 4 – George Foreman beats George Chuvalo by a technical knockout in round three in New York.
September 26 – Ken Buchanan wins the world Lightweight title with a fifteen-round split decision over Ismael Laguna of Panama at San Juan, Puerto Rico.
October 16 – Chapter 2 of Olivares-Castillo, as Chucho Castillo conquers the world Featherweight title with a fourteenth-round technical knockout of Rubén Olivares in Inglewood.
October 26 – Muhammad Ali returns from his forced exile with a three-round stoppage of Jerry Quarry in Atlanta.
November 7 – Carlos Monzón becomes world Middleweight champion by knocking out Nino Benvenuti in twelve rounds in Rome.
November 18 – Joe Frazier retains his world Heavyweight crown with a two-round knockout of reigning world Light Heavyweight champion Bob Foster in Detroit.
December 3 – Billy Backus beats José Nápoles by knockout in four rounds, winning the world Welterweight title in Syracuse.
December 7 - In the 15th and final round, Muhammad Ali knocked down Oscar Bonavena 3 times and earned the win at Madison Square Garden.
1971
March 8 – The Fight of the Century: before a jet-set crowd that included Cher, Frank Sinatra, Woody Allen, Mia Farrow, Diana Ross and others, Joe Frazier drops Muhammad Ali in the fifteenth round and wins a unanimous decision to retain the world's Heavyweight title, at New York City's Madison Square Garden.
April 3 – In the last chapter of the Olivares-Castillo trilogy, Rubén Olivares recovers from a knockdown to regain the world Featherweight title with a fifteen-round unanimous decision over Chucho Castillo in Inglewood.
May 9 – Carlos Monzón retains his title with a three-round knockout of Nino Benvenuti in Monte Carlo, Monaco. It is Benvenuti's last fight.
June 4 – José Nápoles recovers his world Welterweight title with an eighth-round knockout of Billy Backus in Inglewood.
July 26 – Former world Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali beats his friend and gymmate, former Heavyweight champion Jimmy Ellis, by a knockout in round twelve in Houston.
August 9 – Rodrigo Valdez beats Bobby Cassidy by ten round unanimous decision in New York, but gets infected with Hepatitis, which Cassidy did not know he had before entering the ring. Both boxers then enter quarantine.
September 25 – Carlos Monzón retains his world Middleweight championship with a fourteen-round knockout of multiple time world champion Emile Griffith in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
November 5 – Pedro Carrasco becomes Spain's first world boxing champion, beating Mando Ramos by an eleventh round disqualification in Madrid, Spain to take the WBC's vacant world Lightweight title. This bout was extremely controversial; Ramos was disqualified because, after Carrasco hit the deck in round eleven, the referee decided to declare Carrasco the winner because he didn't know if Carrasco had been felled by a punch or a push.
1972
January 15 – Joe Frazier retains his world Heavyweight title with a five-round knockout of Terry Daniels in New Orleans.
April 7 – Bob Foster recovers the WBA world Light-Heavyweight title, unifying it once again with his WBC championship, knocking out Vicente Rondon in two rounds at Miami. Rondon had become the second Latin American world Light Heavyweight champion when the WBA recognized him after Foster refused to defend the championship against him, but the WBC had kept Foster as world champion.
May 26 – Joe Frazier retains his world Heavyweight title with a five-round knockout over Ron Stander in Omaha.
June 26 – Roberto Durán wins the first of four world titles, knocking out WBA world Lightweight champion Ken Buchanan in thirteen rounds at New York City. The fight has a controversial ending: many believe that the blow with which Duran ended the fight was actually low and that he should have been disqualified.
June 27 – Muhammad Ali knocks out Jerry Quarry in the seventh round of their Las Vegas rematch.
September 20 – Muhammad Ali beats Floyd Patterson by a knockout in round seven of their rematch, held at New York. It is Patterson's last professional fight, he retires with a record of 55–8–1 with 40 knockouts.
October 28 – Antonio Cervantes wins the WBA world Jr. Welterweight title for the first time, with a tenth-round knockout of defending champion Alfonso Peppermint Frazer in Panama City, Panama.
November 17 – Esteban De Jesús begins his trilogy of fights with Roberto Durán by defeating the world Lightweight champion by a ten-round unanimous decision in New York. Durán suffers his first career defeat in the non-title fight.
1973
January 22 – George Foreman becomes world Heavyweight champion, defeating Joe Frazier by knockout in round two at Kingston, Jamaica. It is the first fight televised on HBO Boxing.
January 24 – WBA world Flyweight champion Masao Ohba dies after his car collided with a truck in Tokyo, Japan. He left a record of 35 wins, 2 losses and 1 draw, with 15 knockouts.
March 31 – Ken Norton becomes the second boxer to defeat Muhammad Ali, breaking Ali's jaw en route to a twelve-round split decision in San Diego.
May 5 – Eder Jofre wins the WBC world Featherweight title three years after his first retirement from boxing, defeating world champion Jose Legra by a fifteen-round majority decision in Brasília, Brazil.
May 19 – Antonio Cervantes retains his WBA world Jr. Welterweight title with a five-round knockout of Alfonso Peppermint Frazer, in their Panama City, Panama rematch.
June 2 – Carlos Monzón retains his world Middleweight title with a fifteen-round unanimous decision over Emile Griffith, at their rematch, held in Monte Carlo, Monaco.
July 2 – Former world Heavyweight champion Joe Frazier returns to the ring, beating Joe Bugner by a twelve-round decision at London.
September 1 – George Foreman retains his world Heavyweight title with a first-round knockout over José Roman, who becomes the first Puerto Rican to challenge for the world Heavyweight championship, in Tokyo.
September 10 – Muhammad Ali avenges his loss to Ken Norton, beating Norton by a twelve-round split decision in Inglewood, California.
November 3 – Arnold Taylor survives four knockdowns to knock out WBA world Bantamweight champion Romeo Anaya in fourteen rounds, winning the world title in Johannesburg, South Africa, in what boxing writer Chris Greyvenstein called probably the most murderous and dramatic (fight) in South African history.
December 1 – In the first boxing fight pitting a Black man against a White man in South African history, Bob Foster, an African-American, retains his world Light Heavyweight championship with a fifteen-round unanimous decision over Pierre Fourie. It was, in addition, Foster's second fifteen-round decision win over Fourie.
1974
January 28 – Muhammad Ali avenges his defeat to Joe Frazier, beating Frazier by a unanimous decision in twelve rounds at New York City.
February 9 – Carlos Monzón retains the world's Middleweight title with an embarrassingly easy seventh-round knockout over world Welterweight champion José Nápoles in Paris, France.
February 16 – Alexis Argüello's first world title fight: he loses a fifteen-round unanimous decision to WBA world Featherweight champion Ernesto Marcel in Panama City, Panama. Marcel never fought again.
March 16 – Roberto Durán avenges his loss to Esteban De Jesús, recovering from a first round knockdown to knock out the Puerto Rican in round eleven and retain his world Lightweight championship in Panama City, Panama.
March 26 – George Foreman retains his world Heavyweight championship with a second-round knockout over Ken Norton in Caracas, Venezuela.
July 9 – Rubén Olivares conquers the vacant WBA world Featherweight championship with a seventh-round knockout over Zensuke Utagawa in Inglewood.
July 17 – Bob Foster is knocked down in round thirteen, but retains his world Light-Heavyweight title with a draw (tie) with Jorge Ahumada in Albuquerque. It is Foster's last championship defense.
August 24 – WBA world Jr. Lightweight champion Ben Villaflor, a Hawaiian-based Filipino, retains his world title with a second-round knockout of Japan's future world champion, Yasutsune Uehara, in Honolulu.
October 30 – The Rumble in the Jungle: Muhammad Ali regains the world Heavyweight championship, joining Floyd Patterson as the two only boxers to achieve such a feat, by knocking out George Foreman in eight rounds at Zaire.
November 23 – Alexis Argüello wins the first of three world titles, knocking out Rubén Olivares in the thirteenth round at Inglewood. He also becomes the first Nicaraguan world boxing champion.
December 7 – Victor Galindez becomes the third Hispanic world Light-Heavyweight champion. The Argentine beats Len Hutchins by TKO in round thirteen to claim the vacant WBA title, in Buenos Aires.
1975
March 24: The fight that inspired the movie Rocky: With a young Sylvester Stallone sitting at home and watching, Muhammad Ali retains his world Heavyweight championship with a fifteenth-round knockout over underdog Chuck Wepner, but not without suffering a ninth round knockdown first, in Cleveland.
March 30 – José Nápoles retains his world Welterweight title with a highly controversial and suspicious twelve round technical decision over Armando Muniz in Acapulco, Mexico. Although no one knew for sure when Nápoles' facial cuts (which caused the fight to be stopped) happened, it was decided that they were probably the result of a headbutt in round three. Therefore, instead of giving the world title to Muniz by technical knockout, it was decided to check the judge's scorecards, and Nápoles was ahead on points, making him the winner by technical decision.
April 26 – George Foreman stages a boxing exhibition against five different boxers, including former Joe Frazier challenger Terry Daniels. He beats the five men by knockout in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
May 16 – Muhammad Ali retains the world Heavyweight title with an eleventh-round knockout of Ron Lyle in Las Vegas.
May 17 – Antonio Cervantes retains his World Boxing Association (WBA) world Jr. Welterweight title with a fifteen-round decision over Esteban De Jesús in Panama City, Panama.
June 20 – Rubén Olivares wins the World Boxing Council (WBC) world Featherweight title, knocking out Bobby Chacon in the second round of their second of three fights, in Inglewood.
June 28 – Ángel Espada wins the vacant WBA world Welterweight title that had been stripped from José Nápoles after Nápoles refused to fight him, by beating Clyde Gray with a fifteen-round decision in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
June 30 – Muhammad Ali retains his world Heavyweight title with a fifteen-round unanimous decision over Joe Bugner in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
July 12 – José Nápoles retains his world Welterweight title with a fifteen-round decision over Armando Muniz in their Mexico City, Mexico rematch.
July 15 – With only two previous professional bouts, Thailand's Saensak Muangsuring makes history by winning the WBC world Jr. Welterweight title, knocking out world champion Jose Fernandez in Bangkok. Muangsuring becomes the fastest boxer to reach a world championship after his debut.
August 23 – The first world Junior Flyweight world championship fight sees Jaime Rios beat Rigoberto Marcano by decision in fifteen rounds at Panama City to become the WBA's world champion.
September 20 – David Kotey becomes Ghana's first world champion, defeating Rubén Olivares by a fifteen-round decision to win the WBC's world Featherweight championship in Inglewood.
September 30 – The Thrilla in Manila: Muhammad Ali retains his world Heavyweight title in his third fight with Joe Frazier, by TKO in round fourteen in Manila. Ali compared this bout to being next to death.
December 6 – José Nápoles' last fight, as he loses his WBC world Welterweight title to John H. Stracey in Mexico City, Mexico.
1976
January 24 – George Foreman recovers from two four round knockdowns and beats Ron Lyle by a knockout in the fifth round at Las Vegas. Lyle had also suffered a knockdown in round four, which was picked round of the year by The Ring, publication that also selected the fight as fight of the year. Also, it was the major boxing fight at the Caesars Palace hotel and casino, which would become known as the "Home of Champions".
March 17 – Wilfred Benítez becomes, at age 17, the youngest world champion in boxing history and wins his first of three world titles, defeating WBA world Jr. Welterweight champion Antonio Cervantes by a fifteen-round split decision in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
April 3 – The first Jr. Featherweight world title bout in history, as Rigoberto Riasco knocks out Wainunge Wakayama in ten rounds at Panama City, Panama to win the WBC vacant title.
April 30 – Muhammad Ali retains the world Heavyweight title with a highly disputed fifteen round unanimous decision over Jimmy Young at Capital Centre in
June 26 – Carlos Monzón re-unifies his WBA world Middleweight title with the WBC one by defeating WBC champion Rodrigo Valdez with a fifteen-round unanimous decision at Monte Carlo, Monaco. (The WBC had stripped Monzon in 1974 for failing to defend the title against Valdez)
September 28 – In the last chapter of their trilogy, Muhammad Ali retains the world Heavyweight championship with a disputed fifteen round unanimous decision over Ken Norton, at New York City's Yankee Stadium.
1977
January 16 - In front of an ABC National Television audience, future Boxing Hall of Famer Larry Holmes defeated Tom Prater in an 8-round unanimous decision on board the USS Lexington in Pensacola, Florida.
March 17 – Jimmy Young defeats George Foreman by a twelve-round unanimous decision at the Roberto Clemente Coliseum, San Juan, Puerto Rico. Yet Ali still refused to give Young a title fight rematch. Immediately after the fight, Foreman has a religious experience, becomes a new-born Christian and retires from boxing.
April 23 – In a fight without any titles at stake, WBC world Bantamweight champion Carlos Zarate defeats WBA world champion Alfonso Zamora in four rounds at Inglewood.
May 11 – Ken Norton knocks out former Olympian Duane Bobick in the first round at the Madison Square Garden, New York City.
May 21 – Wilfredo Gómez wins the first of three world titles by knocking out WBC world Jr. Featherweight champion Dong Kyun Yum in twelve rounds at San Juan.
July 30 – Carlos Monzón recovers from a second round knockdown and retains his world Middleweight championship with a fifteen-round unanimous decision against Rodrigo Valdez in their rematch, at Monte Carlo, Monaco. Monzon broke the all-time record of defenses at the Middleweight division with fourteen successful defenses, and he retired permanently after this fight.
September 29 – Muhammad Ali retains the world Heavyweight championship with a fifteen-round unanimous decision over Earnie Shavers in New York.
November 5 – Rodrigo Valdez wins the undisputed world Middleweight championship left vacant by archrival Carlos Monzón, outpointing Bennie Briscoe by unanimity after fifteen rounds in Campioni d' Italia, Italy.
1978
January 21 – The third and final chapter of the Duran-De Jesus trilogy, as Roberto Durán re-unifies his WBA world Lightweight championship with the WBC one, defeating Esteban De Jesús by a knockout in round twelve at Las Vegas. Duran had been stripped of his WBC belt for failing to meet Itshimatzu Suzuki in a world championship bout, Suzuki later won the WBC title and lost it to De Jesus.
January 28 – Alexis Argüello wins the second of three world titles, knocking out WBC world Jr. Lightweight champion Alfredo Escalera in thirteen rounds at The Bloody Battle of Bayamon in Bayamón, Puerto Rico.
February 15 – Leon Spinks, a novice who had had only had seven professional fights, wins the undisputed world Heavyweight championship, defeating Muhammad Ali by a fifteen-round split decision, in Las Vegas.
March 18 – Recognition of World Heavyweight Champion Leon Spinks is withdrawn by the World Boxing Council after Spinks elected to fight Muhammad Ali in a rematch rather than face the organization's #1 contender, Ken Norton. In an unprecedented step, the WBC immediately announces its recognition of Norton as champion, and orders him to fight the highest ranked contender available (Larry Holmes) not later than June 17.
March 25 - Larry Holmes earned his spot for the heavyweight title by beating Earnie Shavers in a twelve-round unanimous decision in front of a national ABC television audience in Las Vegas.
April 15 – Eusebio Pedroza begins his record-setting championship run as WBA world Featherweight champion, knocking out Cecilio Lastra in thirteen rounds at Panama City, Panama.
May 20 – José Cuevas retains his WBA world welterweight title with a first-round knockout of former world champion Billy Backus in Inglewood.
June 9 – Larry Holmes becomes the WBC's fourth World Heavyweight champion in precisely four months (after Muhammad Ali, Leon Spinks and Ken Norton) by defeating Ken Norton by a fifteen-round split decision.
September 15 – Muhammad Ali makes history, becoming the first boxer to be world Heavyweight champion three times, by beating novice Leon Spinks by a fifteen-round unanimous decision at their New Orleans rematch.
October 28 – In an eagerly anticipated bout, Wilfredo Gómez delivers what many consider the greatest victory ever by a Puerto Rican boxer, knocking out Carlos Zarate in five rounds to retain the WBC world Super Bantamweight title, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
November 10 – Larry Holmes retains his WBC world Heavyweight title with a seventh-round knockout over Uruguayan Alfredo Evangelista, in Las Vegas.
1979
January 14 – Wilfred Benítez wins his second of three world titles, defeating WBC world Welterweight champion Carlos Palomino by a fifteen-round split decision in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
February 4 – The rematch between Alexis Argüello and Alfredo Escalera has exactly the first result as their first bout, when Arguello retains his WBC world Jr. Lightweight title with a knockout in round thirteen at Rimini, Italy. Both fights were picked by The Ring among the 100 greatest fights of all times in 1994.
March 14 – Larry Holmes retains his WBC world Heavyweight title with a seventh-round knockout of future WBA world Cruiserweight champion Ossie Ocasio in Las Vegas.
April 14 – Victor Galindez regains the WBA world Light Heavyweight championship with a tenth-round knockout of his former conqueror, Mike Rossman, in New Orleans.
April 22 – Matthew Saad Muhammad wins the WBC world Light Heavyweight title with an eighth-round knockout of WBC world champion Marvin Johnson in Indianapolis.
June 3 – Lupe Pintor survives a knockdown to win the WBC world Bantamweight title, defeating Carlos Zarate by a fifteen-round split decision at Las Vegas.
June 17 – In Ring Magazine's fight of the year, Danny Lopez retains his WBC world Featherweight title by knocking out Mike Ayala in round fifteen at San Antonio. Ayala later admitted to being high on drugs during the fight.
June 22 – Roberto Durán beats Carlos Palomino by a ten-round unanimous decision in Palomino's last fight for the next eighteen years, and Larry Holmes retains his WBC world Heavyweight title with a twelfth-round knockout of Mike Weaver at the Madison Square Garden, New York City.
September 28 – Larry Holmes recovers from a seventh round knockdown to defeat perennial challenger Earnie Shavers by an eleventh-round knockout to retain his WBC world Heavyweight title at Las Vegas. Wilfredo Gómez retains his WBC world Super Bantamweight title with a tenth-round knockout win over Carlos Mendoza in the same undercard.
October 20 – John Tate defeats Gerrie Coetzee by a fifteen-round unanimous decision to win the WBA world Heavyweight title that had been vacated by Muhammad Ali, Pretoria.
November 30 – A preview of things to come, as Sugar Ray Leonard wins his first of five world titles by knocking out Wilfred Benítez in round fifteen for the WBC world Welterweight title and Marvin Hagler draws in fifteen round with undisputed world Middleweight champion Vito Antuofermo in Las Vegas.
References
1970s
1970s in sports |
357220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Disney%20theatrical%20animated%20feature%20films | List of Disney theatrical animated feature films | This list of theatrical animated feature films consists of animated films produced or released by The Walt Disney Studios, the film division of The Walt Disney Company.
The Walt Disney Studios releases films from Disney-owned and non-Disney owned animation studios. Most films listed below are from Walt Disney Animation Studios, which began as the feature-animation department of Walt Disney Productions, producing its first feature-length animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937; , it has produced a total of 60 feature films. Beginning with Toy Story in 1995, The Walt Disney Studios has also released animated films by Pixar Animation Studios, which Disney would eventually acquire in 2006. In 2019, as part of its acquisition of 21st Century Fox, The Walt Disney Studios acquired Blue Sky Studios (now closed down in 2021), as well as 20th Century Fox Animation (now simply 20th Century Animation) which operates as a label within 20th Century Fox (now 20th Century Studios).
Other studio units have also released films theatrically, namely, Walt Disney Television Animation's Disney MovieToons/Video Premiere unit (now DisneyToon Studios) and the studio's distribution unit, which acquires film rights from outside animation studios to release films under the Walt Disney Pictures, Touchstone Pictures, Miramax and 20th Century Studios film labels.
Films
Released
Films distributed by Miramax
The following is a list of films that were released by Miramax Films when the studio was a subsidiary of Disney at the time of release.
Notes
Upcoming
Highest-grossing films
See also
List of Walt Disney Pictures films
List of Walt Disney Animation Studios features films
List of Disney live-action remakes of animated films
List of Pixar films
List of 20th Century Studios theatrical animated feature films
List of Blue Sky Studios films
List of Disney animated universe characters
Distribution brands
List of Disney feature-length home entertainment releases
Disney Vault
Walt Disney Classics
Notes
General notes
Release notes
Studio/production notes
Studio Ghibli films original release dates
References
External links
Walt Disney Animation Studios History
American animated films
Walt Disney Pictures animated films
Walt Disney Animation Studios films
Pixar animated films
Disney animated films
Animation
Lists of American animated films |
357221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airmail%20etiquette | Airmail etiquette | An airmail etiquette, often shortened to just etiquette, is a label used to indicate that a letter is to be sent by airmail. The term is from French étiquette "label, sticker" (cognate to stick), from which also comes the English word etiquette "rules of behavior".
Use
Because the etiquettes are just instructions to postal clerks, and have no monetary value, their printing and distribution need not be as carefully controlled as for postage stamps, and most are privately produced. The usual design is a plain blue oblong, with the phrases "AIR MAIL" and/or "PAR AVION" in white letters. Airlines and hotels have also produced etiquettes, some quite attractive.
The airmail etiquette may be omitted if airmail stamps are used on the letter, and in some cases even this is not necessary if a country sends out all its foreign mail by air. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, one may simply write "PAR AVION -- BY AIR MAIL" on the envelope, even though etiquettes are available free from post offices.
The United States officially requires international First Class and Priority Mail letters to be marked with "AIRMAIL/PAR AVION". This requirement is often ignored in modern practice since the USPS discontinued surface mail in 2007; all international mail from the US is now sent via airmail. Pre-printed airmail etiquettes are no longer produced by the US Post Office.
See also
Airmail stamps of Denmark
List of United States airmail stamps
References
Further reading
Baldwin, N.C. "Collecting Etiquettes." Stamp Review. (May 1938).
Field, Francis J. Air Mail Labels (etiquettes). Sutton Coldfield: Francis J. Field, Ltd., 1940 32p. Series Title: The Aero Field Handbook; no. 5.
Jones, Frank G. Etiquettes: Par Avion - By Air Mail. London: Frank G. Jones Associates, 1992 40p.
Müller, Frank. Catalogue des etiquettes aéropostales: émises par les administrations postales, les compagnies de navigation aérienne, etc. Paris: La Maison de la poste aérienne, 1947 288p.
Postal Label Study Group. Mair Airmail Label Catalog.
External links
Riga Stamps page on etiquettes, with many pictures
Airmail
Philatelic terminology
Cinderella stamps
de:Luftpost#Luftpostklebezettel |
357226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airmail%20stamp | Airmail stamp | An airmail stamp is a postage stamp intended to pay either an airmail fee that is charged in addition to the surface rate, or the full airmail rate, for an item of mail to be transported by air.
Airmail stamps should not be confused with airmail etiquettes, which are affixed to mail as an instruction to the postal authority that the mail should be transmitted by air.
Development
History
With aviation developments, several countries started to experiment with flights, and postal authorities considered flying the mails. Initially flights were unofficial, but some flights such as the 1877 Buffalo balloon flight, carried mail, to which stamp-like labels were affixed. At the beginning airmail letters cost more than surface mail.
Both airmail stamps and stamps surcharged for airmail were issued, though some countries restricted the use of airmail stamps only to letters sent by airmail, while others allowed them to be used for other mail services.
The first stamp depicting an aeroplane was a US 20-cent parcel post stamp issued on 1 January 1913 but not intended for airmail duty: the set of 12 showed transportation and delivery methods. Four years later an airmail stamp was issued in Italy. Several of the early ones were produced by surcharging other stamps with overprints; at first in 1917, Italy used express stamps; regular stamps were used by Austria in 1918, Sweden used official stamps in 1920. Some other examples are the use of fiscal stamps, telegraph stamps, postage due stamps, and parcel stamps by other countries. Airmail stamps have been issued for extra services, such as registered airmail, express airmail, airmail fieldpost, and even with welfare surcharges.
A new branch of collecting
In the 1920s and 1930s, when many countries issued airmail stamps to publicise their new airmail routes, a new branch of stamp collecting started. This led to an expansion that includes the collection of covers, and other postal items carried by aircraft. Airmail items from the early days are expensive due to the popularity of this collecting area. Specialised catalogues and albums are produced for collectors of airmail stamps and other aerophilatelic items. Many airmail stamps feature aviation themes that are an area of topical stamp collecting.
Airmail stamp
First airmail stamps
The first postage stamp to be issued for an airmail flight was in May 1917 when Poste italiane overprinted their existing special delivery stamps. The following year, the United States Post Office Department issued the first airmail stamp specifically issued for the purpose; while it does not have "airmail" or "air post" printed on it, it illustrates a Curtiss JN-4 airplane. One pane of 100 stamps were found to have an invert error, known as the Inverted Jenny, because the airplane image in the centre is inverted relative to the outer frame. The error is one of the most well known airmail stamps. Several countries, such as Germany, Finland, Russia and the United States, issued special airmail stamps, or overprinted stamps, for the Zeppelin flights that took place in the late 1920s and early 1930s.
Local airmail stamp issues
Semi-official airmail stamps are not issued by the postal authority but have official sanction and are sometimes used for local posts, they are more accurately referred to a labels rather than stamps. For example, as noted above the privately produced 5¢ Buffalo balloon stamps were used on June 18, 1877, for a balloon flight from Nashville to Gallatin, Tennessee. The Vin Fiz Flyer, an early airplane, also carried semi-official stamps on its 1911 flight across the United States.
See also
Aerophilately
Airmail stamps of Denmark
Art Deco stamps
List of United States airmail stamps
References and sources
Notes
Sources
Further reading
External links
Buffalo balloon stamp on cover
Collecting airmail stamps American Air Mail Society
U.S. Air Mail Stamps American Air Mail Society
Airmail
Postage stamps |
357227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental%20pratincole | Oriental pratincole | The oriental pratincole (Glareola maldivarum), also known as the grasshopper-bird or swallow-plover, is a wader in the pratincole family, Glareolidae.
Etymology
The genus name is a diminutive of Latin glarea, "gravel", referring to a typical nesting habitat for pratincoles. The species name maldivarum refers to the type locality, the ocean near the Maldive Islands; the type specimen, caught alive at sea, survived for a month on flies.
Description
These birds have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails. They have short bills, which is an adaptation to aerial feeding. The back and head are brown, and the wings are brown with black flight feathers. The belly is white. The underwings are chestnut. Very good views are needed to distinguish this species from other pratincoles, such as the very similar collared pratincole, which also has a chestnut underwing, and black-winged pratincole which shares the black upperwing flight feathers and lack of a white trailing edge to the wing. These features are not always readily seen in the field, especially as the chestnut underwing appears black unless excellent views are obtained.
Habits
An unusual feature of all pratincoles is that although classed as waders they typically hunt their insect prey on the wing like swallows, although they can also feed on the ground. The oriental praticole is a bird of open country, and they are often seen near water in the evening, hawking for insects.
Nesting
Their 2–3 eggs are laid on the ground.
Distribution
The Oriental pratincole is native to the warmer parts of South and Southeast Asia, breeding from North Pakistan and the Kashmir region across into China and south west. It is migratory and winters in both India and Pakistan, Indonesia and Australasia.
Vagrancy
They are rare north or west of the breeding range, but, amazingly, this species has occurred as far away as Great Britain more than once. The first record for the Western Palearctic was in Suffolk, England in June 1981. On 7 February 2004, 2.5 million oriental pratincoles were recorded on Eighty Mile Beach in Australia's north-west by the Australasian Wader Studies Group. There had previously been no records of this magnitude and it is supposed that weather conditions caused much of the world's population of this species to congregate in one area.
Gallery
References
External links
oriental pratincole
Birds of East Asia
oriental pratincole
Articles containing video clips
Taxa named by Johann Reinhold Forster |
357233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20World%20of%20David%20the%20Gnome | The World of David the Gnome | The World of David the Gnome, originally titled David, el Gnomo (also known as David, the Gnome), is a Spanish animated television series based on the children's book The Secret Book of Gnomes, by the Dutch author Wil Huygen and illustrator Rien Poortvliet. The series was originally created in Spain by BRB Internacional (who were also responsible for the Dogtanian and the Three Muskehounds franchise and other cartoons such as Bobobobs and Around the World with Willy Fog) and Televisión Española, and retains a sense of the lush illustrations of the original books. Twenty-six episodes were produced. There was also a spin-off series entitled Wisdom of the Gnomes.
The English-language dub The World of David the Gnome was produced by Canadian studio CINAR, in association with Miramax Films. Christopher Plummer narrated, with the voice of David the Gnome being provided by Tom Bosley. David the Gnome aired weekdays on Nickelodeon's Nick Jr. block from 1988 to 1995.
Synopsis
The series presents the gnomes as a kind species, of 15 centimetres (6 inches) in height, and between 250 and 300 grams (8 and 10 ounces) in weight depending on gnome body mass. According to their habitat, different types of gnomes are distinguished: the ones of the forest, the ones of the garden, the ones of the farm, the ones of the house, the ones of the dunes, those of Siberia, and nomadic "gypsy" gnomes (commonly looked down upon by other gnomes). A gnome's lifespan is usually 400 years, though there is one example of a couple in the Balkans living 550 years.
Gnomes such as the main characters live in pairs in comfortable caves or holes under trees (in their case in the company of a pair of mice and a cricket). Their diet is mostly vegetarian. They are helped by the animals of the forest when travelling long distances or when they need to arrive quickly at a specific location. Gnomes work in various ways to repair the damage inevitably caused by humans. They also have the power of telepathy and mind control.
Their main enemies are the trolls, malevolent and clumsy creatures who always make trouble for the other inhabitants of the forest, as well as gnome poachers.
Characters
David – A gnome of the forest. David is 399 years old, making him the oldest gnome around (since gnomes live no more than 400 years exactly, except Franklin, the gnome from the west, who lived 550 years), although he possesses exceptional constitution. David is a doctor, and he uses his knowledge of many fields, such as hypnosis and acupuncture, to heal his patients, usually animals, such as his faithful friend Swift the fox, or other gnomes. David also befriends a bird that, when he whistles, immediately arrives to quickly transport him to wherever necessary. For longer trips, he sometimes travels in a basket attached to the neck of the bird. Voiced by Tom Bosley.
Lisa – David's wife and companion and is the same age as him. Together they have two children, Lily and Harold. David's wife is in charge of the household, although she occasionally accompanies him and helps him in his diverse adventures. Voiced by Jane Woods.
Swift the Fox – David's best friend who lives in the forest and is always available to transport David to wherever he is required. Huygen's son, Josh, came up with this character, and was his favorite character. He is characterized by his speed and loyalty to David. Voiced by Vlasta Vrána.
The Trolls – In the series, there are four trolls who constantly try to bother the gnomes. Their names are Pit, Pat and Pot, and Holler. Holler has a receding hairline and is the only one of the four able to think. They have some supernatural powers, and are capable of using magical spells too powerful for gnome magic to break. However, in addition to their extreme lack of wit, they also have another severe weakness: direct exposure to sunlight turns them into stone. Holler was voiced by A.J. Henderson, Pit was voiced by Marc Denis, Pat was voiced by Rob Roy, and Pot was voiced by Adrian Knight.
Susan – David and Lisa's granddaughter. Voiced by Barbara Pogenmiller.
King – Voiced by Richard Dumont
Paul – David's twin brother. Not only does Paul have a normal moustache in contrast to David's handlebar moustache but his jumper is a darker shade of blue, he has a bigger nose, his gnome hat is dark blue whereas David's is red, and his trousers and boots are an inverse of David's: David's trousers are brown and his boots are beige, while Paul wears beige trousers and dark boots. Voiced by Walter Massey.
Episodes
David the Gnome ran for twenty-six episodes, each approximately 24 minutes in length. In the United States, the series originally aired between January 4, 1988, and February 8, 1988. The English-language episode titles are listed below, along with brief episode synopses:
Home media
In the 1980s, Family Home Entertainment released four VHS tapes of the series in the United States, each containing 2 episodes. In the United Kingdom, Video Collection International Ltd released one VHS tape of The World of David the Gnome (Cat. No. VC1178) with the first two episodes, Good Medicine and Witch Way Out, on 14 May 1990.
A complete series DVD set was released in the United Kingdom in 2006 by Revelation Films. The complete series was also released on DVD in 2011 in Spain and Italy. Most episodes are available on DVD in Germany and the Netherlands. The Italian and Spanish versions can currently be found on their respective countries' Amazon websites. The complete series was released on DVD in the United States in 2012, by Oasis DVDs.
Music
Finnish
Songs in the Finnish dub were sung by the actors of YLE Import reusing the De Angelis's music but with new Finnish lyrics. In the Finnish dub some scenes are cut, which includes musical numbers in some episodes.
Sequels
After the success of the initial series, the same producers created a spin-off called Wisdom of the Gnomes (1987). In this series, the protagonist is a gnome called Klaus, a judge who travels with his assistant Dani to solve disputes.
Other sequels, both in serial and movie form, were The Gnomes' Great Adventure (1987), The Great Adventure of the Gnomes (1995), The Gnomes in the Snow (1999) and The Fantastic Adventures of the Gnomes (2000).
The series was also preceded by the popular television movie Gnomes in 1980, which was based on the same series of books as The World of David the Gnome.
In 1997, there was a series called The New World of the Gnomes which was a retelling of the original series as David and his nephew Tomte now travel the world to save animals and preserve nature as it is endangered by problems of modern-day pollution and environmental dangers. Lisa, David's wife from the original series, also appears in the show. Other than the humans who cause either unintentional or intentional destruction to nature and harm to animals, the show's other antagonists are three trolls who run into David and the gnomes now and then, their names are Stinky, Brute, and Drool. The show was made in collaboration with the World Wildlife Foundation.
Cancelled revival
In 2015, The Weinstein Company announced a revival titled Gnomes. No update has been given since The Weinstein Company went defunct on August 4, 2018.
References
External links
David the Gnome fansite
1980s animated television series
Spanish children's animated fantasy television series
Television shows based on children's books
Television series by Cookie Jar Entertainment
Television series by Miramax Television
1980s children's television series
1980s Spanish television series
1985 Spanish television series debuts
1986 Spanish television series endings |
357236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage%20stamp%20block | Postage stamp block | In philately, a block is a group of four or more un-separated stamps. Blocks are of interest not only because they are rarer than individual stamps, but they also preserve relative positions of stamps as they were originally printed, information that is crucial to understanding how the stamps were produced.
Format
Blocks of stamps from the edges of the original sheet or pane often include sections of the sheet's margin, which may have a wide variety of information. For instance, arrow blocks preserve the guide lines used by line up the sheets for perforation or other production steps (these are usually angled in an arrow shape, thus the name), and center line blocks includes lines printed down the middle of a sheet. An imprint block includes the name of the printer, while for many United States stamps the zip block includes a promotional mention of the ZIP code.
Typical examples of blocks are:
1.Traffic Lights Block
2. Imprint Block
3. Plate Block
4. Gutter Block
Collecting
Traffic Lights Block
Traffic Lights block contains the color registration markings in the stamp margins.
Imprint Block
Imprint block contains the name of printer in either bottom or top margin of the stamp sheet.
Plate Block
The most commonly collected kind of block is the plate block, which includes the part of the margin where the serial numbers of the printing plates may be found.
Gutter Block
Gutter block contains stamp margins which are normally at corners of stamps are in the centre of block of stamps.
Values
Although blocks of rare stamps are highly valued, a block's price may actually be so high that no buyers can be found, leaving the owner with the agonizing prospect of breaking up the block, so as to be able to sell the stamps individually. In some cases, dealers have publicized plans to break up a famous block, in the hopes of that someone will come forward to save the block from destruction.
See also
Centro de hoja, a center of the sheet block of stamps
Plate block
References
Philatelic terminology |
357240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf%20Morgans | Alf Morgans | Alfred Edward Morgans (17 February 1850 – 10 August 1933) was the fourth Premier of Western Australia, serving for just over a month, from 21 November to 23 December 1901.
Born in Wales, Morgans trained as an engineer, and supervised mining operations in the United Kingdom, Mexico, and Central America. He came to Western Australia in 1896, during the gold rush, and developed the Mount Morgans Gold Mine. Morgans was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Western Australia in 1897, representing the seat of Coolgardie. He was appointed premier in late 1901, as a compromise candidate to replace George Leake, but his government was brought down after only 32 days. Leake returned as premier, and Morgans left parliament in 1904, at the end of his term. His career in politics lasted just over seven years, the shortest of any Premier of Western Australia, and only Hal Colebatch served as premier for a shorter period.
Early life and career
Alf Morgans was born at Ochr Chwith Machen Lower, Machen, Monmouthshire in Wales on 17 February 1850. He was educated at private schools and subsequently attended the Welsh School of Mines. After completing his studies, he was apprenticed to a mechanical engineering firm at Ebbw Vale.
On 19 March 1872, he married Fanny Ridler at Gloucester in England. In 1878, Morgans' employers sent him to Mexico to supervise their gold and silver mines. He worked in Central America for a period of 18 years, representing British investments in mining and railways, especially in Guatemala and Nicaragua, during which time he learned to speak Spanish fluently, and developed an interest in Aztec and Mayan archaeology and sent artefacts to British museums.
Morgans arrived at Albany, Western Australia on RMS Himalaya from London on 18 March 1896, as a representative of Morgans' Syndicate Ltd. to inspect mining properties for London-based investors seeking sound investment opportunities. He acquired numerous properties and mining interests throughout the state, including Westralia Mount Morgans, and he was generally considered to be a leading authority on mining investment.
Political career
On 4 May 1897, Morgans was elected to the Legislative Assembly seat of Coolgardie.
In parliament, he was a supporter of Premier Sir John Forrest. After Forrest resigned from state politics, the former supporters of Forrest continued to work together; the group became known under the moniker of ministerialists. In November 1901, the ministerialists defeated Premier George Leake on a no-confidence vote, and he was compelled to resign. However, they were initially unable to agree on a nominee for premier, and when the governor invited Frederick Henry Piesse to form a government, he could not secure enough support.
The ministerialists eventually agreed on Morgans as a compromise candidate, and he took office as premier and colonial treasurer on 21 November 1901, despite having never previous held any ministerial office.
However, in the subsequent ministerial by-election 1, supporters of Leake stood against Morgans' newly appointed cabinet, and three of the six new ministers were defeated. Morgans then asked Governor Lawley for a dissolution of the Assembly, but this was refused. He resigned as premier on 23 December 1901, and Leake took office again, this time with clearly defined support. Morgans did not re-nominate at the subsequent election.
Later career
Alf Morgans' life after politics consisted of a number of consular appointments in Western Australia. From 1910 to 1917, he was Austro-Hungarian Consul for Western Australia; in 1915 he was also Vice-Consul for Spain. In 1921 he was appointed Consular Agent at Perth and Fremantle for the United States of America, remaining in the position until 1930, when he resigned due to ill-health.
He died on 10 August 1933 at South Perth in Western Australia.
References
Notes
1. Until 1947, newly appointed ministers were required to resign and stand for re-election.
Sources
1850 births
1933 deaths
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly
Western Australian local government politicians
People from Machen
Premiers of Western Australia
Welsh politicians
Welsh emigrants to colonial Australia
People from Coolgardie, Western Australia
Treasurers of Western Australia |
357245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are%20You%20Afraid%20of%20the%20Dark%3F | Are You Afraid of the Dark? | Are You Afraid of the Dark? is a horror anthology television series that was produced by YTV and distributed by Nickelodeon. The original series aired from 1990 to 1996. It led to two revival series, with the first airing from 1999 to 2000, and the second debuting in 2019.
The original series was distributed worldwide by D. J. MacHale and Ned Kandel and was picked up by Nickelodeon in 1991 and produced by YTV. MacHale, Kandel, and Nickelodeon teamed up with the Canadian company Cinar, and as a part of the deal the show was filmed in Richmond, British Columbia, and in the Greater Montreal area of Quebec. The production teams were respectively represented by the ACTRA and SCTVQ (Syndicat des techniciens du cinéma et de la vidéo du Québec) labour unions. The series premiered with the episode "The Tale of the Twisted Claw" as a pilot on October 31, 1990, on the Canadian television network YTV and aired until June 11, 2000. The pilot aired on Nickelodeon on October 25, 1991, as part of a Halloween special. The following year, the series premiered on Nickelodeon's SNICK on August 15, 1992, and aired until April 20, 1996. The show was both a critical and commercial success, garnering numerous awards as the series progressed.
The first revival series, with new directors, writers, and a cast, was produced by Nickelodeon from 1999 to 2000 and also aired on the SNICK block. The sole member from the original lineup to return for the first and second seasons of the revival was Tucker (Daniel DeSanto), although Gary (Ross Hull) returned for the concluding show, which notably broke from the show's established format by blurring the line between story and "reality".
On November 13, 2017, it was announced that Paramount Players would make a live-action feature film adaptation. However, the film was later removed from Paramount's schedule. On February 14, 2019, it was announced that the series would be revived again for a limited series, which premiered on October 11, 2019. On February 19, 2020, this revival was renewed for a second season, titled Are You Afraid of the Dark?: Curse of the Shadows, featuring a different cast. The second season premiered on February 12, 2021.
Background
Are You Afraid of the Dark? was filmed in Montreal by CINAR and created by producer D.J. McHale, an American television producer. The show is a co-production between Montreal-based CINAR Films and the U.S. Nickelodeon network. It had its American debut on Nickelodeon in the United States during August, while Canada's Family Channel had the series premiere in September 1992. By 1993, the series had moved from Family Channel to YTV.
Both series of Are You Afraid of the Dark? revolved around a group of teenagers who referred to themselves as "The Midnight Society". Every episode, at a secret location in the woods at night, one member would tell a scary story to the group. The actual story, rather than the telling, was displayed to the television viewer. The story was shown between the group's arrival at the site and their departure.
Each storyteller would begin their story by saying "Submitted for the approval of The Midnight Society, I call this story, (story name)", at which point he or she would toss a handful of "midnight dust" (actually Coffee-Mate) from a leather pouch into a campfire to heighten the flames and produce an eerie white smoke.
MacHale wrote the line "submitted for the approval of" as a nod to The Twilight Zone, in which creator Rod Serling would, after introducing the episode, say "submitted for your approval." The storyteller would continue by announcing its title (The Tale of...). The themes of the stories usually revolve around a variety of paranormal phenomena, such as demons, ghosts, magic, haunted houses, magical curses, aliens, witches, vampires, werewolves, and the like coming into contact with average youths. Usually, the episodes were either filmed in the woods, in abandoned houses, or in public places like schools or libraries. Sources of these tales vary in different ways; many were adaptations of public domain fairy tales and short stories or urban legends. For example, the episode "The Tale of the Twisted Claw" is an adaptation of W. W. Jacobs' short story, The Monkey's Paw.
Sometimes, the stories were inspired by a certain event in the life of the storyteller. In the episode "The Tale of the Crimson Clown," for instance, Tucker blackmailed his brother Gary with a poem he had found, which Gary had written for Samantha. Gary then told a story in which a naughty younger brother was punished cruelly for his evil deeds. At the end of the episode, Tucker gave the poem back to his brother. The majority of the horror stories on Are You Afraid of the Dark? had happy endings (or at least endings in which their characters were in decent places), but some of them (albeit a very small number of them) had either bad endings or twist endings like "The Tale of the Lonely Ghost," "The Tale of the Dark Music," "The Tale of the Chameleons," "The Tale of Vampire Town," and "The Tale of the Pinball Wizard."
At the end of most episodes, one character (usually Gary in the first run and Tucker in the second run of the show) would throw a red bucket of water onto the fire, stating, "I declare this meeting of The Midnight Society closed", and the group would leave the campsite, thus ending the storytelling. Sometimes, the story would be related to an event (e.g. in "The Tale of Laughing in the Dark," Kristen, who was afraid of clowns, ran off when Eric put on a clown mask. Then, everyone chased after her). This would cause either Gary or Tucker to hurriedly dump the water on the fire, and The Midnight Society would run off to wherever they go after meetings.
Episodes
Characters and cast
Each member of The Midnight Society from 1991 to 1996 has a distinct personality, and a notable trend in their storytelling. Though not all of their stories have similar styles and plots, in many of the stories, each character carries a unique aspect that reflects the nature of the storyteller, and what they find to be the most important to themselves. In the second generation, the characters derive their stories more from events that happen during the days leading up to the society meetings instead of from their personal interests and views. Many of the later episodes were simply given to a random society member to tell.
Original
Gary: An unassuming, bookish-looking boy and the founder of this generation of The Midnight Society. Gary has a distinct fascination with magic, especially where the magician Houdini is concerned. His stories tend to revolve around cursed or enchanted objects with supernatural properties, and how – in the wrong hands – they can cause disaster, for both the holder and those around them. His stories have the recurring character "Sardo" in them; most of his stories have the main character buying an enchanted item from Sardo's shop. In the 3-part episode, "The Tale of the Silver Sight", Gary reveals that his grandfather was the founder of The Midnight Society and that it was his grandfather's stories that inspired him to recreate the group.
Betty Ann: A vibrant girl who has an open and eager passion for the bizarre and twisted. Her stories often include themes where an alien or supernatural force is either trying to break into the world of the characters, or else trying to drag them into their own unnatural realms. Her stories tend to have twists reminiscent of Twilight Zone episodes, hinting that the protagonists of her stories have not yet escaped danger by the end.
Kiki: A spunky, tomboyish girl who often makes fun of others. Many of her stories involve plots where the danger of carelessness or deceitfulness, as well as the danger of the past, repeats itself. Also notable is that a large number of the characters in her stories are also of African descent (likely due to Kiki herself being African-Canadian), though the trend dies off later on in the series. One story she came up with had to be read by Gary due to her suffering from laryngitis at the time.
Frank: A punkish teenager with an in-your-face attitude. Though his stories do not often have a running theme, they do often have the recurring character Dr. Vink appear as the villain, or at least, the creator of the story's antagonist. In season five, he and his family moved away, and he was replaced in the group by Stig.
Tucker: Gary's younger brother and the youngest member of The Midnight Society. Due to his age, he is often portrayed as youthfully obnoxious. His stories tend to involve family relationships that are at first sour but grow in strength in the face of adversity, possibly reflecting his relationship with his brother Gary. There is also a running theme of the characters accidentally unleashing evil upon their world. After Gary left, he took over his place as the president of The Midnight Society. Once Tucker is in charge, he is less of a brat and more of a serious leader like his older brother. He is the only character to appear in both generations of The Midnight Society.
Sam: A shy girl with an obvious mutual crush on Gary, which becomes one of the highlighted arcs of both their developments in the series. Reflecting this affection for Gary, Sam's stories tend to have more of a strong theme of love, and its endurance even beyond death.
Kristen: A girl who, though squeamish about much else, has a fondness for ghost stories and fairy tales. She has a growing crush on David, and their affection for each other is a developing arc in the first few seasons. She loves to dress up for her stories or bring something for effect, sometimes to scare the others with and her stories almost always deal with ghosts from the past who have unfinished business that they cannot complete without the aid of the living. In season 3, she left The Midnight Society due to her and her family moving, and she was replaced in the group by Sam.
David: A quiet boy with a mysterious expression. Reflecting his introverted nature and need to deal with his crush on Kristen, David's stories tend to be less about malignant outside forces, and more to do with the evil of past events left unresolved, or the darkness inside normal people, and the consequences of not dealing with their actions. In season 3, he and his family moved away, and he was replaced in the group by Tucker.
Stig: His nickname may come from the term stigma, as he is marked an outsider for his notable lack of hygiene. Stig is the last member to be initiated into this generation of The Midnight Society. As such, he has only two stories in the series before the cast is changed: "The Tale of the Dead Man's Float" and "The Tale of Station 109.1." Due to the aversion people seem to have against him for his looks, both of his stories seem to revolve around outsiders judged for their appearances and/or tastes.
Eric: Eric is portrayed as a diminutive teenager with visible Irish ancestry that influences his first story. As he has only had two stories in the first season before his character was cut, there is no visible theme in his storytelling but they seem to be about incredibly powerful evil forces (ones never proven innocent or misunderstood like some others). In his short run on the show, Eric was shown to be rather snide and negative, spending most of the time making sarcastic remarks and antagonizing the other members, especially Frank. He is the only character to leave the show without any explanation for his departure.
First revival
Several years after the last meeting of The Midnight Society, Tucker returns to reinitialize the meetings, inviting his own circle of friends to reform The Midnight Society.
Quinn: Quinn is usually getting in trouble at school and at home, but he is a smart kid that likes to make fun of Andy teamed up with Vange. Quinn's stories have little in common though usually involve the protagonists' actions unleashing or bringing them face-to-face with the villain.
Vange: Vange (short for "Evangeline") is the youngest of the New Midnight Society. She is a tomboy and does not have a problem with speaking her mind. Teamed up with Quinn she makes fun of Andy a lot. Vange's stories have little in common though most seem to be about how wanting something too badly can cause the main character to play into the villain's hands.
Andy: Andy is very sweet and kind. He is always being made fun of by Quinn and Vange for having more muscle than brains. He lives on a farm with his family. He often works there before and after school. Andy is the closest to Megan. Andy's stories have little in common but are often about how characters' dark sides can unleash evil. Usually, the inspiration for his stories are based on his own real-life personal experiences.
Megan: Megan is a rich kid who is not very comfortable in the woods. She would rather hold the New Midnight Society Meetings in her own well-managed backyard. Tucker, not being the stickler his brother was, lets Megan refurnish the campfire with some comfortable old couches. She seems to have a soft spot for Andy. Megan's stories have little in common though most seem to somehow involve romance. Sometimes she brings a prop or starts a brief game relating to her story.
Second revival
In 2019, a second revival of the show began. The first season is known as "Carnival of Doom" and the second season is known as "Curse of the Shadows".
Carnival of Doom
The Midnight Society:
Rachel Carpenter
Akiko Yamato
Gavin Coscarelli
Graham Raimi
Louise Fulci
Curse of the Shadows
The Midnight Society:
Luke McCoy
Hanna Romero
Gabby Lewis
Jai Malya
Seth Romero
Connor Stevens
Recurring characters
One of the more significant recurring characters was Sardo (Richard Dumont), owner of "Sardo's Magic Mansion" (a magic shop). He would often attempt to sell a character a "prized" item, succeeding almost every single time. He often had items in his shop that contained real properties of magic, yet did not know until it was revealed in the story. One of the most memorable recurring jokes in the series occurred when someone would address him as "Mr. Sardo." He would then get irritated and exclaim: "That's SarDO (Sardôh)! No mister; accent on the doh!"
Additionally, when selling someone an item, he would often ask a rather high price. The main character would mention how much money they had, and Sardo would grab the money saying, "But I'm losing on the deal." Although he rarely got what he wanted, he would often end up helping the characters, often unintentionally. He appeared in Gary's stories, although in the later seasons, he appeared in two of Tucker's and one of David's in the episode "The Tale of The Dark Dragon."
Sardo's character is revived in the second season of the second revival, "Curse of the Shadows." Sardo's son (Ryan Beil) is the owner of "Sardo's Magic Shop". Richard Dumont appears in the finale as Sardo.
Another recurring character was Dr. Vink (Aron Tager). He was a physically imposing man who would often appear as a mad scientist, sorcerer, and the like. When he enters, he introduces himself by saying, "Vink's the name. Dr. Vink." He would also get his name mispronounced, usually something like "Dr. Fink?" When this happened, he would respond "Vink. With a va-va-va!" Often, the protagonist would call him a "nutbag" behind his back, assuming he could not hear him, only to have him reply later, "...and I am not a nutbag".
Unlike Sardo, whose character was set in a magic shop, Dr. Vink had many 'unique endeavors' as he called them, for his stories. These ranged from living deep in the woods conducting strange nature experiments, being a retired filmmaker, owning his own restaurant as head chef and lastly a barbershop. His activities were usually villainous, designed to put the characters in peril and allow him the last laugh. However, in his last appearance, "The Tale of Cutter's Treasure" (which was told by both Frank and Gary), he allied himself with Sardo and the main characters without his usual maliciousness. He appeared in Frank's stories. Aron Tager also played the carnival worker who stands in front of the Funhouse and invites people to go inside in the episode "The Tale of the Laughing in the Dark".
The character of Zeebo the Clown, also played by Tager, who appeared in "The Tale of the Laughing in the Dark" is referenced in several other stories, for example, in the episode "The Tale of the Whispering Walls", two children mention seeing him at a fun park, in the episode "The Tale of the Mystical Mirror", a girl says she will look like Zeebo if she wears too much lipstick, and in the episode "The Tale of the Crimson Clown" in the boys' room a video game called Zeebo's Big House can be seen on the desk with a picture of Zeebo on it as the title character. The video game was also mentioned in the episode "The Tale of Train Magic." Finally, in the episode "The Tale of the Night Shift," the teenage janitor is called Zeebo by his supervisor a few times at the beginning of the episode.
The villain, the "Ghastly Grinner" (star of "The Tale of the Ghastly Grinner"), like Zeebo the Clown, appears in a comic book that "Dark" characters read. In "Tale of the Ghastly Grinner", The Grinner is shown as being the star of a comic book.
Legacy
The show became a weekly staple for children and tweens in the 1990s. Kids “were old enough to stay up but not old enough to stay out, so [they] spent nearly every Saturday night huddled around television sets with friends or siblings, pretending not to be terrified by that week’s tale.” As written by Matt Melis,“But there’s also a lot to admire in the care that went into trying to frighten us. We saw the protagonists encountering the creepy and supernatural in the same suburban settings we hailed from. They were remarkably vulnerable and insecure kids, too, ones with problems we could relate to; they were new kids, outcasts, rival siblings, and children experiencing rough patches like deaths in the family or parents filing for divorce.”Said series co-creator D.J. MacHale, “I wanted stories about real kids who were facing challenges that had nothing to do with the supernatural situation they ended up in.” He added, “But I'd like to believe that by depicting kids taking charge of difficult situations, it opened up kid-viewers to the idea that they aren't powerless in their own lives.” The show has also been hailed for its diversity in characters and stories. “I write about kids who find themselves in challenging situations, and ultimately solve the problems themselves ... no matter their sex, race, or age. We wanted to depict a wide variety of stories, characters, and situations. It was all about diversity,” says MacHale. “We didn't play to stereotypes.” The series was nominated for an NAACP Image Award in 1996. The show has also been seen as helping to create a generation of feminist horror fans, as it showed kids a world “where girls got to be the imperfect heroes as often as the boys did.” According to MacHale, “in the first season alone, half of the scripts focused on female characters and were written by female writers.”
Home media
VHS releases
Three VHS tapes were released by Sony Wonder. Ghostly Tales, which included the episodes "The Tale of the Shiny Red Bicycle" and "The Tale of the Frozen Ghost" plus a bonus "Feel the Fear" music video, was released on March 22, 1994; Nightmare Tales, which included the episodes "The Tale of the Final Wish" and "The Tale of the Dream Machine", was released on May 31, 1994; and The Tale of Cutter's Treasure was released on June 13, 1995.
In addition, episodes of the series were included on two compilation tapes of SNICK programming, both of which were released on August 31, 1993; "The Tale of the Lonely Ghost" was included on Nick Snicks Friendship, and "The Tale of the Hungry Hounds" was included on Nick Snicks the Family.
DVD releases
Direct Source released all seven seasons of Are You Afraid of the Dark? on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time between 2006 and 2008. The first five seasons were released in Canada and the United States, while seasons 1 and 2 of the revival series were released in Canada only. The company also released a joint collection of seasons 1–2/seasons 3–4 as a box set. These releases have been discontinued and are now out-of-print.
On April 8, 2013, it was announced that Berkshire Axis Media had acquired the rights to the series (Canada only) and would be re-releasing it. Season 1 was re-released on May 28, 2013. Season 2 was re-released on October 15, 2013.
In Region 2, Revelation Films released the first four seasons on DVD in the UK in 2007/2008.
Nickelodeon also re-released the series on DVD in the US through Amazon.com's CreateSpace service beginning with two random-episode "volumes" released in 2013. However, those releases were canceled and were followed by proper season set releases beginning in 2014.
On December 1, 2014, it was announced that Madman Films had acquired the rights to the series in Australia, and would be releasing the series through Via Vision Entertainment. In 2015 Via Vision released seasons 1–3 individually. It was announced on September 22, 2017, that Via Vision Entertainment have no plans to release the remaining seasons of Are You Afraid of the Dark?
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Release name
! Ep #
! Region 1 (US)
! Region 1 (Canada)
! Region 2 (UK)
! Region 4 (Australia)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| Freaky Favorites
| align="center"|6
| December 8, 1999
| N/A
| N/A
| N/A
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete 1st Season
| align="center"|13
| June 23, 2014
| April 18, 2006 May 28, 2013 (re-release)
| N/A
| February 4, 2015
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete 2nd Season
| align="center"|13
| June 26, 2014
| November 28, 2006October 15, 2013 (re-release)
| N/A
| March 11, 2015
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete 3rd Season
| align="center"|13
| September 24, 2014
| April 24, 2007
| N/A
| April 10, 2015
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete 4th Season
| align="center"|13
| October 2, 2014
| November 13, 2007
| N/A
| N/A
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete 5th Season
| align="center"|13
| October 15, 2014
| February 26, 2008
| N/A
| N/A
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete 6th Season
| align="center"|13
| N/A
|April 29, 2008
| April 29, 2008<ref>Lambert, David "[http://tvshowsondvd.com/news/Afraid-Dark-Season-6/9120 Are You Afraid of The Dark? – Date, Box Art, Contents & Extras for USA and Canada DVDs for Season 6"] , TVShowsOnDVD.com, March 5, 2008.</ref>
| N/A
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete 7th Season| align="center"|13
| N/A
|August 19, 2008
| August 19, 2008
| N/A
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Limited Series Event| align="center"|6
| August 11, 2020
| N/A
| N/A
| N/A
|- style="text-align:center;"
| Curse of the Shadows| align="center"|6
| August 10, 2021
| N/A
| N/A
| N/A
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete Series 1 & 2| align="center"|26
| N/A
| N/A
| March 5, 2007
| N/A
|- style="text-align:center;"
| The Complete Series 3 & 4| align="center"|26
| N/A
| N/A
| April 7, 2008
| N/A
|}
Online distribution
The first five complete seasons of the series have been released (non-sequentially) across ten volumes in digital format on iTunes, Amazon, and Vudu:
In September 2016, all seven seasons of the first two series were made available for free on YouTube for non-United States viewers. On November 6, 2017, Season one was released for free on Canada Media Fund's Encore+ YouTube channel. As of 2021, Are You Afraid of the Dark? is available on Paramount+. However, there are some missing episodes: "Tale of the Super Specs", "Tale of the Dark Dragon", "Tale of the Midnight Ride", "Tale of the Dream Girl", "Tale of Quicksilver", "Tale of the Long Ago Locket", "Tale of the Fire Ghost", "Tale of the Closet Keepers", "Tale of the Unfinished Painting", "Tale of the Chameleons", "Tale of C7", and the revival seasons six and seven.
Second revival
On February 14, 2019, it was announced that the series itself would be revived for a miniseries to air in October 2019. On June 10, 2019, the cast for the miniseries was announced with Sam Ashe Arnold as Gavin, Miya Cech as Akiko, Tamara Smart as Louise, Jeremy Ray Taylor as Graham and Lyliana Wray as Rachel as the New Midnight Society and Rafael Casal as The Carnival of Doom's ringmaster, Mr. Tophat. The miniseries aired on Friday, October 11, 18, and 25, 2019 and was a ratings success. Brandon Routh guest starred in part two.
On February 19, 2020, it was renewed for a second season, titled Are You Afraid of the Dark?: Curse of the Shadows. On October 29, 2020, the casting for a second season was announced with Bryce Gheisar, Arjun Athalye, Beatrice Kitsos, Malia Baker, Dominic Mariche and Parker Queenan as the new Midnight Society. The second season premiered on February 12, 2021.
Other media
A music video with the horror-themed dance song “Feel the Fear” was aired on Nickelodeon and included as a bonus feature on VHS tapes. The television series also spawned multiple licensed products. A PC game based on the show titled Are You Afraid of the Dark? The Tale of Orpheo's Curse was released in 1994. A board game titled Are You Afraid of the Dark?: The Game was also released. They also released a series of audio cassettes entitled Are You Afraid of the Dark?: More Tales From The Midnight Society which were narrated and voiced by actors from the show who reprised their respective characters. Perhaps the most prominent of products from the franchise's merchandising was a series of books written by various authors between 1995 and 1998.
On November 13, 2017, it was announced that a film adaptation of the series was in the works at Paramount Players. It'' writer Gary Dauberman was set to write the screenplay with Matt Kaplan producing and D.J. Caruso directing. The film was scheduled to be released on October 4, 2019. However, on February 27, 2019, Paramount removed the film from their schedule.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
(original series)
(first revival series)
(second revival series)
1990s Nickelodeon original programming
1990s American anthology television series
1990s American children's television series
1990s Canadian anthology television series
1990s Canadian children's television series
1990 American television series debuts
1996 American television series endings
1999 American television series debuts
1990 Canadian television series debuts
1996 Canadian television series endings
1999 Canadian television series debuts
2000s Nickelodeon original programming
2000s American anthology television series
2000s American children's television series
2000s Canadian anthology television series
2000s Canadian children's television series
2000 American television series endings
2000 Canadian television series endings
2010s Nickelodeon original programming
2010s American anthology television series
2010s American children's television series
2010s Canadian anthology television series
2010s Canadian children's television series
2019 American television series debuts
2019 Canadian television series debuts
2020s Nickelodeon original programming
2020s American anthology television series
2020s American children's television series
2020s Canadian children's television series
American children's horror television series
American horror fiction television series
American television series revived after cancellation
Canadian children's horror television series
Canadian horror fiction television series
Canadian television series revived after cancellation
Are You Afraid of the Dark?
English-language television shows
Family Channel (Canadian TV network) original programming
Nickelodeon original programming
Sandman in television
Television series by Cookie Jar Entertainment
Television series about teenagers |
357250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia%3A%20A%20Book%20for%20People%20Who%20Find%20Television%20Too%20Slow | Cambodia: A Book for People Who Find Television Too Slow | Cambodia: A Book For People Who Find Television too Slow is a book of short stories by Brian Fawcett. It was first published in 1986 (with subsequent US publication: ).
In addition to its unusual title, this collection of thirteen short stories and essays is notable also for having a division three quarters of the way down the page, above which appear the stories, below which appears an essay about Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge. Many of the stories and essays deal with the turbulence caused by modernization, colonialism, and multiculturalism. In his essays, Fawcett makes frequent references both to the short Joseph Conrad novel Heart of Darkness, and to the film Apocalypse Now. One of Fawcett's theses is that the societal desire to turn back the hands of time and expunge the traces of modernization is a root cause of genocide. The book also talks about Reggie Jackson.
The book was the basis of a one-actor play by the same name co-written with Ken Brown, who was the performer, and a multi-media performance project directed by Ken Brown in 1991 and staged in Edmonton, Alberta.
1986 short story collections
Canadian short story collections
Single-writer short story collections |
357251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20II%2C%20Countess%20of%20Flanders | Margaret II, Countess of Flanders | Margaret, often called Margaret of Constantinople (1202 – 10 February 1280), ruled as Countess of Flanders during 1244–1278 and Countess of Hainaut during 1244–1253 and 1257–1280. She was the younger daughter of Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders and Hainaut, and Marie of Champagne.
Called the Black (la Noire) due to her scandalous life, the children of both her marriages disputed the inheritance of her counties in the War of the Succession of Flanders and Hainault.
Life
Childhood
Her father left on the Fourth Crusade before she was born, and her mother left two years later, leaving Margaret and her older sister Joan in the guardianship of their uncle Philip of Namur.
After her mother died in 1204, and her father the next year, the now-orphaned Margaret and her sister remained under Philip of Namur's guardianship until he gave their wardship to King Philip II of France. During her time in Paris, she and her sister became familiar with the Cisterian Order, probably under influence of Blanche of Castile, the future Queen consort of France.
In 1211 Enguerrand III of Coucy offered the King the sum of 50,000 livres to marry Joan, while his brother Thomas would marry Margaret. However, the Flemish nobility was hostile to the project, which was finally dropped.
First Marriage
After her sister's marriage with Infante Ferdinand of Portugal, Margaret was placed under the care of Bouchard of Avesnes, Lord of Etroen and a prominent Hainaut nobleman, who was knighted by Baldwin IX before he parted to the Crusades. In the middle of the war against France for the possession of the Artois and the forced territorial concession made by the Treaty of Pont-à-Vendin, Joan and Ferdinand wanted to marry Margaret with William II Longespée, heir of the Earldom of Salisbury, in order to reinforce the bonds of Flanders with England; however Bouchard of Avesnes, with the consent of the King of France, prevented the union.
Despite the considerable age difference between them, Bouchard gained Margaret's affection, and in the presence of a significant number of bourgeois of Hainaut, she declared she did not want another husband than him, and before 23 July 1212 they were married.
After the capture of Ferdinand of Portugal at the Battle of Bouvines (27 July 1214), Bouchard of Avesnes claimed to Joan in the name of his wife her share of their inheritance, which led Joan to attempt to get Margaret's marriage dissolved; in addition, the French King began to see Bouchard with suspicion because he fought in the Flemish army.
Philip II informed Pope Innocent III that before his wedding, Bouchard of Avesnes had already received holy orders as sub-deacon, so technically his union was illegal. In 1215, at the Fourth Council of the Lateran, the Pope annulled the marriage on this ground; however, Margaret and Bouchard refused to submit and they took refuge at the Castle of Houffalize in the Ardennes under the protection of Waleran, Count of Luxembourg. In the following four years, they had three sons:
Baldwin of Avesnes (1217 – 1219), who died in infancy.
John of Avesnes (1 May 1218 – 24 December 1257)
Baldwin of Avesnes (September 1219 – 10 April 1295)
Second Marriage
In 1219, in a battle against Joan, Bouchard of Avesnes was captured and imprisoned for two years, until 1221, when he was released on the condition that he separate from his wife and made a trip to Rome to get the absolution from the Pope. While he was in Rome in order to obtain not only the forgiveness but also the release of the holy orders to make his union legitimate, Joan took advantage of this to convince Margaret (who after Bouchard's capture came to live at her court, leaving her two sons in France under custody) to contract a new wedding. Finally Margaret gave in to her sister's pressures, and between 18 August and 15 November 1223, she married William II of Dampierre, Lord of Dampierre, a nobleman from Champagne. They had five children:
William II, Count of Flanders (1224 – 6 June 1251).
Joan of Dampierre (c. 1225 – 1245/1246), married in 1239 to Hugh III of Rethel, then in 1243 to Theobald II of Bar.
Guy of Dampierre (c. 1226 – 7 March 1305).
John of Dampierre (c. 1228 – 1258), Lord of Dampierre-sur-l'Aube, Sompuis and Saint-Dizier, Viscount of Troyes and Constable of Champagne.
Marie of Dampierre (c. 1230 – 21 December 1302), Abbess of Flines, near Douai.
This situation caused something of a scandal, for the marriage was possibly bigamous, and violated the church's strictures on consanguinity as well. The disputes regarding the validity of the two marriages and the legitimacy of Margaret's children by each husband continued for decades, becoming entangled in the politics of the Holy Roman Empire and resulting in the long War of the Succession of Flanders and Hainault.
Countess of Flanders and Hainaut
At the death of her sister Joan in 1244, Margaret succeeded her as Countess of Flanders and Hainaut. Almost immediately, her sons from both marriages began the fight for the inheritance of the Counties, with the question of the validity of her first marriage to Bouchard of Avesnes was then raised, as if it was indeed illegitimate the inheritance of Flanders and Hainaut was passed only to the children from her second marriage, already favored by Margaret in 1245 when she paid homage to King Louis IX of France: at that point, she tried to obtain from the French King the recognition of William of Dampierre, the eldest son of her second marriage, as sole heir, arguing that Pope Gregory IX declared her first marriage invalid on 31 March 1237 and thus her sons from this union were illegitimate.
In 1246 Louis IX, acting as an arbitrator, gave the right to inherit Flanders to the Dampierre children, and the rights to Hainaut to the Avesnes children. This would seem to have settled the matter, but neither party accepted the solomonic decision of the French King, while responding to the spirit of fairness of the monarch, it had a political effect clearly advantageous for the interests of France, to dislocate the county, and served to avoid war. However, in 1248 John of Avesnes took advantage of the departure of Louis IX and William of Dampierre for the Crusades, to initiate war against his mother, taking Hainaut and Alost with other surrounding Flemish lands.
Margaret, thinking that the inheritance disputes were finally over after her son William of Dampierre paid homage for Flanders as her co-ruler to both Louis IX (in October 1246) and Emperor Frederick II (in 1248), made the political mistake of obtaining from the Pope, in 1251, the legitimation of both John and Baldwin of Avesnes; this gave them rights of birth over the Counties.
The unexpected death of William of Dampierre (6 June 1251) –who reportedly died from injuries received during a tournament, although his mother suspected that the allies of Avesnes were responsible– caused the renewal of the hostilities when John of Avesnes, who was uneasy about his rights, convinced William II of Holland, the German King recognized by the pro-papal forces, to seize Hainaut and the parts of Flanders which were within the bounds of the Holy Roman Empire. William II was theoretically, as King, overlord of these territories, and also John's brother-in-law. A civil war followed, which ended when the Avesnes forces defeated and imprisoned Guy of Dampierre (who had succeeded his brother as co-ruler of Flanders) at Westkappel, on the island of Walcheren, in July 1253.
Margaret offered the County of Hainaut to Charles of Anjou (brother of Louis IX) in order to obtain his military intervention against William II. Charles besieged Valenciennes, but a truce was negotiated between all parties on 26 July 1254, which included an agreement to submit the dispute to Louis IX for adjudication. Guy of Dampierre was ransomed in 1256 and Louis IX confirmed his 1246 decision regarding the Hainaut-Flanders split between the Avesnes and Dampierre children, while Charles of Anjou renounced to all his claims over Hainaut. The death of John of Avesnes in 1257 put a temporary halt over the already costly internecine quarrel.
The chronicler Matthew Paris called Margaret "...a new Medea guilty of the death of many honest knights". He related that after the capture of Guy and John of Dampierre at Westkappel, John of Avesnes sought to use them as hostages to force his mother to negotiate peace; supposedly, the harsh response of the Countess was:
Because the Avesnes heir, her grandson John II was still under-age, Margaret managed to recover the government of Hainaut, while in Flanders she remained co-ruler with her son Guy of Dampierre until 29 December 1278, when she abdicated in his favor. She administered Hainaut as solely ruling countess until May 1279, when she appointed John II as her co-ruler in Hainaut. She died nine months later, in February 1280. John II of Avesnes succeeded her as sole Count of Hainaut.
Margaret's death ended the personal union between Flanders and Hainaut, which had lasted for nearly a century. The two counties were reunited again only in 1432 when Jacqueline of Bavaria, the Avesnes heiress, surrendered her domains to Philip III, Duke of Burgundy, the Dampierre heir.
Political role
Economy
Like her sister, Margaret conducted an economic policy designed to encourage international commerce. She removed restrictions on foreigner traders, despite pressures from local traders, who wanted to maintain monopolies. She also issued a new coinage. The huge debts that she contracted due to the War of Succession, however, forced Margaret to make concessions to the main Flemish cities, which became autonomous entities.
Her policies also helped to turn Bruges into an international port, granting privileges to the merchants of Poitou, Gascony and Castile, in addition to improvements in the water gates. During 1270-1275 she became involved in a trade war with England, probably the first time that the economy was openly used as a weapon in a conflict between states with unfavorable outcome. Margaret demanded from England payments for her support during the revolt of Simon de Montfort. King Henry III claimed that because he recruited mercenary soldiers, he did not see any reason to make payments.
In retaliation, Margaret seized the possessions of English merchants in Flanders. Henry III and later his son and successor Edward I seized those of Flemish merchants in England and also stopped the exports of wool to Flanders. Townspeople who depended on the textile trade pressured the Countess and her son Guy to enter into negotiations with the English; henceforth the Flemish no longer dominated the transport of goods between the continent and England.
Religion
Like her sister, Margaret supported and founded religious houses. In 1245, she founded the Béguinage in Bruges. She also had an interest in architecture and patronized writers and poets. In 1260 she founded the Abbey of Saint Elizabeth du Quesnoy, now destroyed.
Closely related to the Dominican Order during her stay in Valenciennes after her marital separation, Margaret founded convents of this order in Ypres and Douai.
Ancestry
Notes
Sources
Lottin, Alain. Histoire des provinces françaises du nord, Westhoek-Editions, 1989, .
Van Hasselt, André and Van Hasselt, M. Historia de Béljica y Holanda (in Spanish), Barcelona, Imprenta del Imparcial, 1884.
Wade Labarge, Margaret. La mujer en la Edad Media (in Spanish), Madrid, Ed. Nerea, 1988, .
Kerrebrouck, P. Van. Les Capétiens 987-1328, Villeneuve d'Asq, 2000.
External links
Women's Biography: Margaret of Constantinople, Countess of Flanders
Coat of Arms in the Walford Roll
1202 births
1280 deaths
Margaret II
Margaret II
French countesses
French suo jure nobility
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
13th-century French people
13th-century French women
13th-century women rulers
Nobility from Ghent
13th-century women from the county of Flanders |
357264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20Canada%20International | Radio Canada International | Radio Canada International (RCI) is the international broadcasting service of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). Prior to 1970, RCI was known as the CBC International Service. The broadcasting service was also previously referred to as the Voice of Canada, broadcasting on shortwave from powerful transmitters in Sackville, New Brunswick. "In its heyday", said Radio World magazine, "Radio Canada International was one of the world's most listened-to international shortwave broadcasters". However, as the result of an 80 percent budget cut, shortwave services were terminated in June 2012, and RCI became accessible exclusively via the Internet. It also reduced its services to five languages (in contrast with the 14 languages it used in 1990) and ended production of its own news service.
On December 3, 2020, RCI announced that its staff was being reduced from 20 to 9 (in contrast to 200 employees in 1990) and that its English and French language sections would close and be replaced by curated content from the domestic CBC and Radio-Canada services. RCI would also begin offering online services in Punjabi and Tagalog. The changes went into effect on May 19, 2021.
History
The early years (1942–1953)
The idea for creating an international radio voice for Canada was first proposed as far back as the 1930s. Several studies commissioned by the CBC Board of Governors in the late 1930s had come to the conclusion that Canada needed a radio service to broadcast a Canadian point of view to the world.
By the early 1940s, this need was also recognized by a series of Parliamentary Broadcasting Committees. Finally, in 1942, Prime Minister William Lyon MacKenzie King announced that Canada would begin a shortwave radio service that would keep members of the Canadian Armed Forces in touch with news and entertainment from home. The CBC International Service became a reality with the signing of an Order-in-Council on September 18, 1942.
By the end of 1944, both the production facilities and the transmitting plant were ready for test broadcasts. These tests, which began on December 25, 1944, were broadcast to Canadian troops in Europe in both English and French. Psychological warfare in German to Europe began in December 1944 as well. The German section was staffed by refugees such as Helmut Blume and Eric Koch and would go on to broadcast "denazification" programming as well as broadcasts aimed at East Germany during the Cold War.
In early 1945, it was announced that the CBC International Service was ready and would go on the air for real on February 25 using the name the "Voice of Canada".
By 1946, the CBC International Service had expanded to include regular transmissions in Czech and Dutch. Beginning in July, special once-a-week programs were broadcast to Scandinavia in Swedish and Danish and later in Norwegian, as well.
In November 1946, daily broadcasts started to the Caribbean in English. There were also Sunday night programs broadcast to Cuba, Colombia, Peru and Ecuador in Spanish and to Brazil in Portuguese.
Daily Spanish and Portuguese transmissions began on July 6, 1947. At around the same time as the expansion into the Caribbean and Latin America, the CBC International Service became involved with the newly formed United Nations. United Nations broadcasts through the CBC International Service continued until November 29, 1952, when they were transferred to larger shortwave facilities run by the Voice of America.
Early Cold War broadcasting (1950–1967)
Throughout its early years, the CBC International Service concentrated on broadcasting to Western Europe in the aftermath of World War II.
By the early 1950s several international shortwave stations began to beam programs into the Soviet bloc countries in an effort to circumvent heavy censorship of world news to their citizens.
The CBC International Service's Russian-language transmissions were jammed during the 1950s and into the mid 1960s, stopping about 1967.
On March 4, 1961, the Danish, Dutch, Italian, Norwegian, and Swedish services were all discontinued.
In addition, the German service was reoriented from its previous emphasis on West Germany to focus on East Germany.
New English and French programs directed to Africa were added giving the International Service direct coverage to every continent except Asia.
The Cold War era (1967–1991)
The CBC International Service played a major role in covering Canada's Centennial celebrations in 1967. Ceremonies from coast to coast were carried over short-wave to the world on July 1, 1967 as Canada marked its 100th birthday.
In July 1970, the service was renamed Radio Canada International.
The change took place because it was felt that RCI should have its own identity, separate from the CBC domestic network, even though RCI had just been fully integrated into the CBC system.
On November 7, 1971, RCI inaugurated its new 250 kW transmitters which were five times more powerful than the existing units. This significantly improved RCI's signal quality in Europe and Africa.
Canada recognized the People's Republic of China in 1971. Before beginning its Mandarin Chinese service, RCI produced a 40-week series called Everyday English which was broadcast in 1988 and early 1989 over local stations in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. With an estimated audience of almost 20 million, the course was a huge success.
Just 10 months after beginning the Chinese broadcasts, RCI started a series of Arabic broadcasts to the Middle East. This coincided with the United Nations effort in the Persian Gulf to support the Gulf war, of which Canada was a participant.
RCI under threat (1991–2006)
In early 1991, facing further budget deficits, the Government of Canada ordered an across-the-board budget cut. Every ministry and Crown corporation, including the CBC, was required to participate. After evaluating its own budget, the CBC decided it could no longer pay for Radio Canada International without extra funding from the federal government. To save the service, RCI Program Director Allan Familiant announced a major restructuring that took effect on March 25, 1991. As a result, six of the thirteen languages included in the programming (Czech, German, Hungarian, Japanese, Polish, and Portuguese) were discontinued. There was also a short-wave program that went out to sub-Saharan Africa that was discontinued in 2000.
While the English and French services survived, all RCI-produced programming (except for news broadcasts) were eliminated and replaced with CBC Domestic network programs. Since then, some RCI-produced programs in English and French have been restored. RCI then began a two audio stream, which became a three audio stream programming delivery structure after 2000.
Initial programming delivery structure (2000-2004)
RCI-1 English / French
RCI-2 French / Multilingual
Later programming delivery structure (2004-2006)
RCI-1 English
RCI-2 French
RCI-3 Multilingual
These audio streams were available from RCI's website as well as across Europe, the Middle East and Northern Africa, utilizing the Hotbird-6 satellite. In late 2006 the online streams were eliminated in favour of a single online multilingual stream.
On December 1, 2005, Radio Canada International began broadcasting its program across North America as RCIplus, utilizing the Sirius satellite radio system. This was part of a CBC/Radio-Canada selection of satellite channels which included national versions of domestic radio stations from CBC Radio and Première Chaîne.
RCI Viva, the Internet Era (2006–2012)
Following an internal review in the summer of 2006, Radio Canada International announced a restructuring of its programming output. Its homepage press release read: "Radio Canada International is proud to announce that it will launch its new English programming on Monday, October 30th. In the interim, our current shows will be replaced by two programs, from October the 2nd to the 29th." On October 30, 2006 Radio Canada International relaunched its English and French programming with a new focus on information for new immigrants to Canada as well as continuing to broadcast to the world, moving away from news and current affairs. It also increased its broadcast hours to 12 hours a week, which could be heard via satellite and online, although its shortwave hours were restricted and remained unchanged.
A new Internet service called RCI Viva acted as an online portal for new Canadian immigrants. RCI Viva was an on-demand listening portal as well as an online stream, whereas listeners in North America could listen via satellite subscription radio from Sirius Canada entitled RCI plus. Both RCI Viva and RCI plus used a similar multilingual schedule.
Listeners in Europe were still able to listen to RCI's three channels in English, French and multilingual. An interim program, on the English-language service during October called Canada Today in Transition was broadcast as a single program across Europe, Africa and the Middle East, replacing the two regular editions for Europe and Africa. It was hosted by ex-Canada Today for Africa presenter Carmel Kilkenny. The new two-hour English-language flagship program is called The Link and is hosted by Marc Montgomery, replacing RCI's previous weekday programs Canada Today, Media Zone, Sci-Tech File, and Business Sense. Its French-language counterpart is called Tam-Tam Canada and is presented by Raymond Desmarteau, which replaced Le Canada en direct, Le sens des affaires and its previous current-affairs based shows. Programs in Arabic, Russian, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese and Ukrainian were relatively unchanged. The Link was also repeated on CBC Radio One, as part of the CBC Radio Overnight lineup.
In November 2006, Radio Sweden's medium-wave broadcast from Sölvesborg ceased regular transmissions as a result of a modification in its shortwave time-share agreement which had Radio Sweden to broadcast to North America via RCI's transmitters in Sackville and RCI to Europe via Radio Sweden until Sackville's closure in 2012.
Budget cuts and the end of shortwave broadcasting (2012)
On April 4, 2012, an approximate 80 percent budget cut to the International service from $12.3 million a year to $2.3 million a year was announced by RCI Director Hélène Parent. In the 2012 federal budget, a 10 percent funding reduction was announced for the domestic broadcaster, CBC/Radio-Canada. The Crown corporation subsequently translated this to an 80 percent reduction to the International service under its financial and managerial control.
These changes effectively ended broadcasting by RCI via shortwave and satellite. RCI News service (as a separate news service from the CBC/Radio-Canada derived news) ended, and the Brazilian and Russian sections closed.
All shortwave transmissions (including those from the Sackville Relay Station in Sackville, New Brunswick), satellite, and all broadcast programming ended on June 26, 2012. In addition:
All contractual and temporary staff, along with fully two-thirds of permanent staff, lost their jobs.
China Radio International and other international broadcasters which leased transmitter time from RCI had their contracts terminated
The Sackville Relay Station's transmitter complex in Sackville, New Brunswick was dismantled in winter/spring 2014 and CBC/Radio-Canada. The property has since been sold.
As of 2014, RCI consisted of a skeleton staff based in Toronto and Montreal for producing podcasts and limited webpage content in five languages (Spanish, Arabic, French, English, and Mandarin).
RCI today
Until 2020, Radio Canada International maintained a website, a mobile app, and a cybermagazine, in English, French, Mandarin, and Arabic that was updated with news items and features written by RCI staff. The service produced podcasts in those languages, both general interest podcasts featuring news, interviews, and reports on Canada, and limited series thematic podcasts on various topics related to Canada or Canadian activity internationally. As of 2020, the flagship half-hour weekly podcasts were The Link (English), Tam-Tam Canada (French), Canadá en las Américas Café (Spanish), Voice of Canada (Mandarin), and Without Limits (Arabic).
On December 3, 2020, RCI announced that its staff was being reduced from 20 to nine - consisting of "five journalists assigned to translate and adapt CBC and Radio-Canada articles, three field reporters, and one chief editor" and that its English and French language sections would close and be replaced by curated content from the domestic CBC and Radio-Canada services, and the Arabic, Spanish, and Chinese sections would also be cut in size. However, RCI would also begin offering online services in two new languages: Punjabi and Tagalog.
RCI's old website was closed and instead, RCI content was incorporated into an RCI portal on the CBC website which features curated articles from the CBC and Radio Canada websites in English and French and articles from CBC and Radio-Canada translated into five foreign languages as well as reports from RCI's field reporters. 10-minute weekly podcasts of Canadian news are also posted in those five languages rounding up the top Canadian stories for foreign audiences as well as reports from the field in Chinese, Arabic and Punjabi. RCI's five mobile apps were deleted and folded into the CBC News and Radio-Canada Info mobile apps.
According to RCI's announcement: "RCI’s operations will focus on three main areas: translating and adapting a curated selection of articles from CBCNews.ca and Radio-Canada.ca sites; producing a new weekly podcast in each RCI language; and producing reports from the field in Chinese, Arabic and Punjabi."
Reaction to 2021 changes
Tony Burman, a former editor-in-chief of CBC News, criticised the changes saying they were "flipping RCI’s historic mission on its head" by refocussing RCI on immigrants within Canada rather than on producing content for international audiences. In February 2021, an open letter was sent to Prime Minister Justin Trudeau signed by 32 prominent Canadians including former prime minister and foreign minister Joe Clark, former foreign minister Lloyd Axworthy, former Canadian ambassador to the United Nations Stephen Lewis, actor Donald Sutherland, author Naomi Klein, former CBC Radio managing editor Jeffrey Dvorkin, and others, calling on CBC to rebuild the international service stating that "In an interconnected world in search of truth, facts and honest journalism, countries like Canada cannot abdicate their role on the world stage.”
History of RCI's foreign-language services
History of RCI Language Broadcasting Services
Station
Interval signal
RCI's interval signal was the first four notes of O Canada played on a piano, followed by "Radio Canada International" pronounced in English, and then French.
Prior to the late 1980s, there were two interval signals used. One was the aforementioned piano signal and the other was the same four notes of O Canada played on an auto harp.
This second (now decommissioned) tuning signal was also known as a "slewing signal". This slewing signal was used whenever RCI's transmitter beams had to be reversed (say from broadcasting to Europe to the western United States) quickly.
The slewing signal was dropped when computer control was added to RCI's transmitter plant in the mid-to-late 1980s.
From the late 1970s to the early 2000s a jazz version of the French-Canadian folk song "Vive la Canadienne" (arranged by Lee Gagnon and published on LP in 1976) was used as an additional signature tune.
Studios
The main studios for RCI have been in Montreal since RCI was created in 1943–44.
RCI as a corporate entity (separate from its broadcasting operations) has also been based in Montreal since its inception in the 1940s, with its studios and offices located initially in a former brothel, moving to the converted Ford Hotel a few years later, and then to rented office tower space. In 1973, RCI moved to its current home,
Maison Radio-Canada.
Budget
Figures are Canadian dollars (CAD).
2003: 14.2 million / year
2004: 14.4 million
2011: 12.3 million
2013: 2.3 million
RCI's Gross Cost per Canadian resident (per year) was: CAD0.38 (2003, 2004).
Hours of programming produced (per week)
Note: there are 168 hours in a week (24 hours × 7 days).
RCI's Programming Production (historical)
1950s: 85 (WWII recovery phase for broadcaster)
1960s: 80 (Language services to Western Europe cut, Russian & Ukrainian launched)
1970s: 98 (Cold War détentes)
1980s: 134 (late Cold War)
In the 1990s RCI's programming output peaked
1990: 195
1996: 175
Sackville relay station
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, RCI's parent, owned and operated the Sackville transmitter site (CKCX). The site was on the Tantramar Marshes, several kilometres east of Sackville, New Brunswick. RCI leased or bartered its spare transmission capacity with other international broadcasters. Sackville was used by Radio Japan, China Radio International, the Voice of Vietnam, the BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle and Radio Korea as part of a transmitter-time exchange agreement. Canada's only high-power shortwave relay station, Sackville also broadcast CBC North to northern Quebec and Nunavut.
The CBC-SRC network runs three 1 kW relays of domestic radio, one of which originated from Sackville. Sackville's northern-hemisphere transmission-targeting capabilities were similar to those of the Wertachtal relay station in Bavaria. Its site layout was similar to Wertachtal's, with a few differences. Wertachtal has three arms of HRS type antennas spaced at about 120 degrees, allowing for near-360-degree global coverage.
The Sackville site was built in 1938 for local CBC broadcasting over CBA. Five years later, two RCA shortwave transmitters were installed. In 1970, all CBC operations moved to Moncton, New Brunswick for the installation of new Collins transmitters. During the mid-1980s, the RCA transmitters were replaced by three Harris transmitters.
With the end of Radio Canada International's shortwave service in June 2012, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation tried to sell the Sackville transmitter complex to another international broadcaster or a wind-farm company. According to CBC transmission director Martin Marcotte, "[The Sackville complex] will be fairly costly to dismantle and as a last resort we would dismantle the facility, return it to bare land as it was when we first acquired that site." On October 30, the CRTC granted a CBC request to revoke CKCX's broadcast license effective November 1. When no purchase offers were received for the complex, its antennas and towers were dismantled in 2014. In 2017, the property was sold to a non-profit consortium of New Brunswick Mi'kmaq bands known as Mi'gmawe'l Tplu'taqnn. The intended use of the property was not disclosed at the time of purchase. As of 2019, the Mi'gmawe'l Tplu'taqnn band plans to add the land to the Fort Folly First Nation Reserve and is still considering potential re-development options.
Technology
The Sackville facility was computerized in a main control room. Frequencies, antennas and input feeds were switched in accordance with internationally agreed-on schedules which were renegotiated twice per year. At the time shortwave broadcasting ceased in 2012, there were nine transmitters in operation: three 100 kW, three 250 kW and three 300 kW. Although the site was capable of using 500 kW transmitters, the end of the Cold War and improved shortwave-frequency coordination made an upgrade to 500 kW unnecessary.
New Brown Boveri digital transmitters used phase-shift keying (PSK) and had 250 kW output. Newer Thales 300 kW transmitters could use amplitude and phase-shift keying (APSK), the design successor partially based on PSK modulation).
All modern Sackville shortwave transmitters employed dynamic carrier control (DCC), automatically reducing the carrier wave in the presence of low-level (or no) audio.
With no audio (silence) the carrier power was reduced by 50 percent; a 250 kW transmitter put out a carrier of 125 kW during audio pauses, saving power.
See also
Eric Koch, a founding member of what became CBC International Service's German Section (1944-1953)
Michelle Tisseyre and René Lévesque hosts of La voix du Canada (1944-1946), which was broadcast on shortwave to French-speaking Canadian troops stationed around the world.
References
External links
Official website
CBC-SRC's archived stories on RCI
(CBC Archives: RCI History)
(SRC Archives: RCI History)
Historical
History of CBA Sackville
Canadian Shortwave Timeline
RCI Languages: Historical Start / Stop / Restart dates
CXCK/RCI - History of Canadian Broadcasting
Lobby groups
RCI Action Committee – The committee is an inter-union group created to protect RCI's international broadcasting mandate and funding.
CBC Radio
Canadian radio networks
Shortwave radio stations in Canada
International broadcasters
Radio stations established in 1945
Satellite radio stations in Canada
Sirius Satellite Radio channels
Organizations based in Montreal
Internet radio stations in Canada
Defunct radio stations in Canada
1945 establishments in Canada
Multilingual websites
Canadian news websites
Radio stations disestablished in 2012
Defunct mass media in New Brunswick
Canadian podcasters
Podcasting companies |
357268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian%20Carroll | Julian Carroll | Julian Morton Carroll (born April 16, 1931) is an American lawyer and politician from the state of Kentucky. A Democrat, he served as the 54th Governor of Kentucky from 1974 to 1979, succeeding Wendell H. Ford, who resigned to accept a seat in the U.S. Senate. He was most recently a member of the Kentucky Senate, representing Anderson, Franklin, Woodford, Gallatin and Owen counties. He was the first Kentucky governor from the state's far-western Jackson Purchase region. The lieutenant governor he served with, Thelma Stovall, was the first woman to be elected Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky.
After graduating from the University of Kentucky and spending three years as an Air Force lawyer, Carroll returned to McCracken County, Kentucky where he gained acclaim for leading a campaign to allow the Tennessee Valley Authority to provide low-cost electricity to the county. He was elected to the first of five terms in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1962 and served as Speaker of that body from 1968 to 1970. He ran for lieutenant governor in 1971 on an informal ticket with former Governor Bert T. Combs. Combs lost in the Democratic primary to Wendell Ford, but Carroll defeated his primary opponents and went on to win the general election. He was elevated to the governorship in December 1974, after Ford unseated Moderate Republican U.S. Sen. Marlow Cook. Carroll won a term as governor in his own right in 1975.
As governor, Carroll increased funding for public education and promoted the use of coal as a means of alleviating the 1973 energy crisis. He also oversaw a major reorganization of the state's judicial system following voters' approval of a constitutional amendment in 1975. Many natural and man-made disasters occurred during his term in office, including the Great Blizzard of 1978 and the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire, leading to better safety practices and stricter law enforcement in the state. When Carroll left office, both he and his predecessor were under the cloud of an investigation for an alleged insurance kickback scheme, but Carroll was not convicted of any wrongdoing. In 2004, he was elected to the Kentucky Senate. Re-elected in 2008 and 2012, he won a fourth term without opposition in 2016. He announced shortly after his 88th birthday that he would not run for re-election in 2020.
Early life
Julian Carroll was born in West Paducah in McCracken County, Kentucky. He was the third of eleven children born to Elvie B. "Buster" and Eva (Heady) Carroll. His father was a tenant farmer, but shortly after the Ohio River flood of 1937, the family moved to Heath in McCracken County, where Buster Carroll sold tractor implements and in 1940 opened an automobile repair shop. Through his early teenage years, Carroll lived with his grandparents to help care for an ailing grandfather.
In 1949, Carroll was selected to represent Heath High School at Kentucky Boys State, a week-long a civic affairs summer camp for high school seniors-to-be. Participants in the camp create a miniature state government based on their state's actual government. At the camp, Carroll was elected governor of the miniature government. The following year, he graduated as salutatorian and student body president of Heath High School.
Carroll began dating Charlann Harting near the end of 1950. In mid-1951, they parted ways to attend college – Harting, whose family was better off financially, at the University of Kentucky and Carroll at nearby Paducah Junior College. After their first year, Carroll and Harting decided to get married. The ceremony took place on July 22, 1951, and the couple eventually had four children – Kenneth, Patrice, Bradley, and Ellyn. Ellyn, born June 27, 1975, was the first child born to a Kentucky First Family while they were residing in the Governor's Mansion.
Carroll earned an Associate in Arts degree from Paducah Junior College in 1952. That summer, the family moved to Lexington where Carroll matriculated to the University of Kentucky. He funded his further education working for the Fayette County Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation Office. In 1954, he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science, and in 1956, he earned a Bachelor of Laws degree.
While in college, Carroll had received training through the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps. By graduation, he had risen to the rank of Commandant of Cadets, the highest rank of any student at the university. After graduation, he enlisted in the Air Force and was stationed at Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth, Texas. For three years, he served as an Air Force attorney, then returned to Paducah and joined the law firm of Reed, Scent, Reed, and Walton. He was active in civic affairs, including membership in the Jaycees and serving as charter president of the Paducah Optimists Club in 1962. He was a frequent lay speaker in the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, and from 1966 to 1967, served as moderator for the Kentucky Synod.
In January 1960, a group of local businessmen approached Carroll about leading a campaign to allow the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) to provide electricity to McCracken County. TVA could provide electricity at a much lower cost, but voters would first have to hold a public referendum on buying out Kentucky Utilities, the private power provider in the area. Carroll agreed to lead the campaign, and nine months later, voters approved the buyout by a three-to-one margin.
Political career
State legislature
The TVA campaign had put Carroll squarely in the public eye in McCracken County, and in 1962, he was elected to the first of five consecutive terms representing the county in the Kentucky House of Representatives. He was chosen Speaker of the House from 1968 through 1970. In the 100-member House of Representatives, it was not uncommon for lobbyists to roam the floor freely, for members to bring their lunches to their desks, or for them to bring their friends and family members onto the floor during debate. Determined to bring a higher degree of decorum to the chamber's proceedings, Carroll opened the 1968 legislative session with a single, powerful whack of his gavel. The gavel shattered, stunning the legislators. Carroll subsequently barred outsiders from the floor during debate and forbade eating in the chamber. Carroll shattered three more gavels during the legislative session – he was finally given a sturdier one made of solid oak and formica – but he brought order to the chamber's proceedings. At the end of the session, a member of the opposing party declared from the floor, "The decorum of this House has improved 100 percent... I must compliment the present Speaker of this House for ... eliminating the abominable practices. Today every member has a right to speak ... without fear of interruption and catcalls or being shouted down." The legislator's compliment was followed by a standing ovation for Carroll.
Lieutenant Governor
Carroll had considered running for the U.S. Senate in 1968, but dropped out of the race after just two weeks when he discovered that it would take well over $100,000 to run a competitive primary campaign. In 1971, former governor Bert T. Combs sought a second term as governor and chose Carroll as his informal running mate. (The governor and lieutenant governor were elected separately at the time.) Combs, an Eastern Kentucky native, sought geographic balance for the ticket by selecting Carroll, from the far-west Jackson Purchase. Combs said he would provide the needed financing, and Carroll agreed to enter the race.
Seven other Democratic candidates for lieutenant governor entered the race, the most formidable being sitting attorney general John B. Breckinridge. While Combs lost to sitting Lieutenant Governor Wendell Ford in the gubernatorial primary, Carroll won the separate primary for lieutenant governor, partly on the strength of the Eastern Kentucky votes he gained from his association with Combs. Carroll went on to defeat Republican Jim Host in the general election for lieutenant governor. As lieutenant governor, Carroll chaired the Legislative Research Commission and the National Conference of Lieutenant Governors.
Governor of Kentucky
Governor Ford's allies encouraged Carroll to run for the U.S. Senate in 1974, but Carroll had already set his sights on the governorship. Instead, Ford ran for and won the Senate seat, and Carroll succeeded him as governor. In 1975, he sought a full term in office and won the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in a four-way primary against Jefferson County Judge Todd Hollenbach, former state Auditor Mary Louise Foust, and Robert McCreary Johnson.
In the general election, Carroll faced Republican Robert E. Gable, a coal company owner. The main issue of the campaign was the imposition of desegregation busing on the city of Louisville. Both candidates opposed the busing, but Gable did so more vehemently and criticized the sitting governor for not "doing something about it". In a televised debate with Carroll, Gable insisted on using what he called a "truth bell". Gable rang the bell every time that he perceived that Carroll was not telling the truth. Eventually, the moderator of the debate, newspaper publisher Al Smith, ordered Gable to put the bell away, and Gable's credibility suffered in the eyes of voters. Carroll won the general election by a vote of 470,159 to 277,998, representing a record margin of victory in the Kentucky governor's race. He carried every congressional district, as well as Jefferson County, where a Democrat had not won a race in 20 years. His separately selected running mate, Thelma Stovall, became the first woman elected lieutenant governor of Kentucky.
With considerable experience in the General Assembly – first as speaker of the House, and later presiding over the Senate as lieutenant governor – Carroll exercised a great deal of control over the proceedings of the legislature. One observer quipped "A cockroach couldn't crawl across the Senate floor without an OK from the governor stamped on his back." His reaction to criticism was often severe, prompting his political enemies to derisively refer to him as "Emperor Julian." During the final year of Carroll's term, Lt. Gov. Stovall, who was left as acting governor when Carroll had left the state on business, called a special session of the legislature to enact a tax cut that Carroll opposed but later endorsed. The General Assembly passed the tax cut and began asserting its independence, especially in the Senate, which especially resented Carroll's tight control of previous sessions.
Carroll was charged with implementing an amendment to the state constitution approved by voters in 1975 to drastically reorganize the state's judicial system. The Kentucky Court of Appeals, the state's court of last resort, was renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court, and a new Court of Appeals was created and interposed between the Supreme Court and the state's circuit and district courts. The position of county judge was made a purely administrative position, and the office was renamed county judge/executive. Historian Lowell H. Harrison opined that the amendment made Kentucky's legal system "a model for the nation." Carroll also pushed through legislation eliminating the private bail-bond system.
Improvements in public schools were the hallmark of Carroll's term. Using money from a coal severance tax enacted by Ford's administration and increased revenue from an improving economy, Carroll increased teacher salaries and eliminated fees for required classes. He strengthened the Minimum Foundation Program and provided free textbooks. A School Building Authority was also created to help poor school districts construct new buildings. Vocational and special education were expanded, and a program for gifted and talented students was piloted. Consequently, Kentucky improved in most national educational benchmarks, including moving from 46th to 38th nationally in teacher salaries.
Higher education did not fare as well under Carroll. He cut the proposed budget for the state's Council on Higher Education by 40 percent. Because of the considerable political clout of the Golden Triangle (Lexington, Louisville and Covington), the University of Kentucky, University of Louisville, and Northern Kentucky University were spared the more severe budget cuts imposed on the state's regional universities.
As governor of what was the leading coal-producing state in the nation, Carroll advocated the use of coal to alleviate the 1973 energy crisis. He was called to testify before several congressional committees and served as an energy adviser to President Jimmy Carter. At the state level, he created a department of energy and constructed "resource recovery roads" in the state's coalfield regions. Among Carroll's other accomplishments were the initiation of a grant program to support the arts and the expansion of the state park system. He was one of many who opposed the damming of the Red River, which would have flooded Red River Gorge. Carroll was a supporter of a lemon law (that sought to provide a remedy for purchasers of cars that failed to meet quality standards) that was defeated in the 1976 legislative session.
Carroll served as chairman of the National Governors Association in 1978. He chaired the association's Natural Resources and Environmental Management Committee. He also served as the state's co-chairman of the Appalachian Regional Commission. He received honorary degrees from the University of Kentucky, Morehead State University, Murray State University, and Eastern Kentucky University in Kentucky, and from Lincoln Memorial University in Harrogate, Tennessee. He was named to the University of Kentucky Alumni Association's Hall of Distinguished Alumni in 1975.
Carroll's tenure was plagued by disasters, both natural and man-made. Flooding struck in the eastern part of the state and in the state capitol of Frankfort. Extreme cold gripped the entire state in 1977 and 1978, including the Great Blizzard of 1978. Two mine explosions in Letcher County killed 26 people, and the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire claimed 165 lives. Many of these disasters led to stricter enforcement of safety laws. Carroll formed the Department of Housing, Buildings, and Construction and strengthened the state fire marshal's office.
Carroll's credibility took a severe hit as a result of an investigation into an alleged insurance kickback scheme during the Ford administration and carrying on into his administration. When called before a grand jury in 1980, Carroll invoked the Fifth Amendment. He was not convicted of any wrongdoing, but his first state Democratic Party chairman, Howard P. "Sonny" Hunt, was after refusing to cooperate with the investigation. The probe also hurt commerce commissioner Terry McBrayer, Carroll's choice for governor in 1979. McBrayer finished third out of five candidates in the Democratic primary that year, won by late entry John Y. Brown Jr.
Later political career
After concluding his service as governor, Carroll resumed his law practice in Frankfort, Kentucky. Brown made him chairman of a non-profit organization to fight drugs in 1983. In 1987, he unsuccessfully sought another term as governor, finishing fifth in the Democratic primary behind Brown, Lt. Gov. Steve Beshear, former Human Resources Secretary Grady Stumbo, and the winner, businessman Wallace G. Wilkinson. Carroll again returned to his Frankfort law practice. In 2001, Kentucky's Purchase Parkway was renamed the Julian M. Carroll Purchase Parkway. In 2003, Carroll actively lobbied the General Assembly to legalize casino-style gambling at the state's horse racetracks.
State Senate
In 2004, Carroll was elected to the Kentucky Senate from District 7, defeating Harold Fletcher – the older brother of then-governor Ernie Fletcher – by a wide margin. The district included all or portions of Anderson, Fayette, Franklin, and Woodford counties. He made headlines in 2007 when he called on Fletcher's lieutenant governor, Steve Pence, to resign for his disloyalty after Pence endorsed Anne Northup in the Republican gubernatorial primary rather than backing Fletcher's re-election bid. Pence refused to resign, citing an investigation of the administration's hiring practices as his reason for refusing to endorse Fletcher. Fletcher won the Republican primary, but lost in the general election to Democrat Steve Beshear.
Carroll was re-elected without opposition in 2008. In advance of the 2011 legislative session, he unsuccessfully ran for the open position of Senate Democratic floor leader, losing to R. J. Palmer of Winchester. Carroll blamed his contentious relationship with Senate President David L. Williams as the reason his colleagues were hesitant to choose him for the post. On November 6, 2012, he defeated Republican Frank Haynes to retain his seat for another four years. He was re-elected without opposition in 2016 from a district now comprising Anderson, Woodford, Franklin, Owen and Gallatin counties.
On July 22, 2017, Spectrum News reported allegations by a male photographer that Carroll had groped him and propositioned him for sex in 2005. The following day, the Senate Democratic caucus voted to remove Carroll from his position as caucus whip and called on him to resign his seat immediately after hearing an audio recording allegedly containing Carroll's proposition to the man. On July 27, Carroll announced that he would not resign.
Carroll announced shortly after his 88th birthday that he would not run for re-election in 2020 and was endorsing State Representative Joe Graviss to succeed him. His term expired December 31, 2020.
References
Bibliography
External links
Website of State Senator Julian Carroll
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357269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ana%20Mar%C3%ADa%20Polo | Ana María Polo | Ana María Cristina Polo González (born 11 April 1959) is a Cuban-American Hispanic television arbitrator on Caso Cerrado and Ana Polo Rules
Born in Havana, Cuba. Ana moved to Puerto Rico when she was 2 years old accompanied by her family. Later, they moved to Miami where she participated in different musicals including Godspell, Jubilee and Show Boat in addition to singing with the chorus of Jubilee, which was invited by Pope Paul VI to sing at St. Peter's Basilica as part of the celebration of the 1975 Holy Year. She is now is the arbitrator on a show called "Caso Cerrado" which airs on Telemundo at different times throughout the entire day.
A breast cancer survivor, Polo frequently speaks and raises funds for the cause. She has advocated for LGBT rights throughout her career.
She graduated from the University of Miami School of Law in 1987, and is a member of the Florida Bar. Aside from her work on Caso Cerrado, she was a member of the law firm of Emmanuel Perez & Associates, P.A. in Coral Gables, Florida.
In 2010, Caso Cerrado, which Polo created, was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Legal/Courtroom Program. The nomination marked the first time a program from a Spanish-language network had been nominated for an Emmy Award.
References
External links
American lawyers
American television personalities
American women television personalities
Cuban emigrants to the United States
People from Havana
Living people
1950s births
American women lawyers
Opposition to Fidel Castro
LGBT rights activists from the United States
Age controversies |
357285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Papandreou | George Papandreou | George Andreas Papandreou (, , shortened to Giorgos () to distinguish him from his grandfather; born 16 June 1952) is an American-born Greek politician who served as Prime Minister of Greece from 2009 to 2011. He is currently serving as an MP for Movement for Change.
Belonging to a political dynasty of long standing, he served under his father, then-prime minister Andreas Papandreou as Minister for National Education and Religious Affairs (1988–1989 and 1994–1996) and Minister for Foreign Affairs from 1999 to 2004. Papandreou was leader of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) party, which his father founded, from February 2004 until March 2012, and has been President of the Socialist International since January 2006.
On 6 October 2009, George Papandreou became the 182nd Prime Minister of Greece. He was the third member of the Papandreou family to serve as the country's prime minister, following his father Andreas and his grandfather Georgios Papandreou. He resigned on 11 November 2011 during the Greek government debt crisis to make way for a national unity government.
In March 2012, he resigned as leader of PASOK, and in January 2015, he left the party completely, founding his own political party, the Movement of Democratic Socialists (KIDISO), which was the 8th most voted-for party in the January 2015 elections, but did not manage to enter Parliament. In 2017, KIDISO joined the Democratic Alignment, a political alliance formed by PASOK and other centre-left parties. Democratic Alignment later evolved into Movement for Change, which in the 2019 elections was the third most voted-for party, with Papandreou himself returning to Parliament as an MP representing the region of Achaea.
Early life and education
Papandreou was born 16 June 1952 in Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States, where his father, Andreas Papandreou, at that time held a professorship at the University of Minnesota. His mother is the American-born Margaret Papandreou, née Chant. He renounced his US citizenship in 2000.
He received his secondary education at schools in Illinois in the United States, in Sweden, and graduated from King City Secondary School (near Toronto) in Canada in 1970. He attended Amherst College in Massachusetts (where he was a friend and dormitory roommate of future political rival and prime minister of Greece himself, Antonis Samaras), Stockholm University, the London School of Economics and Harvard University. He has a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology from Amherst (1975) and a master's degree in sociology from the LSE (1977). He was a researcher on immigration issues at Stockholm University in 1972–73. He was also a fellow of the Foreign Relations Center of Harvard University in 1992–93.
In 2002 he was awarded an honorary doctorate of laws by Amherst College and in 2006 he was named distinguished professor in the Center for Hellenic Studies by Georgia State College of Arts and Science.
Papandreou's father studied and worked as professor of economics from 1939 to 1959. His paternal grandfather, Georgios Papandreou, was a three-time prime minister of Greece.
Political career
The younger George Papandreou came to Greece after the restoration of Greek democracy in 1974. He then became active in the political party his father had founded, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK). He joined the Central Committee of PASOK in 1984.
Papandreou was elected to the Greek Parliament in 1981, the year his father became Prime Minister, as MP for the constituency of Achaea. He became Under Secretary for Cultural Affairs in 1985, Minister of Education and Religious Affairs in 1988, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1993, Minister for Education and Religious Affairs again in 1994, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs again in 1996 and Minister of Foreign Affairs in February 1999. He was also Minister Responsible for Government Coordination for the Bid for 2004 Olympic Games in 1997.
In his second term as Minister of Education, Papandreou was the first politician in Greece to introduce affirmative action, allocating 5% of university posts for the Muslim minority in Thrace. He was also instrumental in initiating the Open University in Greece.
Papandreou received numerous awards and honorary degrees in recognition of his work for human rights. As Foreign Minister he fostered closer relations with Turkey and Albania. He worked to solve the dispute over Cyprus. Papandreou also worked to resolve tensions regarding the Macedonia naming dispute. Papandreou stated in 1999 that he supported Turkey's application to join the European Union.
In December 2003 European Voice shortlisted him for nomination of the Europeans of the Year award as "Diplomat of the Year", naming him as "The Bridge-Builder" and quoting Le Monde that dubbed him the "architect of Greek-Turkish rapprochement". He is a founding member of the Helsinki Citizens Assembly.
Party leadership
In anticipation of the 2004 national elections in Greece, polls indicated that PASOK was very likely to lose as the conservative New Democracy party was heading towards a landslide. In January 2004, the incumbent PM Costas Simitis announced his resignation as leader of PASOK, and passed the leadership to Papandreou by recommending him as the new leader. On 8 February 2004 PASOK introduced for the first time the procedure of open primaries for the election of party leadership. Even if Papandreou had no opponent, this was a move designed to solidify the open primaries, democratize the party, and make a clean break with the tradition of "dynastic politics."
In May 2005, Papandreou was elected Vice President of the Socialist International following a proposal by the former president, António Guterres. In January 2006, Papandreou was unanimously elected President of the Socialist International.
In the 2007 general election, PASOK again lost to the incumbent New Democracy party of Kostas Karamanlis and Papandreou's leadership was challenged by Evangelos Venizelos and Kostas Skandalidis. Papandreou, however, retained his party's leadership at a leadership election in November.
In June 2009 and under his leadership, his party won the 2009 European Parliament election in Greece. Four months later, PASOK won the October 2009 general elections with 43.92% of the popular vote to ND's 33.48%, and 160 parliament seats to 91.
Prime Minister
Taking office and revelations
The inauguration of George Papandreou as the 182nd Prime Minister of Greece took place on 6 October 2009.
Upon inauguration, Papandreou's government revealed that its finances were far worse than previous announcements, with a year deficit of 12.7% of GDP, four times more than the Eurozone's limit, and a public debt of $410 billion. This announcement served only to worsen the severe crisis the Greek economy was undergoing, with an unemployment rate of 10% and the country's debt rating being lowered to BBB+, the lowest in the Eurozone. Papandreou responded by promoting austerity measures, reducing spending, increasing taxes, freezing additional taxes and hiring and introducing measures aimed at combatting rampant tax evasion and reducing the country's public sector. The announced austerity program caused a wave of nationwide strikes and has been criticised by both the EU and the eurozone nations' finance ministers as falling short of its goals.
Crisis management and bailouts
On 23 April 2010 during a visit at the island of Kastelorizo, Papandreou issued a statement to the press that he instructed Finance Minister Papakonstantinou to officially ask the EU partners to activate the support mechanism, 'an unprecedented mechanism in the history and practice of the European Union'. The support mechanism, which was put in place by the European heads of state and government and further elaborated by Euro Group ministers, is a European mechanism to which the IMF is associated with financing and it involves a comprehensive three-year economic program and financing conditions.
On 23 April 2010, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, the Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) announced that Greece made a request for a Stand-By Arrangement. Papandreou and his Finance Minister Giorgos Papakonstantinou managed to convince the IMF and EU to participate in a €110bn bailout package on 9 May 2010. Greece's sovereign debt crisis, considered part of the European sovereign debt crisis, was marked by massive strikes and demonstrations.
In an opinion poll published on 18 May 2011, 77% of the people asked said they had no faith in Papandreou as Prime Minister in handling the Greek economic crisis.
On 25 May 2011 the Real Democracy Now! movement started protesting in Athens and other major Greek cities. At the time, the peaceful protests were considered to be a sign of popular rejection of Mr. Papandreou and his government's economic policies, with as much as three-quarters of the Greek population being against the policies of the Papandreou government. Among the demands of the demonstrations at Athens's central square, who claim to have been over 500,000 at one point, was the resignation of Papandreou and his government.
In the early hours of 22 June, George Papandreou and his government narrowly survived a vote of confidence in the Greek parliament, with 155 of the 300 seats in parliament. His government held 152 seats.
On 17 September, he cancelled a visit to the IMF building in Washington D.C and the UN Headquarters in New York City amid mounting concern over the country's debt crisis.
An opinion poll by Public Issue on behalf of Skai TV and Kathimerini in October 2011 showed that Papandreou's popularity had dropped considerably. Of the people asked, only 23% had a positive view of George Papandreou, while 73% had a negative opinion; ranking him lower than any other leader of a party in the Hellenic Parliament. Papandreou also ranked low on the question of who is more suitable for Prime Minister, with just 22%, as both Antonis Samaras (28%) and "neither" (47%) ranked higher than him.
On 26 October 2011, the European Summit agreed to hand to the Greek government the Sixth Tranche of €8 billion bailout early in the 2012, while the private-sector banks, the holders of Greek debt, have agreed to a 50% haircut on their outstanding Greek government bonds.
On 28 October 2011, during the national day parade, protesters blocked the parades, forcing the President of Greece and other officials to leave.
Called-off referendum and stepping aside
On 31 October, Papandreou announced his government's plans to hold a referendum on the acceptance of the terms of a eurozone bailout deal. The referendum was to be held in December 2011 or January 2012. However, following the insistence of EU leaders at the G20 summit in Cannes that the referendum should be on Greece's continued membership of the eurozone, and severe criticism of such a referendum by Greek Finance Minister Venizelos and within parliament, Papandreou scrapped the plan on 3 November.
On 5 November, his government only narrowly won a confidence vote in parliament and opposition leader Antonis Samaras called for immediate elections. The next day Papandreou met with opposition leaders trying to reach an agreement on the formation of an interim national unity government. However, Samaras gave in only after Papandreou agreed to step aside, allowing the EU bailout to proceed and paving the way for elections on 19 February 2012. Both the Communist Party (KKE) and the leftist SYRIZA coalition had refused Papandreou's invitation to join talks on a new unity government.
After several days of intense negotiations, the two major parties along with the Popular Orthodox Rally agreed to form a grand coalition headed by former Vice President of the European Central Bank Lucas Papademos. On 10 November, George Papandreou formally resigned as Prime Minister of Greece. The new coalition cabinet and Prime Minister Lucas Papademos were formally sworn in on 11 November 2011.
Comeback aspirations
In August 2012, Papandreou was re-elected President of the Socialist International at its congress in Cape Town. Within domestic politics, he however remained largely sidelined within PASOK, while still an ordinary Member of the Hellenic Parliament.
On 2 January 2015, Papandreou announced his aspirations to return to high-profile domestic politics. Launching his new party Movement of Democratic Socialists to contest the 25 January 2015 parliamentary elections, he confirmed the long-expected breakup with PASOK.
While his decision was fiercely criticized by PASOK officials, Papandreou referred to the extraordinary situation with the country facing important challenges amidst a highly polarized political situation. He said that under these circumstances he "needed to make a bold political choice. PASOK, the party I belonged to since my youth, and led for many years, had become assimilated into conservative practices and policies."
Receiving only 2.46% of the electoral vote, Papandreou's new party however fell short of the 3% electoral threshold. His failure to be reelected marks the first time since 1923 where a representative of the Papandreou political dynasty is not present in the Hellenic Parliament. Following the election he said in a BBC Newsnight interview that his conscience was clear: "I was able to save Greece from default."
In March 2017, at the Congress of the Socialist International that took place in Cartagena, Colombia, Papandreou was unanimously re-elected President of the organization.
He is also co-chair of the Democratic Alignment, a coalition of the center left parties in Greece, composed by the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), the Democratic Left (DIMAR) and the Movement of Democratic Socialists.
In May 2017, Papandreou delivered the keynote speech to the European Association of Political Consultants (EAPC) in Brussels.
On 20 October 2021, Papandreou announced his candidacy for the leadership of Movement for Change (Greece).
Personal life
George Papandreou was married to Ada Papapanou, until 2016, and they have a daughter, Margarita-Elena (born 1990). He also has a son, Andreas (born 1982), from a previous civil wedding to Evanthia Zissimides (1976–1987),who is from Cyprus.
He has two younger brothers, Nikos Papandreou and Andreas Papandreou, and two younger sisters, Sophia Papandreou and Emilia Nyblom.
Apart from Greek and English, he is also fluent in Swedish. One of his paternal great-grandfathers, Zygmunt Mineyko, was an army officer and an engineer of Polish-Lithuanian descent.
In 2016, Papandreou co-signed a letter to Ban Ki-Moon calling for a more humane drug policy, along with people like Glenn Greenwald, Olusegun Obasanjo and Anthony Romero.
Honours and decorations
1996: Commander of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (Ukraine)
1996: Grand Cross of the Order of the Lion (Finland)
1996: Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland II class (Poland)
1998: Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit (Spain)
1999: Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star (Sweden)
1999: Order of the White Star I class (Estonia)
1999: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
2000: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
2001: Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain)
2001: Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
2002: Grand Cross of the Order of Infante dom Henrique (Portugal)
2002: Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX (Vatican)
2003: Grand Commander of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary
2003: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
2003: Gran Cruz El Sol de Peru (Peru)
Awards
1988: " Botsis's Foundation for the Promotion of Journalism " award for "his multifaceted struggles, which established the Free Radio as part of our democratic institutions"
1996: SOS against anti-Semitism, and affiliated organizations" Committee award, for his work against anti-Semitism
1997: Abdi Ipekci special award for Peace and Friendship ( June 1997) "for his activities in favor of Greek-Turkish approach during the period 1995–1996 while serving as Minister of National Education and Religion"
2000: Eastwest Institute 2000 Awards – Peace Building Awards . The 2000 "Statesman of the Year Award" given to Foreign Minister George Papandreou of Greece and Foreign Minister Ismail Cem of Turkey for their great efforts at improving relations between their respective countries
2002: Jackie Robinson Humanitarian Award (United States Sport Academy)
2003: Recipient: Defender of Democracy (Parliamentarians for Global Action)
2006: Open Fields Award (Truce Foundation USA)
2010: Quadriga Award (Werkstatt Deutschland, Germany), for The Power of Veracity (transparency regarding the state of the Greek economy)
See also
Politics of Greece
List of prime ministers of Greece
References
External links
George Papandreou: Imagine a European democracy without borders June 2013 TED Talk
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357286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medell%C3%ADn%20Cartel | Medellín Cartel | The Medellín Cartel () was a powerful and highly organized Colombian drug cartel and terrorist-type criminal organization originating in the city of Medellín, Colombia that was founded and led by Pablo Escobar. It is often considered the first major “drug cartel” and was referred to as such (a cartel) due to the organization's upper echelons being built on a partnership between multiple Colombian traffickers operating alongside Escobar. Included were Jorge Luis Ochoa Vásquez, Juan David Ochoa Vásquez, José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha and Carlos Lehder. The cartel operated from 1972 to 1993 in Bolivia, Colombia, Panama, Central America, Peru, the Bahamas, the United States (which included cities such as Los Angeles and Miami), as well as in Canada. Although the organization started out as a smuggling network in the early 1970s, it wasn't until 1976 that the organization turned to trafficking cocaine. This was a result of Escobar getting introduced to the lucrative idea of cocaine smuggling by fellow Colombian trafficker Griselda Blanco. At the height of its operations, the Medellín Cartel smuggled multiple tons of cocaine each week into countries around the world and brought in up to US$60 million daily in drug profits.
Although notorious for once dominating the illegal cocaine trade, the organization, particularly in its later years was also noted for its use of violence for political aims and its asymmetric war against the Colombian government, primarily in the form of bombings, kidnappings, indiscriminate murder of law enforcement and political assassination. At its height, the Medellín Cartel was the largest drug cartel in the world and smuggled three times as much cocaine as their main competitor, the Cali Cartel, an international drug-trafficking organization based in the Valle del Cauca department of Colombia. At this time, the Medellín Cartel was generating over $20 billion annually.
History
Late 1970searly 1980s
In the late 1970s, the illegal cocaine trade became a significant problem for law enforcement and became a major source of profit for criminals, particularly smugglers. Drug lord Pablo Escobar provided protection to other smugglers who partnered with him and distributed cocaine for the cartel in New York City and later Miami, establishing a crime network that, at its height, trafficked around 300 kilos per day. During the cartel's zenith, Escobar oversaw the import of large shipments of coca paste from Andean nations such as Peru and Bolivia into Colombia, where it was then processed into cocaine hydrochloride (powdered cocaine) in jungle labs before being flown into the United States in amounts of up to 15 tons per day.
By 1982, cocaine surpassed coffee as the chief Colombian export. Around this time in the early 1980s, kidnappings made by guerrilla groups led the State to collaborate with criminal groups like those formed by Escobar and the Ochoas. The abduction of Carlos Lehder as well as the 1981 kidnapping of the sister of the Ochoas led to the creation of cartel-funded private armies that were created to fight off guerrillas who were trying to either redistribute their lands to local peasants, kidnap them, or extort the gramaje money that the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia or FARC) attempted to steal.
“Death to Kidnappers”
At the end of 1981 and the beginning of 1982, members of the Medellín Cartel, Cali Cartel, the Colombian military, the U.S.-based corporation Texas Petroleum, the Colombian legislature, small industrialists, and wealthy cattle ranchers came together in a series of meetings in Puerto Boyacá and formed a paramilitary organization known as Muerte a Secuestradores ("Death to Kidnappers", MAS) to defend their economic interests, and to provide protection for local elites from kidnappings and extortion. By 1983, Colombian internal affairs had registered 240 political killings by MAS death squads, mostly community leaders, elected officials, and farmers.
The following year, the Asociación Campesina de Ganaderos y Agricultores del Magdalena Medio ("Association of Middle Magdalena Ranchers and Farmers", ACDEGAM) was created to handle both the logistics and the public relations of the organization, and to provide a legal front for various paramilitary groups. ACDEGAM worked to promote anti-labor policies, and threatened anyone involved with organizing for labor or peasants' rights. The threats were backed up by the MAS, which would attack or assassinate anyone who was suspected of being a "subversive". ACDEGAM also built schools whose stated purpose was the creation of a "patriotic and anti-Communist" educational environment, and built roads, bridges, and health clinics. Paramilitary recruiting, weapons storage, communications, propaganda, and medical services were all run out of ACDEGAM headquarters.
By the mid-1980s, ACDEGAM and MAS had undergone significant growth. In 1985, Pablo Escobar began funneling large amounts of cash into the organization to pay for equipment, training, and weaponry. Money for social projects was cut off and redirected towards strengthening the MAS. Modern battle rifles, such as the AKM, FN FAL, Galil, and HK G3, were purchased from the military, INDUMIL, and drug-funded private sales. The organization had computers and ran a communications center that worked in coordination with the state telecommunications office. They had 30 pilots, and an assortment of fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. British, Israeli, and U.S. military instructors were hired to teach at paramilitary training centers.
Middlelate 1980s
Following this time in the mid-80s, Escobar's hold on Medellín further increased when he founded a criminal debt collection service known as the “Oficina de Envigado.” This was an office in the town hall of Envigado, a small municipality next to Medellín where Escobar grew up. Escobar used the municipal office to collect debts owed to him by drug traffickers and set the “sicarios” or hired killers on those who refused. Escobar was known to flaunt his wealth and went on to make Forbes' Billionaires list for seven years straight, between 1987 and 1993. His luxurious multimillion-dollar “Hacienda Nápoles" estate had its own zoo, and he reportedly ate from solid gold dinner sets. Escobar was known for investing profits from the drug trade in luxury goods, property, and works of art. He is also reported to have stashed his cash in “hidden coves,” allegedly burying it on his farms and under floors in many of his houses.
Relations with the Colombian government
Once U.S. authorities were made aware of "questionable activities", the group was put under Federal Drug Task Force surveillance. Evidence was gathered, compiled, and presented to a grand jury, resulting in indictments, arrests, and prison sentences for those convicted in the United States. However, very few Colombian cartel leaders were actually taken into custody as a result of these operations. Mostly, non-Colombians conspiring with the cartel were the "fruits" of these indictments in the United States.
Most Colombians targeted, as well as those named in such indictments, lived and stayed in Colombia, or fled before indictments were unsealed. However, by 1993 most, if not all, cartel fugitives had been either imprisoned, or located and shot dead, by the Colombian National Police trained and assisted by specialized military units and the CIA.
The last of Escobar's lieutenants to be assassinated was Juan Diego Arcila Henao, who had been released from a Colombian prison in 2002 and hidden in Venezuela to avoid the vengeance of "Los Pepes". However he was shot and killed in his Jeep Cherokee as he exited the parking area of his home in Cumaná, Venezuela, in April 2007.
While it is broadly believed that Los Pepes have been instrumental in the assassination of the cartel's members over the last 21 years, it is still in dispute whether the mantle is just a screen designed to deflect political repercussions from both the Colombian and United States governments' involvement in these assassinations.
Fear of extradition
Perhaps the greatest threat posed to the Medellín Cartel and the other traffickers was the implementation of an extradition treaty between the United States and Colombia. It allowed Colombia to extradite to the US any Colombian suspected of drug trafficking and to be tried there for their crimes. This was a major problem for the cartel, since the drug traffickers had little access to their local power and influence in the US, and a trial there would most likely lead to imprisonment. Among the staunch supporters of the extradition treaty were Colombian Justice Minister Rodrigo Lara (who was pushing for more action against the drug cartels), Police Officer Jaime Ramírez, and numerous Colombian Supreme Court judges.
However, the cartel applied a "bend or break" strategy towards several of these supporters, using bribery, extortion, or violence. Nevertheless, when police efforts began to cause major losses, some of the major drug lords themselves were temporarily pushed out of Colombia, forcing them into hiding from which they ordered cartel members to take out key supporters of the extradition treaty.
The cartel issued death threats to the Supreme Court Judges, asking them to denounce the Extradition Treaty. The warnings were ignored.
This led Escobar and the group he called Los Extraditables ("The Extraditables") to start a violent campaign to pressure the Colombian government by committing a series of kidnappings, murders, and narco-terrorist actions.
Alleged relation with the M-19
In November 1985, 35 heavily armed members of the M-19 guerrilla group stormed the Colombian Supreme Court in Bogotá, leading to the Palace of Justice siege. Some claimed at the time that the cartel's influence was behind the M-19's raid, because of its interest in intimidating the Supreme Court. Others state that the alleged cartel-guerrilla relationship was unlikely to occur at the time because the two organizations had been having several standoffs and confrontations, like the kidnappings by M-19 of drug lord Carlos Lehder and of Marta Nieves Ochoa, the sister of Juan David Ochoa. These kidnappings led to the creation of the MAS/Muerte a Secuestradores ("Death to Kidnappers") paramilitary group by Pablo Escobar. Former guerrilla members have also denied that the cartel had any part in this event. The issue continues to be debated inside Colombia.
Assassinations
As a means of intimidation, the cartel conducted thousands of assassinations throughout the country. Escobar and his associates made it clear that whoever stood against them would risk being killed along with their families. Some estimates put the total around 3,500 killed during the height of the cartel's activities, including over 500 police officers in Medellín, but the entire list is impossible to assemble, due to the limitation of the judiciary power in Colombia. The following is a brief list of the most notorious assassinations conducted by the cartel:
Kyle Luis Moreno, two DAS agents who had arrested Pablo Escobar in 1976. Among the earliest assassinations of authority figures by the cartel.
Rodrigo Lara, Minister of Justice, killed on a Bogotá highway on April 30, 1984, when two gunmen riding a motorcycle approached his vehicle in traffic and opened fire.
Tulio Manuel Castro Gil, Superior Judge which investigating Escobar for the assasination of two DAS agents which in 1977 arrested Escobar and his cousin Gustavo Gaviria, killed by motorcycle gunmen in July 1985, shortly after indicting Escobar.
Hernando Baquero Borda, Supreme Court Justice; rapporteur and defender of the Extradition Treaty with the United States, killed by gunmen in Bogotá on July 31, 1986.
Jaime Ramírez Gómez, Police Colonel and head of the anti-narcotics unit of the National Police of Colombia. Killed near Fontibon on his way to Bogota on November 17, 1986, when assassins in a green Renault 18 beside his red Mitsubishi Montero and opened fire. Ramírez was killed instantly; his wife and two sons were unharmed
Guillermo Cano Isaza, director of El Espectador who revealed publicly Escobar's criminal past, killed on December 17, 1986, in Bogotá by gunmen riding a motorcycle.
Jaime Pardo Leal, presidential candidate and head of the Patriotic Union party, killed by a gunman in October 1987.
Carlos Mauro Hoyos, Attorney General, kidnapped then killed by gunmen in Medellín in January 1988.
Antonio Roldan Betancur, governor of Antioquia, killed by a car bomb in July 1989.
Waldemar Franklin Quintero, Commander of the Antioquia police, killed by gunmen in Medellín in August 1989.
Luis Carlos Galán, presidential candidate, killed by gunmen during a rally in Soacha in August 1989. The assassination was carried out on the same day the commander of the Antioquia police was gunned down by the cartel.
Carlos Ernesto Valencia, Superior Judge, killed by gunmen shortly after indicting Escobar on the death of Guillermo Cano, in August 1989.
Jorge Enrique Pulido, journalist, director of Jorge Enrique Pulido TV, killed by gunmen in Bogotá in November 1989.
Diana Turbay, journalist, chief editor of the Hoy por Hoy magazine and former president Julio César Turbay Ayala's daughter, killed by Colombian military during a rescue attempt in January 1991. Actually, the bullet found in her body came from a police helicopter.
Enrique Low Murtra, Minister of Justice, killed by gunmen in downtown Bogotá in May 1991.
Myriam Rocio Velez, Superior Judge, killed by gunmen shortly before she was to sentence Escobar on the assassination of Galán, in September 1992.
Miguel Maza Márquez was targeted in the DAS Building Bombing, resulting in the death of 52 civilians caught in the blast. Miguel escaped unharmed.
In 1993, shortly before Escobar's death, the cartel lieutenants were also targeted by the vigilante group Los Pepes (or PEPES, People Persecuted by Pablo Escobar).
With the assassination of Juan Diego Arcila Henao in 2007, most if not all of Escobar's lieutenants who were not in prison had been killed by the Colombian National Police Search Bloc (trained and assisted by U.S. Delta Force and CIA operatives), or by the Los Pepes vigilantes.
DEA agents considered that their four-pronged "Kingpin Strategy", specifically targeting senior cartel figures, was a major contributing factor to the collapse of the organization.
Legacy
La Oficina de Envigado is believed to be a partial successor to the Medellín organization. It was founded by Don Berna as an enforcement wing for the Medellín Cartel. When Don Berna fell out with Escobar, La Oficina caused Escobar's rivals to oust Escobar. The organization then inherited the Medellín turf and its criminal connections in the US, Mexico, and the UK, and began to affiliate with the paramilitary United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia, organizing drug trafficking operations on their behalf.
In popular culture
The cartel has been both featured and referenced in numerous works of popular culture.
Kings of Cocaine: Inside the Medellín Cartel - An Astonishing True Story of Murder, Money and International Corruption, Book by Guy Gugliotta.
Blow: 2001 film about drug smuggler George Jung, Carlos Lehder (named Diego Delgado in the film) and the Medellín Cartel
Narcos is a Netflix original television series (2015–2017) that chronicles the life of Pablo Escobar and the rise of the Medellín Cartel. The first and second season depict his rise to the status of a powerful drug lord as well his narcoterrorist acts, war against the Colombian government and finally; his death. The role of Escobar is played by Brazilian actor Wagner Moura. The Medellín organization is also briefly depicted and mentioned in the spinoff series Narcos: Mexico.
Cocaine Cowboys and Cocaine Cowboys 2: documentary series about the Miami Drug War and Griselda Blanco
American Desperado: a book by journalist Evan Wright and former Medellín Cartel trafficker Jon Roberts
The Two Escobars: an ESPN 30 for 30 film details the link between the Medellín Cartel and the rise of Colombian football
American Made: 2017 fictionalised film about drug smuggler Barry Seal (Tom Cruise) and the Medellín Cartel, led by Jorge Ochoa (Alejandro Edda)
Season 2 episode 7 of Deadliest Warrior pitted the Medellín Cartel against the Somali Pirates with Michael Corleone Blanco, Son Of Griselda Blanco and gangster turned informant Kenny "Kenji" Gallo testing the cartel's weapons.
See also
Colombian Conflict
Miami Drug War
Narcoterrorism
Tranquilandia
Juan Matta-Ballesteros
Jon Roberts
Max Mermelstein
Mickey Munday
Narcotrafficking in Colombia
Drug barons of Colombia
Jack Carlton Reed
Virginia Vallejo
References
https://www-independent-co-uk.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/mafias-link-to-colombian-cartel-is-revealed-683238.html?amp_js_v=a2&_gsa=1&&usqp=mq331AQA#referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&_tf=From%20%251%24s&share=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fmafias-link-to-colombian-cartel-is-revealed-683238.html
Further reading
A book that details the efforts by the governments of the United States and Colombia, their respective military and intelligence forces, and Los Pepes (controlled by the Cali cartel) to stop illegal activities committed by Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar and his subordinates. It relates how Escobar was killed and his cartel dismantled.
Organizations established in 1972
1972 establishments in Colombia
Organizations disestablished in 1993
1993 disestablishments in Colombia
Disbanded Colombian drug cartels
Medellín
Terrorism in Colombia
Transnational organized crime
Organized crime groups in the United States
Gangs in Florida
Former gangs in New York City
Organised crime groups in Spain
Pablo Escobar |
357289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus%20snooping | Bus snooping | Bus snooping or bus sniffing is a scheme by which a coherency controller (snooper) in a cache (a snoopy cache) monitors or snoops the bus transactions, and its goal is to maintain a cache coherency in distributed shared memory systems. A cache containing a coherency controller (snooper) is called a snoopy cache. This scheme was introduced by Ravishankar and Goodman in 1983.
How it works
When specific data is shared by several caches and a processor modifies the value of the shared data, the change must be propagated to all the other caches which have a copy of the data. This change propagation prevents the system from violating cache coherency. The notification of data change can be done by bus snooping. All the snoopers monitor every transaction on a bus. If a transaction modifying a shared cache block appears on a bus, all the snoopers check whether their caches have the same copy of the shared block. If a cache has a copy of the shared block, the corresponding snooper performs an action to ensure cache coherency. The action can be a flush or an invalidation of the cache block. It also involves a change of cache block state depending on the cache coherence protocol.
Types of snooping protocols
There are two kinds of snooping protocols depending on the way to manage a local copy of a write operation:
Write-invalidate
When a processor writes on a shared cache block, all the shared copies in the other caches are invalidated through bus snooping. This method ensures that only one copy of a datum can be exclusively read and written by a processor. All the other copies in other caches are invalidated. This is the most commonly used snooping protocol. MSI, MESI, MOSI, MOESI, and MESIF protocols belong to this category.
Write-update
When a processor writes on a shared cache block, all the shared copies of the other caches are updated through bus snooping. This method broadcasts a write data to all caches throughout a bus. It incurs larger bus traffic than write-invalidate protocol. That is why this method is uncommon. Dragon and firefly protocols belong to this category.
Implementation
One of the possible implementations is as follows:
The cache would have three extra bits:
V valid
D dirty bit, signifies that data in the cache is not the same as in memory
S shared
Each cache line is in one of the following states: "dirty" (has been updated by local processor), "valid", "invalid" or "shared". A cache line contains a value, and it can be read or written. Writing on a cache line changes the value. Each value is either in main memory (which is very slow to access), or in one or more local caches (which is fast). When a block is first loaded into the cache, it is marked as "valid".
On a read miss to the local cache, the read request is broadcast on the bus. All cache controllers monitor the bus. If one has cached that address and it is in the state "dirty", it changes the state to "valid" and sends the copy to requesting node. The "valid" state means that the cache line is current. On a local write miss (an attempt to write that value is made, but it's not in the cache), bus snooping ensures that any copies in other caches are set to "invalid". "Invalid" means that a copy used to exist in the cache, but it is no longer current.
For example, an initial state might look like this:
Tag | ID | V | D | S
---------------------
1111 | 00 | 1 | 0 | 0
0000 | 01 | 0 | 0 | 0
0000 | 10 | 1 | 0 | 1
0000 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 0
After a write of address 1111 00, it would change into this:
Tag | ID | V | D | S
---------------------
1111 | 00 | 1 | 1 | 0
0000 | 01 | 0 | 0 | 0
0000 | 10 | 1 | 0 | 1
0000 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 0
The caching logic monitors the bus and detects if any cached memory is requested. If the cache is dirty and shared and there is a request on the bus for that memory, a dirty snooping element will supply the data to the requester. At that point either the requester can take on responsibility for the data (marking the data as dirty), or memory can grab a copy (the memory is said to have "snarfed" the data) and the two elements go to the shared state.
When invalidating an address marked as dirty (i.e. one cache would have a dirty address and the other cache is writing) then the cache will ignore that request. The new cache will be marked as dirty, valid and exclusive and that cache will now take responsibility for the address.
Benefit
The advantage of using bus snooping is that it is faster than directory based coherency mechanism. The data being shared is placed in a common directory that maintains the coherence between caches in a directory-based system. Bus snooping is normally faster if there is enough bandwidth, because all transactions are a request/response seen by all processors.
Drawback
The disadvantage of bus snooping is limited scalability. Frequent snooping on a cache causes a race with an access from a processor, thus it can increase cache access time and power consumption. Each of the requests has to be broadcast to all nodes in a system. It means that the size of the (physical or logical) bus and the bandwidth it provides must grow, as the system becomes larger. Since the bus snooping does not scale well, larger cache coherent NUMA (ccNUMA) systems tend to use directory-based coherence protocols.
Snoop filter
When a bus transaction occurs to a specific cache block, all snoopers must snoop the bus transaction. Then the snoopers look up their corresponding cache tag to check whether it has the same cache block. In most cases, the caches do not have the cache block since a well optimized parallel program doesn’t share much data among threads. Thus the cache tag lookup by the snooper is usually an unnecessary work for the cache who does not have the cache block. But the tag lookup disturbs the cache access by a processor and incurs additional power consumption.
One way to reduce the unnecessary snooping is to use a snoop filter. A snoop filter determines whether a snooper needs to check its cache tag or not. A snoop filter is a directory-based structure and monitors all coherent traffic in order to keep track of the coherency states of cache blocks. It means that the snoop filter knows the caches that have a copy of a cache block. Thus it can prevent the caches that do not have the copy of a cache block from making the unnecessary snooping. There are three types of filters depending on the location of the snoop filters. One is a source filter that is located at a cache side and performs filtering before coherence traffic reaches the shared bus. Another is a destination filter that is located at receiver caches and prevents unnecessary cache-tag look-ups at the receiver core, but this type of filtering fails to prevent the initial coherence message from the source. Lastly, in-network filters prune coherence traffic dynamically inside the shared bus. The snoop filter is also categorized as inclusive and exclusive. The inclusive snoop filter keeps track of the presence of cache blocks in caches. However, the exclusive snoop filter monitors the absence of cache blocks in caches. In other words, a hit in the inclusive snoop filter means that the corresponding cache block is held by caches. On the other hand, a hit in the exclusive snoop filter means that no cache has the requested cache block.
References
External links
Jim Plusquellic. Centralized Shared-Memory Architectures.
Snoop filter.
http://www.icsa.inf.ed.ac.uk/research/groups/hase/models/coherence/index.html
http://techpubs.sgi.com/library/tpl/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi/0650/bks/SGI_Developer/books/T_IRIX_Prog/sgi_html/ch01.html
Cache coherency |
357292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Burgundy | Duke of Burgundy | Duke of Burgundy () was a title used by the rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy, from its establishment in 843 to its annexation by France in 1477, and later by Habsburg sovereigns of the Low Countries (1482–1556).
The Duchy of Burgundy was a small portion of the traditional lands of the Burgundians west of the river Saône which, in 843, was allotted to Charles the Bald's kingdom of West Franks. Under the Ancien Régime, the Duke of Burgundy was the premier lay peer of the kingdom of France. Beginning with Robert II of France, the title was held by the Capetians, the French royal family. It was granted to Robert's younger son, Robert, who founded the House of Burgundy. When the senior line of the House of Burgundy became extinct, it was inherited by John II of France through proximity of blood. John granted the duchy to his younger son, Philip the Bold. The Valois Dukes of Burgundy gradually ruled over a vast complex of territories known as the Burgundian State, and became dangerous rivals to the senior line of the House of Valois.
When the male line of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy became extinct in 1477, the Duchy of Burgundy was confiscated by Louis XI of France. The title Duke of Burgundy passed to Habsburg monarchs via marriage. The Habsburgs used it to have a claim on Burgundy proper and to rule their Burgundian Inheritance. Today, the title is used by the House of Bourbon as a revived courtesy title.
List of Dukes of Burgundy
Bosonid dynasty (880–956)
The first margrave (marchio), later duke (dux), of Burgundy was Richard of the House of Ardennes, whose duchy was created from the merging of several regional counties of the kingdom of Provence which had belonged to his brother Boso.
His descendants and their relatives by marriage ruled the duchy until its annexation over a century later by the French crown, their suzerain.
Richard the Justiciar (880–921)
Rudolph (921–923), then King of the Franks
Hugh the Black (923–952)
Gilbert (952–956)
Robertian dynasty (956–1002)
Otto (956–965)
Eudes Henry the Great (965–1002)
House of Ivrea (1002–1004)
Otto William (1002–1004)
House of Capet (1004–1032)
In 1004, Burgundy was annexed by the king, of the House of Capet. Otto William continued to rule what would come to be called the Free County of Burgundy. His descendants formed another House of Ivrea.
Robert (1004–1016) (also king of the Franks as Robert II)
Henry (1016–1032) (also king of the Franks as Henry I)
House of Burgundy (1032–1361)
Robert, son of Robert II of France, received the Duchy as a peace settlement, having disputed the succession to the throne of France with his brother Henry.
House of Valois-Burgundy (1363–1482)
John II of France, the second Valois king, successfully claimed the duchy after the death of Philip, the last Capet duke. John then passed the duchy to his youngest son Philip as an apanage.
Family tree
House of Habsburg (1482–1700)
In 1477, the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, giving the Habsburgs control of the remainder of the Burgundian Inheritance.
Although the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy itself remained in the hands of France, the Habsburgs remained in control of the title of Duke of Burgundy and the other parts of the Burgundian inheritance, notably the Low Countries and the Free County of Burgundy in the Holy Roman Empire. They often used the term Burgundy to refer to it (e.g. in the name of the Imperial Circle it was grouped into), until the late 18th century, when the Austrian Netherlands were lost to the French Republic. The Habsburgs also continued to claim Burgundy proper until the Treaty of Cambrai in 1529, when they surrendered their claim in exchange for French recognition of Imperial sovereignty over Flanders and Artois.
Maximilian I (1477–1482 with his wife; regent 1482–1494)
Philip IV the Handsome (; ), titular Duke of Burgundy as Philip IV (1482–1506)
Charles II (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and King Charles I of Spain) 1506–1555
Philip V (King Philip II of Spain) 1556–1598
Isabella I (infanta Isabella Clara of Spain) and Albert I (Albert VII of Austria) (jure uxoris) 1598–1621
Philip VI (King Philip IV of Spain) 1621–1665
Charles III (King Charles II of Spain) 1665–1700
House of Bourbon, claimants of the title (1682–1761)
Louis, Duke of Burgundy (1682–1712)
Louis, Duke of Burgundy (1751-1761)
House of Habsburg (1713–1918)
Charles IV (Emperor Charles VI) 1713–1740
Maria Theresa 1740–1780
Francis I (Emperor Francis I) (1740–1765 with his wife)
Joseph (Emperor Joseph II) 1780–1790
Leopold (Emperor Leopold II) 1790–1792
Francis II (Emperor Francis II) 1792–1795/1835
Ferdinand (Emperor Ferdinand I) (1835–1848 titular only)
Franz Joseph (Emperor Franz Joseph I) (1848–1916 titular only)
Charles V (Emperor Charles I) (1916–1918 titular only later renounced)
House of Bourbon, revived title (1975–present)
King Juan Carlos I of Spain (1975–2014)
King Felipe VI of Spain (2014–present) – the title is one of the titles of the Spanish Crown
Prince Louis of Bourbon (2010–present) – the title is used by eldest son of the legitimist claimant to the French throne Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou.
See also
Duchess of Burgundy
Burgundian State
Kingdom of Burgundy
King of Burgundy
Duchy of Burgundy
County of Burgundy
Count of Burgundy
Dukes of Burgundy family tree
Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles
Further reading
Calmette, Joseph. Doreen Weightman, trans. The Golden Age of Burgundy; the Magnificent Dukes and Their Courts. New York: W.W. Norton, 1962.
Chaumé, Maurice. Les Origines du Duché de Bourgogne. 2v. in 4 parts. Dijon: Jobard, 1925 (Darmstadt: npub, 1977).
Michael, Nicholas. Armies of Medieval Burgundy 1364–1477. London: Osprey, 1983. .
Vaughan, Richard. Valois Burgundy. London: Allen Lane, 1975. .
Burgundy |
357302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanup | Cleanup | Cleanup, clean up or clean-up may refer to:
Cleaning, making clean and free from dirt, litter, or garbage, i.e. maintaining a state of cleanliness
Litter cleanup, removing waste that has been improperly disposed and disposing of it properly.
Cleanup (animation), a part of the workflow in the production of hand-drawn animation
A cleanup hitter in baseball
Clean Up Records, a record label
Environmental remediation, the removal of pollution or contaminants from environmental media
National Cleanup Day, a trash removal day on the Third Saturday in September
World Cleanup Day, a trash removal social movement
Code cleanup |
357306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister%20of%20Labour | Minister of Labour | Minister of Labour (in British English) or Labor (in American English) is typically a cabinet-level position with portfolio responsibility for setting national labour standards, labour dispute mechanisms, employment, workforce participation, training and social security.
Lists
The position exist in many countries with several different names:
Minister of Labor, Social Affairs, and Equal Opportunities (Albania)
Minister of Labor, Employment, and Social Security (Argentina)
Minister of Labour, Family and Youth (Austria)
Minister of Labor and Social Protection of the Population (Azerbaijan)
Ministry of Labour (Barbados)
Minister of Work, Employment, and Social Security (Bolivia)
Minister of Labour (Burma)
Minister of Labour (Bhutan)
Minister of Employment, Workforce, and Labour (Canada)
Minister of Labour and Immigration (Manitoba)
Minister of Labour (Ontario)
Minister of Labour (Quebec)
Minister of Human Resources and Social Security (China)
Secretary for Labour and Welfare (Hong Kong)
Minister of Labour (Colombia)
Minister of Social Affairs and Employment (Netherlands)
Minister of Labour (Germany)
Minister of Labour and Employment (India)
Minister of Manpower (Indonesia)
Minister of Cooperatives, Labour and Social Welfare (Iran)
Minister for Labour (Ireland, dissolved)
Minister of Labor, Social Affairs and Social Services (Israel)
Minister of Health, Labour, and Welfare (Japan)
Minister of Social Security and Labour (Lithuania)
Minister of Labor and Social Policy (Macedonia)
Minister of Human Resources (Malaysia)
Secretary of Labor (Mexico)
Minister of Labor, Family, and Social Protection (Moldova)
Minister of Labour (New Zealand)
Minister of Labour and Productivity (Nigeria)
Minister of Labor (North Korea)
Minister of Labour and Social Inclusion (Norway)
Secretary of Labor and Employment (Philippines)
Minister of Labor, Family, and Social Protection (Romania)
Minister of Manpower (Singapore)
Minister of Employment (Sweden)
Ministry of Labor (Taiwan)
Ministry of Labour (Thailand)
Minister of Labour and Social Security (Turkey)
Minister of Social Policy (the Ukraine)
Secretary of State for Employment (United Kingdom)
Minister of Labour (Northern Ireland)
Secretary of Labor (United States)
Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs (Vietnam)
References
Labour |
357308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antagonistic%20contradiction | Antagonistic contradiction | Antagonistic contradiction (Chinese language: 矛盾) is the notion that compromise between different social classes is impossible, and their relations must be of class struggle. The term is most often applied in Maoist theory, which holds that differences between the two primary classes, the working class/proletariat and the bourgeoisie are so great that there is no way to bring about a reconciliation of their views. Because the groups involved have diametrically opposed concerns, their objectives are so dissimilar and contradictory that no mutually acceptable resolution can be found. Nonantagonistic contradictions may be resolved through mere debate, but antagonistic contradictions can only be resolved through struggle.
The term is usually attributed to Vladimir Lenin, although he may never have actually used the term in any of his written works.
In Maoism, the antagonistic contradiction was usually that between the peasantry and the landowning class. Mao Zedong expressed his views on the policy in his famous February 1957 speech "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People."
The Chinese term derives from the Han Feizi: "There was once a man in the state of Chu, who was selling shields and lances. He was praising them saying: “My shields are so firm, that there is nothing that can pierce them.” He praised his lances saying: “My lances are so sharp, that there is nothing that they cannot pierce.” Someone asked: “What if you used your lances to pierce your shields?” The man could not answer. A shield that cannot be pierced and a lance that can pierce everything cannot exist in the same world." (see: Irresistible force paradox)
See also
On Contradiction
One Divides Into Two
References
Kim, Samuel S. (1979). China, the United Nations, and World Order. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP.
Meisner, Maurice (1986). Mao's China and After (Rev. ed.). New York: Free Press. .
Short, Philip (1999). Mao: A Life. New York: Henry Holt.
External links
Mao Zedong: On Contradiction on the Marxists Internet Archive
Mao Zedong: On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People on the Marxists Internet Archive
Marxist Philosophy: Antagonistic Contradictions
Chinese Communist Party: Theory of "Combine Two into One" is a Reactionary Philosophy
Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party
Maoism
Marxism
Maoist terminology |
357309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookside%20%28TV%20series%29 | Brookside (TV series) | Brookside is a British soap opera that was set in Liverpool, England. The series began on the launch night of Channel 4 on 2 November 1982 and ran for 21 years until 4 November 2003. Originally intended to be called Meadowcroft, the series was produced by Mersey Television (now renamed as Lime Pictures) and was conceived by Grange Hill and Hollyoaks creator Phil Redmond.
Brookside became very successful and was often Channel 4's highest rated programme for a number of years in the mid-1980s, with audiences regularly in excess of eight million viewers. Initially notable for its realistic and socially challenging storylines, from the mid-1990s the show began raising more controversial subjects under the guidance of new producers such as Mal Young and Paul Marquess. It is especially well known for broadcasting the first pre-watershed lesbian kiss on British television in 1994, as well as a domestic abuse storyline resulting in murder. It also had the first openly gay character on a British TV series, who was outed in a 1985 storyline. In 1996, the series experienced an extreme backlash from viewers when it featured a hugely controversial storyline focusing on an incestuous sexual relationship between two siblings, and from that point onwards the show became notable for its more outrageous and improbable storylines.
Although the series had a long and successful run, its viewing figures were in terminal decline by 2000, and low ratings eventually led to its cancellation in June 2003. The final episode was broadcast on 4 November 2003 and was watched by around two million viewers.
The first episode of Brookside was repeated as part of Channel 4 at 25 on 1 October 2007. The episode aired on More4 in a season of celebratory Channel 4 programmes to mark the channel's 25th anniversary. Several classic episodes have also been available to view on All 4 since 2009. After years of campaigning by fans, the special DVD Brookside Most Memorable Moments was released in November 2012, just over 30 years after the series originally began. It features clips and episodes from the programme's 21-year history.
Development
Brookside differed from other soap operas because it was filmed in real, brand-new houses in a real cul-de-sac, situated off Deysbrook Lane in the Croxteth area of Liverpool. Built by Broseley Homes, the houses were custom-built in an attempt by the producers to add to the show's realism. In early 1982, Mersey Television, with Phil Redmond at the helm, bought 13 houses altogether, six of which would be seen on-screen as sets. The remaining seven properties housed administration, post-production, and canteen facilities for the cast and crew. Redmond was particularly enthusiastic about purchasing an entire "close" of houses, partly as a means of achieving the desired realism of Brookside, as well as to maintain total control of his creation.
Characters
Narrative
Beginning
Brookside had a smaller ensemble cast than other soaps, eventually focusing on six households. The early cast featured just 16 characters and it would be a full 12 months before the six houses in Brookside Close became fully occupied. This was intentional, as Redmond wanted to reflect the pace of real life 'new-build' estate occupancy. Therefore, introductory episodes concentrated on the development of the anchor Grant family, with Sheila (Sue Johnston) and Bobby (Ricky Tomlinson) who had moved up the social ladder to a big, four-bedroomed house on the 'middle-class' Brookside Close from a run-down council estate. The Grants were the first family to have moved onto the Close and they lived at number 5 and were the focus of earliest advertising campaigns promoting the programme. Initially, only three of the six new-builds were occupied by characters and Episode 1 saw the arrival of the Collins family led by Annabelle (Doreen Sloane), who is the first actor to be seen in the first episode, and Paul Collins (Jim Wiggins). In contrast to the Grants, the Collinses were on their way down the social ladder, downsizing from their lavish home on the upmarket Wirral, to the smaller, more modest, number 8 Brookside Close following Paul's redundancy. The contrast between the families was heavily featured, particularly Bobby's left wing and Paul's right wing views. Other characters included Heather Black (Amanda Burton in her TV debut) and Roger Huntington (Rob Spendlove), two young professionals residing at semi-detached number 9 who took an instant dislike to the Grants. Low class newly-weds Gavin (Daniel Webb) and Petra Taylor (Alexandra Pigg) moved into number 10 during very early episodes, memorably selling stolen cookers from the front lawn, infuriating their new neighbours.
The first episode was watched by 4.2 million viewers but the initial reaction to the serial was far from positive. Critics were quick to point out various technical problems as well as the profanity now being screened before the watershed. As viewing figures plummeted, stabilising at around 1 million, the production team and writers started to iron out Brooksides teething troubles. Soundproof panels were placed on the ceilings of the houses to contain sound and eliminate echoing, and the scriptwriters toned down the language and removed a couple of poor performing supporting actors. The show's atmosphere changed with the arrival of new characters such as Alan Partridge (a character played by Dicken Ashworth and unrelated to the later comedy character of the same name) who moved into the bungalow (number 6) in April 1983, while pensioners Harry and Edna Cross (Bill Dean and Betty Alberge) bought number 7, arriving in November. Their opening storyline involved the mysterious movement of their garden gnomes. These new characters expanded the cast whilst helping to bring humour and balance to the existing cast during 1983.
Further cast changes during 1983 saw the arrival of the Jackson family. Both Gavin and Petra Taylor departed Brookside very early in the year. Gavin was the first casualty of the soap, dying suddenly from a brain haemorrhage in February – Petra committed suicide a few months later, having disappeared from the Close in mysterious circumstances. Petra's sister, Marie Jackson (Anna Keaveney), her husband George (Cliff Howells) and their twin boys Gary and 'little' George (Allan and Steven Patterson) moved into number 10. They became central to one of Brookside's first high-profile storylines, when George was wrongly convicted of a warehouse robbery. In a bold move, the plotline was leaked to the tabloid press, and as Marie began the Free George Jackson campaign on-screen, the press followed, creating huge levels of media hype similar to those seen when US soap Dallas featured the 'Who shot J. R.?' plot in 1980, and Crossroads leaked the motel fire storyline in November 1981. Viewing figures rose as the hype continued; a record called "Free George Jackson" by Blazing Saddles was released, and merchandise was produced, including T-shirts and posters. Even though the storyline ultimately had a low-key conclusion (Cliff Howells resigned and George Jackson stayed in prison), the plot helped Brookside on the pathway to success, particularly when the Corkhills arrived to replace the departed Jackson family in September 1985.20 Years of Brookside by Graham Kibble-White. Pages 27 to 29 cover entire storyline
Other early storylines included Alan's turbulent love-life and eventual marriage to Samantha Davies (Dinah May), Sheila's unexpected pregnancy in her forties, Paul's battles with unemployment, Edna's gambling addiction, Terry Sullivan's (Brian Regan) relationship with Petra's other sister, Michelle Jones (Tracey Jay), and his descent into petty crime along with Barry (Paul Usher). All the while, a strong political undertone was evident in the writing of Brooksides earliest episodes and characters would often be seen debating political issues of the time.
Taking issue
Many of Brookside's early storylines were issue-led and strongly geared around the Grant's turbulent marriage. Bobby's short-temper and frequent visits to union picket lines opposite Sheila's staunch Catholic faith and traditional family values made compelling viewing for many viewers, as did the antics of their children Barry, Karen (Shelagh O'Hara), and Damon (Simon O'Brien). The Jacksons, although a relatively high-profile family during the first two years of Brookside, departed Liverpool following inmate George's transfer to a different prison near Leeds in early 1985. Remaining sister Michelle departed soon after, leaving number 10 vacant for some time.
The Collins family at number 8 also had an eventful time. Nearing retirement, Paul suffered humiliation at his redundancy and subsequent unemployment, resulting in the family having to move to Brookside Close in the first episode. In another British soap opera first, a controversial storyline aired in 1985 saw their teenage son Gordon (originally Nigel Crowley, later Mark Burgess) coming out as homosexual when his copy of Gay Times was delivered to the neighbouring Corkhills by mistake. This made him the first openly gay character on a British TV series. The following year, Lucy Collins (originally Katrin Cartlidge, then Maggie Saunders) embarked on an affair with an older married man. During this time Annabelle became a magistrate and the main breadwinner.
1985 was a pivotal year for Brookside. Viewing figures had been steadily increasing since the popular Free George Jackson plot of 1984, but they rose to unprecedented levels in July 1985 during an extreme and hard-hitting siege storyline which saw three characters held hostage at gunpoint. At this point, the show was only in its third year and number 7 Brookside Close was then home to young nurses Sandra Maghie (Sheila Grier) and Kate Moses (Sharon Rosita), and former hospital porter Pat Hancock (David Easter). They rented the property from Harry and Edna Cross, who had moved into the bungalow next door after Harry suffered a serious angina attack. Through their nursing, they encountered John Clarke (Robert Pugh), whose elderly mother eventually died of natural causes in hospital, while under their care. Gradually, John's instability grew into insanity as he was unable to cope with the death of his mother, and he forced his way into number 7 armed with a gun and ready to avenge his mother's death. He held the three hostage for several days in a tense three-episode run with Brookside Close sealed off and surrounded by armed police. The siege culminated in three shots resulting in the death of Kate followed by John's suicide. Some critics took issue with the unlikely plot-premise; for example, Hilary Kingsley described it as "ludicrous" in her book Soap Box, while others were critical of the producers' decision to kill off Kate, the series' only black character. Viewers disagreed and ratings were pushed to over 8 million for the first time. This year also saw the death of Edna Cross, who collapsed from a stroke in the kitchen of number 6, just weeks after the siege. After Edna's death, long-time friend Ralph Hardwick (Ray Dunbobbin) moved into the bungalow to look after a devastated Harry. In September, Brookside's longest-serving family, the Corkhills, arrived. The first generation to appear in the Close were Billy (John McArdle) and Doreen (Kate Fitzgerald), who moved into number 10 with their children Rod (Jason Hope) and Tracy (Justine Kerrigan). Stories involving the Corkhills were strongly concerned with marital problems and debt. With Billy languishing on the dole, Doreen struggled to raise money to support her desperate family. Doreen's interfering mother, Julia Brogan (Gladys Ambrose), followed the family and became a hugely popular comedy character, often dropping in to see her daughter at the most inappropriate moments. Julia remained in the series for well over a decade, long after her daughter and grandchildren moved on.
In 1986 storylines were just as hard-hitting, starting with a shocking and controversial sex attack on pivotal character Sheila Grant. Actress Sue Johnston's realistic portrayal of scenes showing Sheila coming to terms with her horrific rape experience and the impact this had on her family led to the storyline being named the second most popular Brookside storyline ever, as featured in the documentary Brookside: 10 of the Best,. Although Johnston went on to achieve even greater acclaim in the long-running drama Waking the Dead (2000–11) and as Barbara Royle in the hugely successful sitcom The Royle Family (1998–2012), when interviewed for the short Brookside: 10 of the Best DVD feature, Johnston confirmed that this powerful storyline is some of her proudest work ever as an actress. The second big storyline of 1986 was the death of Heather's second husband Nicholas Black (Alan Rothwell). Having divorced her first husband Roger in 1983, Heather reverted to her maiden name, Haversham, and returned to her career as an accountant. In November 1985 she met and quickly married Nicholas, but she was unaware that he was a secret heroin addict. Although Nick (as he was generally known) attempted to keep to his promise to his wife to give up heroin, the pull of the drug became stronger. After weeks of deceiving his wife to raise money for drugs (including stealing and selling her jewellery) he disappeared, subsequently dying of exposure in Sefton Park after overdosing on uncut heroin. As a result of this, and realising there was nothing left for her in Brookside Close, she left the series for good. The storyline was intentionally shocking, and made Brookside the first British soap opera to tackle the issue of heroin addiction candidly.
This year also saw the introduction of the soap's longest-running character Jimmy Corkhill, played by Dean Sullivan. Initially a bit-part player, Jimmy was the brother of Billy Corkhill. His early appearances usually saw the character in many moneymaking schemes, along with characters such as Barry Grant, Terry Sullivan and Thomas 'Sinbad' Sweeney (Michael Starke). Jimmy Corkhill's first high-profile storyline involved an insurance job on his brother Billy's house, whilst the Corkhills and most of the Close were attending son Rod's graduation from police training. Another famous Brookside storyline occurred in November 1987 and involved Doreen and Billy's crumbling marriage reaching breaking point. When Doreen admitted to Billy she had been sexually propositioned in return to pay off the family's spiralling debts, in an iconic scene, Billy drove around the Close, churning up his neighbour's gardens in a fit of anger, and a distraught Doreen walked out on her desperate family.
Following Heather's exit, Jonathan Gordon-Davies (Stephen Pinner) bought number 9, moving in with his fiancée, Laura Wright (Jane Cunliffe) in April 1987. Jonathan and Laura were both young professionals epitomising the 'yuppie' stereotype of the era and ostensibly filled the social demographic previously occupied by Heather. However, shortly after their marriage in August and following extensive character development in the scripts, Laura was soon hospitalised by an almighty electric shock after leaving the bathroom and switching on a brass-faced light switch that had been incorrectly wired by her father. Laura tumbled down the stairs, and went into a coma for three months, and Jonathan was faced with the impossible decision of allowing doctors to switch off her life-support machine in January 1988. Terry Sullivan then lodged at number 9 with Jonathan, and Terry's new girlfriend Sue Harper (Annie Miles) moved in soon after.
Peak of popularity
Late 1987 to early 1988 saw the rapid disintegration of the central Grant family. Damon was fatally stabbed whilst on the run in York with his girlfriend Debbie (Gillian Kearney) in November 1987 (and contained in a Brookside spin-off, see below). Karen left the show when she headed for London to study in late 1986, returning briefly in 1988 to visit her brother's grave, and again in 1990 for her mother's wedding. Bobby then left the Close in May 1988 after he and Sheila grew apart following Damon's death. Later it was revealed that he was not Barry's biological father. As the Grants' marriage crumbled, destitute Sheila and her youngest daughter Claire moved into the spare room at Billy Corkhill's (number 10) after lonely Billy agreed to take them in. Number 5 was subsequently auctioned off and bought by the Rogers family during a moment of auction-fever in May 1989. The Rogers were a similarly large family like the Grants and moved into number 7 Brookside Close in November 1987 on the day of Damon's funeral, initially renting it from Harry Cross. The Rogers comprised truck driver Frank (Peter Christian) and his wife Chrissy (Eithne Browne) along with their three children Sammy (Rachael Lindsay), Katie (Debbie Reynolds, Diane Burke from 1989) and Geoff (Kevin Carson). One of the very early storylines featuring the Rogers' family involved Geoff's dyslexia. After experiencing reading and writing difficulties at school, mum Chrissy eventually uncovered his dyslexia, initially teaching him herself at home before getting proper specialist teaching for Geoff in school. This was the first time dyslexia had been tackled by a soap opera and helped to significantly raise awareness.
1989 saw the Rogers family become the show's central nuclear family. When the bigger, 4-bedroomed number 5 went up for auction, they decided to buy the former Grant house on their way up the property ladder. Many storylines revolved around them, including the bullying of Katie at school and a spectacular stunt, staged in October 1989, when Sammy and her boyfriend Owen Daniels (Danny McCall) were involved in a horrific car accident as a result of joy riding. The storyline was praised by then-Home Office Minister John Patten as "realistic realism" when highlighting the dangers of joy riding. As a result of the crash, Owen used a wheelchair and Sammy turned to drink, beginning the character's destructive descent into alcoholism.
Later developments for the Collins family included Annabelle having to rescue her elderly mother Mona (Margaret Clifton) from a corrupt nursing home where she was being mistreated. This was followed shortly after by Annabelle's affair with fellow magistrate Brian Lawrence (Vincent Maguire). Paul eventually found out about the affair, confronting Annabelle on Christmas Day 1988, and in the weeks that followed they worked at repairing their marriage. However, in June 1990, the entire family were abruptly written out of the series following Doreen Sloane's sudden death from cancer. The Collinses were among the few remaining original characters, and their sudden departures were heavily criticised.
Like the Grants, the Corkhills' turbulent marriage also ended in divorce and Doreen left the family in late 1987. 19-year-old Rod (Jason Hope) became a police officer and 16-year-old Tracy (Justine Kerrigan) trained as a hairdresser. Jimmy Corkhill, now a regular cast-member, was by now lodging at number 10 with his new girlfriend Kathy Roach (Noreen Kershaw). To make room for everyone, he created another room by knocking a doorway through to the garage, and it was this room that was eventually occupied by Sheila and Claire Grant. During 1989 Sheila and Billy grew closer, but the surprise return of Doreen, determined to win back Billy, caused big problems in their slow-developing romance, which became hugely popular with viewers.
In May 1989, a young professional Chinese family, the Chois, arrived at vacated number 7. Widower Michael (David Yip) moved in with his young daughter Jessica and before long, he embarked on a relationship with a colleague, scientist Alison Gregory (Alyson Spiro). Michael's sister Caroline (Sarah Lam) also moved in, providing storylines for the increasingly popular Sinbad, who was attracted to her. Sinbad had gradually risen from the ranks of occasional comic-relief character to a popular member of the cast, and his part continued to grow. He was eventually reunited with his estranged mother Ruth (Mary Healey), before finding love with Marcia Barrett (Cheryl Maiker) to whom he was briefly engaged.
In 1990, there was a near-wholesale cast turnover: Billy and Sheila married and then departed for Basingstoke, Jonathan Gordon-Davies left for London, the relatively new Chois emigrated to America and Harry Cross moved to St Helens. They were quickly replaced by a raft of new characters. The Farnhams bought number 7, the Dixons arrived at number 8, the reunited Johnson family settled into number 6, and Sue Harper married Terry Sullivan and they started married life at number 9 with baby Danny. The influx of new families had arrived in very quick succession. Max and Patricia Farnham (Steven Pinder and Gabrielle Glaister) moved into number 7 in September and were the soap's new 'professional' couple, along with their son Thomas, and live-in nanny Margaret Clemence (Nicola Stephenson). In direct contrast, working-class Ron and DD Dixon (Vince Earl and Irene Marot) drove onto Brookside Close during October in the 'Moby', a huge mobile shop, and moved into number 8 with their family, thus beginning a long-running feud between the two families which would last the rest of the series. Mick Johnson (Louis Emerick) had been a lodger with Harry Cross in 1989, but in early 1990 the character was joined by his estranged wife Josie (Suzanne Packer) and their children Leo and Gemma (Naomi Kamanga). Finally, with the rest of the Grant family gone, remaining original character of Barry Grant was developed and became increasingly involved in various dubious plots with the Liverpool underworld.
Even with the high cast turnover, Brookside was now achieving mass appeal and had become a hugely profitable and lucrative brand for Channel 4, as ratings continued to climb. The soap was by now achieving an average audience of around 7 million viewers (with the weekday and omnibus audience figures combined) and Channel 4 wanted more, introducing a third weekly episode from 1 July 1990. To accommodate this expansion, Mersey Television bought a defunct technical college in the district of Childwall, around 15 minutes away from the set of Brookside Close. The new headquarters came with a number of advantages, not least the fact that parts of the site could be used as different sets for their programmes, and part of this new premises became a row of shops called Brookside Parade.20 Years of Brookside by Graham Kibble-White. Page 69
Brookside Parade
The introduction of Brookside Parade saw Ron Dixon open a convenience store called Dixon's Trading Post, Barry Grant opened a bar/nightclub initially called La Luz, and Terry Sullivan opened Pizza Parade, where Matty Nolan (Tony Scoggo) and Owen Daniels worked for a while. Other businesses opened soon afterwards, including a salon run by Angela Lambert (Hilary Welles), a florist run by DD Dixon, a petrol station, and eventually a health club complete with swimming pool. These businesses meant that the main focus of Brookside shifted away from the houses and families of Brookside Close to this new, modern set – and many storylines went with it. To launch Brookside Parade in 1991, and coinciding with the soap's 1000th episode, the writers (now led by senior producer Mal Young) developed the controversial storyline of the double-murder of pregnant Sue Sullivan and baby Danny. The two were pushed off scaffolding, crashing through a glass canopy to their deaths, supposedly by lawyer Graeme Curtis (David Banks) in a grim 'whodunnit' plotline which saw ratings soar.
Billy Corkhill's children had remained in the series after his departure. Tracey became romantically involved with Barry Grant, leading to her aborting his baby, and Rod married Diana Spence (Paula Frances) and left the police force after being viciously beaten on his wedding night. The Rogers' divorced after Chrissy (Eithne Browne) walked out on the family to join teacher training college on Sammy and Owen's wedding day. By the end of 1991, Jimmy Corkhill (Dean Sullivan), had become a series regular and he played a central part in the show. He was joined by his estranged wife Jackie (Sue Jenkins), who appeared from 1991 working at Dixon's Trading Post, and his elder children Little Jimmy Corkhill (George Christopher) and Lindsey (Claire Sweeney) were initially seen as recurring characters. Jimmy was used to further explore the dark and devastating effects of serious drug addiction, beginning in 1993. The long-running story saw Jimmy descend into uncontrollable drug abuse, climaxing in a cocaine-induced car crash that killed Frank Rogers in November 1993. Teenager Tony Dixon (Mark Lennock) was also involved in the crash and eventually died in February 1994, sparking a feud between Jimmy and Ron that continued until the end of the series. Jimmy had taken part in endless fundraising with Ron's family in an attempt to help Tony recover from what doctors had diagnosed as a persistent vegetative state, but at Tony's funeral he could not hide his guilt any longer and he finally confessed to Ron.
By 1993, the firm establishment of Brookside Parade was complete and it was fully occupied by businesses owned by residents of Brookside Close. Flats above the shops also provided homes to various characters, including former resident Mick Johnson, who would later be held at gun-point in his flat by obsessed stalker Jenny Swift (Kate Beckett). Mersey Television made full use of their former technical college buildings in Childwall and writers introduced headmistress Barbara Harrison (Angela Morant), who moved into number 9 Brookside Close in December 1991 with her recently retired husband John (Geoffrey Leesley). Many scenes saw Barbara at Brookside Comprehensive (in reality derelict parts of Childwall Technical College), in charge of pupils such as teenagers Jacqui (Alexandra Fletcher) and Mike Dixon (Paul Byatt) from number 8, and Katie Rogers from number 5. The Harrisons' storylines included John's struggle with early retirement, his battle with asthma and his shoplifting sprees, and their son Peter (Robert Beck) became involved in a lengthy date-rape plot with Diana Corkhill. After a court case in which Peter was eventually found not guilty of rape, Rod left the Close and divorced Diana, believing her rape was really consensual, adulterous sex. The Harrisons also left the Close and were replaced by the Banks family, who arrived with much baggage of their own in January 1994.
The Body Under the Patio
One of Brookside's most famous storylines began in February 1993, with the story of wife-beater and child abuser Trevor Jordache (Bryan Murray). His wife, Mandy (Sandra Maitland) and daughters Beth (Anna Friel) and Rachel (Tiffany Chapman) moved into number 10 under a shroud of mystery. The house had been vacated by the remaining Corkhills and sold to a Mrs Shackleton; unbeknown to the residents of the close, she was acting as a representative for a charity supporting abused families, and had purchased the property as a safe house. After the Jordache family moved in some disturbing facts began to emerge. It transpired that not only had Mandy suffered years of mental and physical abuse, but also that Beth had been sexually abused by her father. Before long Trevor, who had recently been released from prison for GBH against Mandy, found them and persuaded Mandy to let him back into the family home, pretending to have been changed by prison, but once in he quickly resumed his old ways and frequently beat Mandy. Things quickly escalated as Trevor began getting violent towards Beth and began sexually abusing Rachel. As the abuse and torture got worse, Beth encouraged her mother Mandy to kill Trevor. After several attempts by the pair to poison him failed, Mandy stabbed him in the kitchen of number 10 and, with the help of Beth and Sinbad, buried him underneath their patio, where his body remained until January 1995, when neighbour Eddie Banks (Paul Broughton) dug him up whilst investigating a leaking water pipe. Following the discovery, Sinbad, who had genuine feelings towards Mandy and had been totally supportive and sympathetic of her plight, took the family on the run to the Republic of Ireland. This was depicted in a couple of episodes before they were arrested in Dublin as wanted suspects for murder. On return to Britain, Mandy and Beth were immediately charged with Trevor's murder, launching the Free the Jordache Two campaign and ratings soared with Brookside achieving its highest ever viewing figures of 9 million. The story was inspired by a real life case in Walsall, West Midlands, where a woman killed her abusive husband and buried his body under the patio of their house in 1990; it was discovered two years later.
The Jordache family, particularly Anna Friel's Beth, were among the most popular ever featured in Brookside and contributed massively to the soap opera's overall popularity at the time, especially when Beth shared the first pre-watershed lesbian kiss on British television with Margaret Clemence in January 1994. Mandy, meanwhile, developed a close relationship with popular Sinbad, eventually falling pregnant to him. However, in 1995, many viewers were disappointed with the conclusion of the storyline, when Beth suddenly died off-screen from a genetic heart condition whilst still in prison. In reality, Anna Friel refused to renew her contract and abruptly quit the role. Phil Redmond explained to disappointed viewers he felt the only way for Beth to leave Brookside was to die; he felt it would not have been right to leave the incredibly popular character languishing in prison. Once Mandy was finally acquitted and released, having won an appeal, she gave birth to Sinbad's baby (and named her after his mother, Ruth) but then moved to Bristol to work in a refuge for abused women, leaving unlucky Sinbad alone once again. The youngest Jordache, Rachel (Tiffany Chapman), remained in Brookside Close until the end, marrying Mike Dixon and giving birth to their daughter, Beth, named in honour of her late sister.
Decline
Following the huge ratings success of the 'body under the patio' and lesbian kiss plots, writers persisted with controversial, headline-grabbing subjects that other British soaps did not. Storylines progressively became more sensational in a fierce chase for high ratings. A religious cult headed by Simon Howe (Lee Hartney) brainwashed Terry Sullivan and Katie Rogers, taking over and then blowing up number 5 in a suicide pact during 1994, and a mysterious 'killer virus' saw the Close quarantined and the deaths of guest characters George (Brian Murphy) and Audrey Manners (Judith Barker), and garage owner Gary Salter, in the middle of 1995. The arrival of the Simpson family in May 1996 and the quickly-established incestuous relationship between brother and sister Nat (John Sandford) and Georgia (Helen Grace) that drew the most substantial criticism – especially after their younger brother Danny (Andrew Butler) caught them in bed together. Channel 4 was forced to broadcast an apology to viewers who complained to the ITC about the highly contentious plot, and Phil Redmond was finally forced to admit "We got it wrong". After the shocking revelation, Nat and Georgia departed to start a new life in London and their father Ollie (Michael J. Jackson), who had been introduced ahead of the rest of the family as a friend of Mick Johnson's during 1995, threw their mother Bel (Lesley Nightingale) out after she had an extramarital fling with Mike Dixon, resulting in her catching a sexually-transmitted disease that she passed on to Ollie. Bel sought revenge by selling a story to the press falsely accusing Ollie of abusing Nat and Georgia as children, precipitating their incestuous relationship. The writers persevered with the remainder of the Simpson family, with Ollie meeting the Parade's new solicitor Eleanor Kitson (Georgia Reece), and she moved into number 9 with Ollie and Danny. Eleanor was found by her long-lost daughter Louise (Lisa Faulkner) and together they tracked down Louise's father, Marcus Sneddon. This storyline culminated in another hostage situation where Ollie, Eleanor, Louise and Danny are held at gunpoint by a deranged Marcus in a secluded hideaway, after which all four characters were abruptly written out and number 9 was sold to a returning Lindsey Corkhill.
Although the offending Simpson characters had been quickly dispatched, other characters were used in many similarly sensational and often unbelievable storylines, the overuse of which has been blamed for viewers' dwindling interest. Due to the popularity of Claire Sweeney, many storylines involved Lindsey Corkhill and her young daughter, Kylie (Hannah Dowd). In just two years, the character transformed from a single mother working in a chip shop, to a gun-toting, formidable bisexual gangster – a character change indicative of storylines now airing regularly in the show. During a continuous stint in the series between 1996 and 2000, Lindsey was stalked by her drug-dealing former husband, Gary Stanlow (Andrew Fillis), and resorted to hiring a hit man to scare him off. She was arrested at Bangkok Airport with Mike Dixon after vengeful Gary planted drugs in one of Kylie's teddy bears, developed an on-off relationship with an increasingly deranged Barry Grant before his 1998 departure, and entered into a very short marriage to philandering hairdresser Peter Phelan (Samuel Kane). There was then a lengthy stint where Lindsey became a brash, big-suited businesswoman terrorised by gangland boss Callum Finnegan (Gerard Kelly). With scriptwriters resorting to yet more plots involving Lindsey and guns, Mersey Television's publicity department, perhaps intentionally pushing the boundaries of credibility and good taste, issued pictures to TV listings magazines showing Lindsey waving a firearm in a provocative manner. Eventually, the writers calmed her down and turned her bisexual as she fell in love with new lesbian character Shelley Bowers (Alexandra Wescourt), who arrived in early 1999.
Mick Johnson (Louis Emerick) was one of the longest serving characters in Brookside, appearing from April 1989 as a lodger of Harry Cross at number 6. He originally worked with Terry Sullivan driving taxis, and they went into business together. During the early 1990s, Mick's character was expanded and he was given a free-spirited wife (Suzanne Packer) who regularly came and went, usually causing trouble along the way, resulting in Mick raising their two young children alone. The character eventually settled into life in the Close at number 5, but endured relentless racism, several disastrous relationships, became addicted to steroids and suffered unemployment and depression – but it was a euthanasia storyline in 1997 that saw Mick shockingly facing murder charges. His new wife Elaine (Beverly Hills) had brought with her a terminally-ill mother, Gladys, and during the summer months of 1997 Gladys's health rapidly deteriorated as she begged her daughter and son-in-law to end her life. Eventually, both Mick and Elaine relented to her pleas and they smothered her as she slept. Mick and Elaine were both arrested on suspicion of murder, and following a bitter and acrimonious court case, Mick was eventually acquitted of Gladys's murder. However, his marriage to Elaine was over and they quickly divorced, with unlucky Mick becoming a single father once again.
Max Farnham, (Steven Pinder) was introduced as a young, middle-class professional businessman in 1990 and he had a turbulent residence at number 7 Brookside Close. Patricia (Gabrielle Glaister), his second wife, suffered breast cancer and had to endure the regular returns of Max's first wife, Susannah (Karen Drury), who was determined to win him back, bringing their two young children Matthew and Emily in tow. The Farnhams' original nanny, Margaret, also caused controversy when she began an illicit affair with DD Dixon's brother Derek O'Farrell (Clive Moore), a Catholic priest. Their next nanny, Anna Wolska (Kazia Pelka), was sacked and forced into prostitution. Patricia's parents David and Jean Crosbie (Marcia Ashton) moved into number 6 in 1993, and David took over the petrol station franchise on Brookside Parade. Jean and Patricia opened up The Gift Box and Max relaunched Grants, a restaurant on the Parade originally owned by Barry Grant. But after the birth of their second child, Alice, who was born with Down's syndrome, Max was arrested on suspicion of kerb crawling in early 1996. Although he wasn't guilty, Patricia refused to believe him and left him, taking Alice and Thomas to live in France. Her mother joined them soon after. Following a quick divorce from Patricia later that year, Max remarried his first wife, Susannah, and following the death of their two children, Emily and Matthew in an April 1997 car crash where Susannah was driving, they became involved in a lengthy surrogacy storyline with Jacqui Dixon (Alexandra Fletcher) after Susannah discovered she could no longer have children as a result of an infection caused by injuries sustained in the crash. Once Jacqui became pregnant, so did Susannah, resulting in two births nine months later. Max was then abruptly written out in 1998 when Steven Pinder decided to leave Brookside after almost nine years. His character's exit was unpopular and involved a retconned storyline where Max had supposedly had a 20-year-long affair with a woman called Faye, never before mentioned in the script. This was considered a lazy way to write out the long-serving character, and Max abruptly departed, so Susannah returned to her maiden name and, now a single mother of two babies, continued to live alone at number 7.
Like many of the families who came and went in Brookside, the Dixon family also ended in divorce after Ron (Vince Earl) had an affair with Bev McLoughlin (Sarah White), which ended his long marriage to his first wife Deborah "D.D" O'Farrell (Irene Marot) who then left the series. During the break up of Ron and DD's marriage, Bev had a one-night stand with Ron's eldest son Mike (Paul Byatt), resulting in the birth of Josh. Ron and Bev lived together for a while, renaming number 8 Cassa-Bevron. This was until Ron almost had an affair with his employee at the Trading Post, Jackie Corkhill (Sue Jenkins), and when Bev eventually found out, she set fire to Cassa-Bevron and fled the Close in 1996. Ron then moved out of number 8 and rented it to Sinbad and his new girlfriend, Carmel O'Leary (Carol Connor), the mother of troublesome teenager Tim 'Tinhead' O'Leary (Philip Olivier). Later in 1999, Ron met and remarried an old flame, Anthea Brindley (Barbara Hatwell), the mother of his long-lost (and quickly forgotten) daughter, Megan, who looked identical to his Ron's other daughter Jacqui. Although initially happy and starting up their own successful business together, Great Grannies, this marriage also ended in divorce when Anthea refused to lie in court after Ron shot dead Clint Moffat (Greg Pateras) whilst being held hostage in the kitchen of number 8. This was alleged to be an act of 'self-defence', but resulted in Ron spending six months in prison. This storyline was based on the real-life case involving Tony Martin who shot an intruder on his property in an alleged act of self-defence.
The viewing figures for Brookside had been steadily declining since their peak in 1995 and although the series was certainly still popular, Phil Redmond dated the beginning of the decline of Brookside to 1998 and changes in the programming policy of Channel 4, which he claims began that year. Channel 4 chief executive Michael Jackson was reported to be concerned about the serial's falling ratings, which had by now dropped significantly to below five million viewers and was said to be considering cancelling and replacing Brookside. Attempts to boost ratings with explosions, shootings and underworld gangster storylines had also drawn substantial criticism from television watchdogs.
In response to the scathing criticism and falling ratings, there were attempts at a renewed and more grounded approach to storylining after the frenetic pace of the previous few years. Two new families arrived in Brookside's well-established tradition of rejuvenating itself by introducing an influx of new character-types with much baggage to unload. The Anglo-Irish Musgrove family arrived at number 8, renting the property from Ron Dixon, however, the Shadwicks, who bought number 6, were perhaps the more successful family introduced at around the same time. Greg (Mark Moraghan) and Margi Shadwick (Bernadette Foley) and their family marked an open attempt by the writers to return Brookside 'back-to-basics' with storylines again revolving around families and their dynamics within the close-knit community of Brookside Close. Phil Redmond commented in the book "Total Brookside" that the Brookside of 1998 was once again closer to the programme he launched in 1982.
The introduction of these two families also heralded one of Brookside's longest-running story arcs, which linked the two new families; the date rape of Nikki Shadwick (Suzanne Collins) at a Christmas party held at number 5, home of the Johnsons. For the whole of 1999, Nikki accused neighbour Luke Musgrove (Jason Kavannah) of the attack and he was arrested on suspicion of rape, however, following a lengthy court case, he was found not guilty. After this and consistently denying the allegations, Luke then confessed to Nikki that he had, in fact, raped her that fateful night. The Musgroves were extremely unpopular and were described as "ghastly" by critics, and with ratings continuing to slide, the entire family was quickly written out in January 2000 and they fled Liverpool overnight in shame at Luke's confession of rape. However, in another British soap opera first, the character of teenage cannabis smoker Matt Musgrove (Kristian Ealey) immediately transferred to Brookside's sister-soap Hollyoaks where the character stayed until 2004.
1999 also saw the brief return of Harry Cross, now suffering from dementia and believing that he and Edna still lived in the bungalow. Sinbad (who Harry called "Popeye") and Jimmy Corkhill, the only familiar faces from his time on the Close, looked after him until Harry's son Kevin (Stuart Organ) arrived to collect him and take him home to St Helen's.
Despite the attempts to return to being a more realistic and issue-led soap opera again, Brookside had ultimately become synonymous with plots involving guns and explosions, with no fewer than six catastrophic fires and explosions taking place during the soap's final few years. A gas cooker destroyed much of the Brookside Parade and left Ben O'Leary (Simon Paul) permanently paralysed in 1998, and a bomb detonated in the Millennium Club killed off both Jason (Vincent Price) and Greg Shadwick in 1999. Separate fires at number 6 (in 2002) and number 8 (in 1996) almost killed several characters. Susannah (Karen Drury) and Max Farnham's (Steven Pinder) children both perished in a car crash in 1997. Radio Times TV listings editor, Alison Graham, remarked in May 1998 when Ron Dixon blew up Brookside Parade by incorrectly installing a gas cooker: "Brookside loves a good disaster. Someone in the production team must take a perverse pleasure in watching blue flashing lights and fire engines". She also jokingly renamed Claire Sweeney's character: Lindsey "Get Your Gun" Corkhill, the character now having gained a stereotyped association with plots involving guns. This was shortly before the soap was dropped from Graham's satirical page reviewing weekly soap opera plots, with Brooksides column handed over to BBC Radio 4 rural-soap The Archers. The series was becoming less and less popular and as viewers abandoned Brookside, so did the support of the TV magazines and press.
Revamp
In 2000, the Murrays, a likeable family, were introduced and moved into number 9. They were the creation of the soap's penultimate producer, Paul Marquess, who joined Brookside after working on Channel 4 and Sky One's co-produced supernatural soap Springhill (also set in Liverpool). The Murray family were an important and key part of another attempted revamp of Brookside this year, and featured the popular singer Bernie Nolan in her first acting role, as Diane Murray, second wife of Marty (Neil Caple) and step-mother to Steve (Stephen Fletcher), Adele (Katy Lamont) and young Anthony (Ray Quinn) – Diane's mother, Bridget McKenna (veteran actress Meg Johnson) became a series regular at this time as well. The producers surprisingly revived some past characters and they brought back lovable loud-mouth Bev McLoughlin (Sarah White). Sammy Rogers' old school friend Nisha Batra (Sunetra Sarker) made an unexpected return, and a previous guest character, Leanne Powell (Vickie Gates), was reintroduced and she became the series new comedy character. Mick Johnson also had a visit from his long-departed former wife Josie (Suzanne Packer), although staying true to form, she didn't stick around for long, this time taking her daughter with her after Gemma's experimentation with the illegal clubbers' drug Ecstasy.
The return of the popular character Bev McLoughlin and the Murrays succeeded in sparking new viewer interest in Brookside and the Murray family became central to various plots, although many were considered retreads of previously explored issues; these included Diane's lengthy IVF treatment, daughter Adele's (Katy Lamont) under-age pregnancy and abortion, and young Anthony's (Ray Quinn) powerful bullying storyline, which culminated in Anthony accidentally killing vindictive schoolgirl Imelda Clough. Bev, meanwhile, became central to proceedings when she became the owner of the bar on Brookside Parade, renaming it Bev's Bar. The Liverpool 'scally' aspect, always traditionally at the heart of Brookside, was still strong at this time with eldest Murray son Steve (Steven Fletcher) teaming up with Tim 'Tinhead' O'Leary (Philip Olivier), who had married the rejuvenated character Emily Shadwick (Jennifer Ellison) who had been transformed from a shy, quiet, schoolgirl to a teenage, sexed-up vixen. Tim and Emily moved in with the increasingly isolated Jimmy Corkhill at cursed number 10, providing storylines for the character following the exit of his daughter Lindsey and his wife Jackie after a poorly received lesbian love-triangle involving Lindsey, Jackie, and Shelley Bowers. Of the unlikely storyline, Phil Redmond admitted things had gone too far; "NHS and child care – these are the things that engage and worry people in society now. The shorthand explanation is I'm giving up the lesbian-affair-with-the-mother-in-law syndrome. We've been there, done that and patented the T-shirt." But it was the departure of the soap's original scally, the hugely popular and truly long-running Sinbad (Michael Starke) in an on-screen child abuse scandal, that was most badly received. Although the allegations against Sinbad were proven false, many on the Close refused to believe his innocence and the formerly upbeat and jolly character departed Brookside Close (after 16 years) under a cloud.
Although to a small degree Brookside's terminal ratings slide since its 1995 peak had been temporarily halted, plots started going around in circles before finally being resolved with Nikki Shadwick's date-rape storyline, Diane Murray's infatuation with pregnancy, and the long drawn-out breakdown of Jimmy and Jackie Corkhill's marriage being good examples of this. Another long term character, the notoriously accident prone Susannah Morrisey, was finally killed off when she fell down the stairs of number 7. This became a successful 2000 'Whodunnit' plotline which involved jilted former-lover Mick Johnson (Louis Emerick), vengeful Emily Shadwick (Jennifer Ellison) and returned former husband Max Farnham (Stephen Pinder) are all put in the frame when it is discovered that Susannah may have been pushed to her death. This was arguably the last time Brookside made a significant impact in the ratings, being pushed back up to over 6 million when Max was revealed to be the culprit, although a final twist was revealed in flashback; Susannah had actually tripped over a toy as she argued with Max at the top of the stairs resulting in the fatal fall. All murder charges were dropped, leaving Max free to marry his previous next-door neighbour, Jacqui Dixon (Alexandra Fletcher), who became his third wife in 2001. Max and Jacqui continued to live at number 7 where Max had resided with his previous two wives, before they swapped houses with Ron Dixon (Vince Earl) next door at number 8, where Jacqui had previously lived with her family. Mick Johnson, played by Louis Emerick for over 12 years, then fled the Close after a suicide attempt, and Jimmy Corkhill descended into madness, eventually being diagnosed bipolar, but these were storylines which, to viewers and critics alike, obviously demonstrated the writers were running out of steam and there were serious questions about the lack of direction the soap was now heading.
20th anniversary
Brookside had been renewed in 1997 but the four-year contract renewal period ended in November 2001, by which point Paul Marquess left to become producer of ITV's long-running police drama The Bill. By this time, Brookside had become a far less important part of Channel 4's programming. Ratings had dropped to less than three million, and although regularly airing three times a week in prime time, sometimes double episodes were shown back-to-back and the audience could not keep up with the constant moves around the schedules to accommodate Channel 4's newer programming, including 'reality' shows such as Location, Location, Location, Property Ladder, Grand Designs, and to a much greater extent, the ratings powerhouse Big Brother, which started on Channel 4 in 2000.
During late 2001, following a failed attempt by Channel 4 to lure former producer Mal Young back to the series, Phil Redmond resumed total control of Brookside to take the programme through its 20th anniversary, and he pledged to return the ailing programme back to its former glory. At a meeting in which everyone from cast and crew were invited, Redmond announced "I'm back!" and that Brookside was going to be just like the "old days". The rather tired looking houses in Brookside Close received a much needed facelift; out went four established characters;http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4161/is_20020519/ai_n12843560/ in came new directors, new writers and new characters, including Ben Hull, a well-known face from sister-soap Hollyoaks as Doctor Gary Parr, and his demanding wife Gabby (Stephanie Chambers). Furthermore, after years of broken homes and waifs-and-strays making up the core-cast of Brookside, another new family arrived and the hard-working, middle class, Gordon family moved into number 5 in May 2002, which had been vacated by Mick Johnson. But, as Alan (John Burton), Debbie (Annette Ekblom) and their four teenage children settled into life on the Close, also running the petrol station on Brookside Parade, the comparisons to the earlier and popular Grant family were obvious, but their arrival did absolutely nothing to halt the rapid ratings decline. The Gordons were considered miscast and generally unlikeable. Their eldest daughter Ruth (Lynsey McCaffrey) had returned home with her young son Luke (Callum Giblin) and new boyfriend Dan (Matthew Crompton) following her failed marriage to Sean Smith (Barry Sloane); meanwhile, the young teenage scallies Stuart (David Lyon) and Ali (Kris Mocherrie) were regularly seen tormenting their other sister, Kirsty (Jessicca Noon), who had also returned home just as the Gordon's moved into number 5 after a stint travelling. Although the Gordon family arguably came with strong characterisation and a back-story, the most interesting storyline Alan received was his failed attempts to give up smoking, whilst Debbie was only ever seen moaning and tutting at her husband and four miserable children.
Just as Phil Redmond had promised in his vision of the new-look Brookside, characters were once again seen debating political and environmental issues of the time, and the Gordons were often seen discussing topics over the dinner table, much like the Grant family in the early years. However, critics on websites such as Off the Telly argued that the Gordons lacked any on-screen chemistry and this meant that scenes such as these were often forced and were viewed as contrived. Doctor Gary Parr's frequent criticism of the National Health Service was also seen as unnecessary.
A much more grounded approach to storylining had been attempted during 2002 along with the influx of new characters but the programme's ratings failed to pick up. As the serial approached its 20th anniversary, ratings dropped to below 1.5 million, and, as a consequence of this, it was announced that Brookside would no longer be aired during its weeknight prime-time slots but would continue in its traditional Saturday evening omnibus edition. Channel 4 was committed to Brookside contractually until November 2003 and this move was widely seen as damage limitation – the removal of the problem series from primetime would cease the channel's dwindling audience share and Brookside would quietly die playing out on Saturday afternoons. The announcement coincided exactly with the 20th Anniversary of Brookside, and it was something of a blow considering the programme was celebrating the milestone on-screen a brand new look: a post-production film-effect was added, a new title sequence launched with an updated theme tune – and all this started with a highly dramatic multi-episode story arc that saw the return of Lindsey Corkhill for a guest stint, not surprisingly arriving just as armed drug dealers sped onto the Close, hotly pursued by police.
The November 2002 anniversary siege began with four armed drug dealers, having taken a wrong turn, cornered in the small cul-de-sac. In desperation, they raided some houses on the Close to take cover and took many residents hostage in their homes. These were highly graphic and violent scenes and signalled the end of the relatively low-key, character-led storylines of 2002 – these highly dramatic episodes were designed to shock: in the storyline, teenagers Ali and Kirsty Gordon were violently terrorised at gunpoint in number 5, Steve Murray was shot and dumped unconscious outside the front door of number 9, Nikki Shadwick was almost raped (again), and her sister, Emily O'Leary, fell to her death from an upstairs window of number 10, terrified and desperately trying to escape. Marty Murray was beaten and locked in a cupboard, there was the implied rape of Kirsty Gordon, blatant abuse of the drug cocaine, extremely strong language, and a realistic portrayal of a deranged, drug addicted bank robber called Terry 'Psycho' Gibson by Greg Milburn. The siege ran over several episodes and culminated the following week in a spectacular stunt involving a police helicopter which was gunned down by Gibson and then spectacularly crashed onto the Brookside Parade car park, exploded, and instantly killed off the popular character Diane Murray. The stunt was vaguely reminiscent of the plane crash storyline in Emmerdale, which Redmond had himself devised for that flagging series in 1993, with the storyline now praised as saving the series from cancellation. However, the helicopter crash could not save Brookside and the storyline was ultimately criticised as being completely unrealistic and ultimately unsuitable for pre-watershed viewing and, in particular, during the Saturday evening omnibus, broadcast from 16:30. The storyline did, however, provide some extremely dramatic sequences, were well acted and were technically of a high quality, but with no promotion whatsoever by Channel 4, they barely made a ripple in the ratings.
Final year
On 30 November 2002, Brookside quietly transferred to its new 'graveyard' Saturday afternoon slot, typically starting at around 4:00 pm, and the programme was optimistically retooled to fit the new 90-minute daytime only slot. With an obviously significantly reduced budget, storylines would now revolve around only a handful of characters, often in just one location, giving the programme a much slower pace. Brookside Parade was phased out of the storyline, the entire set handed over to Hollyoaks to become the students' university bar. The recently introduced Gordon family started to be written out and the abrupt disappearance and eventual death of Alan in the 2002 siege aftermath, followed shortly after by Debbie dying in an unconvincing car crash, gave the remaining family a depressive on-screen presence. With long, 90 minute episodes featuring endless scenes of shouting, arguing and crying as the Gordon children dealt with the reality of becoming orphans, it became impossible for viewers to have sympathy for the unpopular characters that had been poorly integrated into the series and been given very little to do. Other characters slowly drifted away with little or no explanation, experimental storylines (including the use of gimmicks such as flashbacks, dream sequences and split screen) were unsuccessful, and with ratings now at 400,000, it proved that only die-hard fans were still watching.
In 2003, and now with a much reduced cast, storylines focused strongly on Brookside's most popular remaining characters in more self-contained episodes, such as Bev's troubled relationship with her young son Josh (Jack McMullen) and the developing relationship between Jimmy Corkhill and Nikki Shadwick. Nikki had been raped, stalked, held hostage, and her father, brother and sister had all been killed during her time in Brookside Close. With her mother, Margi, now living abroad, she became increasingly dependent on Jimmy and started to see him as a father figure, even agreeing to look after Jimmy so that he could be released from secure psychiatric care. Following the siege, however, she had a brief relationship with the sniper who had rescued her, Matt Henderson (Jamie Lomas), but when that storyline was quickly abandoned during the jarring transition to the 90-minute block format, Nikki began to become romantically interested in Jimmy. After pursuing him for some time, viewers cringed when the two slept together, but knowing a relationship would be impossible, the two resolved to move on. On the rebound, Nikki became involved with Sean Smith (Barry Sloane), Ruth Gordon's ex-husband from across the Close, while Jimmy became engaged to Nikki's returned mother Margi (Bernadette Foley). Ultimately though, Jimmy called off the wedding when he suspected he may have lung cancer (although it later transpired to be asbestosis), so Margi jumped on the first plane back to Brussels leaving Nikki all alone at number 6 once again until long running characters Sammy and Katie Rogers eventually moved back to the Close as Nikki's lodgers.
Further low-key storylines in the final year of Brookside included following Mike (Paul Byatt) and Rachel Dixon's (Tiffany Chapman) continuous problems with debt before they finally settled down away from the Close with their daughter Beth. Long serving character Katie Rogers (Diane Burke) found love with Nic Howard (James Sarsfield) and gave birth to their baby girl, although it was left up to the viewer to decide whether Katie and Nic were eventually married when they left the Close for Florida in the closing episodes. Anthony Murray's harrowing bullying storyline was happily resolved and his parents, Marty (Neil Caple) and recently returned real mum Jan (Helen Sheals), eventually reconciled and remarried. Bev and Ron Dixon also got back together, finally forgiving all the problems of their chequered pasts, they gave their relationship another chance and got married, with young Josh (Jack McMullen) completing their happy family. Some viewers were surprised to discover, however, that long-running characters Max and Jacqui Farnham had left Brookside off-screen, with Ron making a scripted, off-hand remark about their departure to a new life in Woolton.
Channel 4 officially announced the end of Brookside on 11 June 2003, and the final episode would be shown just two days after its 21st Anniversary in November. The programme was then moved again to what would become its final timeslot, on Tuesdays in a 90-minute format, with times varying but always after 11 pm. The later time slot allowed the soap to introduce scenes of a more darker feel, with bad language being frequently used in the last few episodes. A final story arc, introduced eight weeks before the last episode, saw some of the (off-screen) Brookside Close residents selling-up to a company called Cinerco. The company intended to demolish part of the Close for the construction of an access road to a new waste incinerator site. The remaining characters of Brookside Close once again began integrating with each other as they dealt with the reality of losing their homes to the highly contentious plans. Taking full advantage of the new late-night timeslot, the writers reintroduced the raw language frequented in early episodes whilst unmotivated violence and drug abuse could now be seen in abundance. This approach, once again, did nothing to improve the ratings, having now fallen well below 400,000, although during the final six weeks, a rawness and energy previously captured in the very early years made a surprising return with a new character, the despised drug-dealer Jack Michaelson (Paul Duckworth), who moved into the recently vacated number 8. The fact that the entire neighbourhood was about to be demolished was an obvious plot loop hole, but the character nevertheless became the focus of the end of Brookside as all the remaining residents found themselves seriously affected by his destructive presence. Meanwhile, the rest of Brookside Close began to be boarded-up as the other residents started to move away.
The last episode
In the extended final episode, screened at 22:40 and divided into five parts, Brookside shocked the audience one last time with the remaining residents of Brookside Close taking a stand against Michaelson, lynching him from number 8's bedroom window.
Written by creator Phil Redmond, the final episode started exactly the same way episode one had begun 21 years previously, with a milkman delivering provisions to the residents of the Close. This time, however, he was greeted with the sight of Jack's dead body hanging from his bedroom window. When the police started investigating, all of the residents on Brookside Close gave false alibis, thus protecting each other from prosecution over Jack's murder. As had been seen in Brookside before, the culprits of the lynching were not revealed, with several characters seen to have the same blue rope with which Jack was hanged. Encouraged by the return of Barry Grant, Tim O'Leary, Steve Murray, and the remaining Gordon lads were all seen contemplating killing Jack, and whilst Jimmy Corkhill was also aware there was a plan, the only male resident in ignorance of what was happening was Ron Dixon. During the darkness of the night, three masked residents broke into Jack's house and suspended him from the front window; however, this is all that was revealed to the audience.
In the last part of the episode, Phil Redmond had his final say in a rebellious scripted rant criticising religion, urban migration, public ignorance and the prohibition of drugs, which was voiced by Brookside's longest-running character, Jimmy, sat in an armchair on the front lawn of number 10. Jimmy was also the last resident of Brookside Close to leave their house. As a last act of defiance, he broke into the abandoned houses and left all the taps running, he then painted Game Over on the boarded-up windows of several houses, and drew an extra D on the Brookside Close sign, to spell Brookside Closed at the end of the episode. He then went to live with his daughter Lindsey Corkhill, who had become engaged to Barry Grant, the two characters having returned especially for the final episode, watched by a peak of 2.27 million viewers.
In the closing narrative, Jimmy and Lindsey went to live in Newcastle in Barry's mansion. Tim moved in with Steve Murray, sharing a flat in Liverpool City Centre, as shown in the Unfinished Business feature. Nikki left for Brussels to live with her mother Margi. The orphaned Gordon children then left with their elder sister Ruth, and her husband Sean Smith, now reunited as head of the remaining Gordon family. Jan, Marty and Anthony Murray followed soon after, refusing to tell anyone where they were going. Bev and Ron Dixon then said their goodbyes to long-time neighbour and archenemy Jimmy Corkhill, with Ron remarking candidly, "I hope I never see you again." The final shot in Brookside was a close-up of Jimmy Corkhill looking directly into the camera and, breaking the fourth wall, winking to the audience. A caption stated, "The End of an Era...".
Theme music and opening titles
The distinctive synthesised theme to Brookside was written by local composers Steve Wright and Dave Roylance from Wirral. Dave died in October 2006. This version was used on the programme on 2 November 1982, the day the first episode was broadcast, and lasted until 28 December 1990.
With the advent of Dolby Stereo Surround Sound, the theme was updated and modernised by Steve Wright, and the first episode to feature this music was broadcast on 31 December 1990. This version was the longest-running, and the last time this music was featured on the credits originally aired 31 October 2002.
The third version of the Brookside theme launched on 6 November 2002, a year before the programme was cancelled. A new arrangement at the start of this theme, again by Steve Wright, makes this version of the theme distinctive, although the midsection and close remained similar to the previous versions.
Brookside had memorable opening titles, which subtly changed many times over 21 years, particularly as the residents of Brookside Close came and went. The beginning of the sequence contained sweeping high shots of Liverpool life and landmarks, before showing a bird's-eye view of the estate leading to Brookside Close. Several views of the various residents' homes were shown, before the camera finally settled by the iconic Brookside Close sign. In the early episodes, Bobby Grant's blue Princess was always predominantly parked outside number 5, and in 1990, this became Frank Rogers' purple Ford Cortina when the Rogers replaced the Grants as the family occupying number 5. When Brookside Parade became part of the programme in 1991, shots of the Parade were regularly spliced into the title sequence as businesses came and went – these shots were shown after the existing landmark shots of Liverpool, but before the birds-eye views of Brookside Close and residents' homes.
The closing credits were originally scrolled against a royal blue background, however, this backdrop was soon changed to an aerial view of Brookside Close from episode 105 in 1983. The titles were originally transparent, but this changed to a bold typeface of the same font in 1987. The closing sequence was slightly changed on 7 October 1991 and lasted until 31 December 1993. The closing sequence was changed entirely, giving a bird's-eye view of the close, which was used from 3 January 1994 and lasted until 25 June 1999.
In 1999, the titles were completely changed, and new shots were composed to fit into a split-screen box effect – these titles were specifically designed to reflect the programme's newly launched website. Early versions of this sequence followed a cyclist through the Close to Brookside Parade in one box, while the other box contained steadicam shots approaching each door to the houses on Brookside Close. At the end of each episode until the end of the series, there would be a Next time on Brookside continuity announcement with a preview of scenes from the next episode. This opening title-sequence launched on 29 June 1999.
The final set of opening titles launched on 6 November 2002. Again, following a split screen effect, one half of the (same) shot is presented in daylight, and the other half during night-time. Totally new shots were filmed for this title-sequence and it lasted until the final episode in 2003. These credits were often preceded by the strains of theme song and a Previously on Brookside... comment by various actors during a recap of previous episodes. The series finale's end credits music was cut off at the last portion by the closing of the original Grange Hill theme.
Unlike other British soap operas past or present, at the end of omnibus editions screened at Christmas (usually the last omnibus that year), the cast of actors and crew would stand waving at the camera for the entire duration of the closing credits, wishing all Brookside viewers a 'Happy Christmas'.
Soap bubbles
Two 'soap bubbles' were produced in the late 1980s. Damon and Debbie (1987) followed the two characters, Damon Grant and Debbie McGrath absconding to York, concluding in Damon's death. The second, 1988's South, saw Tracy Corkhill and Jamie Henderson seeking a better life in London; this was part of an ITV For Schools English programme and was notable for featuring a guest appearance by Morrissey playing himself.
Scheduling
From its launch in 1982, Brookside was broadcast between 8pm and 9pm, although some episodes would occasionally be shown at 9pm or after for scheduling reasons. In Wales, S4C always screened Brookside at 10pm. The Omnibus was broadcast on Saturday evening, usually at 5pm6pm.
During weekdays, Brookside was always broadcast from 8pm, first on Tuesday and Wednesday, then Monday and Wednesday, with a few special five-nighters, with these episodes always airing Monday to Friday.
On 1 July 1990, as ratings increased, Brookside gained a third weekly episode, which saw a regular broadcast pattern of Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 8pm. The serial's timeslot was far more consistent in the 1980s and early 1990s, however, from the mid-1990s, the schedules did keep changing. In 1994, when the BBC's soap EastEnders started broadcasting three nights a week, the third weekly episodes was broadcast every Monday at 8pm, which clashed with Brookside. This forced Channel 4 to move Brookside to Tuesdays at 8pm (initially up against ITV's The Bill). The final weekday schedule, from 2001, was Wednesday, Thursday and Friday at 8pm.
From 30 November 2002, as a consequence of declining ratings over the previous five years, it was removed from its traditional weekday timeslots and reduced to a 90-minute edition broadcast once a week on Saturday evening, usually from 4pm. By now, it was being widely reported in the media that Brookside was likely to be axed completely within the next year.
On 27 July 2003, by which time Channel 4 bosses had confirmed that it would be discontinued later in the year, Brookside was moved to its final broadcast time of Tuesdays, usually starting after 11pm, but on at least one occasion the show did not start until after midnight for scheduling reasons. The final episode was 100 minutes including adverts and screened slightly earlier, from 10:40pm to 12:20am.1982–1990: Twice a week (30-minute episodes) Tuesday & Wednesday: Week commencing 31 October 1982 – 17 November 1984
Monday & Wednesday: Week commencing 18 November 1984 – 29 December 1984, 31 July 1988 – 30 June 1990
Monday & Tuesday: Week commencing 30 December 1984 – 30 July 19881990–2002: Three nights a week (30-minute episodes) Monday, Wednesday & Friday: Week commencing 1 July 1990 – 30 April 1994
Tuesday, Wednesday & Friday: Week commencing 1 May 1994 – 15 December 2001
Wednesday, Thursday & Friday: Week commencing 16 December 2001 – 23 November 20022002–2003: Once a week (90-minute episode) Saturday: Week commencing 30 November 2002 – 5 April 2003, 13 April 2003 – 19 July 2003
Thursday: Week commencing 6 April 2003 – 12 April 2003
Tuesday: Week commencing 27 July 2003 – 8 November 2003Repeats Living (then called UK Living, later Sky Living, and now known as Sky Witness) repeated Brookside from episode 1, commencing 13 February 1995 until September 2001. Originally, episodes were screened at 6.30pm, and repeated that evening at 11pm. By 2000, however, it was only being aired in a morning slot, usually at 9.30 am.
Sky One took over the repeat rights to Brookside from episode 1475. It was shown at 10:30am and started with episodes that originally aired on Channel 4 in October 1994. However, in 2002 this was changed to an early-morning 3:30am timeslot, before being dropped completely in June, ending with episode 1795, which was originally broadcast in October 1996.
No episodes from late 1996, through to the final episode in 2003, have ever been repeated on any British TV channel although two episodes from both 1998 and 2002 were released on the 30th Anniversary DVD.
Broadcast schedule history
Merchandise
Video releases
Brookside was one of the first British soap operas to have classic episodes released on video. In 1990, Channel 4 and Mersey Television released a series of videos showcasing some of Brookside's most memorable episodes and characters of the 1980s:Brookside Classics Volume One: The Siege: This video, released in 1989 contained three episodes and brought together the gripping 'number 7 Siege' as an extended omnibus edition of 75 minutes. These episodes originally aired in July 1985.Brookside Classics Volume Two: The Sheila Grant Years: The much-loved character Sheila Grant, played by Sue Johnston, was the subject of the second video release in 1989. Sheila's rape ordeal was featured, alongside a night out with Jimmy's then girlfriend Kathy Roach (Noreen Kershaw).Brookside Classics Volume Three: That Man Harry Cross: The third video released in 1989 included three classic episodes featuring the popular character Harry Cross played by Bill Dean. This video contained memories of his time in Brookside Close with his wife Edna (Betty Alberge) and, later, his old friend Ralph Hardwick (Ray Dunbobbin).Brookside: The Teenagers: A later release, from 1995, documents the teenage characters in Brookside including Beth Jordache (Anna Friel), Margaret Clemence (Nicola Stephenson), Damon Grant (Simon O'Brien) and Katie Rogers (Diane Burke).Brookside: The Women: Also released in 1995, this video brought together the most popular female characters in the soap, including Mandy Jordache (Sandra Maitland), Sue Sullivan (Annie Miles) and Deborah 'D.D' Dixon (Irene Marot).Brookside: The Men: Released two years after The Women video, similarly, The Men contained previously unseen footage and interviews with actors documenting the long-suffering male characters of Brookside Close.
In the late 1990s, there were several videos that contained extensions of plots that began in Brookside on-screen, or gave viewers a chance to see their favourite Brookside actors behind-the-scenes or outside their usual roles in the soap:Brookside: The Lost Weekend: A feature-length episode of Brookside reuniting characters old and new. This feature-length episode from 1997 detailed the reunion of Sheila and Barry Grant (Sue Johnston and Paul Usher) in an action-packed continuation of a storyline, which began in the regular editions of the soap on Channel 4.Brookside: The Backstage Tour: A behind-the-scenes documentary released in 1997, with the only opportunity to view the 'alternative' ending to the infamous Body Under The Patio Trial from 1995, where Beth and Mandy are proven not guilty of murdering Trevor.Brookside: Friday the 13th: A dramatic storyline for selected characters of the television soap. Here, we are able to view Lindsey Corkhill's (Claire Sweeney) 'missing' journey to her wedding to Peter Phelan (Samuel Kane), as well as another appearance from Sheila Grant (Sue Johnston) and a cameo from Harry Cross (Bill Dean). It was released in 1998.Brookside: Double Take''': In 1999, this unusual video saw members of the Brookside and Hollyoaks casts playing alternative characters in a spoof-documentary style feature.
DVD releases
When it was announced that the show would be finishing as a continuing series in 2003, on Brookside's official website, there was a suggestion by Phil Redmond that Brookside would continue with a succession of DVD releases. In fact, as early as 1988, Hilary Kingsley interviewed Redmond for her book, Soap Box, and even then, he confidently suggested that if Brookside were to end on Channel 4, he would attempt to continue the show off-screen:
"Redmond has even suggested the end of Brookside in that way—fittingly inspired and unusual. "Perhaps we will watch a character leave and follow him or her. Brookside will continue with its daily life, but not on-screen any more", he mused."
The first DVD after the final episode featured the climax to a long-running storyline involving Tim "Tinhead" O'Leary and Steve Murray finally getting revenge on Terry 'Psycho' Gibson in an 85-minute feature called Unfinished Business. Psycho killed Tim's wife Emily during the November 2002 siege, and Steve's stepmother, Diane (Bernie Nolan), died in the subsequent helicopter crash on Brookside Parade. The DVD was released in November 2003 to generally poor reviews. There was meant to be a follow-up DVD release involving a storyline with Barry Grant tracking down his brother Damon's killers, a story arc vaguely referenced during Brookside's final episode on Channel 4. A trail for a DVD-film called Settlin' Up was filmed and included in the Unfinished Business extras. Simon O'Brien was slated to appear as Damon Grant's ghost, and it is believed that although scenes were shot for the Settlin' Up promotional trail, the actual feature did not make the production stages.
Also included as an extra was promo for a 21st Anniversary documentary called Brookside: 100 Greatest Moments. A heavily cut-down version of this documentary also appeared, called Brookside: 10 of the Best. Whilst recognising the existence of the Most Memorable Moments DVD, containing 16 Episodes and was released on 26 November 2012.
After Brookside
When Brookside was removed from prime-time Channel 4, Mersey Television immediately started using some of the houses on Brookside Close in its other soaps Hollyoaks and Grange Hill. In Hollyoaks, the Dean family moved into what was number 7 Brookside Close, and the Burton-Taylor family moved into what was number 8 (as a result, the interior of number 8 was never again seen in Brookside with its occupant, Jack Michaelson, only ever shown at the door of the house). On-screen, the two identical houses had their exteriors clad in a mock-Tudor wood effect, net curtains covered the windows, and there were never exterior long-shots, but eagle-eyed viewers frequently spotted sights and props that made the use of these houses in Hollyoaks fairly obvious. In fact, prior to the use of these houses as sets, another house in Brookside Close was also used in Hollyoaks as the Cunninghams' home. However, although this would have been number 13 Brookside Close had it appeared on-screen, the house was never featured in any Brookside storyline and was never seen or referenced.
Following the sale of Mersey Television to All3Media in June 2005, all the properties on Brookside Close became surplus to requirements so all the Hollyoaks characters based at this set quickly transferred to new homes at Mersey Television's Childwall site. The entire set was sold to a developer who then stripped, gutted, and attempted to rebuild the entire interior of each of the 13 houses before making them available for sale to the public in January 2007. Of the houses on Brookside Close that were used as sets, numbers 7 and 8 were the cheapest at £199,000, while the famous number 10 was for sale at £295,000 according to the particulars of Off Plan Investments, who were selling the houses at that time. The houses were put up for sale in a semi-finished condition, and coupled with the extremely high asking prices, they did not sell; the developer went into receivership soon after. The set then became neglected and fell into decay.
In February 2008, it was revealed by the auctioneers SHM Smith Hodgkinson that they would be taking offers for the 13 houses, considering bids in the region of £2 million.
In 2008, Brookside Close was once again used as a production set; a local production company was given special permission to use the Close, but this time for a low-budget horror film called Salvage. The film received modest reviews but was not widely distributed – and, despite the best efforts of the set designers, some reviewers did comment: "it looks like it's been filmed in Brookside Close".
It was reported in November 2008 that the 13 properties were to be auctioned off collectively, with a guide price of £550,000–£600,000. There was speculation at this time that the series may be resurrected as Dean Sullivan (who played Jimmy Corkhill) had himself attempted to purchase the Close to revive Brookside. However, an unnamed Liverpool-based buyer purchased all 13 properties on 17 December 2008 for £735,000, although by this time the Close was in a state of severe disrepair, and speculation mounted as to what would happen to the disintegrating properties.
In February 2011, after years of building work, Brookside Close was revived and returned to its former glory. Over the period of three years, each house was restored from what was technically an individual film set, to a real home, fit for real-life occupancy. Now aligned and fully integrated into the housing estate that has always surrounded it, 'Brookside Close' is now simply Brookside (odd numbers: 43–67) and real residents now occupy the houses, making it unlikely that the houses will be used in film or television production again.
In 2021, former Brookside actor Ray Quinn (Known for his role as Anthony Murray in Brookside from 2000 to 2003.) announced that, during the Coronavirus pandemic, he had begun a new career laying carpets at his family firm, with one of his first jobs being laying carpets in the renovated houses on Brookside Close.
In popular culture
Liverpudlian professional wrestler Robbie Brookside (real name Robert Brooks) was given his ring name by promoter Brian Dixon as a reference to Brookside, which began airing two years before Robbie's wrestling debut. His daughter Xia Brookside has also taken the ring name.
See also
List of Brookside characters
References
General
Brookside: Ten of the Best, 30-minute documentary included on the DVD release Brookside: Unfinished Business. FHED1759.
Specific
Further reading
Braverman, Rachel (1995) Beth Jordache, the New Journals; adapted from Phil Redmond's Brookside by Rachel Braverman. London: Boxtree
External links
Museum of Broadcast Communications, detailed account of the career of Phil Redmond, the creator of Brookside Channel 4 archive Brookside web page
When soaps die, article about cancelled British soap operas, including an extensive look at the demise of Brookside''
Satellite view of Brookside Close
1982 British television series debuts
2003 British television series endings
1980s British television soap operas
1990s British television soap operas
2000s British television soap operas
Channel 4 television dramas
Social realism
Gay-related television shows
Lesbian-related television shows
British television soap operas
Television shows set in Liverpool
English-language television shows
Rape in television
Television series by All3Media |
357311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller%20Republican | Rockefeller Republican | The Rockefeller Republicans were members of the Republican Party (GOP) in the 1930s–1970s who held moderate-to-liberal views on domestic issues, similar to those of Nelson Rockefeller, Governor of New York (1959–1973) and Vice President of the United States (1974–1977). Rockefeller Republicans were most common in the Northeast and industrial Midwestern states, with their larger moderate-to-liberal constituencies, while they were rare in the South and West.
The term refers to "[a] member of the Republican Party holding views likened to those of Nelson Rockefeller; a moderate or liberal Republican". However, Geoffrey Kabaservice states that they were part of a separate political ideology, aligning on certain issues and policies with liberals, while on others with conservatives and on many with neither. Luke Phillips has also stated that the Rockefeller Republicans represent the continuation of the Whig tradition of American politics.
Rockefeller Republicanism has been described as the last phase of the "Eastern Establishment" of the GOP which had been led by New York governor Thomas E. Dewey. The group's powerful role in the GOP came under heavy attack during the 1964 primary campaign between Rockefeller and Barry Goldwater. At a point before the California primary, political operative Stuart Spencer called on Rockefeller to "summon that fabled nexus of money, influence, and condescension known as the Eastern Establishment". Rockefeller replied, "You are looking at it, buddy, I am all that is left".
Michael Lind contends that the ascendancy of the more conservative fusionist-wing of the Republican Party, beginning in the 1960s with Goldwater and culminating in the Reagan Revolution in 1980, prevented the establishment of a Disraelian one-nation conservatism in the United States. The phrase "Rockefeller Republican" has come to be used in a pejorative sense by modern conservatives, who use it to deride those in the Republican Party that are perceived to have views which are too liberal, especially on major social issues. The term was adopted mostly because of Nelson Rockefeller's vocal support of civil rights and lavish spending policies. However, historian Justin P. Coffey has stated that Rockefeller's liberalism is a myth, with former Vice President Spiro Agnew pointing out that the reality was quite different, stating that: "A lot of people considered Rockefeller very liberal and very dovish on foreign policy, but he was not. He was harder than Nixon, and a lot more hawkish about the mission of America in the world".
On a national level, the last significant candidate for president from the liberal wing of the party was John Anderson, who ran as an independent in 1980 and garnered 6.6% of the popular vote. Locally, especially in the Northeast, liberal Republican officeholders have continued to win elections, including Bill Weld and Charlie Baker of Massachusetts, Phil Scott of Vermont, and Larry Hogan of Maryland.
Political positions
In domestic policy, Rockefeller Republicans were typically moderate to center-right economically, however they vehemently rejected conservatives like Barry Goldwater and their laissez faire economic policies while holding beliefs in social policies that were often culturally liberal. They typically favored a social safety net and a continuation of New Deal programs but sought to run these programs more efficiently than the Democrats. Nevertheless, Rockefeller Republicans opposed socialism and government ownership and were strong supporters of big business and Wall Street, though they supported some regulation of business. But rather than increasing regulation of business, they advocated for developing a mutually beneficial relationship between public interests and private enterprise, drawing comparisons and similarities to the French Dirigisme or the Japanese Developmental state. They espoused government and private investments in environmentalism, healthcare, and higher education as necessities for a better society and economic growth in the tradition of Rockefeller. They were strong supporters of state colleges, trade schools and universities with low tuition and large research budgets, and also favored investments in infrastructure such as highway projects.
Reflecting Nelson Rockefeller's tradition of technocratic problem solving, most Rockefeller Republicans were known to have a pragmatic and interdisciplinary approach to problem solving and governance while advocating for a broad consensus rather than a consolidation of support. Also welcoming an increased public role for engineers, doctors, scientists, economists, and businessmen over politicians in crafting policies and programs. As a result, many Rockefeller Republicans were major figures in business, such as auto executive George W. Romney and investment banker C. Douglas Dillon. In fiscal policy, they favored balanced budgets and were not averse to raising taxes in order to achieve them. Connecticut Senator Prescott Bush once called for Congress to "raise the required revenues by approving whatever levels of taxation may be necessary".
A critical element was their support for labor unions and especially the building trades appreciated the heavy spending on infrastructure. In turn, the unions gave these politicians enough support to overcome the anti-union rural element in the Republican Party. As the unions weakened after the 1970s, so too did the need for Republicans to cooperate with them. This transformation played into the hands of the more conservative Republicans, who did not want to collaborate with labor unions in the first place and now no longer needed to do so to carry statewide elections.
In foreign policy, they tended to be Hamiltonian, espousing internationalist and realist policies, supporting the United Nations and promoting American business interests abroad. Most wanted to use American power in cooperation with allies to fight against the spread of Communism and help American business expand abroad.
History
Thomas E. Dewey, the Governor of New York from 1943 to 1954 and the Republican presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948, was the leader of the moderate-wing of the Republican Party in the 1940s and early 1950s, battling conservative Republicans from the Midwest led by Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio, known as "Mr. Republican". With the help of Dewey, General Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the 1952 presidential nomination and became the leader of the moderates. Eisenhower coined the phrase "Modern Republicanism" to describe his moderate vision of Republicanism. After Eisenhower, Nelson Rockefeller, the Governor of New York, emerged as the leader of the moderate-wing of the Republican Party, running for President in 1960, 1964 and 1968. Rockefeller Republicans suffered a crushing defeat in 1964 when conservatives captured control of the Republican Party and nominated Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona for president.
Other prominent figures in the GOP's Rockefeller-wing included Connecticut Senator Prescott Bush, Pennsylvania Governor Raymond P. Shafer, Pennsylvania Senator Hugh Scott, Illinois Senator Charles H. Percy, Oregon Senator Mark Hatfield, Maine Senator Margaret Chase Smith, New York Senator Jacob Javits, Arkansas Governor Winthrop Rockefeller, Nelson's younger brother (who was somewhat of an aberration in the conservative, heavily Democratic South), Edward Brooke of Massachusetts, John Chafee of Rhode Island and Lowell Weicker of Connecticut. Some also include President Richard Nixon, who was influenced by this group. Although Nixon ran against Rockefeller from the right in the 1968 primaries and was widely identified with the cultural right of the time, he adopted several Rockefeller Republican policies during his time as President, such as setting up the Environmental Protection Agency, supporting expanded welfare programs, imposing wage and price controls and in 1971 announcing he was a Keynesian. The men had previously reached the so-called Treaty of Fifth Avenue during the presidential primaries of 1960, whereby Nixon and Rockefeller agreed to support certain policies for inclusion in the 1960 Republican Party Platform.
Barry Goldwater crusaded against the Rockefeller Republicans, beating Rockefeller narrowly in the California primary of 1964. That set the stage for a conservative resurgence, based in the South and West in opposition to the Northeast Rockefeller wing. However, the moderate contingent recaptured control of the party and nominated Richard Nixon in 1968. Easily reelected in 1972, Nixon was replaced as President upon his resignation by the moderately conservative Republican Gerald Ford. After Vice President Rockefeller left the national stage in 1976, this faction of the party was more often called "moderate Republicans" or Nixonians in contrast to the conservatives who rallied to Ronald Reagan. Four years after nearly toppling the incumbent Ford in the 1976 presidential primaries, conservative Ronald Reagan won the party's presidential nomination at the 1980 Republican National Convention and served two terms in the White House.
During the 1980's, Barry Goldwater ironically became part of the liberal side of the Republican Party due to his libertarian views on abortion and gay rights.
By 1988, the Republicans had chosen Prescott Bush's son George H. W. Bush as its presidential candidate on a conservative platform. Bush's national convention pledge to stave off new taxation were he elected president ("Read my lips: no new taxes!") marked the candidate's full conversion to the conservative movement and perhaps the political death knell for Rockefeller Republicanism as a prevailing force within party politics.
Ethnic changes in the Northeast may have led to the demise of the Rockefeller Republican. Many Republican leaders associated with this title were White Anglo-Saxon Protestants like Charles Mathias of Maryland. Liberal New York Republican Senator Jacob Javits, who had an Americans for Democratic Action rating above 90% and an American Conservative Union rating below 10%, was Jewish. As time went on, the local Republican parties in the Northeast tended to nominate Catholic candidates who appealed to middle class social values-laden concerns, such as George Pataki, Rudy Giuliani, Al D'Amato, Rick Lazio, Tom Ridge, Chris Christie and others, who in many cases represented the party's diversity more on the basis of religion and were often otherwise like their Protestant conservative counterparts on policy.
With their power decreasing in the final decades of the 20th century, many moderate Republicans were replaced by conservative and moderate Democrats, such as those from the Blue Dog or New Democrat coalitions. Michael Lind contends that by the mid-1990s the liberalism of President Bill Clinton and the New Democrats were in many ways to the right of Eisenhower, Rockefeller, and John Lindsay, the Republican mayor of New York City in the late 1960s. In 2009, CNN published an analysis describing how liberal and moderate Republicans had declined by the start of the 21st century. In 2010, Scott Brown was elected to the Senate to fill the seat once held by Democratic Senator Edward Kennedy. He was considered to be a moderate Republican in a similar mold as Susan Collins and Olympia Snowe of Maine. However, by middle of the century's second decade, only Senator Susan Collins of Maine remained as a moderately liberal Republican representing the New England at the federal level.
Challenged by the Tea Party
In 2010, several moderate Republicans lost their primaries or were challenged by the Tea Party movement. In Alaska, Senator Lisa Murkowski, the ranking member of the Energy and Natural Resources Committee, lost her GOP primary to conservative Tea Party challenger Joe Miller. The Tea Party's campaign organization "helped Miller portray the senator as too liberal for the state". Despite her primary defeat, Murkowski was reelected after waging a successful write-in campaign.
Mike Castle, a moderate former Governor and Representative of Delaware, lost his primary to conservative "insurgent" Christine O'Donnell, who depicted Castle as being too liberal. An op-ed of The Washington Post made the assertion that Castle's loss marked the end of the party legacy of Nelson Rockefeller.
Senator John McCain survived a primary in 2010, but his Tea Party opponent J. D. Hayworth accused him of being insufficiently conservative. A few years after, in 2014, the Arizona Republican Party censured McCain "for a record they called too 'liberal.
In upstate New York, GOP-nominated Dede Scozzafava was opposed by national conservatives within the Republican Party during her election bid for a congressional district: "National PACs upset with Scozzafava's support of the federal stimulus, EFCA, same-sex marriage and abortion rights poured on money and attacks". She was pressured to drop out of the race, and when she did the Republican National Committee endorsed Tea Party-backed Doug Hoffman.
Revival in the Northeast
"Liberal to moderate Northeastern Republicans were once as much a part of the political landscape as today's liberals from Massachusetts." According to National Review, "At the state level, however, a kind of Rockefeller Republicanism seems to be rising once again in recent years" in New England and the Northeast.
In 2015, moderate Republicans were elected governor of Maryland (Larry Hogan) and Massachusetts (Charlie Baker). In 2017, New Hampshire (Chris Sununu) and Vermont (Phil Scott) also elected moderates. According to an analysis by FiveThirtyEight and polling by Morning Consult, the quartet consistently rank among the most popular governors in the country. In 2018, Baker was re-elected by a 2:1 margin, receiving more votes than Elizabeth Warren, who was also running for re-election.
Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker "is socially liberal [...]. He is pro-choice and has long supported gay marriage". In Vermont, the voters elected Phil Scott as Governor. Describing himself, Governor Scott stated: "I am very much a fiscal conservative. But not unlike most Republicans in the Northeast, I'm probably more on the left of center from a social standpoint. [...] I am a pro–choice Republican". In 2017, The Washington Post described Larry Hogan, another Republican governor in a deep-blue state, as "a moderate Republican who is focused on jobs and the economy".
Modern usage
The term "Rockefeller Republican" has become somewhat archaic since Nelson Rockefeller died in 1979. The Atlantic has referred to the election of Northeastern Republicans as being similar to "Rockefeller-style liberal Republicanism", even though the label is not necessarily used by the candidates themselves. The Rockefeller Republican label has sometimes been applied to modern politicians, such as Lincoln Chafee of Rhode Island, who served as a Republican in the Senate, was elected that state's governor as an independent, and later became a Democrat and briefly sought that party's 2016 presidential nomination. Some more conservative members of the Republican Party use the label in a derisive manner, along with other labels such as RINOs, i.e. Republicans in Name Only, The Establishment, or "Acela Republicans," a reference to the Acela Express running along the eastern seaboard.
Christine Todd Whitman, former Governor of New Jersey, referred to herself as a Rockefeller Republican in a speech on Governor Rockefeller at Dartmouth College in 2008. Lloyd Blankfein, Chairman and CEO of Goldman Sachs, who is a registered Democrat, referred to himself as a "Rockefeller Republican" in a CNBC interview in April 2012. The retired four-star generals Colin Powell and David Petraeus have both described themselves as "Rockefeller Republicans". Former Senator Olympia Snowe (R-Maine) and Senator Susan Collins (R-Maine) are also two notable moderate Republicans from the Northeast. Former Senator Scott Brown (R-Massachusetts), who ran a Senate campaign in New Hampshire, also had a voting record described as more liberal than most Republicans.
Senator John McCain was often referred to as a moderate during his 2000 and 2008 presidential campaigns by opponents and commentators alike. In the 2000 primary, Bush described the race as "going to be a clear race between a more moderate-to-liberal candidate vs. a conservative candidate in the state of South Carolina". NPR covered the 2008 campaign reporting that "some conservative Republicans say McCain's voting record shows him to be too moderate a GOP candidate". The BBC reported that this reputation as being more centrist was "for his relatively moderate views on civil unions, abortion and immigration reform". However, the Associated Press reported that voters' perceptions of McCain as a centrist was at odds with his voting record, which it described as "much more conservative than voters appear to realize." In 2004 and 2006, McCain was one of a few Republicans who voted against banning same-sex marriage at the federal level, arguing that the issue should be left to the states. However, he still supported efforts to ban gay marriage at the state level, supporting such efforts in Arizona in 2006 and California in 2008. FiveThirtyEight, which tracks and scores Congressional votes, had found that McCain had shifted between being more moderate and more conservative based on its study.
In 2012, the GOP nominated as their candidate for President Mitt Romney a Governor who had described himself as moderate and progressive in 2002. Running for Governor of Massachusetts, he said of himself: "I'm not a partisan Republican. [...] I'm someone who is moderate, and [...] my views are progressive". In his 1994 Senate campaign, Romney distanced himself from Ronald Reagan, noting that he was an independent during the Reagan presidency. One of his 2012 primary opponents, Newt Gingrich, even referred to Romney as a "Rockefeller Republican" in order to draw a contrast between Romney's former self-description and his own. However, in his own words during the 2012 campaign Romney described himself as a "severely conservative" Republican.
At the 1988 Republican National Convention, Donald Trump was asked by Larry King on CNN: "You might be classified as an Eastern Republican, Rockefeller Republican. Fair?", to which Trump replied: "I guess you can say that". During his 2016 presidential campaign, Trump was described as both a modern-day Rockefeller Republican (by some conservative writers) and as the heir to the Goldwaterite opposition to the Rockefeller Republicans.
In 2019, Bill Weld announced that he would consider a challenge to President Trump for the Republican nomination. Bill Weld has been described by The New York Times, in both his gubernatorial and presidential campaigns, as a moderate Republican. He has been likened to Rockefeller. Governor Weld is described as fiscally conservative and socially liberal. After declaring his candidacy, Weld described himself "the most pro-choice person" running for president.
Current officeholders
Governors
Chris Sununu, Governor of New Hampshire
Former officeholders
U.S. Vice Presidents
Nelson Rockefeller
U.S. Senators
Mark Andrews, (North Dakota)
Edward Brooke, (Massachusetts)
Clifford Case, (New Jersey)
John Chafee, former Governor of Rhode Island and United States Senator
Slade Gorton, (Washington)
Jacob Javits, (New York)
Jim Jeffords, (Vermont) (Republican while in Congress until 2001; Became an Independent in 2001)
Olympia Snowe, (Maine)
Arlen Specter, (Pennsylvania)
John Warner, former Secretary of the Navy and United States Senator from Virginia
Lowell Weicker, (Connecticut) (switched parties to A Connecticut Party, then became an Independent)
U.S. Representatives
Vincent Dellay, (New Jersey) (former Republican, Democrat, later Independent)
Florence Dwyer, (New Jersey)
Millicent Fenwick, (New Jersey)
Peter Frelinghuysen Jr., (New Jersey)
Dean Gallo, (New Jersey)
Harold Hollenbeck, (New Jersey)
John Lindsay, (New York and Mayor of New York City)
Matthew Rinaldo, (New Jersey)
Jim Saxton, (New Jersey)
George Wallhauser, (New Jersey)
William Windall, (New Jersey)
Governors
William Cahill, former Governor of New Jersey
Dan Evans, former Governor of Washington
Tom Kean, former Governor of New Jersey
Nelson Rockefeller, former Governor of New York
John Spellman, former Governor of Washington
Bill Weld, former Governor of Massachusetts (Changed parties to Libertarian, later reregistered as Republican)
Lowell Weicker, former Governor of Connecticut (Former Republican and A Connecticut Party member)
See also
Conservative Democrat (Blue Dogs)
Factions in the Republican Party
Libertarian Democrat
New Democrats
The New York Young Republican Club
One-nation conservatism
Red Tory
Republican Main Street Partnership
Republican In Name Only (RINO)
New York Herald Tribune
Ripon Society
Roosevelt Republican
South Park Republican
References
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Burns, James MacGregor. The Deadlock of Democracy. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: 1967.
Joyner, Conrad. The Republican Dilemma: Conservatism or Progressivism (1963).
Kristol, Irving. "American Conservatism 1945–1995". Public Interest 94 (Fall 1995): 80–91.
Perlstein, Rick. Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus (2001) text search, survey of GOP politics in 1960s.
Reinhard, David W. The Republican Right since 1945 (1983).
Rae, Nicol. Decline and Fall of the Liberal Republicans: 1952 to the Present. 1989.
Reichley, A. James. Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations. 1981.
Reiter, Howard. "Intra-Party Cleavages in the United States Today". Western Political Quarterly 34 (1981): 287–300.
Sherman, Janann. No Place for a Woman: A Life of Senator Margaret Chase Smith (2000).
Smith, Richard Norton. On His: Terms: A Life of Nelson Rockefeller (2014), a major scholarly biography.
Underwood, James F., and William J. Daniels. Governor Rockefeller in New York: The Apex of Pragmatic Liberalism in the United States (1982).
External links
Republican Main Street Partnership – Republican group interested in building a pragmatic center in the GOP
Progressive Republicans
"Liberals Get the Action, Conservatives Get the Rhetoric" – first chapter of Nixon: The Man Behind the Mask'' by Gary Allen
Centrism in the United States
Factions in the Republican Party (United States)
Eponymous political ideologies
Nelson A. Rockefeller
Republican Party (United States) terminology |
357314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock%20garden | Rock garden | A rock garden, also known as a rockery or an alpine garden, is a small field or plot of ground designed to feature and emphasize a variety of rocks, stones, and boulders.
The standard layout for a rock garden consists of a pile of aesthetically arranged rocks in different sizes, with small gaps between in which plants are rooted. Typically, plants found in rock gardens are small and do not grow larger than 1 meter in height, though small trees and shrubs up to 6 meters may be used to create a shaded area for a woodland rock garden. If used, they are often grown in troughs or low to the ground to avoid obscuring the eponymous rocks. The plants found in rock gardens are usually species that flourish in well-drained, poorly irrigated soil.
Some rock gardens are designed and built to look like natural outcrops of bedrock. Stones are aligned to suggest a bedding plane, and plants are often used to conceal the joints between said stones. This type of rockery was popular in Victorian times and usually created by professional landscape architects. The same approach is sometimes used in commercial or modern-campus landscaping but can also be applied in smaller private gardens.
The Japanese rock garden, often referred to as a "Zen garden", is a special kind of rock garden with water features, moss, pruned trees and bushes, and very few plants.
Rock gardens have become increasingly popular as landscape features in tropical countries such as Thailand. The combination of wet weather and heavy shade trees, along with the use of heavy plastic liners to stop unwanted plant growth, has made this type of arrangement ideal for both residential and commercial gardens due to its easier maintenance and drainage. They have also made an international debut. In Canada, residents find that they help in yard cooling during the hot summer months.
History
Although the use of rocks as decorative and symbolic elements in gardens can be traced back to early Chinese and Japanese gardens, rock gardens dedicated to growing alpine plants have a shorter history.
During the Golden Age of Botany (early 1700s – mid-1800s), there was widespread interest in exotic articles imported to England. Although others had previously written about growing alpine plants, it was Reginald Farrer that started this tradition with the 1919 publication of his two-volume book, The English Rock Garden.
Gallery
See also
List of garden types
Gardening
Garden design
Rock Garden, Chandigarh in Chandigarh, India
Nek Chand, creator of the Rock Garden in Chandigarh, India.
References
External links
Alpines and Gardens
Greek Mountain Flora
FAQ on Rock Gardens
The Alpine Garden, Rock Gardening on the Net
Alpine-L mailing list
North American Rock Garden Society homepage
Scottish Rock Garden Club homepage
The British Rock Garden in the Twentieth Century - Occasional Papers from the RHS Lindley Library, volume 6, May 2011.
Types of garden |
357317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurobarometer | Eurobarometer | Eurobarometer is a series of public opinion surveys conducted regularly on behalf of the European Commission and other EU Institutions since 1973. These surveys address a wide variety of topical issues relating to the European Union throughout its member states.
The Eurobarometer results are published by the European Commission's Directorate-General Communication. Its database since 1973 is one of the largest in the world.
Forerunners of Eurobarometer
In 1970 and 1971, the European Commission conducted surveys in the six member countries (at that time) of the European Community (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands). These surveys assessed public opinion on individual national priorities as well as integrated European functions and organisations, including the Common Market (European Economic Community).
Regular semi-annual polls of member nations - now also including Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom - began in September 1973, with the survey series first being given the name Eurobarometer in 1974. The fieldwork for Euro-Barometer 1 was conducted in April–May of that year, with results published in July.
A first international survey on attitudes towards European unification ("Attitudes towards Europe") was carried out in 1962 at the request of the Press and Information Service of the European Communities in (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands).
Standard Eurobarometer survey
The Standard Eurobarometer survey series is a cross-national longitudinal study, designed to compare and gauge trends within Member States of the European Union.
This survey is carried out each autumn and spring. Although the range of questions has been expanded over the years, the programme aims to keep most of the survey constant, so that data is comparable over time. Starting with Eurobarometer 34 (1990), separate supplementary surveys on special topics have been conducted under almost every Eurobarometer wave. Special irregularly repeated modules investigate topics such as agriculture, biotechnology, consumer behaviour, elderly people, energy, environment, family, gender issues, health, immigration, poverty, regional identity, science and technology, urban traffic, working conditions, youth, etc. from a European perspective. In the case of some supplementary studies, special youth and elderly samples have been drawn.
In the 2019 Eurobarometer survey, when people across Europe were asked to name the two most pressing issues confronting them personally, 18% mentioned health and social security, 15% pensions, 14% the environment, and 13% their own financial situation. Other economic and social issues followed, with crime (6%), immigration (5%), and terrorism (2%), in that order.
Flash Eurobarometer
The Flash Eurobarometer was introduced in the 1990s and consists of interviews, conducted by telephone, which are undertaken on an ad hoc basis. The main advantage of the Flash survey, as opposed to a normal Eurobarometer survey, is that it is much faster, providing results almost instantaneously. In addition, it is more suitable to the targeting of specific groups within the EU population.
Central and Eastern Eurobarometer
The Central and Eastern Eurobarometer series was carried out annually on behalf of the European Commission between 1990 and 1997. The CEEB surveys monitored economic and political changes, as well as attitudes towards Europe and the European Union, in up to 20 countries of the region.
Candidate Countries Eurobarometer
In 2001, the European Commission launched a series of surveys in the 13 countries that were applying for European Union membership under the title of "Candidate Countries Eurobarometer" (initially named "Applicant Countries Eurobarometer" or AC-EB). The CC-EB surveys were carried out in Bulgaria, Republic of Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey. Since the EU enlargements of 2004 and 2007, the CC-EB countries that have become Member States have been included in the Standard Eurobarometer.
See also
Afrobarometer
European Social Survey
Latinobarómetro
World Values Survey
References
External links
Website of the European Commission's Directorate-General Communication, providing public access to the official Eurobarometer reports
Data Archive services providing access to Eurobarometer primary data for re-use (statistical analysis) in social science research and training (GESIS)
Cross-national survey programmes historical overview and links to resources (GESIS)
European Commission
Polling
Public opinion
Statistical data sets
Surveys (human research) |
357319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ping-pong%20diplomacy | Ping-pong diplomacy | Ping-pong diplomacy ( Pīngpāng wàijiāo) refers to the exchange of table tennis (ping-pong) players between the United States (US) and People's Republic of China (PRC) in the early 1970s, that began during the 1971 World Table Tennis Championships in Nagoya, Japan as a result of an encounter between players Glenn Cowan (of the US) and Zhuang Zedong (of the PRC). The event paved the way for President Richard Nixon’s visit to Beijing in 1972 and has been seen as a key turning point in relations between the United States and the People’s Republic of China.
History
Background
The United States viewed the People's Republic of China as an aggressor nation and enforced an economic containment policy including an embargo on the PRC, following its entry into the Korean War in 1950. After approximately 20 years of neither diplomatic nor economic relations, both countries finally saw an advantage in opening up to each other: China viewed closer relations with the United States as a beneficial counter to its increasingly tense relationship with the Soviet Union, which had seen the outbreak of a series of bloody border incidents, while the U.S. sought closer relations with China as leverage in its peace negotiations with North Vietnam.
"[T]he thirty-first World Table Tennis Championships, held in Nagoya, Japan, provided an opportunity for both China and the United States."
Process
The U.S. Table Tennis team was in Nagoya, Japan in 1971 for the 31st World Table Tennis Championships on April 6 when they received an invitation to visit China. From the early years of the People's Republic, sports had played an important role in diplomacy, often incorporating the slogan "Friendship First, Competition Second". During the isolationist years, athletes were among the few PRC nationals who were allowed to travel overseas. On April 10, 1971, the team and accompanying journalists became the first American delegation to set foot in the Chinese capital since 1949. The meeting was facilitated by the National Committee on United States – China Relations. Prior to the visit by the American table tennis players, eleven Americans were admitted into the PRC for one week because they all professed affiliation with the Black Panther Party, which followed a Maoist political line. This was unusual, given that high-profile American citizens such as Senator Eugene McCarthy expressed interest in visiting China after the 1968 presidential election, but even he could not have a trip arranged for him despite his office.
According to History of U.S. Table Tennis by Tim Boggan, who went to China along with the U.S. Table Tennis Team, three incidents may have triggered their invitation from China. Welshman H. Roy Evans, then President of the International Table Tennis Federation, claimed that he visited China prior to the 31st World Table Tennis Championship and suggested to non-Chinese sports authorities and Premier Zhou Enlai that China should take steps to get in contact with the world through international sport events after the Cultural Revolution. Furthermore, the American player Leah "Miss Ping" Neuberger, the 1956 World Mixed Doubles Champion and nine-time U.S. Open Women's Singles Champion, was traveling at the time with the Canadian Table Tennis Team that had been invited by China to visit the country. China diplomatically extended its approval of Leah Neuberger's application for a visa to the entire American team. The third incident, perhaps the most likely trigger, was the unexpected but dramatic meeting between the flamboyant American player Glenn Cowan and the Chinese player Zhuang Zedong, a three-time world champion and winner of many other table tennis events. Zhuang Zedong described the incident in a 2007 talk at the USC U.S.-China Institute.
The events leading up to the encounter began when Glenn Cowan missed his team bus one afternoon after his practice in Nagoya during the 31st World Table Tennis Championship. Cowan had been practicing for 15 minutes with the Chinese player, Liang Geliang, when a Japanese official came and wanted to close the training area. Cowan boarded a shuttle bus carrying the Chinese team, most of whom treated him with suspicion. Chinese player Zhuang Zedong, however, shook Cowan's hand, spoke to him through an interpreter and presented him with a silk-screen portrait of Huangshan Mountains, a famous product from Hangzhou. Cowan wanted to give something back, but all he could find from his bag was a comb. The American hesitantly replied, "I can't give you a comb. I wish I could give you something, but I can't." This World Table Tennis Championships marked the return of China's participation after a six-year absence. When the Chinese team and Cowan walked off the bus, journalists who were following the Chinese team took photographs. In the political climate of the 1960s, the sight of an athlete of Communist China with an athlete of the United States was sure to garner attention. As a self-described hippie, Cowan presented Zedong with a T-shirt with a red, white and blue peace emblem flag and the words "Let It Be," lyrics from a song by The Beatles, on the following day.
When a journalist asked Cowan, "Mr. Cowan, would you like to visit China?", he answered, "Well, I'd like to see any country I haven't seen before--Argentina, Australia, China, ... Any country I haven't seen before." "But what about China in particular? Would you like to go there?" "Of course," said Glenn Cowan.
During an interview in 2002 with the famous TV personality Chen Luyu, Zhuang Zedong told more of the story: "The trip on the bus took 15 minutes, and I hesitated for 10 minutes. I grew up with the slogan 'Down with the American imperialism!' And during the Cultural Revolution, the string of class struggle was tightened unprecedentedly, and I was asking myself, 'Is it okay to have anything to do with your No. 1 enemy?'" Zhuang recalled remembering that Chairman Mao Zedong met Edgar Snow on the Rostrum of Tiananmen on the National Day in 1970 and said to Snow that China should now place its hope on American people.
Zhuang looked in his bag and first went through some pins, badges with Mao's head, silk handkerchiefs, and fans. But he felt these were not decent enough to be a good gift. He finally picked the silk portrait of Huangshan Mountains. On the following day, many Japanese newspapers carried photographs of Zhuang Zedong and Glenn Cowan.
When the Chinese Department of Foreign Affairs received a report that the U.S. Table Tennis Team hoped to get invited to visit China, the department declined as usual. Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong initially agreed with the decision, but when Mao Zedong saw the news with Cowan in Reference News, an internal newspaper accessible only to high-ranking government officials, he decided to invite the U.S. Table Tennis Team. It was reported that Mao Zedong said, "This Zhuang Zedong not only plays table tennis well, but is good at foreign affairs, and he has a mind for politics." On April 10, 1971, nine American players, four officials, and two spouses stepped across a bridge from Hong Kong to the Chinese mainland and then spent their time during April 11–17 playing fun matches, touring the Great Wall and Summer Palace, and watching a ballet.
Legacy
During the week of July 8, 2011, a three-day ping-pong diplomacy event was held at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California. Original members of both the Chinese and American ping-pong teams from 1971 were present and competed again.
In 1988, table tennis became an Olympic sport.
Ping-pong diplomacy was referenced in the 1994 film Forrest Gump. After suffering injuries in battle, Forrest develops an aptitude for the sport and joins the U.S. Army team—eventually competing against Chinese teams on a goodwill tour.
Reactions
Upon his return to the United States, one of the American players told reporters that the Chinese were very similar to people in the U.S. He said:
The people are just like us. They are real, they're genuine, they got feeling. I made friends, I made genuine friends, you see. The country is similar to America, but still very different. It's beautiful. They got the Great Wall, they got plains over there. They got an ancient palace, the parks, there's streams, and they got ghosts that haunt; there's all kinds of, you know, animals. The country changes from the south to the north. The people, they have a, a unity. They really believe in their Maoism.
The aftermath of Nixon's visit
Two months after Richard Nixon's visit, Zhuang Zedong visited the U.S. as the head of a Chinese table-tennis delegation, April 12–30, 1972. Notably, the Chinese delegation played a team of University of Maryland, College Park students at the university's Cole Field House on April 17, 1972. The president's daughter Tricia Nixon Cox was in the stands. Also on the itinerary were Canada, Mexico and Peru. Countries through "ping-pong diplomacy" were not always successful, such as when the All Indonesia Table Tennis Association (PTMSI) refused China's invitation in October 1971, claiming that accepting the PRC's offer would improve the PRC's reputation. Because neither Soviet athletes nor journalists appeared in China following the appearance of the American players and journalists, one speculation is that the act showed the equal scorn of both countries towards the USSR.
Result
Ping-pong diplomacy was successful and resulted in opening the U.S.-PRC relationship, leading the U.S. to lift the embargo against China on June 10, 1971. On February 28, 1972, during President Nixon and Henry Kissinger's visit to Shanghai, the Shanghai Communique was issued between the U.S. and the PRC. The Communique noted that both nations would work towards the normalization of their relations.
1991 united Korean Team
Another example of Ping Pong Diplomacy occurred during the 1991 World Table Tennis Championships in Chiba, Japan, where a unified Korean team played together for the first time since the Korean War.
The diplomatic efforts leading to the formation of this unified team were led by then-International Table Tennis Federation President, Ichiro Ogimura.
Prior to the championships, Ogimura visited South Korea 20 times and traveled to North Korea 15 times to plead for a unified team from the Korean peninsula. Ogimura also worked with local Japanese government heads to create joint training camps in the cities of Nagano, Nagaoka and Chiba, and secured agreement from the ITTF for North Korea and South Korea to compete under the unified name of “Korea”.
The Korean team played under a white flag depicting the Korean peninsula in blue and used the Korean folksong, Arirang, rather than the national anthem of either the North or the South.
The competition saw the Korean team win one gold medal, one silver and two bronze medals.
This action has since been repeated. At the 2018 World Team Table Tennis Championships, the two Koreas entered separate teams in the competition but, when they were paired against each other at the quarter-final of the women's event, they negotiated instead to field a joint team for the semi-final.
See also
1999 Baltimore Orioles – Cuban national baseball team exhibition series
2008 New York Philharmonic visit to North Korea
Summit Series
Panda diplomacy
References
Boggan, Tim. History of U.S. Table Tennis
Further reading
"Talking Points" (USC US-China Newsletter), July 22, 2011, looks at the fortieth anniversary of ping-pong diplomacy, notes that the term was first used in 1901, and discusses how it was a bold bit of public diplomacy on China's part while China and the United States were engaged in back channel discussions.
Griffin, Nicholas (2014) Ping-Pong Diplomacy: The Secret History Behind the Game That Changed the World. Simon & Schuster.
Mathews, Jay. "The Strange Tale of American Attempts to Leap the Wall of China". The New York Times, 18 April 1971.
Schwartz, Harry. "Triangular Politics and China". The New York Times, 19 April 1971: 37.
Wang Guanhua, "'Friendship First': China's Sports Diplomacy in the Cold War Era", Journal of American-East Asian Relations 12.3-4 (Fall-Winter 2003): 133–153.
Xu Guoqi, "The Sport of Ping-Pong Diplomacy", Ch. Five, in Olympic Dreams: China and Sports 1895-2008 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008 ), pp. 117–163.
External links
Zhuang Zedong 2007 talk about the 1971 encounter
PBS article
Smithsonian Magazine article
New round of ping pong diplomacy (The Guardian, Tuesday, June 10, 2008)
China–United States relations
International relations
Types of diplomacy
Politics and sports
Table tennis in China
1971 in China
1971 in table tennis
Chinese foreign policy |
357320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlton%2C%20London | Charlton, London | Charlton is an area of southeast London, England, within the Royal Borough of Greenwich. It is east of Greenwich and west of Woolwich. It is east-southeast of Charing Cross. 'Charlton next Woolwich' was an ancient parish in the county of Kent, which became part of the metropolitan area of London in 1855. It is home to Charlton Athletic and to Charlton House.
History
Toponymy
Charlton is recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book as Cerletone. It is formed from Old English 'ceorl' and 'tūn' and means 'farmstead of the freemen or peasants'. It is a common English placename and the parish was also known as Charlton next Woolwich to distinguish it from Charlton by Dover. During the 19th century the riverside portion of the area became known as New Charlton.
Middle Ages
Charlton is assessed in the Domesday Book of 1086 at one "sulung", which is commonly held to have been the equivalent of two hides. In 1086 it was in the fee of Gundulf, bishop of Rochester, but in 1066 it had been held from the king as two estates, by two brothers, named Godwine and Alweard. Though assessed at only one sulung, it had a slightly higher value than might be expected, at £7, both in 1066 and in 1086. A church dedicated to St Luke is recorded in the village as early as 1077, although no trace of the medieval building survives.
In 1093, the manor of Charlton was given to Bermondsey Abbey by Bishop Robert Bloet of Lincoln. In 1268, the Abbey was granted a Monday market at Charlton, as well as an annual fair of three days, centred on Trinity Sunday, the eighth Sunday after Easter.
Renaissance
Between 1607 and 1612, Sir Adam Newton, tutor to Prince Henry, eldest son of James I, had a new manor house, Charlton House, built in the village. The Jacobean mansion by architect John Thorpe was never used by the prince, who died in 1612. On the northern edge of the house's garden is a mulberry tree planted in 1608 by order of King James in an effort to cultivate silkworms. On the death of Sir Adam, his executors Peter Newton and David Cunningham of Auchenharvie were charged to rebuild St Luke's Church.
Early Modern
The manor was subsequently acquired by the colonial administrator Sir William Langhorne, 1st Baronet, who is buried in the parish church. Upon his death without issue in 1715, his possessions in Charlton and Hampstead passed to the Conyers baronets, and subsequently to the Maryon-Wilson baronets.
In the early 18th century, Charlton was described by Daniel Defoe as:
The Horn Fair (or Charlton Fair) was held regularly on 18 October each year, and retained its reputation for lawlessness; in 1833, for example, police arrested a swindler who had cheated several artillerymen. In 1857, following the abolition of nearby Greenwich Fair, Charlton Fair was described in the Morning Chronicle as "more like a carnival of the very worst and most vulgar class than any fair in the country." The Horn Fair was abolished, along with the livestock fairs of nearby Blackheath, by order of Henry Austin Bruce, the reforming Home Secretary, in 1872.
In the early nineteenth century, Spencer Perceval, the only British Prime Minister to be assassinated, was buried at St Luke's church; Perceval's wife having been a member of the Maryon-Wilson family. In 1843, Charlton was the site of the death and burial of murdered civil servant Edward Drummond, whose assassination led to the establishment of the M'Naghten Rules for legal insanity.
Industrialisation
The flat land adjoining the Thames at Charlton Riverside has been a significant industrial area since Victorian times. The establishment of heavy industry centred on Charlton Pier, and led to a number of serious fires in the area in the mid 19th century. A notable establishment was the Siemens Brothers Telegraph Works (although largely in the parish of Woolwich) opened in 1863, which manufactured two new transatlantic cables in the 1880s, and contributed to PLUTO in World War 2. It was in this industrialised area that Charlton Athletic F.C. was established in 1905, before moving a short distance to The Valley in 1919.
20th century
From 1903 to 1913, the Italian writer Italo Svevo lived in a house on Charlton Church Lane which now bears a blue plaque in his honour. He had arrived there in his capacity as a director in a Trieste firm selling high-quality underwater paint for ships, on whose behalf he established a factory in Charlton's Anchor and Hope Lane, fulfilling a big contract with the British Royal Navy.
The non-ferrous foundry of J. Stone & Co moved to Charlton from Deptford in 1917, and produced 22,000 propellers for the Royal Navy during World War II (its products being fitted to battleships, aircraft carriers, cruisers and numerous smaller vessels), plus propellers and water-tight doors for RMS Queen Mary, RMS Queen Elizabeth and Royal Yacht Britannia. In 1963 Stone's marine propeller business merged with Manganese Bronze (also originally founded in Deptford, in 1882, before relocating to Millwall and then Birkenhead in 1941) and manufacture moved to Birkenhead. Stone Foundries still operates at Charlton, in a plant established in 1939 to produce aluminium and magnesium light alloy castings mainly for the aircraft industry, and production of nails and rivets continues at nearby Stone Fasteners.
The estates surrounding Charlton House were gradually broken up, and once the Maryon-Wilson family died out in 1925, the surviving open spaces were converted into public parks, two of which bear the family name. The house itself became the property of the local authority (currently the Royal Borough of Greenwich) and is used as a library and community centre. Maryon Park was used as the filming location for the pivotal murder scene in Michelangelo Antonioni's film Blow-Up (1966).
Local government
Charlton has formed part of the London Borough of Greenwich (now the Royal Borough of Greenwich) since its formation in 1965. Prior to that it was the easternmost part of the Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich, which succeeded the Lee, formerly Plumstead, District in 1900. Before the passage of the Metropolis Management Act 1855, Charlton was a civil parish in its own right.
Within the borough, Charlton is mainly covered by the ward of the same name. Charlton's riverside areas are part of the Woolwich Riverside ward, which also includes Woolwich Dockyard and Arsenal. Charlton has had only Labour councillors since 1971, while Woolwich Riverside has been Labour-controlled since its creation in 2002.
In the Westminster parliament, Charlton is covered by the Greenwich and Woolwich constituency, which has been represented by Matthew Pennycook since 2015. In the London Assembly, Charlton falls within the Greenwich and Lewisham constituency, which has been represented by Labour's Len Duvall since its creation in 2000.
Geography
The centre of Charlton, known as Charlton Village, lies on the edge of high ground about 7 miles east-south-east of central London, on the B210. West of the village the main road is called Charlton Road, and to the east, Charlton Park Road; the road itself is called 'The Village' in the village centre. A preserved model K2 red telephone box stands on Charlton Road. A minor road called Charlton Church Lane leads north down the hill from St Luke's Church to the station and the A206. Beyond the railway line lies the more heavily industrial riverside area referred to as New Charlton or Charlton Riverside.
Charlton is also home to several parks of varying features, namely Maryon Park, Maryon Wilson Park, Hornfair Park, named in reference to the old Horn Fair, and Charlton Park, which is largely made up of sports pitches or playing fields. Adjoining Maryon Park is the Gilbert's Pit Site of Special Scientific Interest, which was formerly a major site of sand extraction. Most of the parks lie in the area once covered by Hanging Wood.
The architecture of Charlton is diverse, offering an insight into how different parts of the area were built up, as it evolved from a Thames-side village into the London suburb that it is today. Charlton gave its name to Charlton House, and has links with the classic architect Inigo Jones, a street being named after him. Other streets in Charlton named after prominent figures or places include Montcalm, Henry, Prince of Wales, Canberra, and Kashmir. There are four main pubs within the vicinity of Charlton Village, including The Bugle Horn, a late 17th-century coaching inn. A major landmark on the north side of the village is The Valley stadium, home to Charlton Athletic F.C. since 1919.
New Charlton is the site of the southern end of the Thames Barrier, including the Barrier's main operational area and visitor centre. In 2013, a university technical college named Royal Greenwich UTC opened its campus nearby, under the auspices of the University of Greenwich. It is now a free school called Royal Greenwich Trust School.
The nearest areas are Blackheath, Eltham, Greenwich, Kidbrooke, Maze Hill, North Greenwich, Plumstead, Welling, Westcombe Park and Woolwich.
Demography
According to the 2011 UK census, the population of the Charlton ward was 14,385. 52.4% of the population was White and from a mainland British or Northern Irish background; the next largest ethnic groups were Black African (10.6%) and White (Other) (9.3%). The population included people of every British and Irish national identity except Cornish. 81.8% of residents spoke English as a first language; of the remainder, the greatest proportion spoke Nepalese. 47.2% of the population were Christians and 29.1% had no religion; 8.4% stated no religion, and the next largest religious group was Muslims with 6.8% of the population.
Of 5,739 households in the ward, 1,796 (31.3%) contained no adults in employment. Out of an active workforce of 6,698 people, 11.8% worked in wholesale, retail or auto repair; 11.4% in education, and 11.4% in health and social care. 22.8% of those employed worked in professional occupations 42.95 of people in the ward were aged 20–44.
Economy
Charlton Village retains a number of traditional businesses including an ironmonger. However, a much larger shopping area is located in New Charlton, to the north, including the Greenwich Shopping Park, the Peninsula Retail Park and Stone Lake Retail Park. A new Sainsbury's superstore opened in 2015 between Woolwich Road and Bugsby's Way. This new store replaced the Greenwich Peninsula branch, itself less than 15 years old and hailed at the time of its opening as a 'supermarket of the future'. Sainsbury's also has a large distribution centre in New Charlton; it was rebuilt and expanded in 2012 and re-opened by deputy prime minister Nick Clegg in 2013.
New Charlton is also home to the area's surviving heavy industry. In the 19th century the area was dominated by a large ropewalk and other maritime businesses. In recent years marine aggregates have predominated, including the major facility at Angerstein Wharf which incorporates the former Christie's Wharf site.
Until the 19th century, mineral extraction was a major local industry. The Valley stadium stands on the site of a large chalk pit, while Gilbert's Pit once supplied central London with most of its sand for domestic use. Gilbert's Pit is the only remnant of this industry which has not been built over.
Religious sites
The first recorded place of worship in Charlton is St Luke's Church, originally a chalk and flint building known to have existed in the 11th century. Rebuilt in the Jacobean style in 1630, it is now the parish church of a Church of England parish in the Modern Catholic tradition. The building was expanded with a new organ chamber and chancel in 1840, and new vestries in 1956. The church is listed as grade 2*, indicating a structure of 'more than special interest'. It is the burial place of several generations of the lords of the manor of Charlton, and of murdered British prime minister Spencer Perceval.
A second Anglican church, dedicated to St Thomas, and known as St Thomas Old Charlton, was built in 1848–50. Designed in the Romanesque style by architect Joseph Gwilt and his son John Sebastian Gwilt, it was consecrated on 31 July 1850. It is currently shared between the Anglican parish based at St Lukes and the British Orthodox Church congregation of St Thomas the Apostle; the building is grade II listed. A third Anglican church, dedicated to the Holy Trinity, was built in New Charlton in 1894, designed by John Rowland. It was listed in 1973, but was declared redundant in 1974 and demolished in 1975 to be replaced by a block of flats.
The Roman Catholic church of Our Lady of Grace was established by the Assumptionists Order. They settled in Charlton in 1903 after being expelled from France in 1900 due to suppression of Holy Orders. The first nuns moved into Highcombe and set up a mission in Charlton. The current church was built in 1905 and celebrated its centenary on 17 September 2005 with a concelebrated ecumenical mass, led by Archbishop Kevin McDonald and parish priest, Fr. Michael Leach. The church has strong historic links with the Irish community in south east London which are evident in the statue of Saint Patrick on display inside. The current presbytery was once the home of William Henry Barlow (1812–1902), the eminent 19th century engineer, who designed St Pancras railway station and for whom English Heritage have erected a blue plaque in recognition; it is also grade II listed.
Other churches in the area include Charlton Tabernacle of the New Testament Church of God on Charlton Church Lane; the Anglican church of St Richard; a United Reformed Church on Wyndcliff Road; and several evangelical free churches in and around New Charlton. Charlton also has a small mosque providing services for men and women in the Bareilvi Sufi tradition.
Transport
London Buses
Charlton is served by London Buses routes 53, 54, 161, 177, 180, 380, 422, 472, 486 and N1.
London Underground
The nearest station is North Greenwich on the Jubilee line.
National Rail
The nearest station is Charlton for Southeastern services towards Barnehurst, Crayford, Dartford, Gillingham, London Cannon Street and London Charing Cross and Govia Thameslink Railway services to north Kent, as well as services to St Pancras, St Albans City, Luton and Luton Airport.
Road network
Charlton is located between the A206 to the north and the A207 to the south. The southern approach of the Blackwall Tunnel crossing of the River Thames is located to the west, while the South Circular Road lies some way to the east.
A Metropolitan Police car pound is located in west Charlton, off Eastcombe Avenue.
Sport
Charlton is best known as the home of Charlton Athletic F.C. The club plays at The Valley (a former chalk pit) situated to the north of the village, close to the main road and railway line.
The Rectory Field, until 2016 home of Blackheath Rugby Club, is on the border of Blackheath and Charlton.
The London Marathon course, which starts on Blackheath, loops eastwards through Charlton to Woolwich before turning west along Woolwich Road.
See also
Charlton Lido
List of people from Greenwich
List of schools in Greenwich
References
Districts of the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Areas of London
Cable manufacture in London |
357325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios%20Papandreou | Georgios Papandreou | Georgios Papandreou ( Geórgios Papandréou; 13 February 1888 – 1 November 1968) was a Greek politician, the founder of the Papandreou political dynasty. He served three terms as prime minister of Greece (1944–1945, 1963, 1964–1965). He was also deputy prime minister from 1950–1952, in the governments of Nikolaos Plastiras and Sofoklis Venizelos and served numerous times as a cabinet minister, starting in 1923, in a political career that spanned more than five decades.
Early life
Papandreou was born at Kalentzi, in the Achaea region of the northern Peloponnese. He was the son of Father Andreas Stavropoulos, an Orthodox archpriest (protopresvyteros). His last name is derived from his father's Christian name and the word papas "priest". He studied law in Athens and political science in Berlin. His political philosophy was heavily influenced by German social democracy. As a result, he was adamantly opposed to the monarchy and supported generous social policies, but he was also extremely anti-communist (and specifically against the KKE's policies in Greece). As a young man, he became involved in politics as a supporter of the Liberal leader Eleftherios Venizelos, who made him governor of Chios after the Balkan Wars. One of his brothers, Nikos, was killed in the Battle of Kilkis-Lachanas.
He married twice. His first wife was Sofia Mineyko, a Polish national, daughter of Zygmunt Mineyko and paternal granddaughter of Stanislaw Mineyko (1802–1857). Their son Andreas Papandreou was born in Chios in 1919. His second wife was the actress Cybele Andrianou and their son was named George Papandreou.
Political career
During the political crisis surrounding Greece's entry into the First World War, Papandreou was one of Venizelos's closest supporters against the pro-German monarch, King Konstantínos I. When Venizelos in 1916 left Athens, Papandreou accompanied him to Crete, and then went to Lesbos, where he mobilised anti-monarchist supporters in the islands and rallied support for Venizelos's insurgent pro-Allied government in Thessaloniki.
In the 1920 general election, Papandreou unsuccessfully ran as an independent liberal in the Lesbos constituency. In 1921 as a lawyer he defended Alexandros Papanastasiou, during a trial for his critic against King Konstantínos. Because of an article calling on King Konstantínos to abdicate, he was imprisoned by the royalist regime and later he narrowly escaped assassination from royalist extremists in Lesbos.
From January to October 1923, he served as interior minister in the cabinet of Stylianos Gonatas. In the December 1923 elections, he was elected as a Venizelist Liberal Party member of parliament for Lésvos, and served as finance minister for just 11 days in June 1925, education minister in 1930–1932 and transport minister in 1933. As minister of education he reformed the Greek school system and built many schools for the children of refugees of the Greco-Turkish War. During the dictatorship of Pangalos, he was again imprisoned.
In 1935, he set up the Democratic Socialist Party of Greece. The same year, a royalist coup by General Geórgios Kondylis took place for the re-establishment of monarchy and he was placed in internal exile. A lifelong opponent of the Greek monarchy, he was again exiled in 1938 by the Greek royalist dictator Ioannis Metaxas.
Following the Axis occupation of Greece in the Second World War, he was imprisoned by the Italian authorities. He later fled to the Middle East and joined the predominantly Venizelist government-in-exile based in the Kingdom of Egypt. With British support, King Geórgios II appointed him as Prime Minister, and under his premiership took place the Lebanon conference (May 1944) and later the Caserta Agreement (September 1944), in an attempt to stop the crisis in Greece and the conflicts between EAM and non-EAM forces (a prelude of the civil war) and establish a national unity government.
Liberation of Greece and the Dekemvrianá events
After the evacuation of Greece by the Axis powers, he entered Athens (October 1944) as Prime Minister of the Greek government-in-exile with some units of the Greek Army and the allied British. During the same month, he became Prime Minister in the , which had succeeded the Greek government-in-exile. He tried to normalise the highly polarised situation between the EAM and non-EAM forces, collaborating mainly with Lieutenant-General Sir Ronald Scobie, who was, after the Caserta agreement, responsible for all the Allied forces.
Although he resigned in 1945, after the Dekemvriana events, he continued to hold high office. From 1946–1952 he served as labour minister, supplies minister, education minister, finance minister and public order minister. In 1950–1952, he was also deputy prime minister.
The 1952–1961 period was a very difficult one for Papandreou. The liberal political forces in the Kingdom of Greece were gravely weakened by internal disputes and suffered electoral defeat from the conservatives. Papandreou continuously accused Sofoklis Venizelos for these maladies, considering his leadership dour and uninspiring.
Founder of the Centre Union and later confrontation with the Palace
In 1961, Papandreou revived Greek liberalism by founding the Centre Union Party, a confederation of old liberal Venizelists, social democrats and dissatisfied conservatives. After the elections of "violence and fraud" of 1961, Papandreou declared a "Relentless Struggle" against the right-wing ERE and the "parakrátos" (deep state) of the right.
Finally, his party won the elections of November 1963 and those of 1964, the second with a landslide majority. His progressive policies as premier aroused much opposition in conservative circles, as did the prominent role played by his son Andreas Papandreou, whose policies were seen as being considerably left of center. Andreas disagreed with his father on many important issues, and developed a network of political organizations, the Democratic Leagues (Dimokratikoi Syndesmoi) to lobby for more progressive policies. He also managed to take control of the Center Union's youth organization, EDIN.
Papandreou had opposed the Zürich and London Agreement, which led to the foundation of the Republic of Cyprus. Following clashes between the Greek and Turkish communities, his government sent a Greek army division to the island.
His Majesty King Konstantínos II openly opposed Papandreou's government, and there were frequent ultra-rightist plots in the Army, which destabilised the government. Finally, the King engineered a split in the Centre Union, and in July 1965, in a crisis known as the Apostasia or Iouliana, His Majesty dismissed the government following a dispute over control of the Ministry of Defence.
After the April 1967 military coup by the Colonels' junta led by George Papadopoulos, Papandreou was arrested. Papandreou died under house arrest in November 1968. His funeral became the occasion for a massive anti-dictatorship demonstration. He is interred at the First Cemetery of Athens, alongside his son Andreas.
Legacy
Papandreou was regarded as one of the best orators in the Greek political scene and a persistent fighter for Democracy. During the junta and after his death he was often referred to affectionately as "ο Γέρος της Δημοκρατίας" (o Géros tis Dimokratías, the old man of Democracy). Since his grandson George A. Papandreou entered politics, most Greek writers use Γεώργιος (Geórgios) to refer to the grandfather and the less formal Γιώργος (Giórgos) to refer to the grandson.
Works
The Liberation of Greece, Athens, 1945
Decorations and awards
In 1965, the University of Belgrade awarded him an honorary doctorate.
See also
Andreas Papandreou, his son
George Papandreou, his grandson
References
Further reading
Kassimeris, Christos. "Causes of the 1967 Greek coup." Democracy and Security 2#1 (2006): 61–72.
Wilsford, David, ed. Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp. 346–75.
External links
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1968 deaths
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People from Achaea
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357328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%B6bner%20basis | Gröbner basis | In mathematics, and more specifically in computer algebra, computational algebraic geometry, and computational commutative algebra, a Gröbner basis is a particular kind of generating set of an ideal in a polynomial ring over a field . A Gröbner basis allows many important properties of the ideal and the associated algebraic variety to be deduced easily, such as the dimension and the number of zeros when it is finite. Gröbner basis computation is one of the main practical tools for solving systems of polynomial equations and computing the images of algebraic varieties under projections or rational maps.
Gröbner basis computation can be seen as a multivariate, non-linear generalization of both Euclid's algorithm for computing polynomial greatest common divisors, and
Gaussian elimination for linear systems.
Gröbner bases were introduced in 1965, together with an algorithm to compute them (Buchberger's algorithm), by Bruno Buchberger in his Ph.D. thesis. He named them after his advisor Wolfgang Gröbner. In 2007, Buchberger received the Association for Computing Machinery's Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award for this work.
However, the Russian mathematician Nikolai Günther had introduced a similar notion in 1913, published in various Russian mathematical journals. These papers were largely ignored by the mathematical community until their rediscovery in 1987 by Bodo Renschuch et al. An analogous concept for multivariate power series was developed independently by Heisuke Hironaka in 1964, who named them standard bases. This term has been used by some authors to also denote Gröbner bases.
The theory of Gröbner bases has been extended by many authors in various directions. It has been generalized to other structures such as polynomials over principal ideal rings or polynomial rings, and also some classes of non-commutative rings and algebras, like Ore algebras.
Background
Polynomial ring
Gröbner bases are primarily defined for ideals in a polynomial ring over a field . Although the theory works for any field, most Gröbner basis computations are done either when is the field of rationals or the integers modulo a prime number.
There are several ways for defining polynomials. In the context of Gröbner bases, a polynomial in is commonly viewed as a sum where the are nonzero elements of and the are monomials or "power products" of . This means that a monomial is a product where the are nonnegative integers. The vector is called the exponent vector of . The notation is often abbreviated as . Monomials are uniquely defined by their exponent vectors so computers can represent monomials efficiently as exponent vectors, and polynomials as lists of pairs formed by an exponent vector and a coefficient.
If is a finite set of polynomials in the polynomial ring , the ideal generated by is the set of linear combinations of elements of with coefficients in ; that is the set of polynomials that can be written with
Monomial ordering
All operations related to Gröbner bases require the choice of a total order on the monomials, with the following properties of compatibility with multiplication. For all monomials , , ,
.
A total order satisfying these condition is sometimes called an admissible ordering.
These conditions imply that the order is a well-order, that is, every strictly decreasing sequence of monomials is finite.
Although Gröbner basis theory does not depend on a particular choice of an admissible monomial ordering, three monomial orderings are specially important for the applications:
Lexicographical ordering, commonly called lex or plex (for pure lexical ordering).
Total degree reverse lexicographical ordering, commonly called degrevlex.
Elimination ordering, lexdeg.
Gröbner basis theory was initially introduced for the lexicographical ordering. It was soon realised that the Gröbner basis for degrevlex is almost always much easier to compute, and that it is almost always easier to compute a lex Gröbner basis by first computing the degrevlex basis and then using a "change of ordering algorithm". When elimination is needed, degrevlex is not convenient; both lex and lexdeg may be used but, again, many computations are relatively easy with lexdeg and almost impossible with lex.
Once a monomial ordering is fixed, the terms of a polynomial (product of a monomial with its nonzero coefficient) are naturally ordered by decreasing monomials (for this order). This makes the representation of a polynomial as an ordered list of pairs coefficient–exponent vector a canonical representation of the polynomials. The first (greatest) term of a polynomial for this ordering and the corresponding monomial and coefficient are respectively called the leading term, leading monomial and leading coefficient and denoted, in this article, lt(), lm() and lc().
Reduction
The concept of reduction, also called multivariate division or normal form computation, is central to Gröbner basis theory. It is a multivariate generalization of the Euclidean division of univariate polynomials.
In this section we suppose a fixed monomial ordering, which will not be defined explicitly.
Given two polynomials f and g, one says that f is reducible by g if some monomial m in f is a multiple of the leading monomial lm(g) of g. If m happens to be the leading monomial of f then one says that f is lead-reducible by g. If c is the coefficient of m in f and m = q lm(g), the one-step reduction of f by g is the operation that associates to f the polynomial
The main properties of this operation are that the resulting polynomial does not contain the monomial m and that the monomials greater than m (for the monomial ordering) remain unchanged. This operation is not, in general, uniquely defined; if several monomials in f are multiples of lm(g), then one may choose arbitrarily which one to reduce. In practice, it is better to choose the greatest one for the monomial ordering, because otherwise subsequent reductions could reintroduce the monomial that has just been removed.
Given a finite set G of polynomials, one says that f is reducible or lead-reducible by G if it is reducible or lead-reducible, respectively, by an element g of G. If it is the case, then one defines . The (complete) reduction of f by G consists in applying iteratively this operator until getting a polynomial , which is irreducible by G. It is called a normal form of f by G. In general this form is not uniquely defined (this is not a canonical form); this non-uniqueness is the starting point of Gröbner basis theory.
For Gröbner basis computations, except at the end, it is not necessary to do a complete reduction: a lead-reduction is sufficient, which saves a large amount of computation.
The definition of the reduction shows immediately that, if h is a normal form of f by G, then we have
where the are polynomials. In the case of univariate polynomials, if G consists of a single element g, then h is the remainder of the Euclidean division of f by g, qg is the quotient and the division algorithm is exactly the process of lead-reduction. For this reason, some authors use the term multivariate division instead of reduction.
Examples of reduction
In the examples of this section, the polynomials have three indeterminates , , and , and the monomial order that is used is the monomial order with that is, for comparing two monomials, one compares first the exponents of ; only when the exponents of are equal, one compares the exponents of ; and the exponents of are compared only when the other exponents are equal.
For having a clear view of the reduction process, one has to rewrite polynomials with their terms in a decreasing order. For example, if
it must be rewritten
This allows having the leading monomial first (for the chosen order); here
Consider the reduction of by with and
For the first reduction step, either the first or the second term may be reduced. However, the reduction of a term amounts to remove this term at the cost of adding new lower terms, and, if it is not the first reducible term that is reduced, it is possible that a further reduction adds a similar term, which must be reduced again. It is therefore always better to reduce first the largest (for the monomial order) reducible term.
The leading term of is reducible by So the first reduction step consists of multiplying by and adding the result to :
As the leading term of is a multiple of the leading monomials of both and one has two choices for the second reduction step. If one choses one gets a polynomial that can be reduced again by
No further reduction is possible, so can be chosen for the complete reduction of . However, one gets a different result with the other choice for the second step:
Therefore, the complete reduction of can result in either or
Buchberger's algorithm has been introduced for solving the difficulties induced by this non-uniqueness. Roughly speaking it consists in adding to the polynomials that are needed for the uniqueness of the reduction by .
Here Buchberger's algorithm would begin by adding to the polynomial
Indeed, can be further reduced by and this produces again. However, this does not complete Buchberger's algorithm, as gives different results, when reduced by or
Formal definition
A Gröbner basis G of an ideal I in a polynomial ring R over a field is a generating set of I characterized by any one of the following properties, stated relative to some monomial order:
the ideal generated by the leading terms of polynomials in I equals the ideal generated by the leading terms of G;
the leading term of any polynomial in I is divisible by the leading term of some polynomial in G;
the multivariate division of any polynomial in the polynomial ring R by G gives a unique remainder;
the multivariate division by G of any polynomial in the ideal I gives the remainder 0.
All these properties are equivalent; different authors use different definitions depending on the topic they choose. The last two properties allow calculations in the factor ring R/I with the same facility as modular arithmetic. It is a significant fact of commutative algebra that Gröbner bases always exist, and can be effectively computed for any ideal given by a finite generating subset.
Multivariate division requires a monomial ordering, the basis depends on the monomial ordering chosen, and different orderings can give rise to radically different Gröbner bases. Two of the most commonly used orderings are lexicographic ordering, and degree reverse lexicographic order (also called graded reverse lexicographic order or simply total degree order). Lexicographic order eliminates variables, however the resulting Gröbner bases are often very large and expensive to compute. Degree reverse lexicographic order typically provides for the fastest Gröbner basis computations. In this order monomials are compared first by total degree, with ties broken by taking the smallest monomial with respect to lexicographic ordering with the variables reversed.
In most cases (polynomials in finitely many variables with complex coefficients or, more generally, coefficients over any field, for example), Gröbner bases exist for any monomial ordering. Buchberger's algorithm is the oldest and most well-known method for computing them. Other methods are the Faugère's F4 and F5 algorithms, based on the same mathematics as the Buchberger algorithm, and involutive approaches, based on ideas from differential algebra. There are also three algorithms for converting a Gröbner basis with respect to one monomial order to a Gröbner basis with respect to a different monomial order: the FGLM algorithm, the Hilbert-driven algorithm and the Gröbner walk algorithm. These algorithms are often employed to compute (difficult) lexicographic Gröbner bases from (easier) total degree Gröbner bases.
A Gröbner basis is termed reduced if the leading coefficient of each element of the basis is 1 and no monomial in any element of the basis is in the ideal generated by the leading terms of the other elements of the basis. In the worst case, computation of a Gröbner basis may require time that is exponential or even doubly exponential in the number of solutions of the polynomial system (for degree reverse lexicographic order and lexicographic order, respectively). Despite these complexity bounds, both standard and reduced Gröbner bases are often computable in practice, and most computer algebra systems contain routines to do so.
The concept and algorithms of Gröbner bases have been generalized to submodules of free modules over a polynomial ring. In fact, if L is a free module over a ring R, then one may consider R⊕L as a ring by defining the product of two elements of L to be 0. This ring may be identified with , where is a basis of L. This allows to identify a submodule of L generated by with the ideal of generated by and the products , . If R is a polynomial ring, this reduces the theory and the algorithms of Gröbner bases of modules to the theory and the algorithms of Gröbner bases of ideals.
The concept and algorithms of Gröbner bases have also been generalized to ideals over various rings, commutative or not, like polynomial rings over a principal ideal ring or Weyl algebras.
Example and counterexample
Let be the ring of bivariate polynomials with rational coefficients and consider the ideal generated by the polynomials
,
.
Two other elements of are the polynomials
,
Under lexicographic ordering with we have
The ideal generated by {lt(f),lt(g)} only contains polynomials that are divisible by x2 which
excludes ; it follows that {f, g} is not a Gröbner basis for .
On the other hand, we can show that {f, k, h} is indeed a Gröbner basis for .
Firstly, f and g, and therefore also h, k and all the other polynomials in the ideal
have the following three zeroes in the (x,y) plane in common, as indicated in the figure: {(1,1),(−1,1),(0,0)}.
Those three points are not collinear, so does not contain any polynomial of the first degree.
Neither can contain any polynomials of the special form
m(x,y) = cx + p(y)
with c a nonzero rational number and p a polynomial in the variable y only; the reason being that
such an m can never have two distinct zeroes with the same value for y (in this case,
the points (1,1) and (−1,1)).
From the above it follows that I, apart from the zero polynomial, only contains polynomials whose leading term has degree greater than or equal to 2; therefore their leading terms are divisible by at least one of the three monomials
{x2, xy, y2} = {lt(f),lt(k),lt(h)}.
This means that {f, k, h} is a Gröbner basis for with respect to lexicographic ordering with x > y.
Properties and applications of Gröbner bases
Unless explicitly stated, all the results that follow are true for any monomial ordering (see that article for the definitions of the different orders that are mentioned below).
It is a common misconception that the lexicographical order is needed for some of these results. On the contrary, the lexicographical order is, almost always, the most difficult to compute, and using it makes impractical many computations that are relatively easy with graded reverse lexicographic order (grevlex), or, when elimination is needed, the elimination order (lexdeg) which restricts to grevlex on each block of variables.
Equality of ideals
Reduced Gröbner bases are unique for any given ideal and any monomial ordering. Thus two ideals are equal if and only if they have the same (reduced) Gröbner basis (usually a Gröbner basis software always produces reduced Gröbner bases).
Membership and inclusion of ideals
The reduction of a polynomial f by the Gröbner basis G of an ideal yields 0 if and only if f is in . This allows to test the membership of an element in an ideal. Another method consists in verifying that the Gröbner basis of G∪{f} is equal to G.
To test if the ideal generated by f1, …, fk is contained in the ideal , it suffices to test that every is in . One may also test the equality of the reduced Gröbner bases of and ∪ {f1, ...,fk}.
Solutions of a system of algebraic equations
Any set of polynomials may be viewed as a system of polynomial equations by equating the polynomials to zero. The set of the solutions of such a system depends only on the generated ideal, and, therefore does not change when the given generating set is replaced by the Gröbner basis, for any ordering, of the generated ideal. Such a solution, with coordinates in an algebraically closed field containing the coefficients of the polynomials, is called a zero of the ideal. In the usual case of rational coefficients, this algebraically closed field is chosen as the complex field.
An ideal does not have any zero (the system of equations is inconsistent) if and only if 1 belongs to the ideal (this is Hilbert's Nullstellensatz), or, equivalently, if its Gröbner basis (for any monomial ordering) contains 1, or, also, if the corresponding reduced Gröbner basis is [1].
Given the Gröbner basis G of an ideal I, it has only a finite number of zeros, if and only if, for each variable x, G contains a polynomial with a leading monomial that is a power of x (without any other variable appearing in the leading term). If this is the case, then the number of zeros, counted with multiplicity, is equal to the number of monomials that are not multiples of any leading monomial of G. This number is called the degree of the ideal.
When the number of zeros is finite, the Gröbner basis for a lexicographical monomial ordering provides, theoretically, a solution: the first coordinate of a solution is a root of the greatest common divisor of polynomials of the basis that depend only on the first variable. After substituting this root in the basis, the second coordinate of this solution is a root of the greatest common divisor of the resulting polynomials that depend only on the second variable, and so on. This solving process is only theoretical, because it implies GCD computation and root-finding of polynomials with approximate coefficients, which are not practicable because of numeric instability. Therefore, other methods have been developed to solve polynomial systems through Gröbner bases (see System of polynomial equations for more details).
Dimension, degree and Hilbert series
The dimension of an ideal I in a polynomial ring R is the Krull dimension of the ring R/I and is equal to the dimension of the algebraic set of the zeros of I. It is also equal to number of hyperplanes in general position which are needed to have an intersection with the algebraic set, which is a finite number of points. The degree of the ideal and of its associated algebraic set is the number of points of this finite intersection, counted with multiplicity. In particular, the degree of a hypersurface is equal to the degree of its definition polynomial.
Both degree and dimension depend only on the set of the leading monomials of the Gröbner basis of the ideal for any monomial ordering.
The dimension is the maximal size of a subset S of the variables such that there is no leading monomial depending only on the variables in S. Thus, if the ideal has dimension 0, then for each variable x there is a leading monomial in the Gröbner basis that is a power of x.
Both dimension and degree may be deduced from the Hilbert series of the ideal, which is the series , where is the number of monomials of degree i that are not multiple of any leading monomial in the Gröbner basis. The Hilbert series may be summed into a rational fraction
where d is the dimension of the ideal and is a polynomial such that is the degree of the ideal.
Although the dimension and the degree do not depend on the choice of the monomial ordering, the Hilbert series and the polynomial change when one changes the monomial ordering.
Most computer algebra systems that provide functions to compute Gröbner bases provide also functions for computing the Hilbert series, and thus also the dimension and the degree.
Elimination
The computation of Gröbner bases for an elimination monomial ordering allows computational elimination theory. This is based on the following theorem.
Consider a polynomial ring in which the variables are split into two subsets X and Y. Let us also choose an elimination monomial ordering "eliminating" X, that is a monomial ordering for which two monomials are compared by comparing first the X-parts, and, in case of equality only, considering the Y-parts. This implies that a monomial containing an X-variable is greater than every monomial independent of X.
If G is a Gröbner basis of an ideal I for this monomial ordering, then is a Gröbner basis of (this ideal is often called the elimination ideal). Moreover, consists exactly of the polynomials of whose leading terms belong to (this makes very easy the computation of , as only the leading monomials need to be checked).
This elimination property has many applications, some described in the next sections.
Another application, in algebraic geometry, is that elimination realizes the geometric operation of projection of an affine algebraic set into a subspace of the ambient space: with above notation, the (Zariski closure of) the projection of the algebraic set defined by the ideal I into the Y-subspace is defined by the ideal
The lexicographical ordering such that is an elimination ordering for every partition Thus a Gröbner basis for this ordering carries much more information than usually necessary. This may explain why Gröbner bases for the lexicographical ordering are usually the most difficult to compute.
Intersecting ideals
If I and J are two ideals generated respectively by {f1, ..., fm} and {g1, ..., gk}, then a single Gröbner basis computation produces a Gröbner basis of their intersection I ∩ J. For this, one introduces a new indeterminate t, and one uses an elimination ordering such that the first block contains only t and the other block contains all the other variables (this means that a monomial containing t is greater than every monomial that does not contain t). With this monomial ordering, a Gröbner basis of I ∩ J consists in the polynomials that do not contain t, in the Gröbner basis of the ideal
In other words, I ∩ J is obtained by eliminating t in K.
This may be proven by remarking that the ideal K consists in the polynomials such that and . Such a polynomial is independent of t if and only if a=b, which means that
Implicitization of a rational curve
A rational curve is an algebraic curve that has a set of parametric equations of the form
where and are univariate polynomials for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. One may (and will) suppose that and are coprime (they have no non-constant common factors).
Implicitization consists in computing the implicit equations of such a curve. In case of n = 2, that is for plane curves, this may be computed with the resultant. The implicit equation is the following resultant:
Elimination with Gröbner bases allows to implicitize for any value of n, simply by eliminating t in the ideal
If n = 2, the result is the same as with the resultant, if the map is injective for almost every t. In the other case, the resultant is a power of the result of the elimination.
Saturation
When modeling a problem by polynomial equations, it is often assumed that some quantities are non-zero, so as to avoid degenerate cases. For example, when dealing with triangles, many properties become false if the triangle degenerates to a line segment, i.e. the length of one side is equal to the sum of the lengths of the other sides. In such situations, one cannot deduce relevant information from the polynomial system unless the degenerate solutions are ignored. More precisely, the system of equations defines an algebraic set which may have several irreducible components, and one must remove the components on which the degeneracy conditions are everywhere zero.
This is done by saturating the equations by the degeneracy conditions, which may be done via the elimination property of Gröbner bases.
Definition of the saturation
The localization of a ring consists in adjoining to it the formal inverses of some elements. This section concerns only the case of a single element, or equivalently a finite number of elements (adjoining the inverses of several elements is equivalent to adjoining the inverse of their product). The localization of a ring R by an element f is the ring where t is a new indeterminate representing the inverse of f. The localization of an ideal of R is the ideal of When R is a polynomial ring, computing in is not efficient because of the need to manage the denominators. Therefore, localization is usually replaced by the operation of saturation.
The with respect to f of an ideal in R is the inverse image of under the canonical map from R to It is the ideal consisting in all elements of R whose product with some power of f belongs to .
If is the ideal generated by and 1−ft in R[t], then It follows that, if R is a polynomial ring, a Gröbner basis computation eliminating t produces a Gröbner basis of the saturation of an ideal by a polynomial.
The important property of the saturation, which ensures that it removes from the algebraic set defined by the ideal the irreducible components on which the polynomial f is zero, is the following: The primary decomposition of consists of the components of the primary decomposition of I that do not contain any power of f.
Computation of the saturation
A Gröbner basis of the saturation by f of a polynomial ideal generated by a finite set of polynomials F, may be obtained by eliminating t in that is by keeping the polynomials independent of t in the Gröbner basis of for an elimination ordering eliminating t.
Instead of using F, one may also start from a Gröbner basis of F. Which method is most efficient depends on the problem. However, if the saturation does not remove any component, that is if the ideal is equal to its saturated ideal, computing first the Gröbner basis of F is usually faster. On the other hand, if the saturation removes some components, the direct computation may be dramatically faster.
If one wants to saturate with respect to several polynomials or with respect to a single polynomial which is a product there are three ways to proceed which give the same result but may have very different computation times (it depends on the problem which is the most efficient).
Saturating by in a single Gröbner basis computation.
Saturating by then saturating the result by and so on.
Adding to F or to its Gröbner basis the polynomials and eliminating the in a single Gröbner basis computation.
Effective Nullstellensatz
Hilbert's Nullstellensatz has two versions. The first one asserts that a set of polynomials has no common zeros over an algebraic closure of the field of the coefficients, if and only if 1 belongs to the generated ideal. This is easily tested with a Gröbner basis computation, because 1 belongs to an ideal if and only if 1 belongs to the Gröbner basis of the ideal, for any monomial ordering.
The second version asserts that the set of common zeros (in an algebraic closure of the field of the coefficients) of an ideal is contained in the hypersurface of the zeros of a polynomial f, if and only if a power of f belongs to the ideal. This may be tested by saturating the ideal by f; in fact, a power of f belongs to the ideal if and only if the saturation by f provides a Gröbner basis containing 1.
Implicitization in higher dimension
By definition, an affine rational variety of dimension k may be described by parametric equations of the form
where are n+1 polynomials in the k variables (parameters of the parameterization) Thus the parameters and the coordinates of the points of the variety are zeros of the ideal
One could guess that it suffices to eliminate the parameters to obtain the implicit equations of the variety, as it has been done in the case of curves. Unfortunately this is not always the case. If the have a common zero (sometimes called base point), every irreducible component of the non-empty algebraic set defined by the is an irreducible component of the algebraic set defined by I. It follows that, in this case, the direct elimination of the provides an empty set of polynomials.
Therefore, if k>1, two Gröbner basis computations are needed to implicitize:
Saturate by to get a Gröbner basis
Eliminate the from to get a Gröbner basis of the ideal (of the implicit equations) of the variety.
Implementations
CoCoA free computer algebra system for computing Gröbner bases.
GAP free computer algebra system that can perform Gröbner bases calculations.
FGb, Faugère's own implementation of his F4 algorithm, available as a Maple library. To the date, as of 2014, it is, with Magma, the fastest implementation for rational coefficients and coefficients in a finite field of prime order.
Macaulay 2 free software for doing polynomial computations, particularly Gröbner bases calculations.
Magma has a very fast implementation of the Faugère's F4 algorithm.
Maple has implementations of the Buchberger and Faugère F4 algorithms, as well as Gröbner trace.
Mathematica includes an implementation of the Buchberger algorithm, with performance-improving techniques such as the Gröbner walk, Gröbner trace, and an improvement for toric bases.
SINGULAR free software for computing commutative and noncommutative Gröbner bases.
SageMath provides a unified interface to several computer algebra systems (including SINGULAR and Macaulay), and includes a few Gröbner basis algorithms of its own.
SymPy Python computer algebra system uses Gröbner bases to solve polynomial systems.
Areas of Applications
Error-Correcting Codes
Gröbner basis has been applied in the theory of error-correcting codes for algebraic decoding. By using Gröbner basis computation on various forms of error-correcting equations, decoding methods were developed for correcting errors of cyclic codes, affine variety codes, algebraic-geometric codes and even general linear block codes. Applying Gröbner basis in algebraic decoding is still a research area of channel coding theory.
See also
Buchberger's algorithm
Faugère's F4 and F5 algorithms
Graver basis
Janet basis
Regular chains, an alternative way to represent algebraic sets
References
Further reading
[This is Buchberger's thesis inventing Gröbner bases.]
(This is the journal publication of Buchberger's thesis.)
(translated from Sibirsk. Mat. Zh. Siberian Mathematics Journal 3 (1962), 292–296).
(on infinite dimensional Gröbner bases for polynomial rings in infinitely many indeterminates).
External links
Faugère's own implementation of his F4 algorithm
Comparative Timings Page for Gröbner Bases Software
Prof. Bruno Buchberger Bruno Buchberger
Gröbner basis introduction on Scholarpedia
Algebraic geometry
Commutative algebra
Computer algebra
Invariant theory
Rewriting systems |
357331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20nighthawk | Common nighthawk | The common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor) is a medium-sized crepuscular or nocturnal bird of the Americas within the nightjar family, whose presence and identity are best revealed by its vocalization. Typically dark (grey, black and brown), displaying cryptic colouration and intricate patterns, this bird is difficult to spot with the naked eye during the day. This bird is most conspicuous when in its buoyant and erratic flight. The most remarkable feature of this aerial insectivore is its small beak that belies the massiveness of its mouth. Some claim appearance similarities to owls. With its horizontal stance and short legs, the common nighthawk does not travel frequently on the ground, instead preferring to perch horizontally, parallel to branches, on posts, on the ground or on a roof. The males of this species may roost together but the bird is primarily solitary. The common nighthawk shows variability in territory size.
This caprimulgid has a large, flattened head with large eyes; facially it lacks rictal bristles. The common nighthawk has long slender wings that at rest extend beyond a notched tail. There is noticeable barring on the sides and abdomen, also white wing-patches.
The common nighthawk measures long, displays a wing span of weighs , and has a life span of 4 to 5 years.
Names and etymology
The genus name Chordeiles is from Ancient Greek khoreia, a dance with music, and deile, "evening". The specific minor is Latin for "smaller".
The term "nighthawk", first recorded in the King James Version of 1611, was originally a local name in England for the European nightjar. Its use in the Americas to refers to members of the genus Chordeiles and related genera was first recorded in 1778.
The common nighthawk is sometimes called a "bull-bat", due to its perceived "bat-like" flight, and the "bull-like" boom made by its wings as it pulls from a dive.
They, in addition to other nightjars, are also sometimes called "bugeaters", for their insectivore diet. The common nighthawk is likely the reason that Nebraska's state nickname was once the "Bugeater State", and its people were known as "bugeaters". The Nebraska Cornhuskers college athletic teams were also briefly known the Bugeaters, before adopting their current name, which was also adopted by the state as a whole. A semi-professional soccer team in Nebraska now uses the Bugeaters moniker.
Taxonomy
Within the family Caprimulgidae, the subfamily Chordeilinae (nighthawks) are limited to the New World and are distinguished from the subfamily Caprimulginae, by the lack of rictal bristles.
The American Ornithologists' Union treated the smaller Antillean nighthawk as conspecific with the common nighthawk until 1982.
Up until the early 19th century, the common nighthawk and the whip-poor-will were thought to be one species. The latter's call was explained as the nocturnal expression of the common nighthawk. Alexander Wilson, "The Father of American Ornithology", correctly made the differentiation between the two species.
Subspecies
There are 9 currently recognized subspecies:
C. m. panamensis – Eisenmann, 1962: breeds on the Pacific slope of Panama and north west Costa Rica. It is noted to depart Panama during winter for points in South America
C. m. neotropicalis – Selander & Alvarez del Toro, 1955: breeds in south Mexico and Honduras
C. m. howelli – Oberholser, 1914: breeds in west central United States (north Texas, west Oklahoma, and Kansas to east Colorado, less typical form in central Colorado, north east Utah and Wyoming). It is darker than sennetti and paler and less cinnamon than henryi.
C. m. hesperis – Grinnell, 1905: breeds in south west Canada (British Columbia and Alberta), the western interior of United States (Washington, Montana, Nevada, interior California, Utah, extreme north Colorado, west Wyoming). It is darker than sennetti and paler and less cinnamon than henryi.
C. m. aserriensis – Cherrie, 1896: breeds from south central Texas to north Mexico. It is darker than sennetti and paler and less cinnamon than henryi.
C. m. chapmani – Coues, 1888: breeds from southeast Kansas to east North Carolina and southwards to south east Texas and south Florida. It is the darkest of the subspecies.
C. m. sennetti – Coues, 1888: breeds in the north Great Plains: east Montana, south Saskatchewan, Manitoba, southwards to North Dakota, Minnesota and Iowa. It is the palest of the subspecies.
C. m. henryi – Cassin, 1855: breeds from south east Utah and south west Colorado through mountains of west Texas, Arizona and New Mexico (less north east) to east Sonora, Chihuahua, and Durango. It is unique with ochraceous to deep cinnamon feather edges on upperparts.
C. m. minor – (J.R. Forster, 1771): breeds from south east Alaska to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, and south Canada/northern United States (Minnesota, Indiana) to Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia and Oklahoma. Considered by some as the darkest subspecies.
History
This species is recorded as widespread during the Late Pleistocene, from Virginia to California and from Wyoming to Texas.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, because their name contained the word "hawk", they had habits of diurnal insect hunting, and they travelled in migrating flocks, they were hunted for sport and nourishment and because they were seen as predators.
Field identification
The common nighthawk is distinguished from other caprimulguids by its forked tail (includes a white bar in males); its long, unbarred, pointed wings with distinctive white patches; its lack of rictal bristles, and the key identifier – their unmistakable calls. These birds range from in total length and from in wingspan. Body mass can vary from . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is , the bill is and the tarsus is .
The common nighthawk resembles both the Antillean nighthawk and the lesser nighthawk and occurs at least seasonally in the entire North American range of both of these species. The lesser nighthawk is a smaller bird and displays more buffy on the undertail coverts, where the common nighthawk shows white. Common nighthawks and Antillean nighthawks exhibit entirely dark on the basal portion of the primary feathers, whereas lesser nighthawks have bands of buffy spots. Common and Antillean nighthawks have a longer outermost primary conveying a pointier wing tip than the lesser nighthawk. The common nighthawk forages higher above ground than the lesser nighthawk and has a different call. The only reliable way to distinguish Antillean nighthawk without disturbance is also by the differences in their calls. Visually, they may only be distinguished as different from the common nighthawk once in the hand. Subtle differences are reported to be a challenge in field identification.
Habitat and distribution
The common nighthawk may be found in forests, desert, savannahs, beach and desert scrub, cities, and prairies, at elevations of sea level or below to . They are one of a handful of birds that are known to inhabit recently burned forests, and then dwindle in numbers as successional growth occurs over the succeeding years or decades. The common nighthawk is drawn into urban built-up areas by insects.
The common nighthawk is the only nighthawk occurring over the majority of northern North America.
Food availability is likely a key factor in determining which and when areas are suitable for habitation. The common nighthawk is not well adapted to survive in poor conditions, specifically low food availability. Therefore, a constant food supply consistent with warmer temperatures is a driving force for migration and ultimately survival.
It is thought that the bird is not able to enter torpor, although recent evidence suggests it does.
Migration
During migration, common nighthawks may travel . They migrate by day or night in loose flocks; frequently numbering in the thousands, no visible leader has been observed. The enormous distance travelled between breeding grounds and wintering range is one of the North America's longer migrations. The northbound journey commences at the end of February and the birds reach destinations as late as mid-June. The southbound migration commences mid-July and reaches a close in early October.
While migrating, these birds have been reported travelling through middle America, Florida, the West Indies, Cuba, the Caribbean and Bermuda, finally completing their journey in the wintering grounds of South America, primarily Argentina.
As aerial insectivores, the migrants will feed en route, congregating to hunt in marshes, rivers and on lakeshores. In Manitoba and Ontario, Canada, it is reported that during migration the nighthawks are seen most commonly in the late afternoon, into the evening, with a burst of sunset feeding activities.
Additionally, it has been noted that during migration the birds may fly closer to the ground than normal; possibly foraging for insects. There is speculation that feeding also occurs at higher altitudes.
The common nighthawk winters in southern South America, but distribution in this range is poorly known due to difficulties in distinguishing the bird from the lesser nighthawk and in differentiating between migrants and overwintering birds. In some South and Central American countries, a lack of study has led to restricted and incomplete records of the bird. Records do support wintering in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina.
Moult
In the common nighthawk, all bodily plumage and rectrices are replaced in the post-juvenile moult. This moult commences in September at the breeding grounds; the majority of the body plumage is replaced but wing-coverts and rectrices are not completed until January–February, once the bird arrives at the wintering grounds. There is no other moult prior to the annual moult of the adult. Common nighthawk adults have a complete moult that occurs mostly or completely on wintering grounds and is not completed until January or February.
Behavior
Vocalization
There are no differences between the calls and song of the common nighthawk. The most conspicuous vocalization is a nasal peent or beernt during even flight. Peak vocalizations are reported 30 to 45 minutes after sunset.
A croaking auk auk auk is vocalized by males while in the presence of a female during courtship. Another courtship sound, thought to be made solely by the males, is the boom, created by air rushing through the primaries after a quick downward flex of the wings during a daytime dive.
In defense of their nests, the females make a rasping sound, and males clap their wings together. Strongly territorial males will perform dives against fledglings, females, and intruders such as humans or raccoons.
Feeding and diet
Frequent flyers, the long-winged common nighthawk hunts on the wing for extended periods at high altitudes or in open areas. Crepuscular, flying insects are its preferred food source. The hunt ends as dusk becomes night, and resumes when night becomes dawn. Nighttime feeding (in complete darkness) is rare, even on evenings with a full moon. The bird displays opportunistic feeding tendencies, although it may be able to fine-tune its meal choice in the moments before capture.
Vision is presumed to be the main detection sense; no evidence exists to support the use of echolocation. The birds have been observed to converge on artificial light sources in an effort to forage for insects enticed by the light. The average flight speed of common nighthawks is .
Drinking, pellet-casting and droppings
The common nighthawk was observed to drink on its winter range by flying extremely low over the surface of the water.
No evidence suggests this bird casts pellets.
The common nighthawk is recognized to discharge feces around nest and roosting positions. The bird will sporadically defecate in flight. The defecation is pungent.
Reproduction and nesting
The common nighthawk breeds during the period of mid-March to early October. It most commonly has only one brood per season, however sometimes a second brood is produced. The bird is assumed to breed every year. Reuse of nests by females in subsequent years has been reported. A monogamous habit has also recently been confirmed.
Courting and mate selection occur partially in flight. The male dives and booms (see Vocalization) in an effort to garner female attention; the female may be in flight herself or stationary on the ground.
Copulation occurs when the pair settles on the ground together; the male with his rocking body, widespread tail wagging and bulging throat expresses guttural croaking sounds. This display by the male is performed repeatedly until copulation.
The preferred breeding/nesting habitat is in forested regions with expansive rocky outcrops, in clearings, in burned areas or in small patches of sandy gravel. The eggs are not laid in a nest, but on bare rock, gravel, or sometimes a living substrate such as lichen. Least popular are breeding sites in agricultural settings. As displayed in the latter portion of the 20th century, urban breeding is in decline. If urban breeding sites do occur, they are observed on flat gravel rooftops.
It is a solitary nester, putting great distances between itself and other pairs of the same species, but a nest would more commonly occur in closer proximity to other species of birds.
Females choose the nest site and are the primary incubators of the eggs; males will incubate occasionally. Incubation time varies but is approximately 18 days. The female will leave the nest unattended during the evening in order to feed. The male will roost in a neighbouring tree (the spot he chooses changes daily); he guards the nest by diving, hissing, wing-beating or booming at the sites. In the face of predation, common nighthawks do not abandon the nest easily; instead they likely rely on their cryptic colouration to camouflage themselves. If a departure does occur, the females have been noted to fly away, hissing at the intruder or performing a disturbance display.
Incubation, hatching and young
The eggs are elliptical, strong, and variably coloured with heavy speckling. The common nighthawk lays two eggs per clutch; the eggs are laid over a period of 1 to 2 days. The female alone displays a brood patch.
The chicks may be heard peeping in the hours before they hatch. Once the chicks have broken out of the shells, the removal of the debris is necessary in order to avoid predators. The mother may carry the eggshells to another location or consume a portion of them. Once hatched, the nestlings are active and have their eyes fully or half open; additionally they display a sparing cover of soft down feathers. The chicks are semi-precocial. By day 2, the hatchlings' bodily mass will double and they will be able to self-propel towards their mother's call. The young will hiss at an intruder.
The young are fed by regurgitation before sunrise and after sunset. The male parent assists in feeding fledglings and will also feed the female during nesting. No records exist to support a parent's ability to physically carry a chick.
On their 18th day, the young will make their first flight; by days 25–30, they are flying proficiently. The young are last seen with their parents on day 30. Complete development is shown between their 45–50th day. At day 52, the juvenile will join the flock, potentially migrating. Juvenile birds, in both sexes, are lighter in colour and have a smaller white wing-patch than adult common nighthawks.
Predators
Like other members of the caprimulgid clan, the nighthawk's ground nesting habits endanger eggs and nestlings to predation by ground carnivores, such as skunks, raccoons and opossums. Confirmed predation on adults is restricted to domestic cats, golden eagles, and great horned owls. Peregrine falcons have also been confirmed to attack nighthawks as prey, although the one recorded predation attempt was unsuccessful. Other suspected predators are likely to attack them, such as dogs, coyotes, foxes, hawks, American kestrels, owls, crows and ravens, and snakes.
Status and conservation
There has been a general decline in the number of common nighthawks in North America, but some population increases also have occurred in other geographical locations. The bird's large range makes individual risk thresholds in specific regions difficult to establish. In Ontario, the common nighthawk is rated as a species of special concern.
The Common nighthawk's trait of being a ground-nesting bird makes it particularly susceptible to predators, some of which include domestic cats, ravens, snakes, dogs, coyotes, falcons and owls.
Lack of flat roofs, pesticides, increased predation and loss of habitat are noted factors of their decline. Further unstudied potential causes of decline include climate change, disease, road kills, man-made towers (posing aerial hazards), and parasites.
The absence of flat roofs (made with gravel) in urban settings is an important cause of decline. In an effort to provide managed breeding areas, gravel pads have been added in the corners of rubberized roofs; this proves acceptable, as nesting has been observed.
References
External links
common nighthawk
Birds of North America
Birds of South America
Birds of the Caribbean
common nighthawk
Taxa named by Johann Reinhold Forster |
357334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCX | CCX | CCX may mean:
210 in roman numerals
AD 210, the year of the Common Era
Chicago Climate Exchange, North American greenhouse gas reduction and trading system
Cisco Compatible EXtensions, a specification for 802.11 wireless LAN chip manufacturers
Koenigsegg CCX, a sports car
CCX, the coal mining company that is controlled by the Brazilian conglomerate EBX Group
CCX, the name given to Core Complex, a building block in AMD's Zen microarchitecture
CCX, the Australian Stock Exchange code for City Chic Collective
See also
CX (disambiguation)
CXX (disambiguation)
c2x (C programming language standard) |
357337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oto | Oto | Oto, Ōtō, or OTO may refer to:
People
Oto (name), including a list of people with the name
The Otoe tribe (also spelled Oto), a Native American people
Places
Oto, Spain, a village in the Valle de Broto, in Huesca, Aragon
Otorohanga, a town in New Zealand, commonly abbreviated to "Oto"
Japan
Ōtō, Fukuoka
Ōtō, Nara, merged into Gojō in 2005
Ōtō, Wakayama, merged into Tanabe in 2005
United States
Oto, Iowa
Oto, Missouri
Oto Reservation, formerly located in southeastern Nebraska
OTO Homestead and Dude Ranch, Montana
Other uses
Greta oto, a butterfly of family Nymphalidae
Ordo Templi Orientis, organization centered on the Law of Thelema
Oto (album), the third album by Fluke, released in 1995
OTO Awards, a Slovak awards show
Otocinclus, a genus of armored catfish
Zebra oto
Oto-Manguean languages, a large family comprising several families of Native American languages
Oto-Pamean languages
Oto Melara, an Italian defense company, formerly known as Odero Terni Orlando
OTO (Slovenian TV channel), part of media company Pro Plus
Seibi Oto, a fictional character in the anime series Sky Girls
Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan!, a 2005 rhythm video game
See also
Aloadae, Greek mythological figures also known as Otos
Otoe (disambiguation)
Otology, a branch of medicine which studies the ear
Otos, Valencia, Spain |
357339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correctness%20%28computer%20science%29 | Correctness (computer science) | In theoretical computer science, an algorithm is correct with respect to a specification if it behaves as specified. Best explored is functional correctness, which refers to the input-output behavior of the algorithm (i.e., for each input it produces an output satisfying the specification).
Within the latter notion, partial correctness, requiring that if an answer is returned it will be correct, is distinguished from total correctness, which additionally requires that an answer is eventually returned, i.e. the algorithm terminates. Correspondingly, to prove a program's total correctness, it is sufficient to prove its partial correctness, and its termination. The latter kind of proof (termination proof) can never be fully automated, since the halting problem is undecidable.
For example, successively searching through integers 1, 2, 3, … to see if we can find an example of some phenomenon—say an odd perfect number—it is quite easy to write a partially correct program (see box). But to say this program is totally correct would be to assert something currently not known in number theory.
A proof would have to be a mathematical proof, assuming both the algorithm and specification are given formally. In particular it is not expected to be a correctness assertion for a given program implementing the algorithm on a given machine. That would involve such considerations as limitations on computer memory.
A deep result in proof theory, the Curry–Howard correspondence, states that a proof of functional correctness in constructive logic corresponds to a certain program in the lambda calculus. Converting a proof in this way is called program extraction.
Hoare logic is a specific formal system for reasoning rigorously about the correctness of computer programs. It uses axiomatic techniques to define programming language semantics and argue about the correctness of programs through assertions known as Hoare triples.
Software testing is any activity aimed at evaluating an attribute or capability of a program or system and determining that it meets its required results. Although crucial to software quality and widely deployed by programmers and testers, software testing still remains an art, due to limited understanding of the principles of software. The difficulty in software testing stems from the complexity of software: we can not completely test a program with moderate complexity. Testing is more than just debugging. The purpose of testing can be quality assurance, verification and validation, or reliability estimation. Testing can be used as a generic metric as well. Correctness testing and reliability testing are two major areas of testing. Software testing is a trade-off between budget, time and quality.
See also
Formal verification
Design by contract
Program analysis
Model checking
Compiler correctness
Program derivation
Notes
References
"Human Language Technology. Challenges for Computer Science and Linguistics." Google Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 April 2017.
"Security in Computing and Communications." Google Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 April 2017.
"The Halting Problem of Alan Turing - A Most Merry and Illustrated Explanation." The Halting Problem of Alan Turing - A Most Merry and Illustrated Explanation. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 April 2017.
Turner, Raymond, and Nicola Angius. "The Philosophy of Computer Science." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University, 20 August 2013. Web. 10 April 2017.
Dijkstra, E. W. "Program Correctness". U of Texas at Austin, Departments of Mathematics and Computer Sciences, Automatic Theorem Proving Project, 1970. Web.
Formal methods terminology
Theoretical computer science
Software quality |
357346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred%20%28county%20division%29 | Hundred (county division) | A hundred is an administrative division that is geographically part of a larger region. It was formerly used in England, Wales, some parts of the United States, Denmark, Southern Schleswig, Sweden, Finland, Norway, the Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek, Curonia, the Ukrainian state of the Cossack Hetmanate and in Cumberland County in the British Colony of New South Wales. It is still used in other places, including in Australia (in South Australia and the Northern Territory).
Other terms for the hundred in English and other languages include wapentake, herred (Danish and Bokmål Norwegian), herad (Nynorsk Norwegian), hérað (Icelandic), härad or hundare (Swedish), Harde (German), hiird (North Frisian), satakunta or kihlakunta (Finnish), kihelkond (Estonian), kiligunda (Livonian), cantref (Welsh) and sotnia (Slavic).
In Ireland, a similar subdivision of counties is referred to as a barony, and a hundred is a subdivision of a particularly large townland (most townlands are not divided into hundreds).
Etymology
The origin of the division of counties into hundreds is described by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) as "exceedingly obscure". It may once have referred to an area of 100 hides. (In the early Anglo-Saxon period a hide was the amount of land farmed by and required to support a peasant family, but by the eleventh century in many areas it supported four families.) Alternatively the hundred may have been an area originally settled by one "hundred" men at arms, or the area liable to provide one "hundred" men under arms. (Note that in earlier times the number term "hundred" can itself be unclear, meaning the "short" hundred (100) or in some contexts the long hundred of 120.)
There was an equivalent traditional Germanic system. In Old High German a huntari is a division of a gau; but the OED believes that the link between the two is not established.
England
Administrative functions
From the 11th century in England, and to a lesser extent from the 16th century in Wales, and until the middle of the 19th century, the annual assemblies had varying degrees of power at a local level in the feudal system. Of chief importance was their more regular use for taxation, and six centuries of taxation returns for the divisions survive to this day.
Groupings of divisions, small shires, were used to define parliamentary constituencies from 1832 to 1885. On the redistribution of seats in 1885 a different county subdivision, the petty sessional division, was used. Hundreds were also used to administer the first four national censuses from 1801 to 1841.
The system of county divisions was not as stable as the system of counties being established at the time, and lists frequently differ on how many hundreds a county had. In many parts of the country, the Domesday Book contained a radically different set of divisions from that which later became established. The numbers of divisions in each county varied widely. Leicestershire had six (up from four at Domesday), whereas Devon, nearly three times the size, had 32.
By the end of the 19th century, several single-purpose subdivisions of counties, such as poor law unions, sanitary districts, and highway districts, had sprung up, which, together with the introduction of urban districts and rural districts in 1894, mostly replaced the role of the parishes, and to a lesser extent the less extensive role of hundreds. The division names gave their name to multiple modern local government districts.
Hundred
In south and western England, a hundred was the division of a shire for military and judicial purposes under the common law, which could have varying extent of common feudal ownership, from complete suzerainty to minor royal or ecclesiastical prerogatives and rights of ownership. Until the introduction of districts by the Local Government Act 1894, hundreds were the only widely used assessment unit intermediate in size between the parish, with its various administrative functions, and the county, with its formal, ceremonial functions.
The term "hundred" is first recorded in the laws of Edmund I (939–46) as a measure of land and the area served by a hundred court. In the Midlands, they often covered an area of about 100 hides, but this did not apply in the south; this may suggest that it was an ancient West Saxon measure that was applied rigidly when Mercia became part of the newly established English kingdom in the 10th century. The Hundred Ordinance, which dates to the middle of the century, provided that the court was to meet monthly, and thieves were to be pursued by all the leading men of the district.
During Norman times, the hundred would pay geld based on the number of hides. To assess how much everyone had to pay, a clerk and a knight were sent by the king to each county; they sat with the shire-reeve (or sheriff), of the county and a select group of local knights. There would be two knights from each hundred. After it was determined what geld had to be paid, the bailiff and knights of the hundred were responsible for getting the money to the sheriff, and the sheriff for getting it to the Exchequer.
Above the hundred was the shire, under the control of a sheriff. Hundred boundaries were independent of both parish and county boundaries, although often aligned, meaning that a hundred could be split between counties, or a parish could be split between hundreds. Exceptionally, in the counties of Kent and Sussex, there was a sub-division intermediate in size between the hundred and the shire: several hundreds were grouped together to form lathes in Kent and rapes in Sussex. At the time of the Norman conquest of England, Kent was divided into seven lathes and Sussex into four rapes.
Hundred courts
Over time, the principal functions of the hundred became the administration of law and the keeping of the peace. By the 12th century, the hundred court was held twelve times a year. This was later increased to fortnightly, although an ordinance of 1234 reduced the frequency to once every three weeks. In some hundreds, courts were held at a fixed place; while in others, courts moved with each sitting to a different location. The main duty of the hundred court was the maintenance of the frankpledge system. The court was formed of twelve freeholders, or freemen. According to a 13th-century statute, freeholders did not have to attend their lord's manorial courts, thus any suits involving them would be heard in a hundred court.
For especially serious crimes, the hundred was under the jurisdiction of the Crown; the chief magistrate was a sheriff, and his circuit was called the sheriff's tourn. However, many hundreds came into private hands, with the lordship of the hundred being attached to the principal manor of the area and becoming hereditary. Helen Cam estimated that even before the Conquest, over 130 hundreds were in private hands; while an inquest of 1316 found that by that date 388 of 628 named hundreds were held, not by the Crown, but by its subjects. Where a hundred was under a lord, a steward, acting as a judge and the chief official of the lord of the manor, was appointed in place of a sheriff.
The importance of the hundred courts declined from the 17th century, and most of their powers were extinguished with the establishment of county courts in 1867. The remaining duty of the inhabitants of a hundred to make good damages caused by riot was ended by the Riot (Damages) Act 1886, when the cost was transferred to the county police rate. The jurisdiction of hundred courts was curtailed by the Administration of Justice Act 1977.
Ward
The term ward as a corresponding county division in the four northern counties of Cumberland, Durham, Northumberland and Westmorland.
Chiltern Hundreds
The steward of the Chiltern Hundreds is notable as a legal fiction, owing to a quirk of British Parliamentary law. A Crown Steward was appointed to maintain law and order in the area, but these duties ceased to be performed in the 16th century, and the holder ceased to gain any benefits during the 17th century. The position has since been used as a procedural device to allow resignation from the British House of Commons as a (formerly) remunerated office of the Crown.
Wapentake
A wapentake was the equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon hundred in the northern Danelaw. In the Domesday Book, the term is used instead of hundreds in Yorkshire, the Five Boroughs of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham and Stamford, and also sometimes in Northamptonshire. The laws in wapentakes were similar to those in hundreds with minor variations. According to the first-century historian Tacitus, in Scandinavia the wapentake referred to a vote passed at an assembly by the brandishing of weapons. In some counties, such as Leicestershire, the wapentakes recorded at the time of Domesday Book later evolved into hundreds. In others, such as Lincolnshire, the term remained in use.
Although no longer part of local government, there is some correspondence between the rural deanery and the former wapentake or hundred; especially in the East Midlands, the Buckingham Archdeaconry and the York Diocese.
Ireland
Irish counties were divided into baronies.
Wales
In Wales an ancient Celtic system of division called cantrefi (a hundred farmsteads; singular cantref) had existed for centuries and was of particular importance in the administration of the Welsh law. The antiquity of the cantrefi is demonstrated by the fact that they often mark the boundary between dialects. Some were originally kingdoms in their own right; others may have been artificial units created later. With the coming of Christianity, the llan (similar to the parish) based Celtic churches often took the borders of the older cantrefi, and the same happened when Norman 'hundreds' were enforced on the people of Wales.
Each cantref had its own court, which was an assembly of the uchelwyr, the main landowners of the cantref. This would be presided over by the king if he happened to be present, or if he was not present, by his representative. Apart from the judges there would be a clerk, an usher and sometimes two professional pleaders. The cantref court dealt with crimes, the determination of boundaries, and inheritance.
Nordic countries
The term (hundred) was used in Svealand and present-day Finland. The name is assumed to mean an area that should organise 100 men to crew four rowed war boats, which each had 12 pairs of oars and a commander.
Eventually, that division was superseded by introducing the härad or Herred, which was the term in the rest of the Nordic countries. This word was either derived from Proto-Norse *harja-raiðō (warband) or Proto-Germanic *harja-raiða (war equipment, cf. wapentake). Similar to skipreide, a part of the coast where the inhabitants were responsible for equipping and manning a war ship.
Hundreds were not organized in Norrland, the northern sparsely populated part of Sweden. In Sweden, a countryside was typically divided in a few socken units (parish), where the ecclesiastical and worldly administrative units often coincided. This began losing its basic significance through the municipal reform of 1862. A was originally a subdivision of a (province), but since the government reform of 1634, ("county") took over all administrative roles of the province. A functioned also as electoral district for one peasant representative during the Riksdag of the Estates (Swedish parliament 1436–1866). The (hundred court) was the court of first instance in the countryside, abolished in 1970 and superseded by (modern district courts).
Today, the hundreds serve no administrative role in Sweden, although some judicial district courts still bear the name (e.g. ) and the hundreds are occasionally used in expressions, e.g. (district of seven hundreds).
It is not entirely clear when hundreds were organised in the western part of Finland. The name of the province of Satakunta, roughly meaning hundred ( meaning "one hundred" in Finnish), hints at influences from the times before the Northern Crusades, Christianization, and incorporation into Sweden.
As , hundreds remained the fundamental administrative division for the state authorities until 2009. Each was subordinated to a (province/county) and had its own police department, district court and prosecutors. Typically, cities would comprise an urban by themselves, but several rural municipalities would belong to a rural . In a rural hundred the lensmann (chief of local state authorities) was called nimismies ("appointed man"), or archaically vallesmanni (from Swedish). In the Swedish era (up to 1809), his main responsibilities were maintenance of stagecoach stations and coaching inns, supplying traveling government personnel with food and lodging, transport of criminal prisoners, police responsibilities, arranging district court proceedings (tingsrätt), collection of taxes, and sometimes arranging hunts to cull the wolf and bear population. Following the abolition of the provinces as an administrative unit in 2009, the territory for each authority could be demarcated separately, i.e. police districts need not equal court districts in number. The title "härad" survives in the honorary title of herastuomari (Finnish) or häradsdomare (Swedish), which can be given to lay judges after 8–10 years of service.
The term herred or herad was used in Norway between 1863 and 1992 for rural municipalities, besides the term kommune (heradskommune). Today, only four municipalities in western Norway call themselves herad, as Ulvik and Kvam. Some Norwegian districts have the word herad in their name, of historical reasons - among them Krødsherad and Heradsbygd in eastern Norway.
Ukraine
In 17th and 18th centuries "sotnia" was an administrative-territorial, judicial, and military unit of "polk" in Cossack Hetmanate and Sloboda Ukraine. The Encyclopedia of Ukraine adopted military translation of word as "company".
United States
Counties in Delaware, New Jersey and Pennsylvania were divided into hundreds in the 17th century, following the English practice familiar to the colonists. They survive in Delaware (see List of hundreds of Delaware), and were used as tax reporting and voting districts until the 1960s, but now serve no administrative role: their only official legal use is in real estate title descriptions.
The hundred was also used as a division of the county in Maryland. Carroll County, Maryland was formed in 1836 by taking the following hundreds from Baltimore County: North Hundred, Pipe Creek Hundred, Delaware Upper Hundred, Delaware Lower Hundred; and from Frederick County: Pipe Creek Hundred, Westminster Hundred, Unity Hundred, Burnt House Hundred, Piney Creek Hundred, and Taneytown Hundred. Maryland's Somerset County, which was established in 1666, was initially divided into six hundreds: Mattapony, Pocomoke, Boquetenorton, Wicomico, and Baltimore Hundreds; later subdivisions of the hundreds added five more: Pitts Creek, Acquango, Queponco, Buckingham, and Worcester Hundreds.
The original borders of Talbot County (founded at some point prior to February 12, 1661) contained nine hundreds: Treadhaven Hundred, Bolenbroke Hundred, Mill Hundred, Tuckahoe Hundred, Worrell Hundred, Bay Hundred, Island Hundred, Lower Kent Island Hundred, Chester Hundred. In 1669 Chester Hundred was given to Kent County. In 1707 Queen Anne's County was created from the northern parts of Talbot County, reducing the latter to seven hundreds (Lower Kent Island Hundred becoming a part of the former). Of these, only Bay Hundred legally remains in existence, as a District 5 in Talbot County. The geographic region, which includes several unincorporated communities and part of present-day Saint Michaels, continues to be known by the name Bay Hundred, with state and local governments using the name in ways ranging from water trail guides to community pools, while local newspapers regularly use the name in reporting news.
Following American independence, the term "hundred" fell out of favour and was replaced by "election district". However, the names of the old hundreds continue to show up in deeds for another 50 years.
Some plantations in early colonial Virginia used the term hundred in their names, such as Martin's Hundred, Flowerdew Hundred, and West and Shirley Hundred. Bermuda Hundred was the first incorporated town in the English colony of Virginia. It was founded by Sir Thomas Dale in 1613, six years after Jamestown.
While debating what became the Land Ordinance of 1785, Thomas Jefferson's committee wanted to divide the public lands in the west into "hundreds of ten geographical miles square, each mile containing 6086 and 4-10ths of a foot". The legislation instead introduced the six-mile square township of the Public Land Survey System.
Australia
In South Australia, land titles record in which hundred a parcel of land is located. Similar to the notion of the South Australian counties listed on the system of titles, hundreds are not generally used when referring to a district and are little known by the general population, except when transferring land title. When the land in the region of the present Darwin, in the Northern Territory, was first surveyed, the territory was administered by South Australia, and the surveyed land was divided up into hundreds.
The Cumberland County (Sydney) was also allocated hundreds in the nineteenth century, although these were later repealed. A hundred is traditionally one hundred square miles or , although this is often not exact as boundaries often follow local topography.
See also
Attundaland
Feudal measurement
Fjärdhundraland
Henry de Bracton
Hundred Rolls
Leidang
Moot mound, the meeting place of an Anglo-Saxon hundred
Roslagen
Tiundaland
Explanatory notes
References
Anglo-Norse England
Defunct types of subdivision in the United Kingdom
Former subdivisions of England
Scandinavian history
Types of administrative division |
357350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigray%20Region | Tigray Region | The Tigray Region (; ; ), officially the Tigray National Regional State (), is the northernmost regional state in Ethiopia. The Tigray Region is the homeland of the Tigrayan, Irob and Kunama people. Formerly known as Region 1, its capital and largest city is Mekelle. Tigray is the fifth-largest by area, the fifth-most populous, and the fifth-most densely populated of the 11 regional states.
Tigray's official language is Tigrinya, similar to that spoken in Eritrea just to the North. The estimated population as of 2019 is 5,443,000. The majority of the population (c. 80%) are farmers, contributing 46% to the regional gross domestic product (2009). The highlands have the highest population density, especially in eastern and central Tigray. The much less densely populated lowlands comprise 48 percent of Tigray's area. 96 per cent of Tigrayans are Orthodox Christian.
Tigray is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Sudan to the west, the Amhara Region to the south and the Afar Region to the east and southeast. Besides Mekelle, major towns include Adigrat, Aksum, Shire, Humera, Adwa, Adi Remets, Alamata, Wukro, Maychew, Sheraro, Abiy Adi, Korem, Qwiha, Atsbi, Hawzen, Mekoni, Dansha, Adi Gudom, Sheraro, Indabaguna, Mai Tsebri, and Zalambessa.
The government of Tigray consists of the executive branch, led by the president; the legislative branch, which comprises the state council; and the judicial branch, which is led by the state supreme court. In early November 2020, a conflict between the Tigray Region, involving the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) and the Ethiopian federal government began, in which Eritrea took part on the side of the federal government, rapidly escalating into the Tigray War and destabilizing the region.
History
3rd millennium to 1st century BC
Tigray is often regarded as the cradle of Ethiopian civilization. Its landscape has many historic monuments. Three major monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in Ethiopia through the Red Sea and then Tigray.
Given the presence of a large temple complex and fertile surroundings, the capital of the 3,000-year-old kingdom of Dʿmt may have been near present-day Yeha. Dʿmt developed irrigation schemes, used the plough, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. Some modern historians, including Stuart Munro-Hay, Rodolfo Fattovich, Ayele Bekerie, Cain Felder, and Ephraim Isaac consider this civilization to be indigenous, although Sabaean-influenced due to the latter's dominance of the Red Sea. Others, including Joseph Michels, Henri de Contenson, Tekletsadik Mekuria, and Stanley Burstein, have viewed Dʿmt as the result of a mixture of Sabaean and indigenous peoples. The most recent research, however, shows that Ge'ez, the ancient Semitic language spoken in Tigray, Eritrea and northern Ethiopia in ancient times, is not likely to have been derived from Sabaean. There is evidence of a Semitic-speaking presence in Tigray, Eritrea and northern Ethiopia at least as early as 2000 BC. It is now believed that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities and disappearing after a few decades or a century, It may have represented a trading or military colony, in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Aksumite state.
After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller, unknown successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century BC, the Aksumite Kingdom, which succeeded in reunifying the area and is, in effect, the ancestor of medieval and modern states in Eritrea and Ethiopia using the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century.
1st to 10th century AD
The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire rooted in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.
According to the Book of Axum, Axum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia.
The Empire of Aksum, at its height, at times extended across most of present-day Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Sudan, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. The capital city of the empire was Axum, now in northern Ethiopia. Today a smaller community, the city of Axum was once a bustling metropolis and a cultural and economic hub. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area. Along the hills and plain outside the city, the Aksumites had cemeteries with elaborate grave stones, which are called stelae, or obelisks. Other important cities included Yeha, Hawulti-Melazo, Matara, Adulis, and Qohaito, the last three of which are now in Eritrea. By the reign of Endubis in the late 3rd century, Aksum had begun minting its own currency and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with China and the Sassanid and Roman empires. It converted to Christianity in 325 or 328 under King Ezana and was the first state to use the image of the cross on its coins.
11th to 19th century AD
In the 14th century the Tigrinya-speaking lands (Tigray-Mareb Melash) were divided into two provinces, separated by the Mereb River, by the newly enthroned Amhara emperors. The governor of the northern province received the title Bahre Negash (Ruler of the sea), whereas the governor of the southern province was given the title of Tigray Mekonen (Lord of Tigray). The Portuguese Jesuit Emanuele Baradas's work titled "Do reino de Tigr", written in 1633–34, states that the "Reino de Tigr" (Kingdom of Tigray) extended from Hamasien to Temben, from the borders of Dankel to the Adwa mountain. He also stated that Tigray-Mereb Melash was divided into 24 smaller political units (principalities), twelve of which were located south of the Mereb and governed by the Tigray Mekonen, based in Enderta. The other twelve were located north of the Mereb, under the authority of the Bahre Negash, based in the district of Serae.
The Book of Aksum, likely written and compiled before the 15th century, shows a traditional schematic map of Tigray with the city of Aksum at its center, surrounded by the 13 principal provinces: "Tembien, Shire, Serae, Hamasien, Bur, Sam’a, Agame, Amba Senayt, Garalta, Enderta, Sahart and Abergele."
During the Middle Ages, the position of Tigray Mekonnen ("Governor of Tigray") was established to rule over the area. Other districts included Akele Guzay (now part of Eritrea), and the kingdom of the Bahr negus, who ruled much of what is now Eritrea and Shire district and town in Western Tigray. At the time when Tigray Mekonnen existed simultaneously with that of Bahr negus, their frontier seems to have been the Mareb River, which is currently constitutes the border between the Ethiopian province of Tigray and Eritrea.
After the loss of power of the Bahr negus in the aftermath of Bahr negus Yeshaq's rebellions, By the unsettled Zemene Mesafint period ("Era of the Princes"), both designations had declined to little more than empty titles, and the lord who succeeded them used (and received from the Emperor) the title of either Ras or Dejazmach, beginning with Ras Mikael Sehul. Rulers of Tigray such as Ras Wolde Selassie alternated with others, chiefly those of Begemder or Yejju, as warlords to maintain the Ethiopian monarchy during the Zemene Mesafint.
In the mid-19th century, the lords of Tembien and Enderta managed to establish an overlordship of Tigray. One of its members, Dejazmach Kahsay Mercha, ascended the imperial throne in 1872 under the name Yohannes IV. Following his 1889 death in the Battle of Metemma, the Ethiopian throne came under the control of the king of Shewa, and the center of power shifted south and away from Tigray.
20th century
In 1943, open resistance broke out all over southern and eastern Tigray under the slogan, "there is no government; let's organize and govern ourselves". Throughout Enderta Awraja, including Mekelle, Didibadergiajen, Hintalo, Saharti, Samre and Wajirat, Raya Awraja, Kilte-Awlaelo Awraja and Tembien Awraja, local assemblies, called gerreb, were formed. The gerreb sent representatives to a central congress, called the shengo, which elected leaders and established a military command system. Although the first Woyane rebellion of 1943 had shortcomings as a prototype revolution, historians agree that it involved a fairly high level of spontaneity and peasant initiative. It demonstrated considerable popular participation and reflected widely shared grievances. The uprising was specifically directed against the central Shoan Amhara regime of Haile Selassie I, rather than the Tigrayan imperial elite.
Ethiopian Civil War
After the February 1974 popular revolution, the first signal of any mass uprising was the actions of the soldiers of the 4th Brigade of the 4th Army Division in Nagelle in southern Ethiopia. The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, or the Derg (Ge'ez "Committee"), was officially announced 28 June 1974 by a group of military officers. The committee elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as its vice-chairman. In July 1974, the Derg obtained key concessions from the emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold and Endalkachew Makonnen, along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers and officials of the Imperial court were imprisoned. In August 1974, after a proposed constitution creating a constitutional monarchy was presented to the emperor, the Derg began a program of dismantling the imperial government in order to forestall further developments in that direction. The Derg deposed and imprisoned the emperor on 12 September 1974.
In addition, the Derg in 1975 nationalized most industries and private and somewhat secure urban real-estate holdings. But mismanagement, corruption, and general hostility to the Derg's violent rule, coupled with the draining effects of constant warfare with the separatist guerrilla movements in Tigray, led to a drastic fall in general productivity of food and cash crops. In October 1978, the Derg announced the National Revolutionary Development Campaign to mobilize human and material resources to transform the economy, which led to a Ten-Year Plan (1984/1985-1993/1994) to expand agricultural and industrial output, forecasting a 6.5% growth in GDP and a 3.6% rise in per capita income. Instead per capita income declined 0.8% over this period. Famine scholar Alex de Waal observes that while the famine that struck the country in the mid-1980s is usually ascribed to drought, "closer investigation shows that widespread drought occurred only some months after the famine was already under way". Hundreds of thousands fled economic misery, conscription, and political repression, and went to live in neighboring countries and all over the Western world, creating an Ethiopian diaspora.
Toward the end of January 1991, a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) captured Gondar, the ancient capital city, Bahar Dar, and Dessie.
Postwar
John Young, who visited the area several times in the early 1990s, attributes this delay in part to "central budget restraint, structural readjustment, and lack of awareness by government bureaucrats in Addis Ababa of conditions in the province", but notes "an equally significant obstacle was posed by an entrenched, and largely Amhara-dominated, central bureaucracy which used its power to block government-authorised funds from reaching Tigray". At the same time, a growing urban middle class of traders, businessmen and government officials emerged that was suspicious of and distant from the victorious EPRDF.
From 1991 to 2001, the president of Tigray was Gebru Asrat.
In 1998, war erupted between Eritrea and Ethiopia over a portion of territory that had been administered as part of Tigray, which included the town of Badme. A 2002 United Nations decision awarded much of this land to Eritrea, but Ethiopia did not accept the ruling until 2018, when a bilateral agreement ended the border conflict. The text of this agreement has not been publicly availed.
21st century
From 2001 to 2010 the president was Tsegay Berhe.
2020 administrative reorganisation
Between 2018 and 2020, as part of a reform aimed to deepen and strengthen decentralisation, woredas were reorganised, and new boundaries established. As smaller towns had been growing, they had started providing a larger range of services, such as markets and even banks, that encouraged locals to travel there rather than to their formal woreda centre. However, these locals still had to travel to their local woreda centre for most local government services - often in a different direction. In 2018 and 2019, after multiple village discussions that were often vigorous in the more remote areas, 21 independent urban administrations were added and other boundaries re-drawn, resulting in an increase from 35 to 88 woredas in January 2020.
Tigray War
Following the 2020 Tigray regional election, the TPLF launched attacks on the ENDF Northern Command headquarters in Mekelle on 4 November, marking the beginning of the Tigray War. Ethiopian troops as well as Amhara militia advanced through southern Tigray, while Eritrean troops occupied border towns in northern Tigray. Amhara militias took over parts of western Tigray.
Warfare, the COVID-19 pandemic in Ethiopia, and a locust outbreak all contributed to an emergency food situation in the region in January 2021. Two million people faced food shortages; the situation was particularly dire in Shire Inda Selassie, where there are 100,000 refugees. The Famine Early Warning Systems Network said parts of central and eastern Tigray are likely in emergency phase 4, a step below famine.
Geography
Location and size
Tigray is situated between 12° – 15°N and 36° 30' – 40° 30'E.
A 2006 national statistics report stated the land area as . The 2011 National Statistics gave an area of , but the sum of the figures it gave for the Tigray zones was substantially different, rendering the 2011 report internally inconsistent. The figure of 50,079 km2 is supported by the Google Maps area calculator.
Geology
Overview
The East African Orogeny led tothe growth of a mountain chain in the Precambrian (up to 800 million years ago or Ma), that was largely eroded afterwards. Around 600 Ma, the Gondwana break-up led to the presence of tectonic structures and a Palaeozoic planation surface, that extents to the north and west of the Dogu'a Tembien massif.
Subsequently, there was the deposition of sedimentary and volcanic formations, from older (at the foot of the massif) to younger, near the summits. From Palaeozoic to Triassic, Tigray was located near the South Pole. The (reactivate) Precambrian extensional faults guided the deposition of glacial sediments (Edaga Arbi Glacials and Enticho Sandstone). Later alluvial plain sediments were deposited (Adigrat Sandstone). The break-up of Gondwana (Late Palaeozoic to Early Triassic) led to an extensional tectonic phase, what caused the lowering of large parts of the Horn of Africa. As a consequence a marine transgression occurred, leading to the deposition of marine sediments (Antalo Limestone and Agula Shale). The region has an estimated 3.89 billion tons of mostly "excellent" quality oil shale.
At the end of the Mesozoic tectonic phase, a new (Cretaceous) planation took place. After that, the deposition of continental sediments (Amba Aradam Formation) indicates the presence of less shallow seas, probably caused by a regional uplift. At the beginning of the Caenozoic, there was a relative tectonic quiescence, during which the Amba Aradam Sandstones were partially eroded, which led to the formation of a new planation surface.
In the Eocene, the Afar plume, a broad regional uplift, deformed the lithosphere, leading to the eruption of flood basalts. Three major formations may be distinguished: lower basalts, interbedded lacustrine deposits and upper basalts. Almost at the same time, the Mekelle Dolerite intruded into the Mesozoic sediments, following joints and faults.
A new magma intrusion occurred in the Early Miocene, which gave rise to phonolite plugs, mainly in the Adwa area and also in Dogu’a Tembien. The present geomorphology is marked by deep valleys, eroded as a result of the regional uplift. Throughout the Quaternary, deposition of alluvium and freshwater tufa occurred in the valley bottoms.
Fossils
In Tigray, there are two main fossil-bearing geological units. The Antalo Limestone (upper Jurassic) is the largest. Its marine deposits comprise mainly benthic marine invertebrates. Also, the Tertiary lacustrine deposits, interbedded in the basalt formations, contain a range of silicified mollusc fossils.
In the Antalo Limestone: large Paracenoceratidae cephalopods (nautilus); Nerineidae indet.; sea urchins; Rhynchonellid brachiopod; crustaceans; coral colonies; crinoid stems.
In the Tertiary silicified lacustrine deposits: Pila (gastropod); Lanistes sp.; Pirenella conica; and land snails (Achatinidae indet.).
All snail shells, both fossil and recent, are called t’uyo in Tigrinya language, which means ‘helicoidal’.
Traditional uses of rock
As Tigray holds a wide variety of rock types, there is expectedly a varied use of rock.
Natural stone masonry. Preferentially, the easier shaped limestone and sandstone are used to build homesteads and churches, but particularly in the upland areas, basalt is also used. Traditionally, fermented mud will be used as mortar
Fencing of homesteads, generally in dry stones
Church bells, generally three elongated plates in phonolite or clinkstone, with different tonalities
Milling stone: for this purpose plucked-bedrock pits, small rock-cut basins that naturally occur in rivers with kolks, are excavated from the river bed and further shaped. Milling is done at home using an elongated small boulder
Door and window lintels, prepared from rock types that frequently have an elongated shape (sandstone, phonolite, limestone), or that are easily shaped (tufa)
Troughs for livestock watering and feeding, generally hewn from tufa
Footpath paving, generally done as community work. Some very ancient paved footpaths occur on major communication lines dating back to the period before the introduction of the automobile
foot travellers stop, pray and put an additional stone
Stones collected from farmlands in order to free space for the crop, and heaped in typical rounded metres-high heaps, called zala
Contour bunding or gedeba: terrace walls in dry stone, typically laid out along the contour for sake of soil conservation
Check dams or qetri in gullies for sake of gully erosion control
Cobble stones, used for paving secondary streets in the towns. Generally limestone is used.
Major mountains
Ferrah Imba, 3954 metres, summit of the Tsibet massif in Endamekoni woreda (), and highest peak of Tigray
Imba Alaje, 3438 metres, in Alaje woreda ()
Mugulat, 3263 metres, in Ganta Afeshum woreda (); one of its spurs is crossed by the Siqurto foot tunnel
Asimba, 3199 metres, in Irob woreda ()
Upper plateaus of the Atsbi Horst at 3057 metres in Atsbi Wenberta woreda ()
Maebino, 3031 metres, in Irob woreda ()
Imba Tsion, 2917 metres, in Hawzen woreda ()
Ekli Imba, 2799 metres, summit of the Arebay massif in Degua Tembien woreda ()
Imba Aradom – sometimes transliterated as Amba Aradam, 2756 metres, in Hintalo Wajirat woreda ()
Soloda, 2436 metres, part of the Adwa plugs in Adwa woreda ()
Imba Neway, 2388 metres, in Abergele (woreda)()
Water challenge
Overall, the region is semi-arid. The rainy season lasts only for a couple of months. The farmers are adapted to this, but the problem arises when rains are less than normal. Another major challenge is providing water to urban areas. Smaller towns, but particularly Mekelle, face endemic water shortages. Reservoirs have been built, but their management is sub-optimal.
Major cities
Mekelle, home to Mekelle University, Mekelle Institute of Technology, Microlink College, Nile College, and Mekelle College of Teacher Education is the capital of Tigray, near the geographic center of the state.
Other Tigray cities functioning as centers of Ethiopian metropolitan areas include:
Adigrat (home of Adigrat University, Debre Damo monastery and Addis Pharmaceuticals)
Adwa (home of Adwa Pan African University,)
Axum (home of Aksum University,)
Maychew (home of Raya University)
Of the 10 largest cities in Tigray, Maychew has the highest elevation at 2479 meter above sea level. Plenty of smaller towns, like Atsbi and Edaga Hamus are located at even higher elevations. Of the large cities, Humera is located at the lowest altitude (585 m).
Demographics
Based on the 2007 census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), the Tigray Region has a population of 4,316,988, of whom 2,126,465 are men and 2,190,523 women; urban inhabitants number 844,040 or 19.55% of the population. With an estimated area of 84,722 km2, the region had an estimated density of 51 people per km2. In the entire region 992,635 households were counted, for an average of 4.4 people per household, with urban households having on average 3.4 and rural households 4.6.
In the previous census, conducted in 1994, the region's population was 3,136,267, of whom 1,542,165 were men and 1,594,102 women; urban inhabitants numbered 621,210, or 14% of the population.
According to the CSA, , 53.99% of the total population had access to safe drinking water, of whom 42.68% were rural inhabitants and 97.28% were urban. Values for other reported common indicators of the standard of living for Tigray include: 31.6% of the inhabitants fall into the lowest wealth quintile; adult literacy for men is 67.5% and for women 33.7%; and the infant mortality rate is 67 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, less than the national average of 77; at least half of these deaths occurred in the infants' first month of life.
The predominant religion in Tigray is Orthodox Christianity
Ethnicity
With 96.55% of the local population, the region is predominantly inhabited by the Tigrinya-speaking Tigrayan people. The Tigrinya language belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family of languages. Most other residents hail from other Afro-Asiatic-speaking communities, including the Amhara, Irob, Afar, Agaw and Oromo. Partly assimilated Oromo live in remoter villages in Raya Azebo and Alamata (woreda), whereas there are Agaw in Abergele (woreda). There are also Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kunama as well.
Languages
The working language is Tigrinya. Saho and Kunama are also spoken, and people in urban areas are also able to speak Amharic.
Notable people
Mehari Taddele Maru, author, professor at European University Institute
Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director General, World Health Organization WHO
Agriculture
Cropping
Terracing and dam construction
An important aspect of the agricultural work in Tigray after the end of the 1991 civil war was to minimize the problems of drought. In the past, Tigray was covered with forests and had a micro-climate that favoured the rains. Subsequently, the forests were cut down, usually to impoverish the population during the wars. Consequently, Tigray achieved a fair amount of rainfall during the rainy season, from August to September, but quickly lost these waters downstream. In the process the fertile soil of the fields eroded. After a few weeks of rain, the country again dried up.
The government undertook two projects in Tigray. The first was the construction of terraces which, with the agreement and help of local communities, go up to the tops of the mountains at 2,500 metres. The goal was to prevent the rainfall flowing away immediately so that it could be conserved for the agricultural season. On the highest terraces were planted trees, mainly eucalyptus, the dominant tree in Ethiopia and native to Australia. These plants created a new microclimate. The terracing method was very simple but required good organization. Long stretches of the fields were terraced by the villagers using stone walls from stones that erosion had exposed. The rains eroding the still non-terraced ground formed mudslides that were held by the topmost walls, which permitted construction of a new terrace field and another wall with uncovered stones, creating new ground terraced farmland every year. Four or five years after the project commenced, almost all of Tigray, with an area only slightly less than Italy's, was terraced.
Another endeavour involved the construction of small reservoirs for local irrigation. As rains last only for a couple of months per year, reservoirs of different sizes allow harvesting runoff from the rainy season for further use in the dry season. The dams needed to create these basins are typically an embankment of a few hundreds of meters, closing off one part of a valley, with a maximum height of 20 metres. Each took months of work, in which people carried earth on their back, and with assistance of donkeys. Generally 2,000–3,000 people — men, women and children — carried the earth in simple baskets.
The small reservoirs in Tigray include:
Addi Abagiè
Addi Akhor
Addi Amharay
May Leiba
Hiza'iti Wedi Cheber
Addi Asme'e
Chini
Addi Gela
Addi Hilo
Addi Qenafiz
Addi Shihu
Aqushela
Arato
Belesat
Betqua
Chichat
Dibdibo
Dur Anbesa
Imbagedo
Inda Zib'i
Era (reservoir)
Era Quhila
Gereb Mihiz
Filiglig
Gereb May Zib'i
Gereb Bi'ati
Gereb Awso
Felaga
Gereb Segen (Hintalo)
Gereb Segen (May Gabat)
Gereb Shegal
Ginda'i
Godew
Overall, these reservoirs suffer from rapid siltation. Part of the water that could be used for irrigation is lost through seepage; the positive side-effect is that this contributes to groundwater recharge.
Vegetation and exclosures
Tigray holds numerous exclosures, areas that are set aside for regreening. Logging and livestock grazing are not allowed there. Besides effects on biodiversity, water infiltration, protection from flooding, sediment deposition, carbon sequestration, people commonly have economic benefits from these exclosures through grass harvesting, beekeeping and other non-timber forest products. The local inhabitants also consider it as "land set aside for future generations". In Dogu'a Tembien, several exclosures are managed by the EthioTrees project. They have as an additional benefit that the villagers receive carbon credits for the sequestered CO2, as part of a carbon offset programme. The revenues are then reinvested in the villages, according to the priorities of the communities; it may be for an additional class in the village school, a water pond, conservation in the exclosures, or a store for incense.
Livestock
The CSA estimated in 2005 that farmers in Tigray had a total of 2,713,750 cattle (representing 7.0% of Ethiopia's total cattle), 72,640 sheep (0.42%), 208,970 goats (1.61%), 1,200 horses (less than 0.1%), 9,190 mules (6.24%), 386,600 asses (15.43%), 32,650 camels (7.15%), 3,180,240 poultry of all species (10.3%), and 20,480 beehives (0.47%). Cattle are an essential component in the dominant grain-plough agricultural system. In the rainy season, a large part of the cattle herds are in transhumance.
Mainly used for draught, there are several cattle landraces in Tigray:
Arado cattle, the dominant variety
Raya cattle, long horned, especially raised in Southern Tigray and traded widely as plough oxen
Irob cattle, particularly in the Irob woreda
Abergele cattle, particularly in Abergele (woreda) and on the southwestern slopes of Dogu’a Tembien
Begayt cattle, in western Tigray. They are known for better milk production
In small towns: Cross-bred Arado x Begayt, and Arado x Holstein-Friesian milk cows
Wildlife
Large mammals
Besides elephants in Western Tigray and the endemic gelada baboon on the highest mountains, large mammals in the region, with scientific (italics), English and Tigrinya language names, are:
Cercopithecus aethiops; grivet monkey, ወዓግ ()
Crocuta crocuta, spotted hyena, ዝብኢ ()
Caracal caracal, caracal, ጭክ ኣንበሳ ()
Panthera pardus, leopard, ነብሪ ()
Xerus rutilus, unstriped ground squirrel, ምጹጽላይ or ጨጨራ (, )
Canis mesomelas, black-backed jackal, ቡኳርያ ()
Canis anthus, golden jackal, ቡኳርያ ()
Papio hamadryas, hamadryas baboon, ጋውና ()
Procavia capensis, rock hyrax, ጊሐ ()
Felis silvestris, African wildcat, ሓክሊ ድሙ ()
Civettictis civetta, African civet, ዝባድ ()
Papio anubis, olive baboon, ህበይ ()
Ichneumia albicauda, white-tailed mongoose, ፂሒራ ()
Herpestes ichneumon, large grey mongoose, ፂሒራ ()
Hystrix cristata, crested porcupine, ቅንፈዝ ()
Oreotragus oreotragus; klipspringer, ሰስሓ ()
Orycteropus afer, aardvark, ፍሒራ ()
Genetta genetta, common genet, ስልሕልሖት ()
Lepus capensis, cape hare, ማንቲለ ()
Mellivora capensis, honey badger, ትትጊ ()
Small rodents
The most common pest rodents with widespread distribution in agricultural fields and storage areas are three Ethiopian endemic species: the Dembea grass rat (Arvicanthis dembeensis, sometimes considered a subspecies of Arvicanthis niloticus), Ethiopian white-footed rat (Stenocephalemys albipes), and Awash multimammate mouse (Mastomys awashensis).
Bats
Bats occur in natural caves, church buildings and abandoned homesteads. The large colony of bats that roosts in Zeyi cave comprises Hipposideros megalotis (Ethiopian large-eared roundleaf bat), Hipposideros tephrus, and Rhinolophus blasii (Blasius's horseshoe bat).
Birds
With its numerous exclosures, forest fragments and church forests, Tigray is a birdwatcher's paradise. Detailed inventories list at least 170 bird species, including numerous endemic species.
Species belonging to the Afrotropical Highland Biome occur in the dry evergreen montane forests of the highland plateau but can also occupy other habitats. Wattled Ibis can be found feeding in wet grassland and open woodland. Black-winged Lovebird, Banded Barbet, Golden-mantled or Abyssinian Woodpecker, Montane White-eye, Rüppell's Robin-chat, Abyssinian Slaty Flycatcher and Tacazze Sunbird are found in evergreen forest, mountain woodlands and areas with scattered trees including fig trees, Euphorbia abyssinica and Juniperus procera. Erckel's spurfowl, Dusky Turtle Dove, Swainson's or Grey-headed Sparrow, Baglafecht Weaver, African Citril, Brown-rumped Seedeater and Streaky Seedeater are common Afrotropical breeding residents of woodland edges, scrubland and forest edges. White-billed Starling and Little Rock Thrush can be found on steep cliffs; Speckled or African rock pigeon and White-collared Pigeon in gorges and rocky places but also in towns and villages.
Species belonging to the Somali-Masai Biome. Hemprich's Hornbill and White-rumped Babbler are found in bushland, scrubland and dense secondary forest, often near cliffs, gorges or water. Chestnut-Winged or Somali Starling and Rüppell's Weaver are found in bushy and shrubby areas. Black-billed wood hoopoes have some red at the base of the bill or an entirely red bill in this area.
Species belonging to the Sudan-Guinea Savanna Biome: Green-backed eremomela and Chestnut-crowned Sparrow-Weaver.
Species that are neither endemic nor biome-restricted but that have restricted ranges or that can be more easily seen in Ethiopia than elsewhere in their range: Abyssinian Roller is an Ethiopian relative of Lilac-breasted Roller, which is an intra-tropical breeding migrant of south and east Africa, and of European Roller, an uncommon Palearctic passage migrant. Black-billed Barbet, Yellow-breasted Barbet and Grey-headed Batis are species from the Sahel and Northern Africa but also occur in Acacia woodlands in the area.
The most regularly observed raptor birds in crop fields in Tigray are Augur buzzard (Buteo augur), Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus), Black kite (Milvus migrans), Yellow-billed kite (Milvus aegyptius) and Barn owl (Tyto alba).
Birdwatching can be done particularly in exclosures and forests. Eighteen bird-watching sites have been inventoried in Enderta and Degua Tembien and mapped.
Landmarks
A distinctive feature of Tigray are its rock-hewn churches. Similar in design to those of Lalibela in the Amhara Region, these churches are found in four or five clusters – Gheralta, Teka-Tesfay, Atsbi and Tembien – with Wukro sometimes included. Some of the churches are considered earlier than those of Lalibela, perhaps dating from the eighth century. Mostly monolithic, with designs partly inspired by classical architecture, they are often located at the top of cliffs or steep hills, for security. For example, Tigray's ancient Debre Damo monastery is accessible only by climbing a rope 25 metres up a sheer cliff.
Looting has become a major issue in the Tigray Region, as archaeological sites have become sources for construction materials and ancient artifacts used for everyday purposes by local populations.
The area is famous for a single rock sculptured 23 meter long obelisk in Axum as well as for other fallen obelisks. The Axum treasure site of ancient Tigrayan history is a major landmark. Yeha is another important local landmark that is little-known outside the region.
Transport
Ground travel
A major north–south road corridor goes through Tigray. This is facilitated by Highway 2 which goes from Adigrat to Addis Ababa and Highway 3 which goes from Shire to Addis Ababa.
Air travel
Tigray has one international airport and four commercial airports. The international airport is Alula Aba Nega Airport (MQX) near Mekelle. The region's four other commercial airports are Shire Airport (SHC), Humera Airport (HUE), Dansha Airport, and Emperor Yohannes IV Airport (AXU), which serves Axum.
Law and government
Executive branch
The executive branch is headed by the President of Tigray. The current president is Debretsion Gebremichael, a TPLF member, elected in 2018. A Vice President of Tigray succeeds the president in the event of any removal from office, and performs any duties assigned by the president. The current vice president is Dr. Addis Alem Balema. The other elected constitutional offices in the executive branch are the Regional Health Bureau (Ato Hagos Godefy), Educational Bureau (Ato Gebre'egziabher), Auditor General (Ato Alemseged Kebedew), and 12 other officials.
Judicial branch
There are three levels of the Tigray state judiciary. The lowest level is the court of common pleas: each woreda maintains its own constitutionally mandated court of common pleas, which maintain jurisdiction over all justiciable matters. The intermediate-level court system is the district court system. Four courts of appeals exist, each retaining jurisdiction over appeals from common pleas, municipal, and county courts in an administrative zone. A case heard in this system is decided by a three-judge panel, and each judge is elected.
The highest-ranking court, the Tigray Supreme Court, is Tigray's "court of last resort". A seven-justice panel composes the court, which, by its own discretion, hears appeals from the courts of appeals, and retains original jurisdiction over limited matters. The chief judge is called the President of Tigray Supreme Court (W/ro Hirity Miheretab).
Legislative branch
The State Council, which is the highest administrative body of the state, is made up of 152 members.
National politics
Tigray is represented by 38 representatives in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia House of Peoples' Representatives. But currently after the illegitimate postponement of the national election of Ethiopia Tigray has pulled it representative from the House of House of Peoples' Representatives and has no representation in the Federal parliament .
Administrative zones and districts
Like other Regions in Ethiopia, Tigray is subdivided into administrative zones, and further into woredas or districts. Up to January 2020, these were the woredas of Tigray:
Central Tigray
Abiy Addi Town
Abergele
Adwa
Adwa Town
Aksum Town
Dogu'a Tembien
Enticho
Kola Tembien
La'ilay Maychew
Mereb Lehe
Naeder Adet
Tahtay Maychew
Werie Lehe
East Tigray
Adigrat Town
Atsbi Wenberta
Ganta Afeshum
Gulomahda
Hawzen
Irob
Kilte Awulaelo
Saesi Tsaedaemba
Wukro Town
North West Tigray
Asigede Tsimbela
La'ilay Adiyabo
Medebay Zana
Tahtay Adiyabo
Tahtay Koraro
Tselemti
Shiraro Town
Shire Town
South Tigray
Alaje
Alamata
Alamata Town
Endamehoni
Korem Town
Maychew Town
Ofla
Raya Azebo
South East Tigray
Enderta
Hintalo Wajirat
Samre
West Tigray
Kafta Humera
Humera Town
Wolqayt
Tsegede
Mekelle (special zone)
Non-governmental organisations
Major NGOs, involved in development activities are:
Relief Society of Tigray
Tigrai Development Association
Sports
Mekelle 70 Enderta F.C. (Tigrinya: ጋንታ መቐለ 70 እንደርታ) is an Ethiopian football club based in the capital, Mekelle. They are a member of the Ethiopian Football Federation and currently play in the top division of Ethiopian football, the Ethiopian Premier League. They are known by the nickname the Lion of Judah (ምዓም ኣንበሳ /ምዓም አናብስት/ኣናብስቶቹ). The club won its first Ethiopian Premier League title in the 2018–2019 Ethiopian Premier League Season.
Shire Indasillasie F.C. (Tigrinya: ጋንታ ስሑል ሽረ, also known as Sihul Shire FC) is an Ethiopian football club based in Shire. They are a member of the Ethiopian Football Federation and play in the Ethiopian Premier League, the first division of football in Ethiopia.
Mekele City, Suhul Shire, and Adigrat University football clubs were Tigray-based clubs among the 14 clubs to participate in the Ethiopian Premier League in 2020/2021. However, due to the war, they were replaced by other clubs from the League one rank below the Ethiopian Premier League.
Tigrayans are known for their good performance in circus and road cycling. For many years cyclists from this region have been dominant in Ethiopian cycle championships. Tsgabu Gebremaryam Grmay is one of the best Ethiopian cyclists and the first Ethiopian to participate in the Tour de France.
Education
At the regional level, the Tigray Education Bureau governs primary and secondary educational institutions. At the municipal level, there are approximately 300 school districts region-wide.
Colleges and universities
Adigrat University
Axum University
Adwa Pan-African University
Ethio-lmage College
Greenwich College
Hashenge College
Mars Engineering College
Mekelle University
Mekelle Institute of Technology
New Millennium College
Nile College
Raya University
Sehba Info Tech & Business College
Signal College
St. Mary's University College
Winner college Axum
Libraries
Tigray is home to Ethiopia's most extensive church libraries that are found in the eastern and central zones of the region. There are several ongoing digitization projects to preserve previous historical texts.
Axum Heritage Foundation
Romanat Qeddus Mika'el Church
Gunda Gunde Monastery
Agwaza Monastery
Debre Damo Monastery
See also
Tigray Province
References
External links
Tigray Region Web Portal
Tigray Revenue Development Authority
Tigray State Information
FDRE States: Basic Information – Tigray
Map of Tigray Region at UN-OCHA
Map of Tigray Region at DPPA of Ethiopia
Endowment Fund for the Rehabilitation of Tigray website
Ethiopian Treasures – Queen of Sheba, Aksumite Kingdom – Aksum
Ethiopian Treasures – Emperor Yohannes IV Castle – Mekele
Future Observatory – Dam Building in Tigray by David Mercer
"Tigrayans want end to border row" by Elizabeth Blunt, BBC News, 20 December 2007
Tigray: Then and Now – the son of Mohamed Amin covers sustainable agriculture in Tigray following the Horn of Africa drought in 2011.
Regions of Ethiopia |
357353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large%20Hadron%20Collider | Large Hadron Collider | The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle collider. It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and hundreds of universities and laboratories, as well as more than 100 countries. It lies in a tunnel in circumference and as deep as beneath the France–Switzerland border near Geneva.
The first collisions were achieved in 2010 at an energy of 3.5 teraelectronvolts (TeV) per beam, about four times the previous world record. After upgrades it reached 6.5 TeV per beam (13 TeV total collision energy, the present world record). At the end of 2018, it was shut down for two years for further upgrades.
The collider has four crossing points where the accelerated particles collide. Seven detectors, each designed to detect different phenomena, are positioned around the crossing points. The LHC primarily collides proton beams, but it can also accelerate beams of heavy ions: lead–lead collisions and proton–lead collisions are typically performed for one month a year.
The LHC's goal is to allow physicists to test the predictions of different theories of particle physics, including measuring the properties of the Higgs boson searching for the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetric theories, and other unresolved questions in particle physics.
Background
The term hadron refers to subatomic composite particles composed of quarks held together by the strong force (analagous to the way that atoms and molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force). The best-known hadrons are the baryons such as protons and neutrons; hadrons also include mesons such as the pion and kaon, which were discovered during cosmic ray experiments in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
A collider is a type of a particle accelerator which brings two opposing particle beams together such that the particles collide. In particle physics, colliders, though harder to construct, are a powerful research tool because they reach a much higher center of mass energy than fixed target setups. Analysis of the byproducts of these collisions gives scientists good evidence of the structure of the subatomic world and the laws of nature governing it. Many of these byproducts are produced only by high-energy collisions, and they decay after very short periods of time. Thus many of them are hard or nearly impossible to study in other ways.
Purpose
Many physicists hope that the Large Hadron Collider will help answer some of the fundamental open questions in physics, which concern the basic laws governing the interactions and forces among the elementary objects, the deep structure of space and time, and in particular the interrelation between quantum mechanics and general relativity.
Data are also needed from high-energy particle experiments to suggest which versions of current scientific models are more likely to be correct – in particular to choose between the Standard Model and Higgsless model and to validate their predictions and allow further theoretical development.
Issues explored by LHC collisions include:
Is the mass of elementary particles being generated by the Higgs mechanism via electroweak symmetry breaking? It was expected that the collider experiments will either demonstrate or rule out the existence of the elusive Higgs boson, thereby allowing physicists to consider whether the Standard Model or its Higgsless alternatives are more likely to be correct.
Is supersymmetry, an extension of the Standard Model and Poincaré symmetry, realized in nature, implying that all known particles have supersymmetric partners?
Are there extra dimensions, as predicted by various models based on string theory, and can we detect them?
What is the nature of the dark matter that appears to account for 27% of the mass-energy of the universe?
Other open questions that may be explored using high-energy particle collisions:
It is already known that electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are different manifestations of a single force called the electroweak force. The LHC may clarify whether the electroweak force and the strong nuclear force are similarly just different manifestations of one universal unified force, as predicted by various Grand Unification Theories.
Why is the fourth fundamental force (gravity) so many orders of magnitude weaker than the other three fundamental forces? See also Hierarchy problem.
Are there additional sources of quark flavour mixing, beyond those already present within the Standard Model?
Why are there apparent violations of the symmetry between matter and antimatter? See also CP violation.
What are the nature and properties of quark–gluon plasma, thought to have existed in the early universe and in certain compact and strange astronomical objects today? This will be investigated by heavy ion collisions, mainly in ALICE, but also in CMS, ATLAS and LHCb. First observed in 2010, findings published in 2012 confirmed the phenomenon of jet quenching in heavy-ion collisions.
Design
The collider is contained in a circular tunnel, with a circumference of , at a depth ranging from underground. The variation in depth was deliberate, to reduce the amount of tunnel that lies under the Jura Mountains to avoid having to excavate a vertical access shaft there. A tunnel was chosen to avoid having to purchase expensive land on the surface, which would also have an impact on the landscape and to take advantage of the shielding against background radiation that the earth's crust provides.
The wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly used to house the Large Electron–Positron Collider. The tunnel crosses the border between Switzerland and France at four points, with most of it in France. Surface buildings hold ancillary equipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment, control electronics and refrigeration plants.
The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beamlines (or beam pipes) each containing a beam, which travel in opposite directions around the ring. The beams intersect at four points around the ring, which is where the particle collisions take place. Some 1,232 dipole magnets keep the beams on their circular path (see image), while an additional 392 quadrupole magnets are used to keep the beams focused, with stronger quadrupole magnets close to the intersection points in order to maximize the chances of interaction where the two beams cross. Magnets of higher multipole orders are used to correct smaller imperfections in the field geometry. In total, about 10,000 superconducting magnets are installed, with the dipole magnets having a mass of over 27 tonnes. Approximately 96 tonnes of superfluid helium-4 is needed to keep the magnets, made of copper-clad niobium-titanium, at their operating temperature of , making the LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid helium temperature. LHC uses 470 tonnes of Nb–Ti superconductor.
During LHC operations, the CERN site draws roughly 200 MW of electrical power from the French electrical grid, which, for comparison, is about one-third the energy consumption of the city of Geneva; the LHC accelerator and detectors draw about 120 MW thereof. Each day of its operation generates 140 terabytes of data.
When running at the current energy record of 6.5 TeV per proton, once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to 6.5 TeV, the field of the superconducting dipole magnets is increased from 0.54 to . The protons each have an energy of 6.5 TeV, giving a total collision energy of 13 TeV. At this energy, the protons have a Lorentz factor of about 6,930 and move at about , or about slower than the speed of light (c). It takes less than for a proton to travel 26.7 km around the main ring. This results in per second for protons whether the particles are at low or high energy in the main ring, since the speed difference between these energies is beyond the fifth decimal.
Rather than having continuous beams, the protons are bunched together, into up to , with in each bunch so that interactions between the two beams take place at discrete intervals, mainly apart, providing a bunch collision rate of 40 MHz. It was operated with fewer bunches in the first years. The design luminosity of the LHC is 1034 cm−2s−1, which was first reached in June 2016. By 2017, twice this value was achieved.
Before being injected into the main accelerator, the particles are prepared by a series of systems that successively increase their energy. The first system is the linear particle accelerator Linac4 generating 160-MeV negative hydrogen ions (H− ions), which feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). There, both electrons are stripped from the hydrogen ions leaving only the nucleus containing one proton. Protons are then accelerated to 2 GeV and injected into the Proton Synchrotron (PS), where they are accelerated to 26 GeV. Finally, the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is used to increase their energy further to 450 GeV before they are at last injected (over a period of several minutes) into the main ring. Here, the proton bunches are accumulated, accelerated (over a period of ) to their peak energy, and finally circulated for 5 to while collisions occur at the four intersection points.
The LHC physics programme is mainly based on proton–proton collisions. However, shorter running periods, typically one month per year, heavy-ion collisions are included in the programme. While lighter ions are considered as well, the baseline scheme deals with lead ions (see A Large Ion Collider Experiment). The lead ions are first accelerated by the linear accelerator LINAC 3, and the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) is used as an ion storage and cooler unit. The ions are then further accelerated by the PS and SPS before being injected into LHC ring, where they reach an energy of 2.3 TeV per nucleon (or 522 TeV per ion), higher than the energies reached by the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The aim of the heavy-ion programme is to investigate quark–gluon plasma, which existed in the early universe.
Detectors
Eight detectors have been constructed at the LHC, located underground in large caverns excavated at the LHC's intersection points. Two of them, the ATLAS experiment and the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), are large general-purpose particle detectors. ALICE and LHCb have more specialized roles and the last four, TOTEM, MoEDAL, LHCf, and FASER are much smaller and are for very specialized research. The ATLAS and CMS experiments discovered the Higgs boson, which is strong evidence that the Standard Model has the correct mechanism of giving mass to elementary particles.
Computing and analysis facilities
Data produced by LHC, as well as LHC-related simulation, were estimated at approximately 15 petabytes per year (max throughput while running is not stated)—a major challenge in its own right at the time.
The LHC Computing Grid was constructed as part of the LHC design, to handle the massive amounts of data expected for its collisions. It is an international collaborative project that consists of a grid-based computer network infrastructure initially connecting 140 computing centres in 35 countries (over 170 in 36 countries ). It was designed by CERN to handle the significant volume of data produced by LHC experiments, incorporating both private fibre optic cable links and existing high-speed portions of the public Internet to enable data transfer from CERN to academic institutions around the world. The Open Science Grid is used as the primary infrastructure in the United States, and also as part of an interoperable federation with the LHC Computing Grid.
The distributed computing project LHC@home was started to support the construction and calibration of the LHC. The project uses the BOINC platform, enabling anybody with an Internet connection and a computer running Mac OS X, Windows or Linux to use their computer's idle time to simulate how particles will travel in the beam pipes. With this information, the scientists are able to determine how the magnets should be calibrated to gain the most stable "orbit" of the beams in the ring. In August 2011, a second application (Test4Theory) went live which performs simulations against which to compare actual test data, to determine confidence levels of the results.
By 2012, data from over 6 quadrillion (6 x 1015) LHC proton-proton collisions had been analysed, LHC collision data was being produced at approximately 25 petabytes per year, and the LHC Computing Grid had become the world's largest computing grid in 2012, comprising over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide network across 36 countries.
Operational history
The LHC first went live on 10 September 2008, but initial testing was delayed for 14 months from 19 September 2008 to 20 November 2009, following a magnet quench incident that caused extensive damage to over 50 superconducting magnets, their mountings, and the vacuum pipe.
During its first run (2010–2013), the LHC collided two opposing particle beams of either protons at up to 4 teraelectronvolts or , or lead nuclei (574 TeV per nucleus, or 2.76 TeV per nucleon). Its first run discoveries included the long-sought Higgs boson, several composite particles (hadrons) like the χb (3P) bottomonium state, the first creation of a quark–gluon plasma, and the first observations of the very rare decay of the Bs meson into two muons (Bs0 → μ+μ−), which challenged the validity of existing models of supersymmetry.
Construction
Operational challenges
The size of the LHC constitutes an exceptional engineering challenge with unique operational issues on account of the amount of energy stored in the magnets and the beams. While operating, the total energy stored in the magnets is and the total energy carried by the two beams reaches .
Loss of only one ten-millionth part (10−7) of the beam is sufficient to quench a superconducting magnet, while each of the two beam dumps must absorb . These energies are carried by very little matter: under nominal operating conditions (2,808 bunches per beam, 1.15×1011 protons per bunch), the beam pipes contain 1.0×10−9 gram of hydrogen, which, in standard conditions for temperature and pressure, would fill the volume of one grain of fine sand.
Cost
With a budget of €7.5 billion (approx. $9bn or £6.19bn ), the LHC is one of the most expensive scientific instruments ever built. The total cost of the project is expected to be of the order of 4.6bn Swiss francs (SFr) (approx. $4.4bn, €3.1bn, or £2.8bn ) for the accelerator and 1.16bn (SFr) (approx. $1.1bn, €0.8bn, or £0.7bn ) for the CERN contribution to the experiments.
The construction of LHC was approved in 1995 with a budget of SFr 2.6bn, with another SFr 210M toward the experiments. However, cost overruns, estimated in a major review in 2001 at around SFr 480M for the accelerator, and SFr 50M for the experiments, along with a reduction in CERN's budget, pushed the completion date from 2005 to April 2007. The superconducting magnets were responsible for SFr 180M of the cost increase. There were also further costs and delays owing to engineering difficulties encountered while building the cavern for the Compact Muon Solenoid, and also due to magnet supports which were insufficiently strongly designed and failed their initial testing (2007) and damage from a magnet quench and liquid helium escape (inaugural testing, 2008) (see: Construction accidents and delays). Because electricity costs are lower during the summer, the LHC normally does not operate over the winter months, although exceptions over the 2009/10 and 2012/2013 winters were made to make up for the 2008 start-up delays and to improve precision of measurements of the new particle discovered in 2012, respectively.
Construction accidents and delays
On 25 October 2005, José Pereira Lages, a technician, was killed in the LHC when a switchgear that was being transported fell on top of him.
On 27 March 2007, a cryogenic magnet support designed and provided by Fermilab and KEK broke during an initial pressure test involving one of the LHC's inner triplet (focusing quadrupole) magnet assemblies. No one was injured. Fermilab director Pier Oddone stated "In this case we are dumbfounded that we missed some very simple balance of forces". The fault had been present in the original design, and remained during four engineering reviews over the following years. Analysis revealed that its design, made as thin as possible for better insulation, was not strong enough to withstand the forces generated during pressure testing. Details are available in a statement from Fermilab, with which CERN is in agreement. Repairing the broken magnet and reinforcing the eight identical assemblies used by LHC delayed the start-up date, then planned for November 2007.
On 19 September 2008, during initial testing, a faulty electrical connection led to a magnet quench (the sudden loss of a superconducting magnet's superconducting ability owing to warming or electric field effects). Six tonnes of supercooled liquid helium—used to cool the magnets—escaped, with sufficient force to break 10-ton magnets nearby from their mountings, and caused considerable damage and contamination of the vacuum tube. Repairs and safety checks caused a delay of around 14 months.
Two vacuum leaks were found in July 2009, and the start of operations was further postponed to mid-November 2009.
Initial lower magnet currents
In both of its runs (2010 to 2012 and 2015), the LHC was initially run at energies below its planned operating energy, and ramped up to just 2 x 4 TeV energy on its first run and 2 x 6.5 TeV on its second run, below the design energy of 2 x 7 TeV. This is because massive superconducting magnets require considerable magnet training to handle the high currents involved without losing their superconducting ability, and the high currents are necessary to allow a high proton energy. The "training" process involves repeatedly running the magnets with lower currents to provoke any quenches or minute movements that may result. It also takes time to cool down magnets to their operating temperature of around 1.9 K (close to absolute zero). Over time the magnet "beds in" and ceases to quench at these lesser currents and can handle the full design current without quenching; CERN media describe the magnets as "shaking out" the unavoidable tiny manufacturing imperfections in their crystals and positions that had initially impaired their ability to handle their planned currents. The magnets, over time and with training, gradually become able to handle their full planned currents without quenching.
Inaugural tests (2008)
The first beam was circulated through the collider on the morning of 10 September 2008. CERN successfully fired the protons around the tunnel in stages, three kilometres at a time. The particles were fired in a clockwise direction into the accelerator and successfully steered around it at 10:28 local time. The LHC successfully completed its major test: after a series of trial runs, two white dots flashed on a computer screen showing the protons travelled the full length of the collider. It took less than one hour to guide the stream of particles around its inaugural circuit. CERN next successfully sent a beam of protons in an anticlockwise direction, taking slightly longer at one and a half hours owing to a problem with the cryogenics, with the full circuit being completed at 14:59.
Quench incident
On 19 September 2008, a magnet quench occurred in about 100 bending magnets in sectors 3 and 4, where an electrical fault led to a loss of approximately six tonnes of liquid helium (the magnets' cryogenic coolant), which was vented into the tunnel. The escaping vapour expanded with explosive force, damaging a total of 53 superconducting magnets and their mountings, and contaminating the vacuum pipe, which also lost vacuum conditions.
Shortly after the incident, CERN reported that the most likely cause of the problem was a faulty electrical connection between two magnets, and that – owing to the time needed to warm up the affected sectors and then cool them back down to operating temperature – it would take at least two months to fix. CERN released an interim technical report and preliminary analysis of the incident on 15 and 16 October 2008 respectively, and a more detailed report on 5 December 2008. The analysis of the incident by CERN confirmed that an electrical fault had indeed been the cause. The faulty electrical connection had led (correctly) to a failsafe power abort of the electrical systems powering the superconducting magnets, but had also caused an electric arc (or discharge) which damaged the integrity of the supercooled helium's enclosure and vacuum insulation, causing the coolant's temperature and pressure to rapidly rise beyond the ability of the safety systems to contain it, and leading to a temperature rise of about 100 degrees Celsius in some of the affected magnets. Energy stored in the superconducting magnets and electrical noise induced in other quench detectors also played a role in the rapid heating. Around two tonnes of liquid helium escaped explosively before detectors triggered an emergency stop, and a further four tonnes leaked at lower pressure in the aftermath. A total of 53 magnets were damaged in the incident and were repaired or replaced during the winter shutdown. This accident was thoroughly discussed in a 22 February 2010 Superconductor Science and Technology article by CERN physicist Lucio Rossi.
In the original schedule for LHC commissioning, the first "modest" high-energy collisions at a centre-of-mass energy of 900 GeV were expected to take place before the end of September 2008, and the LHC was expected to be operating at 10 TeV by the end of 2008. However, owing to the delay caused by the incident, the collider was not operational until November 2009. Despite the delay, LHC was officially inaugurated on 21 October 2008, in the presence of political leaders, science ministers from CERN's 20 Member States, CERN officials, and members of the worldwide scientific community.
Most of 2009 was spent on repairs and reviews from the damage caused by the quench incident, along with two further vacuum leaks identified in July 2009; this pushed the start of operations to November of that year.
Run 1: first operational run (2009–2013)
On 20 November 2009, low-energy beams circulated in the tunnel for the first time since the incident, and shortly after, on 30 November, the LHC achieved 1.18 TeV per beam to become the world's highest-energy particle accelerator, beating the Tevatron's previous record of 0.98 TeV per beam held for eight years.
The early part of 2010 saw the continued ramp-up of beam in energies and early physics experiments towards 3.5 TeV per beam and on 30 March 2010, LHC set a new record for high-energy collisions by colliding proton beams at a combined energy level of 7 TeV. The attempt was the third that day, after two unsuccessful attempts in which the protons had to be "dumped" from the collider and new beams had to be injected. This also marked the start of the main research programme.
The first proton run ended on 4 November 2010. A run with lead ions started on 8 November 2010, and ended on 6 December 2010, allowing the ALICE experiment to study matter under extreme conditions similar to those shortly after the Big Bang.
CERN originally planned that the LHC would run through to the end of 2012, with a short break at the end of 2011 to allow for an increase in beam energy from 3.5 to 4 TeV per beam. At the end of 2012, the LHC was planned to get shut down until around 2015 to allow upgrade to a planned beam energy of 7 TeV per beam. In late 2012, in light of the July 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson, the shutdown was postponed for some weeks into early 2013, to allow additional data to be obtained before shutdown.
Long Shutdown 1 (2013–2015)
The LHC was shut down on 13 February 2013 for its 2-year upgrade called Long Shutdown 1 (LS1), which was to touch on many aspects of the LHC: enabling collisions at 14 TeV, enhancing its detectors and pre-accelerators (the Proton Synchrotron and Super Proton Synchrotron), as well as replacing its ventilation system and of cabling impaired by high-energy collisions from its first run. The upgraded collider began its long start-up and testing process in June 2014, with the Proton Synchrotron Booster starting on 2 June 2014, the final interconnection between magnets completing and the Proton Synchrotron circulating particles on 18 June 2014, and the first section of the main LHC supermagnet system reaching operating temperature of , a few days later. Due to the slow progress with "training" the superconducting magnets, it was decided to start the second run with a lower energy of 6.5 TeV per beam, corresponding to a current of 11,000 amperes. The first of the main LHC magnets were reported to have been successfully trained by 9 December 2014, while training the other magnet sectors was finished in March 2015.
Run 2: second operational run (2015–2018)
On 5 April 2015, the LHC restarted after a two-year break, during which the electrical connectors between the bending magnets were upgraded to safely handle the current required for 7 TeV per beam (14 TeV). However, the bending magnets were only trained to handle up to 6.5 TeV per beam (13 TeV total), which became the operating energy for 2015 to 2018. The energy was first reached on 10 April 2015. The upgrades culminated in colliding protons together with a combined energy of 13 TeV. On 3 June 2015, the LHC started delivering physics data after almost two years offline. In the following months, it was used for proton-proton collisions, while in November, the machine switched to collisions of lead ions and in December, the usual winter shutdown started.
In 2016, the machine operators focused on increasing the luminosity for proton-proton collisions. The design value was first reached 29 June, and further improvements increased the collision rate to 40% above the design value. The total number of collisions in 2016 exceeded the number from Run 1 – at a higher energy per collision. The proton-proton run was followed by four weeks of proton-lead collisions.
In 2017, the luminosity was increased further and reached twice the design value. The total number of collisions was higher than in 2016 as well.
The 2018 physics run began on 17 April and stopped on 3 December, including four weeks of lead–lead collisions.
Long Shutdown 2 (2018–2022) and beyond
Long Shutdown 2 (LS2) started 10 December 2018. The LHC and the whole CERN accelerator complex is being maintained and upgraded. The goal of the upgrades is to implement the High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) project that will increase the luminosity by a factor of 10. LS2 is projected to end in 2021, followed by Run 3. The HL-LHC should be operational by 2026. The Long Shutdown (LS3) in 2020s will take place before HL-LHC project is done.
Timeline of operations
Findings and discoveries
An initial focus of research was to investigate the possible existence of the Higgs boson, a key part of the Standard Model of physics which was predicted by theory, but had not yet been observed before due to its high mass and elusive nature. CERN scientists estimated that, if the Standard Model was correct, the LHC would produce several Higgs bosons every minute, allowing physicists to finally confirm or disprove the Higgs boson's existence. In addition, the LHC allowed the search for supersymmetric particles and other hypothetical particles as possible unknown areas of physics. Some extensions of the Standard Model predict additional particles, such as the heavy W' and Z' gauge bosons, which are also estimated to be within reach of the LHC to discover.
First run (data taken 2009–2013)
The first physics results from the LHC, involving 284 collisions which took place in the ALICE detector, were reported on 15 December 2009. The results of the first proton–proton collisions at energies higher than Fermilab's Tevatron proton–antiproton collisions were published by the CMS collaboration in early February 2010, yielding greater-than-predicted charged-hadron production.
After the first year of data collection, the LHC experimental collaborations started to release their preliminary results concerning searches for new physics beyond the Standard Model in proton-proton collisions. No evidence of new particles was detected in the 2010 data. As a result, bounds were set on the allowed parameter space of various extensions of the Standard Model, such as models with large extra dimensions, constrained versions of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, and others.
On 24 May 2011, it was reported that quark–gluon plasma (the densest matter thought to exist besides black holes) had been created in the LHC.
Between July and August 2011, results of searches for the Higgs boson and for exotic particles, based on the data collected during the first half of the 2011 run, were presented in conferences in Grenoble and Mumbai. In the latter conference, it was reported that, despite hints of a Higgs signal in earlier data, ATLAS and CMS exclude with 95% confidence level (using the CLs method) the existence of a Higgs boson with the properties predicted by the Standard Model over most of the mass region between 145 and 466 GeV. The searches for new particles did not yield signals either, allowing to further constrain the parameter space of various extensions of the Standard Model, including its supersymmetric extensions.
On 13 December 2011, CERN reported that the Standard Model Higgs boson, if it exists, is most likely to have a mass constrained to the range 115–130 GeV.
Both the CMS and ATLAS detectors have also shown intensity peaks in the 124–125 GeV range, consistent with either background noise or the observation of the Higgs boson.
On 22 December 2011, it was reported that a new composite particle had been observed, the χb (3P) bottomonium state.
On 4 July 2012, both the CMS and ATLAS teams announced the discovery of a boson in the mass region around 125–126 GeV, with a statistical significance at the level of 5 sigma each. This meets the formal level required to announce a new particle. The observed properties were consistent with the Higgs boson, but scientists were cautious as to whether it is formally identified as actually being the Higgs boson, pending further analysis. On 14 March 2013, CERN announced confirmation that the observed particle was indeed the predicted Higgs Boson.
On 8 November 2012, the LHCb team reported on an experiment seen as a "golden" test of supersymmetry theories in physics, by measuring the very rare decay of the meson into two muons (). The results, which match those predicted by the non-supersymmetrical Standard Model rather than the predictions of many branches of supersymmetry, show the decays are less common than some forms of supersymmetry predict, though could still match the predictions of other versions of supersymmetry theory. The results as initially drafted are stated to be short of proof but at a relatively high 3.5 sigma level of significance. The result was later confirmed by the CMS collaboration.
In August 2013, the LHCb team revealed an anomaly in the angular distribution of B meson decay products which could not be predicted by the Standard Model; this anomaly had a statistical certainty of 4.5 sigma, just short of the 5 sigma needed to be officially recognized as a discovery. It is unknown what the cause of this anomaly would be, although the Z' boson has been suggested as a possible candidate.
On 19 November 2014, the LHCb experiment announced the discovery of two new heavy subatomic particles, and . Both of them are baryons that are composed of one bottom, one down, and one strange quark. They are excited states of the bottom Xi baryon.
The LHCb collaboration has observed multiple exotic hadrons, possibly pentaquarks or tetraquarks, in the Run 1 data.
On 4 April 2014, the collaboration confirmed the existence of the tetraquark candidate Z(4430) with a significance of over 13.9 sigma. On 13 July 2015, results consistent with pentaquark states in the decay of bottom Lambda baryons (Λ) were reported.
On 28 June 2016, the collaboration announced four tetraquark-like particles decaying into a J/ψ and a φ meson, only one of which was well established before (X(4274), X(4500) and X(4700) and X(4140)).
In December 2016, ATLAS presented a measurement of the W boson mass, researching the precision of analyses done at the Tevatron.
Second run (2015–2018)
At the conference EPS-HEP 2015 in July, the collaborations presented first cross-section measurements of several particles at the higher collision energy.
On 15 December 2015, the ATLAS and CMS experiments both reported a number of preliminary results for Higgs physics, supersymmetry (SUSY) searches and exotics searches using 13 TeV proton collision data. Both experiments saw a moderate excess around 750 GeV in the two-photon invariant mass spectrum, but the experiments did not confirm the existence of the hypothetical particle in an August 2016 report.
In July 2017, many analyses based on the large dataset collected in 2016 were shown. The properties of the Higgs boson were studied in more detail and the precision of many other results was improved.
As of March 2021, the LHC experiments have discovered 59 new hadrons in the data collected during the first two runs.
Planned "high-luminosity" upgrade
After some years of running, any particle physics experiment typically begins to suffer from diminishing returns: as the key results reachable by the device begin to be completed, later years of operation discover proportionately less than earlier years. A common response is to upgrade the devices involved, typically in collision energy, luminosity, or improved detectors. In addition to a possible increase to 14 TeV collision energy, a luminosity upgrade of the LHC, called the High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider, started in June 2018 that will boost the accelerator's potential for new discoveries in physics, starting in 2027. The upgrade aims at increasing the luminosity of the machine by a factor of 10, up to 1035 cm−2s−1, providing a better chance to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal measurements.
Safety of particle collisions
The experiments at the Large Hadron Collider sparked fears that the particle collisions might produce doomsday phenomena, involving the production of stable microscopic black holes or the creation of hypothetical particles called strangelets. Two CERN-commissioned safety reviews examined these concerns and concluded that the experiments at the LHC present no danger and that there is no reason for concern, a conclusion endorsed by the American Physical Society.
The reports also noted that the physical conditions and collision events that exist in the LHC and similar experiments occur naturally and routinely in the universe without hazardous consequences, including ultra-high-energy cosmic rays observed to impact Earth with energies far higher than those in any human-made collider.
Popular culture
The Large Hadron Collider gained a considerable amount of attention from outside the scientific community and its progress is followed by most popular science media. The LHC has also inspired works of fiction including novels, TV series, video games and films.
CERN employee Katherine McAlpine's "Large Hadron Rap" surpassed 7 million YouTube views. The band Les Horribles Cernettes was founded by women from CERN. The name was chosen so to have the same initials as the LHC.
National Geographic Channel's World's Toughest Fixes, Season 2 (2010), Episode 6 "Atom Smasher" features the replacement of the last superconducting magnet section in the repair of the collider after the 2008 quench incident. The episode includes actual footage from the repair facility to the inside of the collider, and explanations of the function, engineering, and purpose of the LHC.
The Large Hadron Collider was the focus of the 2012 student film Decay, with the movie being filmed on location in CERN's maintenance tunnels.
The feature documentary Particle Fever follows the experimental physicists at CERN who run the experiments, as well as the theoretical physicists who attempt to provide a conceptual framework for the LHC's results. It won the Sheffield International Doc/Fest in 2013.
Fiction
The novel Angels & Demons, by Dan Brown, involves antimatter created at the LHC to be used in a weapon against the Vatican. In response, CERN published a "Fact or Fiction?" page discussing the accuracy of the book's portrayal of the LHC, CERN, and particle physics in general. The movie version of the book has footage filmed on-site at one of the experiments at the LHC; the director, Ron Howard, met with CERN experts in an effort to make the science in the story more accurate.
In the visual novel/manga/anime-series Steins;Gate, SERN (a deliberate misspelling of CERN) is an organization that uses the miniature black holes created from experiments in the LHC to master time travel and take over the world. It is also involved in mass vigilance through the "ECHELON" project and has connection with many mercenary groups worldwide, to avoid the creation of other time machines.
The novel FlashForward, by Robert J. Sawyer, involves the search for the Higgs boson at the LHC. CERN published a "Science and Fiction" page interviewing Sawyer and physicists about the book and the TV series based on it.
In the American Dad episode The 200, Roger accidentally falls into the Large Hadron Collider, resulting in a huge explosion that creates two hundred clones of his multiple personas.
In the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory episode "The Large Hadron Collision" (season 3 episode 15), Leonard is offered a chance to visit the Large Hadron Collider.
The Large Hadron Collider was also planned to appear as a wonder in the video game Civilization V.
See also
List of accelerators in particle physics
Accelerator projects
Compact Linear Collider
Future Circular Collider
International Linear Collider
Very Large Hadron Collider
References
External links
Overview of the LHC at CERN's public webpage
CERN Courier magazine
10 amazing facts about the LHC
LHC Portal Web portal
Full documentation for design and construction of the LHC and its six detectors (2008).
Video
Animation of LHC in collision production mode (June 2015)
News
Eight Things To Know As The Large Hadron Collider Breaks Energy Records
Buildings and structures in Ain
Buildings and structures in the canton of Geneva
CERN accelerators
E-Science
International science experiments
Laboratories in France
Laboratories in Switzerland
Particle physics facilities
Physics beyond the Standard Model
Underground laboratories
CERN facilities |
357354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy%E2%80%93Binet%20formula | Cauchy–Binet formula | In mathematics, specifically linear algebra, the Cauchy–Binet formula, named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, is an identity for the determinant of the product of two rectangular matrices of transpose shapes (so that the product is well-defined and square). It generalizes the statement that the determinant of a product of square matrices is equal to the product of their determinants. The formula is valid for matrices with the entries from any commutative ring.
Statement
Let A be an m×n matrix and B an n×m matrix. Write [n] for the set {1, ..., n}, and for the set of m-combinations of [n] (i.e., subsets of size m; there are of them). For , write A[m],S for the m×m matrix whose columns are the columns of A at indices from S, and BS,[m] for the m×m matrix whose rows are the rows of B at indices from S. The Cauchy–Binet formula then states
Example: Taking m = 2 and n = 3, and matrices
and , the Cauchy–Binet formula gives the determinant
Indeed , and its determinant is which equals from the right hand side of the formula.
Special cases
If n < m then is the empty set, and the formula says that det(AB) = 0 (its right hand side is an empty sum); indeed in this case the rank of the m×m matrix AB is at most n, which implies that its determinant is zero. If n = m, the case where A and B are square matrices, (a singleton set), so the sum only involves S = [n], and the formula states that det(AB) = det(A)det(B).
For m = 0, A and B are empty matrices (but of different shapes if n > 0), as is their product AB; the summation involves a single term S = Ø, and the formula states 1 = 1, with both sides given by the determinant of the 0×0 matrix. For m = 1, the summation ranges over the collection of the n different singletons taken from [n], and both sides of the formula give , the dot product of the pair of vectors represented by the matrices. The smallest value of m for which the formula states a non-trivial equality is m = 2; it is discussed in the article on the Binet–Cauchy identity.
In the case n = 3
Let be three-dimensional vectors.
In the case m > 3, the right-hand side always equals 0.
A simple proof
The following simple proof relies on two facts that can be proven in several different ways:
For any the coefficient of in the polynomial is the sum of the principal minors of .
If and is an matrix and an matrix, then
.
Now, if we compare the coefficient of in the equation , the left hand side will give the sum of the principal minors of while the right hand side will give the constant term of , which is simply , which is what the Cauchy–Binet formula states, i.e.
Proof
There are various kinds of proofs that can be given for the Cauchy−Binet formula. The proof below is based on formal manipulations only, and avoids using any particular interpretation of determinants, which may be taken to be defined by the Leibniz formula. Only their multilinearity with respect to rows and columns, and their alternating property (vanishing in the presence of equal rows or columns) are used; in particular the multiplicative property of determinants for square matrices is not used, but is rather established (the case n = m). The proof is valid for arbitrary commutative coefficient rings.
The formula can be proved in two steps:
use the fact that both sides are multilinear (more precisely 2m-linear) in the rows of A and the columns of B, to reduce to the case that each row of A and each column of B has only one non-zero entry, which is 1.
handle that case using the functions [m] → [n] that map respectively the row numbers of A to the column number of their nonzero entry, and the column numbers of B to the row number of their nonzero entry.
For step 1, observe that for each row of A or column of B, and for each m-combination S, the values of det(AB) and det(A[m],S)det(BS,[m]) indeed depend linearly on the row or column. For the latter this is immediate from the multilinear property of the determinant; for the former one must in addition check that taking a linear combination for the row of A or column of B while leaving the rest unchanged only affects the corresponding row or column of the product AB, and by the same linear combination. Thus one can work out both sides of the Cauchy−Binet formula by linearity for every row of A and then also every column of B, writing each of the rows and columns as a linear combination of standard basis vectors. The resulting multiple summations are huge, but they have the same form for both sides: corresponding terms involve the same scalar factor (each is a product of entries of A and of B), and these terms only differ by involving two different expressions in terms of constant matrices of the kind described above, which expressions should be equal according to the Cauchy−Binet formula. This achieves the reduction of the first step.
Concretely, the multiple summations can be grouped into two summations, one over all functions f:[m] → [n] that for each row index of A gives a corresponding column index, and one over all functions g:[m] → [n] that for each column index of B gives a corresponding row index. The matrices associated to f and g are
where "" is the Kronecker delta, and the Cauchy−Binet formula to prove has been rewritten as
where p(f,g) denotes the scalar factor . It remains to prove the Cauchy−Binet formula for A = Lf and B = Rg, for all f,g:[m] → [n].
For this step 2, if f fails to be injective then Lf and LfRg both have two identical rows, and if g fails to be injective then Rg and LfRg both have two identical columns; in either case both sides of the identity are zero. Supposing now that both f and g are injective maps [m] → [n], the factor on the right is zero unless S = f([m]), while the factor is zero unless S = g([m]). So
if the images of f and g are different, the right hand side has only null terms, and the left hand side is zero as well since LfRg has a null row (for i with ). In the remaining case where the images of f and g are the same, say f([m]) = S = g([m]), we need to prove that
Let h be the unique increasing bijection [m] → S, and π,σ the permutations of [m] such that and ; then is the permutation matrix for , is the permutation matrix for σ, and LfRg is the permutation matrix for , and since the determinant of a permutation matrix equals the signature of the permutation, the identity follows from the fact that signatures are multiplicative.
Using multi-linearity with respect to both the rows of A and the columns of B in the proof is not necessary; one could use just one of them, say the former, and use that a matrix product LfB either consists of a permutation of the rows of Bf([m]),[m] (if f is injective), or has at least two equal rows.
Relation to the generalized Kronecker delta
As we have seen, the Cauchy–Binet formula is equivalent to the following:
where
In terms of generalized Kronecker delta, we can derive the formula equivalent to the Cauchy–Binet formula:
Geometric interpretations
If A is a real m×n matrix, then det(A AT) is equal to the square of the m-dimensional volume of the parallelotope spanned in Rn by the m rows of A. Binet's formula states that this is equal to the sum of the squares of the volumes that arise if the parallelepiped is orthogonally projected onto the m-dimensional coordinate planes (of which there are ).
In the case m = 1 the parallelotope is reduced to a single vector and its volume is its length. The above statement then states that the square of the length of a vector is the sum of the squares of its coordinates; this is indeed the case by the definition of that length, which is based on the Pythagorean theorem.
Generalization
The Cauchy–Binet formula can be extended in a straightforward way to a general formula for the minors of the product of two matrices. Context for the formula is given in the article on minors, but the idea is that both the formula for ordinary matrix multiplication and the Cauchy-Binet formula for the determinant of the product of two matrices are special cases of the following general statement about the minors of a product of two matrices.
Suppose that A is an m × n matrix, B is an n × p matrix, I is a subset of {1,...,m} with k elements and J is a subset of {1,...,p} with k elements. Then
where the sum extends over all subsets K of {1,...,n} with k elements.
Continuous version
A continuous version of the Cauchy-Binet formula, known as the Andréief-Heine identity or Andréief identity appears commonly in random matrix theory. It is stated as follows: let and be two sequences of integrable functions, supported on . Then
Forresterdescibes how to recover the usual Cauchy-Binet formula as a discretisation of the above identity.
References
Joel G. Broida & S. Gill Williamson (1989) A Comprehensive Introduction to Linear Algebra, §4.6 Cauchy-Binet theorem, pp 208–14, Addison-Wesley .
Jin Ho Kwak & Sungpyo Hong (2004) Linear Algebra 2nd edition, Example 2.15 Binet-Cauchy formula, pp 66,7, Birkhäuser .
I. R. Shafarevich & A. O. Remizov (2012) Linear Algebra and Geometry, §2.9 (p. 68) & §10.5 (p. 377), Springer .
M.L. Mehta (2004) Random matrices, 3rd ed., Elsevier .
External links
Aaron Lauve (2004) A short combinatoric proof of Cauchy–Binet formula from Université du Québec à Montréal.
Peter J. Forrester (2018) Meet Andréief, Bordeaux 1886, and Andreev, Kharkov 1882–83
Determinants
Augustin-Louis Cauchy |
357356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Philosophy | Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP) combines an online encyclopedia of philosophy with peer-reviewed publication of original papers in philosophy, freely accessible to Internet users. It is maintained by Stanford University. Each entry is written and maintained by an expert in the field, including professors from many academic institutions worldwide. Authors contributing to the encyclopedia give Stanford University the permission to publish the articles, but retain the copyright to those articles.
Approach and history
, the SEP has nearly 1,600 published entries. Apart from its online status, the encyclopedia uses the traditional academic approach of most encyclopedias and academic journals to achieve quality by means of specialist authors selected by an editor or an editorial committee that is competent (although not necessarily considered specialists) in the field covered by the encyclopedia and peer review.
The encyclopedia was created in 1995 by Edward N. Zalta, with the explicit aim of providing a dynamic encyclopedia that is updated regularly, and so does not become dated in the manner of conventional print encyclopedias. The charter for the encyclopedia allows for rival articles on a single topic to reflect reasoned disagreements among scholars. Initially, the SEP was developed with U.S. public funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Science Foundation. A long-term fundraising plan to preserve open access to the encyclopedia is supported by many university libraries and library consortia. These institutions contribute under a plan devised by the SEP in collaboration with the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition, the International Coalition of Library Consortia, and the Southeastern Library Network, with matching funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities.
See also
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nelson's Perpetual Loose Leaf Encyclopaedia
Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
List of online encyclopedias
References
External links
Official mirror websites:
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy mirror from the Institute for Logic, Language and Computation of the University of Amsterdam
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Encyclopedias of philosophy
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357357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Crown | The Crown | The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their subdivisions (such as the Crown Dependencies, overseas territories, provinces, or states). Legally ill-defined, the term has different meanings depending on context. It is used to designate the monarch in either a personal capacity, as Head of the Commonwealth, or as the king or queen of his or her realms. It can also refer to the rule of law; however, in common parlance 'The Crown' refers to the functions of government and the civil service.
A corporation sole, the Crown is the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance in the monarchy of each commonwealth realm. These monarchies are united by the personal union of their monarch, but they are independent states. The concept of the Crown developed first in England as a separation of the literal crown and property of the kingdom from the person and personal property of the monarch. It spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the legal lexicon of the United Kingdom, its Crown dependencies, and the other 14 independent realms. It is not to be confused with any physical crown, such as those of the British regalia.
The term is also found in various expressions such as "Crown land", which some countries refer to as "public land" or "state land"; as well as in some offices, such as minister of the Crown, Crown attorney, and Crown prosecutor.
Concept
The concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights and privileges were ultimately bestowed by the ruler. Land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage: owners of land held as socage held it subject only to the Crown. When such lands become owner-less they are said to escheat; i.e., return to direct ownership of the Crown (Crown lands). Bona vacantia is the royal prerogative by which unowned property, primarily unclaimed inheritances, becomes the property of the Crown.
The monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. The body of the reigning sovereign thus holds two distinct personas in constant coexistence: that of a natural-born human being and that of the state as accorded to him or her through law; the Crown and the monarch are "conceptually divisible but legally indivisible ... [t]he office cannot exist without the office-holder". The terms the state, the Crown, the Crown in Right of [jurisdiction], Her Majesty the Queen in Right of [jurisdiction], and similar are all synonymous and the monarch's legal personality is sometimes referred to simply as the relevant jurisdiction's name. (In countries using systems of government derived from Roman civil law, the State is the equivalent concept to the Crown.)
As a consequence, the king or queen is the employer of all government officials and staff (including the viceroys, judges, members of the armed forces, police officers, and parliamentarians), the guardian of foster children (Crown wards), as well as the owner of all state lands (Crown land), buildings and equipment (Crown-held property), state-owned companies (Crown corporations), and the copyright for government publications (Crown copyright). This is all in his or her position as sovereign, not as an individual; all such property is held by the Crown in perpetuity and cannot be sold by the sovereign without the proper advice and consent of his or her relevant ministers.
The Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crown's legal personality is usually regarded as a corporation sole, it can, at least for some purposes, be described as a corporation aggregate headed by the monarch.
Divisibility of the Crown
Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible. Two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta (EWCA, 1982) and Ex parte Quark (House of Lords, 2005)—challenged that view. Today, the Crown is considered separate in every country, province, state, or territory, regardless of its degree of independence, that has the shared monarch as part of the respective country's government, though limitations on the power of the monarch in right of each territory vary according to relevant laws, thus making the difference between full sovereignty, semi-sovereignty, dependency, etc. The Lords of Appeal wrote: "The Queen is as much the Queen of New South Wales and Mauritius and other territories acknowledging her as head of state as she is of England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland or the United Kingdom."
Commonwealth realms
The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, but separate, legal concept. To distinguish the institution's role in one jurisdiction from its place in another, Commonwealth law employs the expression the Crown in right of [place]; for example, the Crown in right of the United Kingdom, the Crown in right of Canada, the Crown in right of the Commonwealth of Australia, etc. Because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state.
The Crown's powers are exercised either by the monarch personally or by his or her representative in each jurisdiction, on the advice of the appropriate local ministers, legislature, or judges, none of which may advise the Crown on any matter pertinent to another of the Crown's jurisdictions.
New Zealand
In New Zealand the term "The Crown" is used to mostly to mean the authority of government, its meaning changes in different contexts. In the context of people considering Treaty of Waitangi claims, professor of history Alan Ward defines the Crown as "the people of New Zealand – including Maori themselves – acted through elected parliament and government."
Crown Dependencies
In the Bailiwick of Guernsey, legislation refers to the Crown in right of the Bailiwick, and the Law Officers of the Crown of Guernsey submitted that "[t]he Crown in this context ordinarily means the Crown in right of the république of the Bailiwick of Guernsey" and that this comprises "the collective governmental and civic institutions, established by and under the authority of the Monarch, for the governance of these Islands, including the States of Guernsey and legislatures in the other Islands, the Royal Court and other courts, the Lieutenant Governor, Parish authorities, and the Crown acting in and through the Privy Council". This constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey.
In the Bailiwick of Jersey, statements by the Law Officers of the Crown define the Crown's operation in that jurisdiction as the Crown in right of Jersey, with all Crown land in the Bailiwick of Jersey belonging to the Crown in right of Jersey and not to the Crown Estate of the United Kingdom. The Succession to the Crown (Jersey) Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey.
Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom.
British Overseas Territories
Following the Lords' decision in Ex parte Quark, 2005, it is held that the Queen in exercising her authority over British Overseas Territories does not act on the advice of the government of the UK, but in her role as Queen of each territory, with the exception of fulfilling the UK's international responsibilities for its territories. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government. To comply with the court's decision, the territorial governors now act on the advice of each territory's executive and the UK government can no longer disallow legislation passed by territorial legislatures.
In the courts
In criminal proceedings, the state is the prosecuting party and is usually designated on the title or name of a case as "R v" – where R can stand for either Rex (if the current monarch is male) or Regina (if the monarch is female) against the defendant; for example, a criminal case against Smith might be referred to as R v Smith, and verbally read as "the Crown against Smith". On the indictment notice, it may state "The Queen - v - Defendant" as well as "R v Defendant".
Often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The titles of these cases now follow the pattern of "R (on the application of X) v Y", notated as "R (X) v Y" for short. Thus R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R (on the application of Miller and other) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where "Miller" is Gina Miller, a citizen. Until the end of the twentieth century, such case titles used the pattern R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, ex parte Miller.
In Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate (or the relevant Procurator Fiscal) in the name of the Crown. Accordingly, the abbreviation HMA is used in the High Court of Justiciary for "His/Her Majesty's Advocate" in place of Rex or Regina, as in HMA v Al Megrahi and Fahima.
In Australia, each state uses R in the title of criminal cases and The Queen (or The King) in criminal appeal cases (i.e., the case name at trial would be R v Smith; if appealed, the case name would be Smith v The Queen). Judges usually refer to the prosecuting party as simply "the prosecution" in the text of judgments (only rarely is The Crown used in the text, and never R). In civil cases where the Crown is a party, it is a customary to list the appropriate government Minister as the party instead. When a case is announced in court, the Clerk or Bailiff refers to the crown orally as "Our Sovereign Lady the Queen" (or "Our Sovereign Lord the King").
In New Zealand court reporting, news reports will refer to the prosecuting lawyer (often called a Crown prosecutor, as in Canada and the United Kingdom) as representing the Crown, usages such as "For the Crown, Joe Bloggs argued..." being common.
This practice of using the seat of sovereignty as the injured party is analogous with criminal cases in the United States, where the format is "the People" or "the State v. [defendant]" (e.g., Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Brady or more famously The People of the State of California v. Orenthal James Simpson) under the doctrine of popular sovereignty. In Federal criminal cases, it is "United States v. [defendant]," as in United States v. Nixon. As an influence of the American colonial period in the Philippines, court cases there also follow this format (e.g. People of the Philippines v. Rappler, et al.).
The Crown can also be a plaintiff or defendant in civil actions to which the government of the Commonwealth realm in question is a party. Such Crown proceedings are often subject to specific rules and limitations, such as the enforcement of judgments against the Crown.
Qui tam lawsuits on behalf of the Crown were once common but have been unusual since the Common Informers Act 1951 ended the practice of allowing such suits by common informers.
Crown forces
The term crown forces has been applied by militant Irish republicans to British-authorised security forces on the island of Ireland, including the British Armed Forces and armed police such as the Royal Ulster Constabulary, which are seen as enemy combatants or an occupation force. Irish nationalists may apply crown forces to earlier forces raised by the Dublin Castle administration at intervals since the Tudor conquest of Ireland to suppress various Irish uprisings.
See also
Crown copyright
Crown corporation
Crown Court
Crown Estate
Crown land
Crown of the Kingdom of Poland
Lands of the Bohemian Crown
Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
Royal prerogative
Notes
Further reading
References
Common law
Monarchy
Legal fictions |
357361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderful%20Life | Wonderful Life | Wonderful Life may refer to:
Wonderful Life (book), a 1989 book on evolution by Stephen Jay Gould
Film and television
Wonderful Life (1964 film), 1964 film starring Cliff Richard
Wonderful Life (2018 film), a 2017 fantasy film directed by Jo Won-hee
Wonderful Life, original Japanese title of After Life, a 1998 Japanese film directed by Hirokazu Koreeda
Wonderful Life (2004 TV series), 2004 Japanese television drama
Wonderful Life (2005 TV series), 2005 South Korean television drama
Music
Albums
Wonderful Life (Black album), 1987
Wonderful Life (Cliff Richard album), 1964
Songs
"Wonderful Life" (Black song), the title track from the 1987 album
"Wonderful Life" (Bring Me The Horizon song), 2019
"Wonderful Life" (Hurts song), 2010
"Wonderful Life", a song by Alter Bridge from their 2010 album AB III
"Wonderful Life", a song and title track from the 1964 Cliff Richard with the Shadows album Wonderful Life
"Wonderful Life", a song by Estelle from her 2012 album All of Me
"Wonderful Life", a song by Gwen Stefani from her 2006 album The Sweet Escape
"Wonderful Life", a song by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds from their 2003 album Nocturama
"Wonderful Life", a song by T.I. from his 2012 album Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head
"Wonderful Life", a cover song by Katie Melua based on Black's unique work.
See also
A Wonderful Life (disambiguation)
It's a Wonderful Life (disambiguation) |