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356757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Cribb | Tom Cribb | Tom Cribb (8 July 1781 – 11 May 1848) was a world champion English bare-knuckle boxer of the 19th century.
Cribb was born near Bristol but moved to London before starting professional fighting. He undertook a series of fights between 1805 and 1812 when he retired, becoming a coal merchant and then publican. His career has been commemorated with the name of a pub and in literature.
Early life
Born in Wick near the Hanham area of Bristol, Cribb moved to London at the age of 13 and after working as a bell-hanger he sought work as a coal porter in Wapping.
Boxing career
His first fight was with George Maddox on 7 January 1805 at Wood Green in Middlesex, now part of north London. Victory here, over Maddox, followed by another a month later, over Tom Blake persuaded him to become a professional pugilist, under the supervision of Captain Robert Barclay.
George Nicholls was the only fighter to defeat Cribb, on 20 July 1805. Later, the foremost prizefighting reporter, Pierce Egan, stated that he was aware that some "friends of the CHAMPION" had encouraged the myth that Cribb enjoyed an unbeaten career by "withholding the name of his vanquisher" (Boxiana, vol. 1).
In 1807 Cribb beat Jem Belcher. In October 1808 he defeated Bob Gregson in 23 rounds at Moulsey Hurst to win the English championship following John Gully's retirement. In 1810 Cribb was awarded the British title. On 18 December 1810 he fought an American, former slave Tom Molineaux, at Copthorne Common in Sussex. Cribb beat Molineaux in 35 rounds and became World champion. The fight was controversial for two reasons: Molineaux was injured when the crowd invaded the ring, and Cribb at one point seemed to have taken longer than the specified time to return to the centre of the ring. Cribb retained his title in 1811 by beating Molineaux at Thistleton Gap in Rutland in 11 rounds before a large crowd. Cribb had also beaten Molineaux's trainer Bill Richmond.
After retirement
In 1812, aged 31, he retired to become a coal merchant (and part-time boxing trainer). Later he became a publican, running the Union Arms, Panton Street, close to Haymarket in central London.
In 1839 he retired to Woolwich in south-east London where he died in 1848, aged 66. He was buried in the churchyard of St Mary Magadalen's, Woolwich – where a monument to his memory was erected.
Legacy
Cribb's tomb, in the shape of a lion resting his paw on an urn, still stands in St Mary's Gardens in Woolwich. Also in Woolwich, a road in the Royal Arsenal area has been named in his honour.
The Tom Cribb pub is located at 36 Panton Street, St James, London. This is the same address as the Union Arms, which was originally 26 Panton Street, but later renumbered.
There is a popular local legend in the Bristol area that Cribbs Causeway, a road not far from Hanham that has given its name to a major out-of-town shopping mall, retail park and entertainment complex, was named after Tom Cribb. Despite being proved to be false, this has not stopped the legend from continuing.
An English footwear brand named after Thomas Cribb existed between 2003 and 2007. The brand name "Thomas Cribb" is currently registered to the creators of the brand.
Dramatic and literary references
Tom Hyer, the first recognised American heavyweight champion, portrayed the character "Tom Cribb" in a scene from Pierce Egan's Tom and Jerry, or Life in London during a single performance at the National Theatre (Boston, Massachusetts) on 9 March 1849.
Cribb features prominently in George MacDonald Fraser’s novel Black Ajax, a fictionalised account of Tom Molineaux's life. In Charles Dickens' comic novel Martin Chuzzlewit (ch.9), Cribb is humorously cited as the inventor of a defensive stance used by the boy Bailey, as the landlady Mrs Todgers aims a smack at his head.
He is mentioned in one episode ("The Detective Wore Silk Drawers" - largely centred on prize-fighting) of the first series of Granada Television's Victorian crime drama Cribb, in which one of Cribb's men speculates whether he is descended from the famous boxer.
Cribb's fights with Molineaux, was turned into a 2014 play by Ed Viney called Prize Fighters.
Cribb is also mentioned in the novel Mauler by Shawn Williamson. He appears to introduce the exotic Tasmanian Tiger (thylacine), the hero of the story, also known as Mauler and Cu´chulain.
Cribb is memorialised in The Letter of Marque, 12th in the Aubrey-Maturin series of novels by Patrick O'Brian. In the novel, one of the captain's favorite personal long cannons is named "Tom Cribb".
References and sources
References
Sources
David Snowdon, Writing the Prizefight: Pierce Egan's Boxiana World (Bern, 2013)
External links
Bare-knuckle boxers
English male boxers
Sportspeople from Bristol
People from Woolwich
1781 births
1848 deaths |
356758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A4rn%C3%B6sand%20County | Härnösand County | Härnösand County, or Härnösands län, was a county of the Swedish Empire, between 1645 and 1654. The seat of residence for the Governor was in Härnösand.
It included the Provinces of Ångermanland, Medelpad and Jämtland.
Creation
The county was created in 1645 when Sweden conquered Jämtland and Härjedalen. They had previously belonged to Norway. Norrland County was split into two and the new territories were assigned to the two halves. Jämtland formed part of the new Härnösand County, and Härjedalen became part of Hudiksvall County. Nine years later they were merged again as the Västernorrland County.
Governors
The county had two governors while it existed.
1645–1653 Hans Strijk
1653–1654 Anders Appelbom
When the county merged into Västernorrland Appelbom did not continue as governor. Instead Erik Larsson Sparre, who had governed Hudiksvall, took on the governorship.
References
Harnosand
Västernorrland County
1645 establishments in Sweden |
356759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudiksvall%20County | Hudiksvall County | Hudiksvall County, or Hudiksvalls län, was a county of the Swedish Empire, between 1645 and 1654. It was created by splitting the Norrland County into the Hudiksvall County and the Härnösand County, but just nine years later they were merged again as the Västernorrland County. The seat of residence for the Governor was in Hudiksvall.
It included the Provinces of Gästrikland, Hälsingland and Härjedalen. That constellation seceded once again to form County of Gävleborg in 1762.
Hudiksvall
Norrland
Gävleborg County
1645 establishments in Sweden |
356760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norrland%20County | Norrland County | Norrland County, or Norrlands län, was a county of the Swedish Empire from 1634 to 1645.
In 1638 the northern part of the county, Västerbotten and Lappland, were separated and established as the Västerbotten County. On 5 September 1645 the remainder of the county was divided in two parts where the central part became the Härnösand County and the southern part became the Hudiksvall County. However, in 1654 Härnösand and Hudiksvall counties were reunited as the Västernorrland County.
The capital of Norrlands län was Hudiksvall.
Governors
Stellan Mörner (1634–1637)
Christer Posse (1637–1641)
Ivar Nilsson Natt och Dag (1641–1645)
See also
List of Västernorrland Governors
County Governors of Sweden
Norrland
Former counties of Sweden
1634 establishments in Sweden |
356763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanboku-ch%C5%8D%20period | Nanboku-chō period | The , spanning from 1336 to 1392, was a period that occurred during the formative years of the Muromachi bakufu of Japanese history.
During this period, there existed a Northern Imperial Court, established by Ashikaga Takauji in Kyoto, and a Southern Imperial Court, established by Emperor Go-Daigo in Yoshino.
Ideologically, the two courts fought for fifty years, with the South giving up to the North in 1392. However, in reality the Northern line was under the power of the Ashikaga shogunate and had little real independence.
Since the 19th century the Emperors of the Southern Imperial Court have been considered the legitimate Emperors of Japan. Other contributing factors were the Southern Court's control of the Japanese imperial regalia, and Kitabatake Chikafusa's work Jinnō Shōtōki, which legitimized the South's imperial court despite their defeat.
The consequences of events in this period continue to be influential in modern Japan's conventional view of the Tennō Seika (Emperor system). Under the influence of State Shinto, an Imperial decree dated March 3, 1911, established that the legitimate reigning monarchs of this period were the Southern Court. After World War II, a series of pretenders, starting with Kumazawa Hiromichi, claimed descent from the Southern Court and challenged the legitimacy of the modern imperial line, which is descended from the Northern Court.
The destruction of the Kamakura shogunate of 1333 and the failure of the Kenmu Restoration in 1336 opened up a legitimacy crisis for the new shogunate. Furthermore, institutional changes in the estate system (the shōen) that formed the bedrock of the income of nobles and warriors alike decisively altered the status of the various social groups. What emerged from the exigencies of the Nanboku-chō (Southern and Northern Court) War was the Muromachi regime, which broadened the economic base of the warriors, while undercutting the noble proprietors. This trend had started already with the Kamakura bakufu.
The fall of the Kamakura bakufu
The main conflicts that contributed to the outbreak of the civil war were the growing conflict between the Hōjō family and other warrior groups in the wake of the Mongol invasions of Japan of 1274 and 1281 and the failure of the Kemmu Restoration, which triggered the struggle between the supporters of the imperial loyalists and supporters of the Ashikaga clan.
Disaffection towards the Hōjō-led Kamakura regime appeared among the warriors towards the end of the thirteenth century. This resentment was caused by the growing influence of the Hōjō over other warrior families within the regime. The Mongol invasions were the main cause behind this centralization of power that took place during the regency of Hōjō Tokimune (1268–1284). During the crisis, three things occurred: Hōjō family appointments to the council of state increased; the Hōjō private family council became the most important decision making body; and direct vassals of the Hōjō were increasingly promoted to shugo posts. They essentially narrowed down their constituents by including only Hōjō family members and direct vassals, at the expense of a broader base of support (Varley 1971:46–50; Hori 1974:198). When a coalition against the Hōjō emerged in 1331, it took only two years to topple the regime.
Wealth in agrarian societies is tied to land, and medieval Japan was no different. In fact, land was the main reason for much of the discontent among the warrior class. Since the rise of the warriors under the Minamoto, it was expected that victory in battle would be rewarded by land grants given to those who served on the victorious side. However, unlike any war that had been fought until then, the Mongol invasions presented a problem since this war, which was seen by most Japanese as a patriotic duty, did not take place against another warrior family, but against a foreign enemy. After the foreign enemy's defeat there were no lands to hand out to the victors. This was especially a problem for those warriors who had fought valiantly and petitioned the Hōjō regents for land. Even in the beginning of the fourteenth century this discontent put a tremendous pressure on any regime that emerged. They had to immediately satisfy this group in order to succeed.
When Kamakura's rule was destroyed in 1333, Kyoto's court society emerged again to confront the warriors. In the transition from the Heian to the Kamakura period, the warriors emerged successfully from the domination of court patrimonialism as an independent political force. With the demise of Kamakura, the imperial court attempted once again to restore its de jure power as an alternative to warrior rule. The Kemmu Restoration was the last desperate attempt on the part of the court to restore their leadership, not just to preserve their institutions. Not until the Meiji Restoration of the 19th century did this occur again.
The Kemmu Restoration: 1333–1336
In the spring of 1333, the Emperor Go-Daigo and his supporters believed that the moment had arrived to restore the glory of the imperial court. The Emperor Daigo (AD 901–923), who lived at a time when the court had no rivals and effective rule was exercised directly from the throne, became Go-Daigo's adopted name and model. Of cardinal importance was the ideology that emerged with the Kemmu Restoration: it was a conscious movement to restore the imperial power vis-a-vis the warriors. Two of the movement's greatest spokesmen were Prince Morinaga and Kitabatake Chikafusa. Prince Morinaga was Daigo's son, and archrival to Ashikaga Takauji: he advocated the militarization of the nobles as a necessary step towards effective rule. Kitabatake Chikafusa epitomized what Prince Morinaga was looking for: a Kyoto noble who became the greatest of the imperialist generals, combining the ways of the warrior to his noble upbringing. During the long siege in Hitachi (1338–43), Chikafusa wrote the Jinnō Shōtōki, one of the most influential works on the legitimacy of the Japanese imperial system ever written. This became one of the ideological bases of the Meiji Restoration of the 19th century.
However, the Kemmu Restoration was a failure. It failed for a number of reasons, chief among these Emperor Go-Daigo's unrealistic desire to return to what he perceived to have been a golden age. Although there is no evidence he wanted to go back to Heian era policies like Chikafusa, there is clear evidence he believed it possible to restore not only imperial power, but also its culture. He even wrote a treatise called Kenmu Nenchū Gyōji for the purpose of reviving court ceremonies that had fallen out of use. In 1336 Ashikaga Takauji rebelled against the imperial court and proclaimed the beginning of a new shogunate. After his proclamation, he was forced to retreat to Kyūshū after the imperialist forces of Kitabatake Akiie attacked and defeated him near Kyoto. This betrayal of the Kemmu Restoration by Takauji blackened his name in later periods of Japanese history, and officially started the Nanboku-chō War. Previous historical views tried to look at the failure of the Restoration at the level of ineffectiveness in the area of rewarding lands to the many petitions that flooded in from samurai; however, it is now clear that, at the most important level, the judicial organs that determined land dispute cases, the Restoration was effective. This forces us to conclude that Takauji's rebellion and desire to create a new warrior regime was a prime determinant in the Restoration's failure. His rebellion encouraged a large body of dissatisfied warriors (there were always those whose petitions were not granted) who desired to see the creation of another military regime modeled after Kamakura.
The Nanboku-chō War was an ideological struggle between loyalists who wanted the Emperor back in power, and those who believed in creating another military regime modeled after Kamakura. It was as if the two previous periods in Japanese history, the Heian and the Kamakura, were clashing on the ideological level. Noble warriors like Kitabatake Chikafusa were pragmatic about the need for warriors to participate in the Restoration on the instrumental level, but on the ideological level a severe divergence between Chikafusa and Takauji polarized the leaders for many years to come. Hammered together during wartime, the emergence of the Muromachi regime followed on the heels of the Restoration's failure.
Vassalage ties and the rise of the Muromachi bakufu
Serious fighting between the two sides raged on for nearly thirty years before supporters of the new warrior regime gained the upper hand. Ashikaga Takauji relied on three main policies to accomplish the task of assembling power:
The half-tax policy of dividing estate lands
Vassalage ties to samurai housemen (gokenin);
The use of shugo lords as bakufu governors and vassals in the provinces (covered below in a separate section).
Both the vassalage ties with the samurai and control over shugo lords were established after the regime had solidified in the 1350s. These two hierarchies were the most important connections in determining the shōgun's power. The bureaucratic organs are the most difficult to assess, because the early bureaucracy was altered after the Kannō disturbance (see the section below), and much of these eventually concerned just Kyoto and Yamashiro Province.
The estate (shōen) from Kamakura to Muromachi
The half-tax policy was straightforward: it was a drastic policy of recognizing the legality of samurai incursions on estate lands, but at the same time guaranteed the survival of the estate system.
In the Kamakura period, the vassalage ties between the samurai stewards (jitō) and the Kamakura regime (1185–1333) were intermediary, because they placed the samurai steward (Jitō) in a position where he was answerable at the same time to both Kamakura and Kyoto. As a samurai he was placed in a direct vassalage relationship to the shōgun as a member of his house in a fictive kinship tie. As a steward, the samurai became a shogunal houseman (gokenin) and trusted vassal, and given the management of an estate that legally belonged to a noble in Kyoto. This is where the intermediary nature of Kamakura vassalage ties lies. As a vassal of the warrior regime in Kamakura he was answerable to the shōgun in the form of military service and dues, but as a manager of an estate owned by a noble, he had to pay rent to the latter.
The stability of the Kamakura system of rule rested upon the regime's guarantee of stewardship rights (jito shiki) to the dominant warriors, and of rent and land ownership rights to the noble proprietor. Through the vassalage ties to samurai stewards, the new warrior regime was grafted onto the older estate system, and in the process bridged the conflicting tendencies that were latent between the upstart warriors and the nobles.
The samurai stewards who had direct vassalage ties to the shōgun or the Hōjō regents were also known as housemen (gokenin). The tradition of the Kamakura houseman was a prestigious one, and set the precedent for what followed in the Muromachi period. Yoritomo and the Hōjō Regents were only concerned about controlling their own housemen, consciously limiting themselves to hearing the land dispute cases of their own vassals and rewarding stewardship rights to their followers, letting other disputes from other groups be taken care of by the civil administration. This precedent was followed by the Ashikaga shōguns as they endeavored to protect the interests of their house vassals against the incursions of the shugo lords throughout the Muromachi period.
Not only were shugo given more power as lords of the provinces, but the half-tax policy that Takauji used to divide estate lands multiplied the number of fiefs owned outright by samurai warriors. However, Takauji could have gone further if he had followed the advice of his trusted generals, brothers Kō no Moronao and Kō no Moroyasu, who wanted to do away with estates altogether. What emerged was a redrawing of the estate system where warrior interests predominated, but noble interests were still preserved. In helping to preserve the estate system, the half-tax measure was a policy that still managed to connect the rights of the noble with those of the warrior.
The half-tax policy began as an emergency tax designated for military rations (hyororyosho) collected during wartime: half the income from particular temple, shrine and estate lands in the provinces of Mino, Ōmi and Owari would be taken to support armies of the Muromachi regime. Increasingly, this was reinterpreted and changed by Takauji as the permanent acquisition of half the land for the purpose of enfeoffing vassals. This was a radical departure from previous practice. As was indicated above, during the Kamakura period, most of the lands, particularly in the central and western provinces of Honshū, were owned by the nobles, but managed as stewardships (jito shiki) by Kamakura house vassals, uniting both the interests of the nobles and the interests of the warriors together in the estate institution. With the advent of the half tax measure, Takauji was removing one half of the estate lands from noble control and giving it in fief to his warriors.
Rise of local samurai (kokujin)
When the Nanboku-chō conflict broke out, vassalage ties became more serious. During the relatively peaceful Kamakura period, military skills were not placed at a premium, but after the outbreak of civil war this criterion became the most important one. A new intermediary consideration emerged in the vassalage ties of the post 1336 environment: the need for loyalty and a tighter tie between lord and vassal. The tighter ties between the shōgun and his vassals emerged as a result of the need for military action against rivals. Vassalage ties were either established by the Ashikaga or there was a risk of losing a potential warrior to another warrior hierarchy controlled, at best, by emerging shugo lords loyal to the Ashikaga, and at worst by rival imperialist generals. So, in a true sense, vassalage ties during the civil war period were used to bridge potential conflict through the recruitment of warriors.
At the same time that vassalage ties tightened between samurai and shōgun, the legitimacy of these ties were sorely tested. This apparent paradox is logically explained by the existence of many claims to samurai loyalty that were presented: towards rival imperialist generals, shugo lords, and even towards local samurai alliances.
A few examples will illustrate the emergence of vassalage ties between the shōgun Ashikaga Takauji and his new housemen. The Kobayakawa family became loyal vassals when they were entrusted with defending Ashikaga interests in the province of Aki Province after Takauji had retreated to Kyūshū in 1336. Another Aki samurai family, the Mōri clan, became vassals of Takauji in 1336, and served under Kō Moroyasu until the outbreak of the Kannō Incident. In the 1350s, the Mori sided with the enemies of Takauji, Tadayoshi and his adopted son Tadafuyu, and not until the 1360s were they back again as vassals of the shōgun. Vassalage ties to the Kawashima clan and other warrior families near Kyoto were established by Takauji in the summer of 1336 in the latter's drive to retake the capital. The Kawashima case is of considerable interest because of a document pertaining to the terms of vassalage bearing Takauji's signature: they would exchange military service for stewardship rights (jito shiki) over half of Kawashima Estate, leaving the other half in possession of the noble proprietor in the form of rent.
The Kannō Incident and the resurgence of the Southern Court in the 1350s
The events
Takauji was nominally shōgun but, having proved not to be up to the task of ruling the country, for more than ten years Tadayoshi governed in his stead. The relationship between the two brothers was however destined to be destroyed by an extremely serious episode called the Kannō Incident, an event which takes its name from the Kannō era (1350–1351) during which it took place and which had very serious consequences for the entire country. Trouble between the two started when Takauji made Kō no Moronao his shitsuji, or deputy. Tadayoshi didn't like Moronao and, every other effort to get rid of him having failed, tried to have him assassinated. His plot was discovered, so Tadayoshi in 1349 was forced by Moronao to leave the government, shave his head and become a Buddhist monk under the name Keishin. In 1350 he rebelled and joined his brother's enemies, the supporters of the Southern Court, whose Emperor Go-Murakami appointed him general of all his troops. In 1351 he defeated Takauji, occupied Kyoto, and entered Kamakura. During the same year he captured and executed the Kō brothers at Mikage (Settsu Province). The following year his fortunes turned and he was defeated by Takauji at Sattayama. A reconciliation between the brothers proved to be brief. Tadayoshi fled to Kamakura, but Takauji pursued him there with an army. In March 1352, shortly after an ostensible second reconciliation, Tadayoshi died suddenly, according to the Taiheiki by poisoning.
Their background
The extremely divisive Kannō Incident that divided the Muromachi regime put a temporary hold on integration. Since this incident took place as the result of bureaucratic infighting, it will be necessary to first take a look at the bureaucratic organs, then examine where the conflict emerged.
The bureaucratic organs of the early regime were under the separate jurisdiction of the Ashikaga brothers Takauji and Tadayoshi, creating a bifurcated administration. Takauji was the leader of the house vassals, and thus controlled the Board of Retainers (Samurai Dokoro) and the Office of Rewards (Onshō-kata), while Tadayoshi was the bureaucratic leader controlling the Board of Inquiry control over the judicial functions of the regime.
The Board of Retainers was used as a disciplinary organ towards house vassals: brigandage and other crimes were prosecuted. The Office of Rewards was used to hear the claims of and to enfeoff deserving vassals. The Office of Rewards was used to enroll new warriors who were potential adversaries of the regime. The major judicial organ, the Board of Coadjutors, decided on all land dispute cases and quarrels involving inheritance. All judicial functions are par excellence used to resolve conflicts and disputes legally, within an institutional framework. Bureaucrats (bugyōnin) for the new regime were recruited from the ranks of those who served the Hōjō regime before its fall. They were valuable because they knew how to read and write, a task beyond the reach of most warriors.
In the 1350s, the Kannō Incident and its aftermath divided and nearly destroyed the early regime. On the surface the incident looks like a personal struggle between Ashikaga Tadayoshi, Takauji's brother, against the Kō brothers, backed by Takauji. The conflict can be however pinpointed to differences in opinion regarding the estate system and, behind these differing opinions, the different bureaucracies controlled by Takauji and Tadayoshi. On the whole Takauji was the innovator while Tadayoshi played the conservative, wanting to preserve the policies of the past. In his capacity as a military leader of vassal bands, Takauji did two things that conflicted with Tadayoshi: he appointed vassals to shugo posts as a reward for battlefield heroics, and he divided the shōen estates giving half of it to his vassals in fief or as stewardships. Tadayoshi strenuously contested these policies through the drafting of the Kemmu Formulary that opposed the appointment of shugo as a reward for battlefield service. He also opposed any sort of outright division of estate lands in his capacity as the leader of the Board of Coadjutors. There was a clear division between the policies of Takauji and his brother Tadayoshi.
Conflict broke out as a result of having two heads of state whose policies contradicted each other. The events which followed the incident testify to the extent to which the regime began to lose its support. Deep divisions between members of the Ashikaga family strengthened the opposition. Both of the pillars of the Muromachi regime, Tadayoshi and Takauji, enacted token submissions to the Southern Court to push their own agendas: Tadayoshi in his desire to destroy the Kō brothers, and Takauji in his desire to defeat Tadayoshi. Ironically, even though the Southern Court was the enemy, it was used as the justification by regime members to attack each other.
Effects
One of the main effects of the incident was to reinvigorate the war effort of the Southern Court. To a large extent this renewed offensive was made possible by turncoats from the Muromachi regime. The imperialist offensive of 1352 directed against Takauji in Kamakura was made possible by the vast numbers of former adherents of Tadayoshi who became supporters of the imperialist leader Nitta Yoshimune. The imperialist offensive against Kyoto in 1353 was made possible through the defection of the shugo lord Yamana Tokiuji. Tadayoshi's adopted son Ashikaga Tadafuyu was the outstanding example of defection: he became the leader of the western armies of the Southern Court during the imperialist offensives against Kyoto in 1353 and 1354.
Rise of the shugo lords
The competing loyalties that characterized the Nanboku-chō era were played out on many levels. There was the defection of local samurai families like the Mori, which were not uncommon during the terribly divisive Kannō Incident; and at a higher level, shugo lords continued to act in a dangerously independent manner until the latter half of the fourteenth century.
The shōgun Ashikaga Takauji appointed branch family members as shugo lords in the different provinces of western and central Japan. The shugo acted as governors, and served the function of mediating between the regime center and periphery. As local governors, and lords in their own right, they represented the authority of the regime in the provinces. The shugo of this period had greater power than of the Kamakura, including sending envoys where land disputes occurred, law enforcement, issuing hanzei (a half-tax), and to levy taxes. They came to hold much greater authority than the samurai houseman by virtue of having a province-wide appointment, not limited to single estates.
The success of shugo appointments did not lie in kinship ties, but with how well they were tied to the regime through other factors. Warrior families since the Kamakura period were characterized by the use of headship rights (soryo) where leadership over branch families was accorded to the leader of the main family. However, headship rights were extremely unstable because branch families often asserted their own independence, particularly as new generations emerged to dilute the ties of kinship.
The exigencies of the day called for the successful use of military skills by those who were appointed to shugo posts. As in vassalage ties between the Ashikaga shōguns and the local samurai, the tie between the shōguns and the shugo lords was intermediary in a similar sense: in the world of competing loyalties, the Ashikaga shōguns by appointing warriors to shugo posts endeavored to tie these men closer to themselves. The successful generals, who were at the same time branch family heads who had cast in their lot with Takauji's rebellion, were the ones often rewarded with the post. The cost of not tying them to the regime was to lose their support, and to encourage their independence from the regime.
Ashikaga branch families appointed to shugo posts included the Hosokawa, Yamana, Imagawa, Hatakeyama, Niki, Kira, Shiba, Ishido, and the Isshiki families. In particular provinces, the Ashikaga failed to displace the original shugo families: the Sasaki, Togashi, Takeda and the Ogasawara in the central provinces, and the Shimazu, Otomo and Shoni in Kyūshū. In the central and western provinces roughly half were new appointees. During the Kannō Incident, Ashikaga headship (soryo) ties to the new appointees did not prevent these shugo from outright rebellion towards the regime at all. In fact, the coercive institutions of the regime were woefully lacking in this time period vis-a-vis the shugo lords.
What prevented the shugo lords from simply doing whatever they pleased was the tenuous link of appointment, particularly new appointees who had emerged with Takauji—they had a vested interest in maintaining their links to the regime, insofar as they had not yet built up their power in the provinces. Those provincial families who had accumulated power throughout the Kamakura period, like the Ouchi of Suo and Nagato provinces and the Shimazu of Satsuma province, were lords in their own right, and were, thus, less dependent on the regime and on their shugo titles.
After 1372, shugo lords were given the responsibility to collect taxes (tansen) for the Muromachi regime. These taxes hit every category of landowner from the nobles to the samurai. As middlemen, the shugo profited by inflating the amount of taxes required from each individual landowner. By this date, they had become unassailable as governors and hence were given the added responsibility of overseeing a new regime centered tax.
Shugo usurpation of civil functions and shugo uke
The office of civil governor was gradually but steadily usurped by the shugo lord, and his use of this position to effect feudal ties. The shugo was able to make his provincial power effective, not through his traditional administrative capacity like the earlier governors, but through the intermediary ties of vassalage with the samurai who had taken over the estate lands during the Nanboku-chō War, and with the samurai residing on public lands (kokugaryo). The shugo lords were both governors, having certain legitimate duties given to them by the Muromachi regime, and feudal lords attempting to enfeoff vassals.
During the Nanboku-chō War, samurai stewards frequently took the lands of nobles and converted them into private holdings (chigyo) illegally. This revolutionary development was the harbinger for the total liquidation of the estate system that took place later. The shugo lords also participated in this wholesale land grab by accumulating former estates under their control by enfeoffing samurai on them. Ironically, this lawless situation created by samurai encroachments on land, at the height of the war, caused security problems for all landed interests from petty samurai to the kokujin, and provided further impetus among local samurai to seek intermediary ties to the shugo lords in the form of vassalage. By tying themselves to the shugo, they were able to ally themselves to the one person in the province who could provide some form of local security.
Vassalage ties between the shugo lord and kokujin often took place on the estates in a three way intermediary tie called the shugo contract (shugo-uke): a noble proprietor would give the responsibility of managing his estate to the shugo in exchange for a guaranteed year end (nengu) income delivered to the proprietor residing in the capital. The shugo lord then enfeoffed vassal samurai (hikan) on those estates as managers. Supposedly, shugo contracts tied the interests of the shugo lord, the samurai kokujin and the noble together, but were not based on equality of interests. They were truly instruments of shugo encroachment on the estates. There is no doubt as to the intermediary nature of the contract, because it connected the interests of three groups of people, but it was most favorable to the shugo lord who used this instrument to expand his ties of vassalage with the local samurai (kokujin), and at the same time to expand his land base at the expense of the nobles.
Shugo contracts (shugo-uke) emerged in the 1340s and gradually became widespread. By looking at how this contract operated, it is apparent to what extent the estate system (shōen) was taken over by the warriors, and had become a skeleton of its previous life. Shugo lords gave the management of the estate to samurai in exchange for military service, but the noble stripped of all powers on the estate, was reduced to waiting for his portion of year end (nengu) income in Kyoto where he lived. The noble hired tax overseers (nengu daikan) to guarantee his own portion of the income, but had to pay an exorbitant amount to hire him. Noble income already reduced by the kokujin and the shugo lord, was further reduced once the tax overseer took his half. This reduction in noble income was the result of gradual non-payment on the part of both shugo and samurai; as a last measure, the nobles hired moneylenders (doso) and bureaucrats (bugyōnin) as a way to put pressure on the warriors. But even this remedy produced spotty results since the hired hands had to negotiate with the warriors.
Shugo and public lands (kokugaryo)
A largely missing picture until recently, was the fate of public lands (kokugaryo) during the Muromachi period, and the role of the shugo lords in their encroachment on them. Public lands (kokugaryo) during the Heian period were distinguished from private lands of the estates (shōen), because the latter were immune from state taxation. Before the rise of private estates, the only kind of lands were public lands maintained under the old civil administration. With the rise of private estates called shōen, during the Heian period, public lands by no means disappeared: in details, the public lands differed very little from private estates. Both were owned by absentee proprietors. They differed only in terms of administration: private estates were directly managed by noble officials, whereas, public lands were managed by the civil governors (kokuga or kokushi) on behalf of the former.
By the Kamakura period, public lands were owned by different landowners as private holdings (chigyo). These landowners included noble houses, religious establishments and warriors. Whole areas of the Kantō and the northeast were held by warriors not in the capacity as estate managers, but as private holdings. Kantō provinces were granted to the Kamakura regime as private lands (chigyokoku). The Ashikaga regime inherited these lands, and decided, fatefully, to place shugo lords over them.
One of the main functions of the civil governor's office (kokushi) was the oversight of criminal justice in the provinces, and the maintenance of the private holdings within the public lands (kokugaryo), but his function began to change with the advent of the Kamakura regime. With the appointment of shugo constables by Kamakura, all criminal jurisdiction within the provinces passed into his hands. But the civil governor (kokushi) remained as the key officer in the civil administration (ritsuryo), who made sure that rent from private holdings reached the absentee nobles and religious establishments (jisha honjo) in Kyoto and in Yamashiro province. His oversight did not include the private holdings of warriors, most usually concentrated in the Kantō and further north.
With the outbreak of the Nanboku-chō War, the civil administration (ritsuryo) began to break down rapidly, and shugo lords, who had a minor role in provincial governance during the Kamakura period, emerged to usurp the civil governor's functions. This did not happen immediately in every province, but occurred without interruption until the shugo lords had become true governors over public lands (kokugaryo). As they took over the oversight of private holdings within public lands, they established ties to many kinds of landowners: nobles, samurai of various kinds (kokujin, jizamurai), and to religious establishments. They enfeoffed their own followers on these lands, and reconfirmed the lands of existing samurai in exchange for military service, and established shugo contracts with the nobles with predictable results. Along with vassalage ties to local samurai (kokujin) on the estates, vassalage ties on public lands became a key resource that augmented the power of the shugo lords.
Furthermore, in 1346, ten years after the emergence of the Muromachi regime, the shōgun decentralized authority by giving the shugo the right to judge cases of crop stealing on the estates, and to make temporary assignments of land to deserving vassals taken from the imperialist forces. This was significant, insofar as traditional areas of Kamakura jurisdiction were "given up" by the Muromachi regime. Previously, all cases of crop stealing or land assignments were strictly under Kamakura administration. Also, about this time, the imperialist forces were suffering their worst defeats, opening up enemy land for confiscation and reassignment. By giving these new jurisdictions to the shugo lords, it further augmented their position as governors over their assigned provinces.
Legitimation and limits to power
In this dual capacity, the shugo lords had to compete with other landed samurai in the provinces for land they administered as governors, but did not personally own. Like the noble proprietors, a single shugo lord owned lands in widely dispersed areas in several provinces. His power was not built upon personal ownership of land like the territorial lords (daimyō) of the sixteenth century, but upon the loyalties of the local samurai through ties of vassalage. There was much greater coercive potential exercised by the territorial lords of the sixteenth century, because their ties of vassalage were based on their ownership of the lands around them: as owners they could dispense with the land as they saw fit, getting rid of recalcitrant vassals without much ado. In the fourteenth century, the shugo lords could not claim province wide ownership of territory: first, the concept of personal provincial ownership was as yet undeveloped; second, they never amassed large amounts of personal property, relying rather on using the traditional framework of estate lands and public lands to enfeoff their vassals. This is the central enigma of the fourteenth century: the fragmentation and dissolution of the estate system, and the disappearance of the civil administration coincided with the proliferation of private lands, but the external framework of the estate system (shōen) and the public lands system (kokugaryo), though devoid of content, still remained. Given the fragmentation, it was the intermediary ties of shugo vassalage, and the shugo role as provincial governor, that helped to integrate the disparate forces to some degree.
It becomes a wonder how the estate system survived at all given the depredations it suffered at the hands of the warriors. There were two reasons why it survived in the attenuated form described above: one, was the existence of the Muromachi regime that consistently upheld the estate system in the face of warrior incursions. As described earlier, Ashikaga Takauji tried to make sure that the limits set on the warriors by the half-tax measure was not exceeded, but he failed to circumvent arrangements like the shugo contract that really denuded the noble of his estate and its income. The half-tax measure itself did not protect the noble from the outright takeover of the estate at the hands of the samurai, even if the latter were required to hand over a portion to fulfill the half-tax law. In the end, it was the Muromachi administration that made sure that the samurai paid their portion of income to the nobles.
The other reason behind the survival of the estate system was connected to the legitimacy of the noble class. The rise of the warriors was not popular among the farmers living on the estates. The more gentle hand of the nobles was also the hand the people came to respect. To prevent outright disobedience and rebellion among the populace was one reason why both shugo lords and kokujin came to respect the outward form of the estate structure. To make their rulership legitimate in the eyes of the farmers, the warriors worked within the framework of the estate structure, even though this structure had been totally altered. A case can be made that the estate system, outside of Yamashiro province, had become eroded to such an extent that the nobles had little if any influence left in the provinces.
Consolidation of Ashikaga power: 1360-1370
In 1358 after the death of Takauji, the shogunate passed into the hands of his son Yoshiakira. Under his leadership, and that of the kanrei Hosokawa Yoriyuki's, the regime succeeded in integrating the shugo lords in the 1360s and '70's: shugo branch families of the Ashikaga were employed within the government bureaucracy. The following points will show how this occurred: 1) the emergence of the kanrei council system, and the Board of Retainers as intermediary instruments that tied shugo lords more firmly to the regime; 2) the emergence of a coercive instrument in the form of shogunal hegemony that was used to discipline errant shugo lords, and the final defeat of Southern Court forces; 3) the use of the court ranking system as an intermediary instrument that tied the regime to the imperial court, and in connection to this the hanzei half-tax decree of 1368 and its effect; and 4) the limitations to Muromachi authority in the Kyūshū and Kantō regions.
It was left to the shōgun Yoshiakira to heal the wounds of the Kannō Incident by reorganizing the regime. In 1362 he established the most important intermediary institution that connected the shugo lords to the regime: the kanrei council system. This system was made up of two components, the kanrei office and the senior vassal council (jushin kaigi) over which the kanrei presided. The kanrei council system involved the most powerful shugo families as participants in directly governing central and western Japan. Along with the shōgun, the kanrei council emerged to form the heart of the Muromachi regime to such an extent that historians have come to characterize this regime as the bakufu-shugo system.
The kanrei council
The kanrei council system was intermediary, because it tied together the military side of the regime with the bureaucratic. The very conflict that emerged with the Kannō Incident had to do with the separation and clash between the military vassal institutions controlled by Takauji and the bureaucratic-judicial institutions controlled by Tadayoshi. With the emergence of the kanrei council system, the shugo lords who represented the military side of the administration were tied firmly to the bureaucracy, as important players in the creation of policy.
The kanrei office itself is a good example of mediation by tying together the interests of the shugo lords with those of the shōgun. The job of the kanrei was to act as a spokesman between the Senior Vassal Council (jushin kaigi) and the shōgun, mediating between the two. The kanrei also had the responsibility of looking over the bureaucratic elements of the regime on a daily basis, consulting and transmitting shogunal orders to the council and to the bureaucracy. The kanrei was consistently selected from a hereditary group of three shugo families related to Takauji within four generations (Papinot 1972:27): the Hosokawa, the Hatakeyama and the Shiba. The three families took turns in filling the post. They were the highest ranking shugo families in the regime, and the post of kanrei helped to tie their interests in support of it.
The other component of the kanrei council system was the Senior Vassal Council (jushin kaigi). The kanrei presided over the meetings of the council, relayed the decisions reached by the council to the shōgun, and transmitted orders from the shōgun to the council. In this system, regime policy was formulated in consultations between the council and the shōgun, though final decisions were made by the latter. In the beginning, the council was composed of the heads of the three shugo families from whom the kanrei was regularly selected along with four other heads of powerful shugo families: the Yamana, the Isshiki, the Akamatsu and the Kyōgoku. The latter two families were unrelated to the Ashikaga family. This trend of including unrelated shugo families into the council continued with the recruitment of the Ouchi, the Sasaki and the Toki families in the next few decades. This trend indicates that powerful shugo families, irrespective of kinship, were tied to the regime through the intermediary nature of the Senior Vassal Council: conflict and potential conflict of interests between shugo lords and the shōgun was institutionalized by letting the shugo lords voice their opinions in discussions within the council.
The Board of Retainers (samuraidokoro) was also headed by a Senior Vassal Council member selected in the fourteenth century from among the Imagawa (who became a council member a little later), the Hosokawa, the Hatakeyama, the Shiba, and the Toki. The Board of Retainers had the responsibility over police functions and the execution of criminal justice in the capital of Kyoto. The office holder automatically became the shugo over Yamashiro province, the wealthiest and most densely populated in Japan, and had the responsibility of protecting the regime headquarters and the city of Kyoto. By the beginning of the fifteenth century, the head of the Board of Retainers was chosen from among four shugo families: the Yamana, the Akamatsu, the Kyogoku, and the Isshiki. The Board of Retainers did what the kanrei council system did: it connected the interests of the shugo lords to that of the regime, and thereby mediated potential conflicts between them. It was intermediary insofar as the sources of potential conflict to the regime, the shugo lords, became participants in an institution of the regime.
Shugo participation in the Senior Vassal Council and in the Board of Retainers were two of the more prominent examples of their participation within the remodeled regime. The importance of this participation cannot be overestimated: it was through the use of these intermediary instruments whereby the Ashikaga shōguns were able to centralize the state under their direction.
As we shall see time and again, kinship in the form of headship ties (soryo), looms large as a recruiting mechanism at all levels of Muromachi society: here too, the shugo lords of the highest standing were mostly branch families of the Ashikaga. However, these kinship ties did little in the way of mediating between the semi-independent shugo lords and the regime. It was rather the effective participation of the shugo lords in governing through the kanrei council system which bound their interests more firmly than before to the regime.
Ashikaga and shugo coalitions
In 1362, the two most powerful shugo houses in the country, the Ouchi and the Yamana, submitted themselves to the Ashikaga regime on condition that the shōgun would not interfere with the internal affairs of their respective provinces (Grossberg 1981:25). Subsequently, the Yamana, who were related to the Ashikaga, and the Ouchi, who were not related, began to play an increasingly important role in government affairs. However, within a few decades, both shugo houses became powerful enough to incur the wrath of the shōgun.
In 1366, the first kanrei office holder's father, Shiba Takatsune who held real power over his thirteen-year-old son, and who engineered the placement of Shiba family members in key government offices was declared a traitor, because of his growing power and arrogance (he felt demeaned by accepting the kanrei post, so he had his son appointed instead). In the first show of force against an important shugo family, Yoshiakira ordered the Yamana, Sasaki, Yoshimi and the Toki shugo lords to attack the Shiba in the province of Echizen. The Shiba were defeated, and their territory in Echizen was redistributed. In 1367, following the ouster of the Shiba family, Hosokawa Yoriyuki was named as the successor to the post of kanrei: after the shōgun Yoshiakira's death, Yoriyuki managed during the minority of the young shōgun Yoshimitsu to place the regime on a firmer foundation.
The use of shugo lords to attack one of their own colleagues in the 1366 points to the growing authority of the shōgun, vis-a-vis the shugo lords, and the emergence of an effective instrument of coercion. Up until then, there was virtually no true punitive mechanisms that the shōgun could use against his shugo lords. In conjunction with the new intermediary instruments that emerged between the shōgun and the shugo lords, the new coercive instrument of pitting one shugo lord against another, through shōgun-shugo coalitions, strengthened the shōgun's hand.
In 1362, the last Southern Court offensive against Kyoto forced the Ashikaga to withdraw from the capital, but like many previous attempts, the imperialists had to eventually retreat in the face of a large counterattack without having accomplished anything. The exuberance that existed during the 1350s among the imperialist armies had faded. Resistance after this date became sporadic and completely defensive. Finally, in 1369, a year after the death of Emperor Go-Murakami, the stalwart imperialist general Kusunoki Masanori submitted to the regime. His capitulation ended the imperialist threat to the central provinces.
Imperial legitimation
In 1370, Imagawa Sadayo (Ryoshun) was appointed by the kanrei Yoriyuki and the Senior Vassal Council to bring down the last bastion of Southern Court resistance in Kyūshū. After a grueling twelve-year campaign, imperialist resistance collapsed with the defeat of the Kikuchi clan in 1381; and with the death of Shimazu Ujihisa in 1385, the last Kyūshū provincial domain declared its allegiance to the regime. With the fall of Kyūshū the whole of western Japan came under the rule of the Ashikaga regime. However, campaigns alone were inadequate to legitimize Ashikaga rule over the nobles.
After 1367, during the minority of the shōgun Yoshimitsu, the kanrei Hosokawa Yoriyuki became active in trying to legitimize the regime in the eyes of the nobles. He did this through a series of extremely conservative measures, gaining prestige among the nobles in Kyoto. He used an ancient court ranking system by having the young shōgun participate in it. He also associated the regime with the court much more closely than had any other past warrior leader. By doing this, he tied the regime closer to the imperial court, thereby erasing the stigma of the ideology that fueled the Nanboku-chō conflict: Ashikaga Takauji was seen as a traitor fighting against the restoration of imperial power.
The court society survived such a long time because of its popularity among the different classes in Japanese society. On the estate level, farmers felt much closer to the nobles than towards the warriors. The waning power of the nobles notwithstanding, their influence went far beyond their actual power, because they possessed a legitimacy of tradition and the charisma of culture that the warriors did not possess. It is no wonder that Yoriyuki had the young shōgun participate in court ceremonies: this participation was intermediary, involving the highest military leader in a court ranking system that dated back several centuries, and had as its premise the primacy of the imperial line over everyone, including the warriors, who had to receive titles from the emperor. By participating in this court ranking ritual, the Ashikaga regime was sending a strong message to the entire society: that the legitimacy conferred by the court was still valid and still important. This participation bridged the tensions between the warrior regime and the court, and had the unintended effect of disseminating court culture among the warrior class, creating a fusion of taste that has forever marked this period of Japanese culture as one of brilliant innovation.
In a way this participation was an anachronism that seemed removed from the real world where power was directly exercised by warriors. However, the question of legitimacy is not necessarily tied to the direct exercise of power. Legitimacy is tied to ideology, and the ideological basis for aristocratic noble rule had a better basis than the rule of warriors. Force alone cannot make legitimacy, and the cultural milieu that surrounded the court was still much more persuasive, much more elegant than the samurai sword. The warriors themselves were attracted to the culture of the nobles, and enthusiastically emulated the latter's tastes until they were able to produce a synthesis that went beyond what had existed earlier such as the rise of rock gardens influenced by Zen among other art forms that has had a lasting impact to this day. And for these reasons alone, the connection effected between the shōgun and the imperial court during the last few decades of the fourteenth century, had the effect of broadening the legitimacy of the shōgun's power.
The kanrei Yoriyuki promulgated the last half-tax decree (hanzei) in 1368. This decree was a comprehensive and decisive intermediary instrument that was used to tie noble interests to the regime: it outlawed the halving of lands owned by the imperial family, those lands under the control of major temples, and those that were owned by the imperial regents (the Fujiwara). Exceptions also included noble lands that were given full title by the previous shōgun, and estates managed by the samurai stewards (jitō). This decree was applicable to all estates nationwide, and its real importance was the strong language used to deter further samurai incursions onto the estates, and to defend the interests of the nobles in the face of the samurai incursions that had already taken place. Unlike the earlier half-tax decrees, this one was conservative, and its aim was to protect noble lands from division rather than to justify it.
With the 1368 half-tax decree, the regime had come a long ways from the 1352 decree, but the realities of samurai incursions that had already taken place could not be reversed. Here, what was ideologically stated openly departed from what was actually taking place in the provinces. As we saw above, the incursions of the samurai and the shugo lords on the estates were severe despite the 1368 decree. And with the fifteenth century, this trend of land grabbing became ever more pronounced. I must conclude that the 1368 decree was, on the whole, ineffective in stopping the warriors from taking control over the estates and their income, given the evidence of continued warrior takeovers. In a sense, the 1368 decree was an ideological document that attempted to legitimize the Ashikaga regime in the eyes of the nobles, following from the closer connections that were established between the shōgun and the imperial court. Furthermore, the Ashikaga shōguns were not able, even if they had the desire, to stop the continued incursions of warriors on the income of the estates. However ineffective, the 1368 decree recognized noble interests were defended ideologically by a warrior regime, and in the process tied together the interests of both.
Finally, the direct rule of the Muromachi regime that emerged in the 1360s was limited geographically to the western and central provinces in contrast to the previous Kamakura regime based in the Kantō. Outside shugo lords (tozama) unrelated to the Ashikaga like the Takeda, Chiba, Yuki, Satake, Oyama, Utsunomiya, Shoni, Otomo, Aso, and the Shimazu families, all of whom were concentrated in or near the Kantō and Kyūshū regions did not participate in the kanrei council system, and were semi-independent of the regime. They were tacitly recognized and given shugo titles by the Ashikaga, because of their predominant positions in areas that were not easily controlled from Kyoto.
Kyūshū
After the Kyūshū campaign that began in 1370, the Kyūshū deputy (tandai) became the representative of the Muromachi regime on that island. Imagawa Sadayo (Ryoshun) effectively prosecuted the campaign against the Southern Court forces, and continued to press his attack against the forces of Shimazu Ujihisa, garnering support from local Kyūshū kokujin in the process. Deputies like Sadayo were Muromachi representatives in the areas they controlled, even when they arrogated the full powers of vassalage to local samurai . For example, in 1377, a contract was signed between Sadayo and a samurai alliance (ikki) consisting of sixty-one local samurai. The contract stipulated that all disputes between alliance members would be taken to the Kyūshū deputy, while disputes between alliance members and the deputy himself would be taken to the Muromachi regime in Kyoto (Harrington 1985:87). The Kyūshū deputy was an intermediary figure who united the interests of the regime and the interests of the local area under his jurisdiction together. It was a precarious position because of the temptation to independence it presented. But for whatever reason, the Muromachi regime did not extend their direct control over the whole nation, and so came to rely on appointees like the Kyūshū deputy to act as their representatives to influence the shugo lords and samurai of the region through coercive and intermediary instruments.
Kantō
In the late fourteenth century, the Kantō region was dominated by powerful warrior families. Of these, the Uesugi were the most powerful. They were able to take advantage of the fighting that erupted between families in the region to advance their own interests. In 1368, the Utsunomiya family revolted against the Kamakura headquarters of the Muromachi regime, because they had lost their shugo posts to the Uesugi. The Uesugi family was able to extend their influence by amassing shugo posts under their jurisdiction, and by enfeoffing vassals in the Kantō region at the expense of other families. One could advance a theory that the Kantō region had become semi-independent from Kyoto, and that the Kamakura headquarters of the Muromachi regime existed because of Uesugi support. The Uesugi family was legally recognized by the Muromachi regime by their appointment to the Kantō kanrei post because of their unassailable position.
The Kamakura headquarters of the Muromachi regime acted in much the same way as the Kyūshū deputy (tandai): it became the regional intermediary office through which regime orders were transmitted to the outlying Kantō region. In practice as seen above, the Kantō was dominated by powerful families like the Uesugi. Increasingly, the Kamakura headquarters became independent from the Muromachi regime, and for all essential purposes took care of regional disputes, regional taxation, and developed ties with shugo lords in the Kantō with minimal reference to the Muromachi government in Kyoto—even though the right to confirm fiefs and the right to ratify shugo appointments technically remained in the hands of Kyoto.
Centralization of Ashikaga power and the end of the Nanboku-chō War: 1379–1399
One area of resistance after another fell to the Muromachi regime during the crucial decade of the 1360s: tellingly, powerful shugo lords like the Ouchi and the Yamana submitted themselves as semi-independent lords; Southern Court resistance became more futile as time passed. Militarily the regime was able to call upon the services of the shugo lords to attack one of their own colleagues in 1366, pointing to the increasing subordination of the shugo to shogunal control. Hand in hand with the creation of the kanrei council system and the increasing participation of the powerful shugo families in the bakufu bureaucracy, ties to the imperial court broadened the legitimate base of the regime. These key developments were used not only to increase shogunal control, but to bind the interests of the shugo lords and nobles more closely to the regime. However, geographically, the Muromachi regime was limited in scope, delegating its jurisdiction of the Kantō and Kyūshū areas to regional representatives, holding more or less direct control over the central and western provinces of Honshū.
For fifty years after Yoshimitsu's assumption of authority in 1379, the Muromachi regime entered its most powerful phase as the unrivaled government of the country. The connection between the shōgun and the shugo lords tightened as shogunal control increased. The main instruments and their effects that enabled the shōgun to exercise control over the shugo lords, and to broaden the base of the legitimacy of the regime involved: 1) a continuation of close ties between the Muromachi regime and the imperial court; 2) the compulsory residential policy aimed at the shugo lords; 3) further development of the shogunal army (gobanshu); 4) the rise of shogunal hegemony using the coalition of several shugo lords; and 5) the use of commercial and agrarian revenue and taxes by the regime. All of these changes exemplify the continuing trend of centripetal forces that augmented the power of the regime.
The Ashikaga and the Imperial Court
Under Yoshimitsu (active 1379–1408) who took the reins of power after the dismissal of Yoriyuki as kanrei, the effects of this particular connection encouraged one of the most brilliant periods in Japanese history, renowned for the maturation of architectural and cultural forms that have since characterized Japanese culture. His close association with the imperial court and its culture, and his patronage of the new arts helped to disseminate this culture to the military aristocracy, particularly through the shugo lords. This connection between the shōgun and the imperial court brought added prestige to both institutions, and gave the shōgun an aura of civil legitimacy and culture that the previous Kamakura regime had lacked.
By participating in court institutions, the shōgun also adopted much of the refined pastimes of court culture. Cultural pursuits came as a result of a prior institutional connection. Culture has more in common with ideological justifications: as we saw in the previous section, much of court culture enjoyed a legitimacy denied to the warriors.
Compulsory residence
Moving to the shōgun-shugo relationship, in the 1380s the kanrei council system was strengthened by Yoshimitsu when he persuaded the western and central shugo lords to take up residence in Kyoto. He even went to visit Ouchi Yoshihiro in 1389, and persuaded him to live in Kyoto during one of his so-called pilgrimage circuits. These circuits were used to display his power through the provinces in which he traveled. This compulsory residential policy that Yoshimitsu instituted was the main coercive policy that aided the kanrei council system, and enabled the shōgun to tighten his grip around the shugo lords. Permission to leave the capital city was rarely granted to the shugo lord: it was only granted after discussion in the Senior Vassal Council. Even when permission was granted in the case of provincial rebellion or Southern Court guerilla activity, suitable hostages were left behind in Kyoto. If the shugo lord left without permission, it was seen as tantamount to treason.
The Kantō and Kyūshū shugo were exempt from this order of compulsory residence in Kyoto. However, the Kamakura headquarters of the Muromachi regime instituted a similar policy in regards to the Kantō shugo lords, and made them establish mansions in Kamakura just as the western and central shugo lords made mansions in Kyoto. Mansion building in Kyoto became fashionable, and eventually included shugo lords like the Shimazu of Kyūshū, who decided to live in Kyoto even though he was not required to do so.
The shugo lords really had little choice in the matter. They either resided in Kyoto or were branded as traitors of the regime. Along with institutions like the kanrei council system, the compulsory residential policy had incalculable effects both from a national standpoint, and from a provincial standpoint. For starters, the power of the shugo lords was severely restricted by this policy: their freedom of movement was circumvented. Second, as time passed into the second quarter of the fifteenth century, real power in the provinces moved away from the shugo lords and came to rest upon the deputy shugo (shugo-dai), and upon other independent samurai (kokujin) who resided in the provinces. Therefore, from the standpoint of shugo lords the compulsory residential policy proved to be a long term disaster. The hiring of deputy shugo was necessitated by the compulsory residential policy if the shugo lords were to maintain their power in the provinces. In the short term, hiring branch family members and samurai kokujin as deputy shugo, and using them as their own representatives in the provinces worked well; but in the long term, power passed from the hands of the shugo lords into the hands of those they hired.
The shogunal army
Yoshimitsu did not hesitate to use military force to reduce the shugo lords to obedience on the pretext that they had become too powerful. He assembled a new shogunal army (gobanshu) made up of five divisions totalling some three thousand warriors dependent on him. This force was a formidable array, particularly when they were augmented by contributions from other shugo lords. The importance of the shogunal army was as a separate force connecting the shōgun directly with his own vassals made up of kokujin samurai. The shogunal army served as a check on shugo forces. The first Ashikaga shōgun, Takauji, created ties with samurai stewards by enfeoffing them on estate lands. Throughout the early Muromachi period, this separate vassal hierarchy under the command of the shōgun was an important check on shugo power.
The shogunal army had two components: the shogunal bodyguard (shin'eigun) consisted of Ashikaga branch family members, shugo relatives and shugo branch family members, other sons and brothers of regime officials, and most importantly, powerful kokujin. Numbering (at most) three hundred and fifty men, this group was a cohesive and loyal body, ready to defend the shōgun's person at any cost. Surrounding this small band was a number of direct vassals of the shōgun tracing its origins back to 1336, when the shōgun Takauji enfeoffed many samurai as house vassals who were probably used as a reserve army; a larger number of indirect vassals connected to the members of the shogunal bodyguard probably made up the bulk of the shogunal army under Yoshimitsu. This last point is well illustrated by Arnesen, who calculated that the number of direct vassals in the shogunal bodyguard was sixty to seventy percent the number of direct vassals enrolled under the later Hōjō clan of the sixteenth century. And if the Later Hōjō were able to field fifty thousand troops in the Odawara campaign, the shogunal bodyguard of 350 could easily have mobilized their own vassals to come up with the 3,000 troops that took part in the Meitoku Rising of 1391. The creation of the shogunal bodyguard, and the central position of this group over other shogunal vassals is what differentiates the shogunal army of Yoshimitsu from the shogunal vassals of Takauji. A tighter organization and esprit de corps emerged with the new shogunal army.
Shugo coalition as a force
However, the shogunal army alone was not adequate to meet and defeat kanrei class shugo lords on the field of battle, but were perfectly suited to the kind of warfare Yoshimitsu practiced: pitting one shugo lord against a family member, and against other shugo lords. The new shogunal hegemony, that emerged under the previous shōgun, Yoshiakira, came to dominate the politics of Yoshimitsu. Shogunal prestige informally dictated that no single shugo lord should exceed a certain level of power without incurring the wrath of the shōgun. It was in the interest of the shugo lords themselves, that none of their own colleagues should become too powerful and dominant over the rest.
In pursuit of this policy in 1389 Yoshimitsu ordered Toki Yasuyuki, the shugo lord of the provinces of Mino, Ise and Owari to give up the latter province to a relative. Yasuyuki refused, and Yoshimitsu ordered the cousin of Yasuyuki, Yorimasu, to attack him. After three years Yasuyuki was defeated, and gave up the province of Mino to Toki Yorimasu in 1391. To Yoshimitsu it did not matter whether the province that was given up was Mino or Owari as long as Toki Yasuyuki was shorn of some of his power in the central provinces.
Before the Meitoku Rising (ran) in 1391, the Yamana family possessed eleven provinces in western and central Japan which made them the most powerful shugo family in the country. Yoshimitsu looked for an excuse to attack them; and when Yamana Mitsuyuki (who was shugo over the provinces of Izumo, Tamba, Hoki, and Oki) took possession of some estates belonging to the imperial family in Izumo, Yoshimitsu recalled the ex-kanrei Hosokawa Yoriyuki to plan a campaign against Mitsuyuki. The Yamana shugo lords Mitsuyuki and Ujikiyo attacked Kyoto, but were severely defeated by the shogunal army in concert with the forces of Ouchi Yoshihiro. The other shugo contingents that made up the shōgun's forces numbered no more than three hundred horsemen each. After the campaign, the Yamana were assigned only two provinces, Tajima and Hoki, and the leaders of the rebellion were killed, Ujikiyo in battle and Mitsuyuki through assassination in 1395.
This pitting of one shugo lord against another reached a head in 1399. Ironically, this time the target was Ouchi Yoshihiro, who had served the regime well in the campaign against the Yamana. Yoshihiro was ordered to attack the Shoni in 1397 which he did, losing his brother in the process. He later learned of the Byzantine duplicity of Yoshimitsu: Shoni was also ordered to attack the Ouchi. Angered by this duplicity, and fearing for his life when the shōgun summoned him to Kyoto, he opted to disobey. Not surprisingly, he was declared an enemy by the regime. At the battle of Sakai, Yoshimitsu along with the forces of five shugo lords, the Hosokawa, Akamatsu, Kyogoku, Shiba, and the Hatakeyama, overwhelmed Yoshihiro's defensive works by setting fire to the city. The allied force led by Yoshimitsu numbered 30,000 warriors against Ouchi's 5,000: Yoshihiro was simply overwhelmed in battle where he committed suicide.
As each of these previous examples illustrate, shogunal hegemony became very effective. It was used to divide the shugo lords by making them attack and destroy colleagues. Shogunal hegemony would not have succeeded without the cooperation of the shugo lords in uniting their forces with the shogunal army. However, without finances to support the shogunal army and other expenses of the regime, this coercive policy would have been unthinkable.
Revenue
Kyoto in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was a brilliant center for economic activity. With the compulsory residential policy that emerged under the shōgun Yoshimitsu, shugo lords with their vassals and servants added to the distinguished population of the city that included nobles, the imperial court and the Muromachi government. This translated into a vast market for a variety of goods and services that spurred the economic growth of the city. This growth was important to both the shōgun and shugo lords who lived in the capital: they tapped the wealth of the moneylenders (sakaya-doso) on a consistent basis. The shōgun even employed them as tax collectors in the city. What made the Muromachi regime so different from the previous Kamakura regime was the basis for its income; much of its revenue came from commercial taxes in addition to its landed base.
The Board of Administration (mandokoro) was used as a clearing house for matters concerning the revenue of the Muromachi regime. It was the chief bureaucratic organ that connected the regime to various commercial groups in the city for purposes of taxation. In 1393, the regime legalized its right to tax the moneylenders directly. Commercial taxes assessed in Kyoto became the foundation for the new urban based Muromachi regime, and decisively changed the nature of the regime from one solely based on landed estates to a regime partly based on commerce.
Traditional agrarian based revenue came from three major sources: from shogunal estates, from shogunal vassals, and from taxes assessed against the shugo lords. The landed base of the Ashikaga shōguns was paltry compared to their successors, the Tokugawa; however, there were approximately two-hundred shogunal estates (goryosho) scattered between Kyoto and the Kantō region, and revenue extracted from these estates were significant. Moreover, the connection between the shogunal estates and the shogunal army was decisive: some of the men who served in the army were also managers over the shōgun's personal estates. Furthermore, many local samurai paid land taxes directly to the regime (kyosai) as one of the privileges they enjoyed as house vassals (gokenin), being immunized from shugo tax collectors in the process. In addition, shugo lords were taxed directly (shugo shussen) according to how many provinces they administered. This was assessed by the regime whenever there were buildings to be built or fixed, and when the shōgun needed cash for various projects.
The sources of revenue for the Muromachi regime were varied to a much greater extent than it was under the Kamakura regime due to the emerging market economy in Kyoto and Yamashiro province. It came in novel form as commercial revenue extracted from the moneylenders (sakaya doso): a tax was assessed once the power structure of the Muromachi bureaucracy had effectively taken the city of Kyoto.
Southern Court emperors
Emperor Go-Daigo (後醍醐天皇, 1288–1339, r. 1318–1339)
Emperor Go-Murakami (後村上天皇, 1328–1368, r. 1339–1368)
Emperor Chōkei (長慶天皇, 1343–1394, r. 1368–1383)
Emperor Go-Kameyama (, 1347–1424, r. 1383–1392)
Northern Court emperors
Northern Ashikaga Pretender 1: Emperor Kōgon (光嚴天皇, 1313–1364, r. 1331–1333)
Northern Ashikaga Pretender 2: Emperor Kōmyō (光明天皇, 1322–1380, r. 1336–1348) *
Northern Ashikaga Pretender 3: Emperor Sukō (崇光天皇, 1334–1398, r. 1348–1351)
Interregnum, November 26, 1351 until September 25, 1352
Northern Ashikaga Pretender 4: Emperor Go-Kōgon (後光嚴天皇, 1338–1374, r. 1352–1371) *
Northern Ashikaga Pretender 5: Emperor Go-En'yū (後圓融天皇, 1359–1393, r. 1371–1382) *
Footnotes
a.Shugo (守護?) was a title, commonly translated as "Governor", given to certain officials in feudal Japan. They were each appointed by the shōgun to oversee one or more of the provinces of Japan.
b.The verb "to enfeoff" is defined by the Random House Dictionary of the English Language as:"1) to invest with a freehold estate in land" and 2) "to give as a fief".
c.The story of Tadayoshi's alleged plot to assassinate Moronao is part of the Taiheiki.
References
Further reading
Arnesen, P. J. The Medieval Japanese Daimyo. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979.
Arnesen, P. J. "Provincial Vassals of the Muromachi Shoguns", in The Bakufu in Japanese History. Eds. Jeffrey P. Mass and William B. Hauser. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985.
Brunner, G., "Legitimacy Doctrines and Legitimation Procedures in East European Systems." In Legitimation in Communist States. Ed. by T.H. Rigby and Ference Feber. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982.
Chan, H., Legitimation in Imperial China. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1984.
Elias, N. Power and Civility. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982.
Fenollosa, E. Epochs of Chinese & Japanese art: An outline history of East Asiatic design. Frederick A. Stokes, 1921
Gay, S. "Muromachi Bakufu Rule in Kyoto: Administrative and Judicial Aspects", in The Bakufu in Japanese History. Eds. Jeffrey P. Mass and William B. Hauser. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985.
Gay, S. "The Kawashima: Warrior-Peasants of Medieval Japan", in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 46 (June 1986), 81-119.
Grossberg, K. Japan's Renaissance. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981.
Hall, John Whitney. Government and Local Power in Japan: 500-1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966.
Harrington, L. F. "Regional Outposts of Muromachi Bakufu Rule: the Kanto and Kyushu", in The Bakufu in Japanese History. Eds. Jeffrey P. Mass and William B. Hauser. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985.
Hori, K. "The Economic and Political Effects of the Mongol Wars", in Medieval Japan. Eds. John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
Kahane, R. Legitimation and Integration in Developing Societies. Boulder: Westview Press, 1982.
Kawai, M. "Shogun and Shugo: the Provincial Aspects of Muromachi Politics", in Japan in the Muromachi Age. Eds. John W. Hall and Toyoda Takeshi. Berkeley: U.C. Press, 1977.
Kierstead, T. E., "Fragmented Estates: the breakup of the Myo and the Decline of the Shoen System", in Monumenta Nipponica. 40 (Autumn 1985), 311–30.
Lipset, S.M., "Social Conflict, Legitimacy, and Democracy." In Legitimacy and the State. Ed. by William Connolly. New York: New York University Press, 1984.
Mass, Jeffrey P. "The Emergence of the Kamakura Bakufu", in Medieval Japan. Eds. John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
__. "Jito Land Possession in the Thirteenth Century: The Case of Shitaji Chubun", in Medieval Japan. Eds. John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
__. Lordship and Inheritance in Early Medieval Japan. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989.
Mehl, Margaret. (1997). History and the State in Nineteenth-Century Japan.
Miyagawa, M. "From Shoen to Chigyo: Proprietary Lordship and the Structure of Local Power", in Japan in the Muromachi Age. Eds. John W. Hall and Toyoda Takeshi. Berkeley: U.C. Press, 1977.
Nagahara, K. "Village Communities and Daimyo Power", in Japan in the Muromachi Age. Eds. John W. Hall and Toyoda Takeshi. Berkeley: U.C. Press, 1977.
Nagahara, K. "Shugo, Shugo Daimyo, Sengoku Daimyo", in Rekishi Koron, 8 (August 1982), 10–19.
Papinot, Edmund. Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan. Tokyo: Tuttle, 1972.
Sansom, George Bailey. A History of Japan: 1334-1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961.
Sato, S. "The Ashikaga Shogun and the Muromachi Bakufu Administration", in Japan in the Muromachi Age. Eds. John W. Hall and Toyoda Takeshi. Berkeley: U.C. Press, 1977.
Tanuma, M. "Muromachi Bakufu, Shugo, Kokujin", in Muromachi Bakufu. Nihon Rekishi, vol. 7. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1976.
Varley, H. Paul. The Onin War. New York: Columbia University Press, 1967.
__. Imperial Restoration in Medieval Japan. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.
Wintersteen, P. B. "The Muromachi Shugo and Hanzei", in Medieval Japan. Ed. John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
Wintersteen, P. B. "The Early Muromachi Bakufu in Kyoto", in Medieval Japan. Ed. John W. Hall and Jeffrey P. Mass. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
Weber, M. Economy and Society v.I. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968.
Yamamura, K. The Cambridge History of Japan, Volume 3: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
This period consists of the early part of the Muromachi period of the History of Japan.
< Kenmu Restoration | History of Japan | Sengoku period >
Muromachi period
14th century in Japan
Japanese eras
1330s establishments in Japan
1334 establishments in Asia
1390s disestablishments in Japan
1392 disestablishments in Asia
14th-century conflicts
Warfare of the Middle Ages
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia |
356765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night%20of%20the%20Living%20Dead%20%28song%29 | Night of the Living Dead (song) | "Night of the Living Dead" is the fourth single by the horror punk band the Misfits. It was released on October 31, 1979, on singer Glenn Danzig's label Plan 9 Records. 2,000 copies of the single were pressed on black 7" vinyl. The night of its release the band performed at Irving Plaza in New York City and sold the single at the door.
"Night of the Living Dead" is titled after the 1968 horror film of the same name, and the song's lyrics address the zombie plot of the film: "You think you're a zombie, you think it's a scene/from some monster magazine/Open your eyes too late/This ain't no fantasy boy". The song was later included on the band's debut album, Walk Among Us. "Where Eagles Dare" shares its title with a 1968 war film. "Rat Fink" is a cover of a song by Allan Sherman from his 1963 album My Son, the Nut, which itself is a parody of "Rag Mop". It was the only cover song that the Misfits recorded during their early era, though it was credited on the single itself, and on later releases, to Danzig.
Re-releases and other versions
Different versions of all three tracks appeared on compilation albums years after the original single went out of print. An alternate version of "Where Eagles Dare" was released on Legacy of Brutality in 1985, with overdubbed guitar and bass tracks recorded by Danzig. Different versions of "Night of the Living Dead" and "Where Eagles Dare" appeared on Misfits the following year, while "Rat Fink" appeared on Collection II in 1995. All three songs appeared, in all of their different versions and recordings, in The Misfits box set in 1996.
Cover versions
"Night of the Living Dead" was covered by 88 Fingers Louie on their 1995 album Behind Bars, and by the Troublemakers on the 2000 Misfits tribute album Hell on Earth. "Where Eagles Dare" was covered by Therapy? on the 1997 tribute album Violent World, by The Robots on Hell on Earth, by Bratmobile on their The Real Janelle EP, by Sloppy Seconds as a 1987 single featuring Bobby Steele, and by No Fun At All on their 1997 EP "And Now For Something Completely Different".
Track listing
Personnel
Band
Glenn Danzig – vocals
Bobby Steele – guitar, backing vocals
Jerry Only – bass guitar, backing vocals
Joey Image – drums
Production
Wayne Vlcan – engineering
Danny Zelonky – producing
References
Songs about monsters
Songs about nights
Songs about death
Misfits (band) songs
Horror punk songs
Songs written by Glenn Danzig
1979 singles |
356770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96land%20County | Öland County | Öland County, or Ölands län, was a county of Sweden, between 1819 and 1826. It consisted of the island of Öland, designating the historical province of Öland as its own county. A Governor resided briefly at Borgholm, but the island is today part of the Kalmar County.
Some important historical sites in Öland County are: Borgholm Castle, Halltorps Estate, Eketorp fortress and the Gettlinge Gravefield. Much of Öland County's present day landscape known as the Stora Alvaret has been designated as a World Heritage Site.
Governors
Axel Adlersparre (1819-1821)
Erik Gustaf Lindencrona (1821-1826)
See also
List of Kalmar Governors
County Governors of Sweden
Former counties of Sweden
County
1820s in Sweden |
356772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%20of%20Stephen%20Lawrence | Murder of Stephen Lawrence | Stephen Lawrence (13 September 1974 – 22 April 1993) was a black British teenager from Plumstead, southeast London, who was murdered in a racially motivated attack while waiting for a bus in Well Hall Road, Eltham on the evening of 22 April 1993, when he was 18 years old. The case became a cause célèbre: its fallout included cultural changes of attitudes on racism and the police, and to the law and police practice. It also led to the partial revocation of the rule against double jeopardy. Two of the perpetrators were convicted of murder on 3 January 2012.
After the initial investigation, two suspects were arrested but not charged. It was suggested during the investigation that Lawrence was killed because he was black, and that the handling of the case by the police and Crown Prosecution Service was affected by issues of race. A 1998 public inquiry, headed by Sir William Macpherson, examined the original Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) investigation and concluded that the investigation was incompetent and that the force was institutionally racist. It also recommended that the double jeopardy rule should be repealed in murder cases to allow a retrial upon new and compelling evidence: this was effected in 2005 upon enactment of the Criminal Justice Act 2003. The publication in 1999 of the resulting Macpherson Report has been called "one of the most important moments in the modern history of criminal justice in Britain". Jack Straw said that ordering the inquiry was the most important decision he made during his tenure as Home Secretary from 1997 to 2001. In 2010, the case was said to be "one of the highest-profile unsolved racially motivated murders".
On 18 May 2011, after a further review, it was announced that two of the original suspects, Gary Dobson and David Norris, were to stand trial for the murder in the light of new evidence. At the same time it was disclosed that Dobson's original acquittal had been quashed by the Court of Appeal, allowing a retrial to take place. Such an appeal had only become possible following the 2005 change in the law, although Dobson was not the first person to be retried for murder as a result. On 3 January 2012, Dobson and Norris were found guilty of Lawrence's murder; the pair were juveniles at the time of the crime and were sentenced to detention at Her Majesty's pleasure, equivalent to a life sentence for an adult, with minimum terms of 15 years 2 months and 14 years 3 months respectively for what the judge described as a "terrible and evil crime".
In the years after Dobson and Norris were sentenced, the case regained prominence when concerns of corrupt police conduct during the original case handling surfaced in the media. Such claims had surfaced before, and been investigated in 2006, but were reignited in 2013 when a former undercover police officer stated in an interview that, at the time, he had been pressured to find ways to "smear" and discredit the victim's family, in order to mute and deter public campaigning for better police responses to the case. Although further inquiries in 2012 by both Scotland Yard and the Independent Police Complaints Commission had ruled that there was no basis for further investigation, Home Secretary Theresa May ordered an independent inquiry by a prominent QC into undercover policing and corruption, which was described as "devastating" when published in 2014. An inquiry into whether members of the police force shielded the alleged killers was set up in October 2015.
Stephen Lawrence
Stephen Lawrence was born in Greenwich District Hospital on 13 September 1974 to Jamaican parents who had emigrated to the UK in the 1960s. His father is Neville Lawrence, then a carpenter, and his mother is Doreen, then a special needs teacher. Brought up in Plumstead, South-East London, he was the eldest of three children, the others being Stuart (born 1976) and Georgina (born 1982). During his teenage years, Lawrence excelled in running, competing for the local Cambridge Harriers athletics club, and appeared as an extra in Denzel Washington's film For Queen and Country. At the time of his death he was studying technology and physics at the Blackheath Bluecoat School and English language and literature at Woolwich College, and was hoping to become an architect.
Murder
Lawrence had spent the day of Thursday 22 April 1993 at Blackheath Bluecoat School. After school, he visited shops in Lewisham, then travelled by bus to an uncle's house in Grove Park. He was joined there by Duwayne Brooks, and they played video games until leaving at around 10:00 pm. After realising that the 286 bus on which they were travelling would get them home late, they decided to change for either bus route 161 or bus route 122 on Well Hall Road.
Lawrence and Brooks arrived at the bus stop on Well Hall Road at 10:25 pm. Lawrence walked along Well Hall Road to the junction of Dickson Road to see if he could see a bus coming. Brooks was still on Well Hall Road, between Dickson Road and the roundabout with Rochester Way and Westhorne Avenue.
Brooks saw a group of five or six white youths crossing Rochester Way on the opposite side of the street near the area of the zebra crossing and moving towards them. At or just after 10:38 pm, he called out to ask whether Lawrence saw the bus coming. Brooks claimed that he heard one of Lawrence's assailants saying racial slurs as they all quickly crossed the road and "engulfed" Lawrence.
The attackers forced Lawrence down to the ground, then stabbed him to a depth of about on both sides of the front of his body, in the right collarbone and left shoulder. Both wounds severed axillary arteries before penetrating a lung. Lawrence lost all feeling in his right arm and his breathing was constricted, while he was losing blood from four major blood vessels. Brooks began running, and shouted for Lawrence to run to escape with him. While the attackers disappeared down Dickson Road, Brooks and Lawrence ran in the direction of Shooters Hill. Lawrence collapsed after running ; he bled to death soon afterwards. The pathologist recorded that Lawrence managing to run this distance with a partially collapsed lung was "a testimony to his physical fitness".
Brooks ran to call an ambulance while an off-duty police officer stopped his car and covered Lawrence with a blanket. Lawrence was taken to Brook General Hospital by 11:05 pm, but he was already dead.
Trials
Witnesses
All three witnesses at the bus stop at the time of the attack said in their statements that the attack was sudden and short, although none were later able to identify the suspects. In the days following Lawrence's murder, several residents came forward to provide names of suspects and an anonymous note was left on a police car windscreen and in a telephone box naming a local gang as the five main suspects. The suspects were Gary Dobson, brothers Neil and Jamie Acourt, Luke Knight, and David Norris. In February 1999, officers investigating the handling of the initial inquiry revealed that a woman who might have been a vital witness had telephoned detectives three times within the first few days after the killing, and appealed for her to contact them again. The five suspects were previously involved in racist knife attacks around the Eltham area. Four weeks before Lawrence's death, Dobson and Neil Acourt were involved in a racist attack on a black teenager, Kevin London, whom they verbally abused and attempted to stab. Neil's brother Jamie was accused of stabbing teenagers Darren Witham in May 1992 and Darren Giles in 1994, causing Giles to have a heart attack. The stabbings of victims Gurdeep Bhangal and Stacey Benefield, which both occurred in March 1993, in Eltham, were also linked to Neil and Jamie Acourt, David Norris and Gary Dobson.
Initial investigations, arrests and prosecutions
Within three days of the crime, prime suspects had been identified. No arrests were made, however, until over two weeks after the murder. Detective Superintendent Brian Weeden, the officer who had been leading the murder investigation from its third day, and who would ultimately lead the murder squad for 14 months, explained to an incredulous public inquiry in 1998 that part of the reason no arrests had taken place by the fourth day after the killing (Monday 26 April) was that he had not known the law allowed arrest upon reasonable suspicion – a basic point of criminal law.
On 7 May 1993, the Acourt brothers and Dobson were arrested. Norris turned himself in to police and was likewise arrested three days later. Knight was arrested on 3 June. Neil Acourt, picked out at an identity parade, and Luke Knight were charged with murder on 13 May and 23 June 1993 respectively, but the charges were dropped on 29 July 1993, the Crown Prosecution Service citing insufficient evidence.
An internal review was opened in August 1993 by the Metropolitan Police. On 16 April 1994, the Crown Prosecution Service stated they did not have sufficient evidence for murder charges against anyone else, despite a belief by the Lawrence family that new evidence had been found.
Private prosecution
In September 1994, Lawrence's family initiated a private prosecution against the initial two suspects and three others: Jamie Acourt, Gary Dobson and David Norris. The family were not entitled to legal aid and a fighting fund was established to pay for the analysis of forensic evidence and the cost of tracing and re-interviewing witnesses. The family were represented by counsel Michael Mansfield QC, Martin Soorjoo and Margo Boye who all worked pro bono. The charges against Jamie Acourt and David Norris were dropped before the trial for lack of evidence. On 23 April 1996, the three remaining suspects were acquitted of murder by a jury at the Central Criminal Court, after the trial judge, the Honourable Mr Justice Curtis, ruled that the identification evidence given by Duwayne Brooks was unreliable. The Macpherson report endorsed the judgement, stating that "Mr Justice Curtis could [have] properly reach[ed] only one conclusion" and that "[t]here simply was no satisfactory evidence available".
Subsequent events (1994–2010)
An inquest into the death of Lawrence was held in February 1997. The five suspects refused to answer any questions, claiming privilege against self-incrimination. The inquest concluded on 13 February 1997, with the jury returning a verdict after 30 minutes' deliberation of unlawful killing "in a completely unprovoked racist attack by five white youths"; this finding went beyond the bounds of their instructions. On 14 February 1997, the Daily Mail newspaper labelled all five suspects "murderers". The headline read, "Murderers: The Mail accuses these men of killing. If we are wrong, let them sue us." Underneath this headline appeared pictures of the five suspects: Dobson, Neil and Jamie Acourt, Knight, and Norris. None of the men ever sued for defamation and strong public opinions rose against the accused and the police who handled the case.
In July 1997 an inquiry was ordered by the Home Secretary to identify matters related to the killing, known as the Macpherson Report, which was completed in February 1999 (see below). In 2002, David Norris and Neil Acourt were convicted and jailed for racially aggravated harassment after an incident involving a plain-clothes black police officer.
In 2005 the law was changed. As part of the findings on the Lawrence case, the Macpherson Report had recommended that the rule against double jeopardy (the common law rule that once acquitted an accused person could not be tried a second time for the same crime) should be repealed in murder cases, and that it should be possible to subject an acquitted murder suspect to a second trial if "fresh and viable" new evidence later came to light. The Law Commission later added its support to this in its report "Double Jeopardy and Prosecution Appeals" (2001). A parallel report into the criminal justice system by Lord Justice Auld, a former senior presiding judge for England and Wales, had also commenced in 1999 and was published as the Auld Report 6 months after the Law Commission report. It opined that the Law Commission had been unduly cautious by limiting the scope to murder and that "the exceptions should [...] extend to other grave offences punishable with life and/or long terms of imprisonment as Parliament might specify."
These recommendations were implemented within the Criminal Justice Act 2003, and this provision came into force in April 2005. It opened murder and certain other serious crimes (including manslaughter, kidnapping, rape, armed robbery, and some drug crimes) to a second prosecution, regardless of when committed, with two conditions – the retrial must be approved by the Director of Public Prosecutions, and the Court of Appeal must agree to quash the original acquittal because of new and compelling evidence.
On 27 July 2006, the Daily Mail repeated its now famous "Murderers" front page. In July 2010, The Independent described the Lawrence killing – despite it having happened more than 17 years previously – as "one of the highest-profile unsolved racially motivated murders".
Cold case review and new evidence
In June 2006, a cold case review commenced, involving a full re-examination of the forensic evidence. Initially this was held in secrecy and not publicised; however, in November 2007, police confirmed they were investigating new scientific evidence.
The most important of the new evidence comprised:
A microscopic (0.5 x 0.25 mm) stain of Lawrence's blood in Dobson's jacket. It had dried into the fibres and its tiny size implied this had happened very quickly. The forensic analysis concluded it had not been transferred there from elsewhere as dried blood or later soaked into the fabric, but was deposited fresh, and would have dried almost immediately after being deposited due to its microscopic size.
Fibres from Lawrence's clothing, and hairs with a 99.9% chance of coming from Lawrence, found on the two men's clothes from the time or in the evidence bag holding them. (The defence later argued unsuccessfully at trial that these were present due to contamination or lack of care of evidence).
The police unit manager involved in the matter commented that the new evidence was only found because of scientific developments and developments in forensic approaches that had taken place since 1996 which allowed microscopic blood stains and hair fragments to be analysed for DNA and other microscopic evidence to be found and used forensically.
2011–2012 trial
Gary Dobson and David Norris were arrested and charged without publicity on 8 September 2010 and on 23 October 2010 the Director of Public Prosecutions, Keir Starmer QC, applied to the Court of Appeal for Dobson's original acquittal to be quashed. Dobson was in prison at the time for drug dealing. Norris had not been previously acquitted, so no application was necessary in his case. For legal reasons, to protect the investigation and ensure a fair hearing, reporting restrictions were put in place at the commencement of these proceedings; the arrests and subsequent developments were not publicly reported at the time.
Dobson's acquittal was quashed following a two-day hearing on 11 and 12 April 2011, enabling his retrial. On 18 May 2011, the Court of Appeal handed down its judgment and the reporting restrictions were partially lifted. It was announced by the Crown Prosecution Service that the two would face trial for Lawrence's murder in light of "new and substantial evidence". The judgment of the court stated that "[i]f reliable, the new scientific evidence would place Dobson in very close proximity indeed to Stephen Lawrence at the moment of and in the immediate aftermath of the attack, proximity, moreover, for which no innocent explanation can be discerned". The ruling also emphasised that this was to be "a new trial of a defendant who, we repeat, is presumed in law to be innocent," and suggested a cautious and fact-based reporting style to avoid contempt of court or risk of prejudice to the future trial.
A jury was selected on 14 November 2011, and the trial, presided over by Mr Justice Treacy, began the next day at the Central Criminal Court. With the prosecution led by Mark Ellison QC, the case centred on the new forensic evidence and whether it demonstrated the defendant's involvement in the murder, or was the result of later contamination due to police handling. On 3 January 2012, after the jury had deliberated for just over 8 hours, Dobson and Norris were found guilty of Lawrence's murder. The two were sentenced on 4 January 2012 to detention at Her Majesty's Pleasure, equivalent to a life sentence for an adult, with minimum terms of 15 years and 2 months for Dobson and 14 years and 3 months for Norris. Time spent on remand by Dobson was not deducted from his minimum term to ensure his existing sentence for drug-related offences was served. The judge's sentencing remarks were later published in full online.
The judge stated that the sentences reflected that Dobson and Norris were juveniles (Dobson 17, and Norris 16) at the time of the offence, which took place before the Criminal Justice Act 2003; the starting point for the minimum term was therefore 12 years. The judge acknowledged this was "lower than some might expect". A similar crime committed in 2011 as an adult would have justified a minimum sentence of 30 years. (This is occasionally misreported as 25 years, the starting point for "bringing and using a weapon"; murder with racial motive incurs a higher 30-year starting point.)
Immediate aftermath of trial
Following the 2012 convictions, Paul Dacre, Daily Mail editor since 1992, issued a comment on his 1997 headline decision.
Others have argued that, in writing the above, Dacre was overselling his involvement in what had finally been achieved. For instance, an article in the February 2012 edition of the Socialist Review stated:
Appeals
On 5 January 2012, it was reported that the Attorney General was reviewing the minimum terms at the request of a member of the public, to determine whether he believed them to be "unduly lenient", and if so whether to apply to the Court of Appeal for an increase in the minimum terms. Juvenile minimum life sentences in a 2000 review (i.e. before the 2003 act passed into law) varied from a "most common" minimum of 10 years to a maximum of 20, placing Dobson and Norris in the middle of that range. On 1 February 2012, the Attorney General announced that he would not be referring the sentences to the Court of Appeal, as he believed that "the minimum terms [were] ... within the appropriate range of sentences".
On 30 January 2012, it emerged that Norris and Dobson were seeking leave from the Court of Appeal to appeal against their convictions.
On 23 August 2012, it was reported that Norris and Dobson had lost the first round of their appeal. On 15 March 2013, it was announced that Gary Dobson had dropped his appeal against his murder conviction.
Other inquiries and investigations
The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry
On 31 July 1997, the Home Secretary Jack Straw ordered a public inquiry, to be conducted by Sir William Macpherson and officially titled "The Inquiry Into The Matters Arising From The Death of Stephen Lawrence", and published as The Macpherson report. Its report, produced in February 1999, estimated that it had taken "more than 100,000 pages of reports, statements, and other written or printed documents" and concluded that the original Metropolitan Police Service investigation had been incompetent and that officers had committed fundamental errors, including: failing to give first aid when they reached the scene; failing to follow obvious leads during their investigation; and failing to arrest suspects. The report found that there had been a failure of leadership by senior MPS officers and that recommendations of the 1981 Scarman Report, compiled following race-related riots in Brixton and Toxteth, had been ignored.
Detective Superintendent Brian Weeden said during the inquiry that mistakes had been made in the murder investigation, including his own ignorance that he could have arrested the suspects four days after the killing simply on reasonable suspicion, a basic point of criminal law.
The report also found that the Metropolitan Police was institutionally racist. A total of 70 recommendations for reform, covering both policing and criminal law, were made. These proposals included abolishing the double jeopardy rule and criminalising racist statements made in private. Macpherson also called for reform in the British Civil Service, local governments, the National Health Service, schools, and the judicial system, to address issues of institutional racism.
The report was criticised at the time by Michael Gove (later Secretary of State for Education and Lord Chancellor) in The Times, who said, "The tendentious reasoning and illiberal recommendations of that document have been brilliantly anatomised by the ethical socialists Norman Dennis and George Erdos and the Kurdish academic Ahmed al-Shahi in the Civitas pamphlet Racist Murder and Pressure Group Politics." The pamphlet referred to by Gove is a publication by the right-wing think tank Civitas, which criticises the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, its procedures, its findings and its reception, as well as broadly exploring what it calls “The fanatical mindset... of the militant anti-racist” with references to Malcolm X among others.
Public complaints about mishandling of case
In 1997, Lawrence's family registered a formal complaint with the Police Complaints Authority (PCA), which in 1999 exonerated the officers who had worked on the case of allegations of racism. Only one officer, Detective Inspector Ben Bullock, was ordered to face disciplinary charges for neglect of duty. Bullock, who was second in command of the investigation, was later found guilty of failure to properly brief officers and failure to fully investigate an anonymous letter sent to police, but he was acquitted of 11 other charges. Four other officers who would have been charged as a result of the inquiry retired before it concluded.
Bullock retired the day after his punishment was announced, so that it amounted to a mere caution. Neville Lawrence, Stephen's father, criticised the punishment, saying that Bullock was "guilty on all counts." However, a spokesperson for the Metropolitan Police Federation stated that Bullock had been "largely vindicated" in the proceedings.
On 10 March 2006, the Metropolitan Police Service announced that it would pay Duwayne Brooks £100,000 as compensation for the manner in which police had handled his complaints about their actions toward him after the murder.
Concerns and inquiries of alleged police corruption and undercover officer conduct
Investigation into police corruption (2006)
On 25 July 2006, the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) announced that it had asked the Metropolitan Police to look into alleged claims of police corruption that may have helped hide the killers of Lawrence.
A BBC investigation alleged that the murder inquiry's Det. Sgt. John Davidson had taken money from known drug smuggler Clifford Norris, the father of David Norris, a chief suspect in the investigation. Neil Putnam, a former corrupt police detective turned whistleblower, told a BBC investigation that Clifford Norris was paying Davidson to obstruct the case and to protect the suspects. "Davidson told me that he was looking after Norris and that to me meant that he was protecting him, protecting his family against arrest and any conviction," Putnam said. Davidson denied any such corruption.
The Metropolitan Police Service announced that it was to open up a special incident room to field calls from the public, following the BBC documentary The Boys Who Killed Stephen Lawrence. The Independent Police Complaints Commission later stated that the claims made in the programme were unfounded.
On 17 December 2009, Independent Police Complaints Commission investigators and officers from the Metropolitan Police's directorate of professional standards arrested a former police constable and a serving member of Metropolitan Police staff on suspicion of attempting to pervert the course of justice by allegedly withholding evidence from the original murder inquiry, the Kent investigation and the Macpherson inquiry. Dr Richard Stone, who sat on the Macpherson inquiry, commented that the panel had felt that there was "a large amount of information that the police were either not processing or were suppressing" and "a strong smell of corruption". Baroness Ros Howells, patron of the Stephen Lawrence Charitable Trust, agreed: "Lots of people said they gave the police evidence which was never produced." On 1 March 2010 the IPCC announced that "No further action will be taken against the two men arrested following concerns identified by the internal Metropolitan police service (MPS) review of the murder of Stephen Lawrence" and the two were released from bail.
Revelations about undercover police conduct (2013)
On 23 June 2013, an interview with Peter Francis, a former Special Demonstration Squad under-cover police officer, was published in The Guardian. In the interview Francis stated that while he was working undercover within an anti-racist campaign group in the mid-1990s, he was constantly pressured by superiors to "smear" the credibilities of the family of Lawrence so as to put an end to campaigns for a better investigation into Lawrence's death. After the allegation, the Home Secretary, Theresa May pledged to be "ruthless about purging corruption from the police", and the Prime Minister, David Cameron ordered Police to investigate the allegations, saying of them that he was "deeply worried about the reports". Chief Constable Mick Creedon, who is leading Operation Herne, an ongoing inquiry into Metropolitan police undercover operations against protest groups, said he would investigate the allegations as part of the inquiry. In October 2015 an inquiry was set up by the National Crime Agency to investigate allegations that members of the police force shielded the alleged killers.
The Stephen Lawrence Independent Review (2014)
Following the 2012 convictions, further inquiries by both Scotland Yard and the Independent Police Complaints Commission ruled that there was no new evidence to warrant further investigation. After discussions with Doreen Lawrence, the Home Secretary, Theresa May commissioned Mark Ellison QC to review Scotland Yard's investigations into alleged police corruption.
The report, titled "The Stephen Lawrence Independent Review", was presented to Parliament on 6 March 2014. Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe, Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police said the report, which prompted an inquiry into undercover policing, was "devastating". Ellison's report also showed that there was substantial evidence linking an alleged corrupt police officer with involvement in the murder of private investigator Daniel Morgan.
Legacy and recognition
An annual architectural award, the Stephen Lawrence Prize, was established in 1998 by the Marco Goldschmied Foundation in association with the Royal Institute of British Architects in Lawrence's memory.
His mother, Doreen Lawrence, said, "I would like Stephen to be remembered as a young man who had a future. He was well loved, and had he been given the chance to survive maybe he would have been the one to bridge the gap between black and white because he didn't distinguish between black or white. He saw people as people."
In 1995 a memorial plaque was set into the pavement at the spot where he was killed on Well Hall Road. The plaque has been vandalised several times since then.
In 1999, Nicolas Kent designed a documentary play based on the trial, called The Colour of Justice. It was staged at the Tricycle Theatre and was later filmed by the BBC. It was also performed at the Guildford School of Acting for the 20th anniversary of the murder.
On 7 February 2008, the Stephen Lawrence Centre, designed by architect David Adjaye, opened in Deptford, south-east London. A week later, it was vandalised in an attack that was initially believed to be racially motivated. However, doubt was cast on that assumption when CCTV evidence appeared to show one of the suspects to be mixed-race.
The Stephen Lawrence Charitable Trust is a national educational charity committed to the advancement of social justice. The Trust provides educational and employability workshops and mentoring schemes. It also awards architectural and landscape bursaries. In 2008 the Trust, with architects RMJM, created the initiative Architecture for Everyone to help promote architecture and the creative industries to young people from ethnic minorities.
In October 2012, Doreen Lawrence received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 14th Pride of Britain Awards.
Doreen Lawrence was elevated to the peerage as a Baroness on 6 September 2013, and is formally styled Baroness Lawrence of Clarendon, of Clarendon in the Commonwealth Realm of Jamaica; the honour is rare for being designated after a location in a Commonwealth realm outside the United Kingdom. She sits on the Labour benches in the House of Lords as a working peer specialising in race and diversity.
On 23 April 2018, at a memorial service to mark the 25th anniversary of his death, Prime Minister Theresa May announced that "Stephen Lawrence Day" would be an annual national commemoration of his death on 22 April every year starting in 2019. Doreen Lawrence made a statement that Stephen Lawrence Day would be "an opportunity for young people to use their voices and should be embedded in our education and wider system regardless of the government of the day".
Part of the University of Reading's Student Union building was named after Stephen in 1993, before being refurbished and renamed the ‘Stephen Lawrence Media Centre’ in 2013.
A ‘Stephen Lawrence Research Centre’ was built at De Montfort University, located inside the Hugh Aston building. Lawrence’s mother was appointed as Chancellor of the university in January 2016.
In the media
The case and its immediate aftermath were dramatised in the 1999 ITV film The Murder of Stephen Lawrence, starring Marianne Jean-Baptiste and Hugh Quarshie as Doreen and Neville Lawrence. A three-part sequel series entitled Stephen (TV series), was broadcast in 2021. Quarshie reprised his role as Neville, alongside Sharlene Whyte as Doreen, and Steve Coogan as DCI Clive Driscoll.
Daily Mail journalist Stephen Wright has written about the Lawrence case, both before and subsequent to the prosecution. He was awarded a Special Campaign Award as part of the 2012 Paul Foot Award for his work in the Lawrence case.
Novelist Deborah Crombie uses the turmoil following the Stephen Lawrence murder as a flashback setting in her 2017 book, The Garden of Lamentations. The story includes police officers who were undercover on both sides of the protests, as well as widespread corruption for years afterward. Crombie includes an explanation of the murder in her Author's Note at the end of the book, but specifies that the rest of the characters are not meant to represent actual people.
Lawrence's murder was the subject of the three-part documentary miniseries Stephen: The Murder That Changed a Nation that was first broadcast on BBC One in April 2018.
See also
Race and crime in the United Kingdom
Murder of Kelso Cochrane
Murder of Kriss Donald
Murder of Ross Parker
Murder of Anthony Walker
Murder of Richard Everitt
1993 Welling riots
References
Bibliography
Ellis, Dr. Frank, The Macpherson Report: 'Anti-racist' Hysteria and the Sovietization of the United Kingdom, published by Right Now Press Ltd., London, 2001 (P/B),
Green, David G, (Editor), Institutional Racism and the Police: Fact or Fiction, published by The Institute for the Study of Civil Society, 2000,
Dennis, Norman; Erdos, George; Al-Shahi, Ahmed; Racist Murder and Pressure Group Politics: The Macpherson Report and the Police, published by The Institute for the Study of Civil Society, 2000,
Cathcart, Brian; The Case of Stephen Lawrence published by Penguin
External links
Stephen Lawrence Inquiry (Macpherson Report)
https://stephenlawrenceday.org/
"The life and legacy of Stephen Lawrence", The Independent, 8 January 2012.
1990s crimes in London
1993 murders in the United Kingdom
1993 in London
Anti-black racism in England
Deaths by person in London
Deaths by stabbing in London
Stabbing attacks in London
Hate crimes
History of the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Murder in London
Murder trials
Racially motivated violence against black people
Racially motivated violence in England
Trials in London
Murder committed by minors
Police misconduct in England
April 1993 events in the United Kingdom
Eltham
Black British history |
356774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulguksa | Bulguksa | Bulguksa is located on the slopes of Mount Toham (Jinheon-dong, Gyeongju city, North Gyeongsang province, South Korea). It is a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism and encompasses six National treasures of South Korea, including the Dabotap and Seokgatap stone pagodas, Cheongun-gyo (Blue Cloud Bridge), and two gilt-bronze statues of Buddha. The temple is classified as Historic and Scenic Site No. 1 by the South Korean government. In 1995, Bulguksa was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List together with the Seokguram Grotto, which lies four kilometers to the east.
The temple is considered as a masterpiece of the golden age of Buddhist art in the Silla kingdom. It is currently the head temple of the 11th district of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism.
Among the earliest woodblock prints in the world, a version of the Dharani sutra dated between 704 and 751 was found there in 1966. Its Buddhist text was printed on a mulberry paper scroll.
History
The temple's records state that a small temple was built on this site under King Beopheung in 528. The Samguk Yusa records that the current temple was constructed under King Gyeongdeok in 751, begun by chief minister Kim Daeseong to pacify the spirits of his parents. The building was completed in 774 by the Silla royal court, after Kim's death, and given its current name Bulguksa (Temple of the Buddha Land).
The temple was renovated during the Goryeo Dynasty and the early Joseon Dynasty. During the Imjin wars, the wooden buildings were burned to the ground. After 1604, reconstruction and expansion of Bulguksa started, followed by about 40 renovations until 1805.
After World War II and the Korean War, a partial restoration was conducted in 1966. Upon an extensive archeological investigation, major restoration was conducted between 1969 and 1973 by the order of President Park Chung Hee, bringing Bulguksa to its current form. The famous stone structures are preserved from the original Silla construction.
Structure
The temple is located on the slopes of Tohamsan, in Jinheon-dong, Gyeongju.
The entrance to the temple, Sokgyemun, has a double-sectioned staircase and bridge (National Treasure No. 23) that leads to the inside of the temple compound. The stairway is 33 steps high, corresponding to the 33 steps to enlightenment. The lower portion, Cheongungyo (Blue Cloud Bridge) is 6.3 meters long and has 17 steps. The upper portion, Baegungyo (White Cloud Bridge) is 5.4 meters and has 16 steps. The stairway leads to Jahamun (Mauve Mist Gate).
There are two pagodas on the temple site, which is unusual. The three-story Seokgatap (Sakyamuni Pagoda) which stands at 8.2 meters is a traditional Korean-style stone pagoda with simple lines and minimal detailing. Seokgatap is over 13 centuries old. Dabotap (Many Treasure Pagoda) is 10.4 meters tall and dedicated to the Many Treasures Buddha mentioned in the Lotus Sutra. In contrast to Seokgatap, Dabotap is known for its highly ornate structure. Its image is reproduced on the South Korean 10 won coin. Dabotap and Seokgatap are Korean National Treasures nos. 20 and 21, respectively.
The terrestrial and the two celestial abodes are manifested in Bulguksa: the terrestrial with a Shakyamuni Buddha Lotus Sutra, the celestial with Amitabha Buddha Avatamska Sutra. The large temple site is centred on two courts. One of the courts is centred on Daeungjeon, the hall which houses the Shakyamuni Buddha. The other is centred on Geungnakjeon, the hall of paradise where the Seven Treasure Bridge Chilbogyo is housed.
Daeungjeon (대웅전,大雄殿), the Hall of Great Enlightenment, is the main hall. Dabotap and Seokgatap stand before this hall. The hall enshrines the Sakyamuni Buddha and was first built in 681. Behind the main hall stands Museoljeon (무설전,無說殿), the Hall of No Words. This hall gets its name from the belief that Buddha's teachings could not be taught by mere words alone. It is one of the oldest buildings in the complex and was probably first built in 670. The Gwaneumjeon (Avalokitesvara's Shrine, 관음전,觀音殿) houses an image of the Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Perfect Compassion, and stands at the highest point of the complex. The Birojeon (Vairocana Buddha Hall, 비로전,毘盧殿), which sits below the Gwaneumjeon, houses national treasure No.26 while the Geuknakjeon (Hall of Supreme Bliss, 극락전), standing near the main compound, houses the gilt-bronze buddha that is the national treasure No.27.
Official treasures at Bulguksa
National Treasures No.20 and 21
The two famous stone pagodas, Dabotap and Seokgatap reside in the main courtyard of the Bulguksa Temple complex. They are, respectively, the twentieth and twenty-first national treasures of Korea and were designated on December 20, 1962.
National Treasure No.22
The Yeonhwagyo (Lotus Flower Bridge, 연화교,蓮華橋) and Chilbogyo (Seven Treasures Bridge, 칠보교,七寶橋) are a pair of bridges at Bulguksa. This bridge was designated as the 22nd national treasure on December 20, 1962. The bridge lead to Anyangmun (Peace Enhancing Gate, 안양문,安養門) leading to Geuknakjeon (the Hall of the Pure Land). This pair were built at the same time as their brother bridges, National Treasure No.23.
These pair of bridges share the 45 degree incline, arch underneath, and the combination bridge/staircase design of their brother bridges. However, one noticeable difference is that this bridge is smaller. The lower Lotus Flower Bridge has 10 steps while the upper Seven Treasures Bridge contains 8 steps. This bridge is on the west in relation to the Blue Cloud and White Cloud Bridges. The Lotus Flower Bridge is known for its delicate carvings of Lotus Flowers on each step but these have faded with the weight of many pilgrims. Today, visitors are restricted from walking on the bridge.
National Treasure No.23
The Cheongungyo (Blue Cloud Bridge, 청운교,靑雲橋) and Baegungyo (White Cloud Bridge, 백운교,白雲橋) Bridges of Bulguksa Temple are two bridges that are a part of a stairway that leads to the temple. The bridges were probably built in 750 during the reign of King Gyeongdeok. Although built separately, they are designated together as one single national treasure. They were designated as the 23rd national treasure on December 20, 1962.
The Blue Cloud Bridge makes up the upper span of the stair while the White Cloud Bridge is the lower part. The bridges lead to the Jahamun (Golden Purple Gate, 자하문,紫霞門) which leads to Sakyamuni Hall. There are 34 steps on the stairway, which slopes at a 30 degree angle. The upper Blue Cloud Bridge has sixteen steps while the lower White Cloud Bridge has eighteen. The large arch underneath the stairwell testifies to the use of arches in Silla-style bridges.
National Treasure No.26
National Treasure No.26 (경주 불국사 금동비로자나불좌상, 慶州 佛國寺 金銅毘盧遮那佛坐像, Gyeongju Bulguksa geumdong birojana buljwasang), designated on December 20, 1962, is a seated gilt-bronze Vairocana Buddha statue at Bulguksa Temple.
The Buddha of Enlightenment is enshrined in the Birojeon. It is 1.77 meters in height and made from gilt-bronze. The head of the Buddha has an usnisa, a symbol of supreme wisdom. The head of the Buddha was made by fusing two shells to each other and the face is elongated and soft. The robes of the Buddha are highly detailed and the simulation of folded cloth rippling down from the shoulder to the lap is done with high skill. The hands of the Buddha are in a position, the right index finger covered by the left hand, which often is used to symbolize the Buddha of Enlightenment. The figure is estimated to be from the 9th century due to stylistic evidence, including the overly wide lap and the lack of tension in the depiction of the robes and face of the Buddha.
National Treasure No.27
The seated gilt-bronze Amitabha Buddha statue of Bulguksa Temple is National Treasure No.27. (경주 불국사 금동아미타여래좌상, 慶州 佛國寺 金銅阿彌陀如來坐像, Gyeongju Bulguksa geumdong amita yeoraejwasang) and was designated on December 20, 1962.
The Amitabha Buddha statue is 1.66 meters in height and enshrined in Geuknakjeon. This gilt-bronze statue was probably cast in the late 8th or early part of the 9th century and it shares the style of National Treasure No.26. The head of the statue is made by fixing two shell-like pieces together. The face has a distinctively aquiline nose. The Buddha has broad shoulders and strong chest while the large lap gives the figure a sense of proportional harmony and stability. The style of the robe seems to be more stylized and haphazard. The position of the left hand raised at shoulder-level palm forward and the right hand is placed at the lap. The style of the Buddha seems to follow an abstract and stylized tradition rather than a representation of realism.
Treasure No.61
This sarira pagoda (사리탑), or stupa, looks like a stone lantern. It stands 2.1 meters tall and is located at the left side of the front garden of Birojeon. The artifact was at one point taken to Japan in 1906 but was returned in 1933. It is from the Goryeo Dynasty, but shows the influence of Silla Dynasty art.
A sarira is a container for the relics or remains of famous priests or royalty. It is said that this sarira contained the remains of eight priests or a queen. The three main features of the piece are the foundation stone, the main body, and the ornamental top. The foundation is an octagonal stone decorated with carvings. Atop this foundation is a circular stone incised with lotus motifs. The pillar supports of the main body are carved with a cloud motif while the main body is cylindrical and has four bas-reliefs of Buddha and bodhisattvas and are accompanied by flower motifs. The top of the pagoda has twelve sides which meet into a hexagonal shape.
See also
Korean Buddhist temples
List of South Korean tourist attractions
List of Buddhist topics
Tourism in Gyeongju
References
Life in Korea: Bulguksa.
National Treasure No.22
National Treasure No.23
National Treasure No.26
National Treasure No.27
Treasure No.61
External links
Bulguksa Official site
Korean National Heritage Online: Bulguksa
Oriental Architecture profile
528 establishments
Religious organizations established in the 6th century
Tourist attractions in Gyeongju
Buddhist temples of the Jogye Order
Buddhist temples in Gyeongju
World Heritage Sites in South Korea
National Treasures of South Korea
6th-century establishments in Korea
6th-century Buddhist temples
Buddhist relics
Silla |
356776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Cenerentola | La Cenerentola | (Cinderella, or Goodness Triumphant) is an operatic dramma giocoso in two acts by Gioachino Rossini. The libretto was written by Jacopo Ferretti, based on the libretti written by Charles-Guillaume Étienne for the opera Cendrillon with music by Nicolas Isouard (first performed Paris, 1810) and by Francesco Fiorini for with music by Stefano Pavesi (first performed Milan, 1814). All these operas are versions of the fairy tale Cendrillon by Charles Perrault. Rossini's opera was first performed in Rome's Teatro Valle on 25 January 1817.
Rossini composed La Cenerentola when he was 25 years old, following the success of The Barber of Seville the year before. La Cenerentola, which he completed in a period of three weeks, is considered to have some of his finest writing for solo voice and ensembles. Rossini saved some time by reusing an overture from La gazzetta and part of an aria from The Barber of Seville and by enlisting a collaborator, Luca Agolini, who wrote the secco recitatives and three numbers (Alidoro's "", Clorinda's "" and the chorus ""). The facsimile edition of the autograph has a different aria for Alidoro, ""; this seems to have been added by an anonymous hand for an 1818 production. For an 1820 revival in Rome, Rossini wrote a bravura replacement, "".
Composition history
According to the account given by librettist Jacopo Ferretti, the genesis of this work – whose literary and musical aspects were both created with surprising speed – began in December 1816. Rossini was in Rome and tasked with writing a new opera for the Teatro Valle, to be staged on Saint Stephen's Day. An existing libretto, Francesca di Foix, had unexpectedly been vetoed by the papal censor, leaving no time to amend the text so that it might satisfy all parties involved (censorship, impresario, and authors). A replacement would have to be found.
Ferretti, despite harboring some ill-will against Rossini (the maestro had refused a libretto of his for The Barber of Seville), nonetheless met with the composer and the impresario Cartoni and agreed to join the project. However, when he began to suggest topics for the new work, one after another was rejected: too serious for the Carnival season in which the opera would premiere; too frivolous; too expensive and difficult to stage. Ferretti proposed more than two dozen subjects without success.
Finally, between yawns, and with Rossini half asleep on a sofa, the poet mentioned Cinderella. At this, Rossini roused himself sufficiently to challenge Ferretti on whether he dared write a libretto for the tale; Ferretti retorted with a dare for Rossini to clothe it in music. Rossini then asked the librettist if he had some verses ready to start working on. Ferretti replied, "despite my tiredness, tomorrow morning!" The composer nodded, wrapped himself in his clothes, and fell asleep.
Ferretti worked through the night and had the first parts of the work ready as promised in the morning. He finished the libretto in twenty-two days of breakneck work, and Rossini completed the score in an equally hectic twenty-four days. The poet had serious doubts about the success of this opera; Rossini, on the other hand, predicted that it would conquer Italy in a year and spread to France and England in another: "the impresarios will fight for staging it, as well as the prima donnas for being able to sing it".
La Cenerentola premiered on 25 January 1817, and quickly gained popularity both in Italy and internationally, despite a cold initial reception by the critics. In short, Rossini's prediction came entirely true, and Cenerentola soon overshadowed even Barber throughout the nineteenth century. Nonetheless, the collaboration between composer and librettist got no easier, and Ferretti wrote only one more libretto for Rossini, Matilde di Shabran, in 1821.
Performance history
19th century
At the first performance, the opera was received with some hostility, but it soon became popular throughout Italy and beyond; it reached Lisbon in 1819, London in 1820 and New York in 1826. Throughout most of the 19th century, its popularity rivalled that of Barber, but as the coloratura contralto, for which the leading role was originally written, became rare, it fell slowly out of the repertoire.
20th century and beyond
In the years following Glyndebourne Festival's celebrated 1952 revival, conducted by Vittorio Gui, and recorded for LP by EMI, Rossini's work enjoyed a renaissance, and a new generation of Rossini mezzo-sopranos ensured that La Cenerentola would once again be heard around the world. The opera is now considered a staple of the standard repertoire.
Roles
Synopsis
In this variation of the fairy tale, the wicked stepmother is replaced by a stepfather, Don Magnifico. The Fairy Godmother is replaced by Alidoro, a philosopher and tutor to the Prince. Cinderella is identified not by a glass slipper but by her bracelet. The supernatural elements that traditionally characterize the Cinderella story were removed from the libretto simply for ease of staging.
Time: Late 18th century – early 19th century
Place: Salerno (Italy)
Act 1
Angelina, known to her stepfather and stepsisters as "Cenerentola," is forced to serve as the maid in her own home. She sings of a king who married a common girl ("Una volta c’era un rè"). A beggar arrives; her stepsisters, Clorinda and Tisbe, want to send him away, but Cenerentola gives him bread and coffee. Courtiers follow, announcing that Prince Ramiro will visit while he searches for the most beautiful girl in the land to wed. Cenerentola's stepfather, Don Magnifico, hopes to use this as an opportunity to save his own failing fortune.
When the room is empty, Ramiro enters alone, disguised as a valet. The "beggar" – in fact, his tutor, Alidoro – has informed him of a goodhearted young woman spotted here. Ramiro intends to find her incognito. Cenerentola returns, and she and Ramiro are attracted to each other (duet: "Un soave non-so che"), but when he asks who she is, she is overwhelmed and flees.
Finally, the "prince" arrives – the real valet, Dandini, who has taken his master's place – and Magnifico, Clorinda, and Tisbe fall over themselves to flatter him. He invites the family to a ball that evening, where he plans to find his bride; Cenerentola asks to join them, but Magnifico refuses (quintet: "Signor, una parola"). This callousness isn't lost on Ramiro. Alidoro returns to inquire after a third daughter in the house; Magnifico claims she has died. Left alone with Cenerentola, Alidoro promises to take her to the ball himself and that God will reward her kindness ("Là del ciel nell’arcano profondo").
The prince and his valet have retired to Ramiro's country house in some confusion, as neither of Magnifico's daughters resembled the worthy bride Alidoro had described. When Clorinda and Tisbe arrive, Dandini gives them a little test: he offers his "valet" to whichever sister the "prince" does not marry. The ladies are outraged at the idea of marrying a servant. Alidoro then arrives with a beautiful, unknown lady who strangely resembles Cenerentola. Unable to make sense of the situation, they all sit down to supper, feeling like they are in a dream.
Act 2
Magnifico frets over the competition his daughters now face from the strange lady ("Sia qualunque delle figlie"), but Cenerentola isn't interested in the "prince," saying she's fallen in love with his servant. An overjoyed Ramiro steps forward; however, Cenerentola tells him that she's going home and doesn't want him to follow her. If he really cares for her, she says, he will find her, giving him one of a matching pair of bracelets. The prince determines to do exactly that ("Sì, ritrovarla io giuro").
Meanwhile, Magnifico confronts the disguised Dandini, insisting that he choose one of his daughters to marry. Dandini tries to stall but is forced to admit that he's actually the valet and not the prince at all (duet: "Un segreto d’importanza").
A furious Magnifico and his daughters return home, where they order Cenerentola, back in rags, to serve them. A storm is thundering outside. Alidoro sabotages Ramiro's carriage so that it breaks down in front of Magnifico's manor, forcing the prince to take refuge within. Ramiro recognizes Cenerentola's bracelet on her right arm; the others comment on the situation (sextet: "Siete voi?"). When Ramiro threatens Cenerentola's recalcitrant family, she asks him to forgive them.
Ramiro and Cenerentola are married and celebrate their wedding at the palace. Magnifico tries to win the new princess's favor, but she asks only to be acknowledged, at last, as his daughter. She reflects on the misfortune to which she was born and the sudden reversal of her fate, then forgives her family for all her past unhappiness, adding that her days of sitting sadly by the fire are over ("Nacqui all'affanno... Non più mesta"). Everyone present acknowledges that she truly is worthy of the throne.
Noted arias
"" – Don Magnifico in act 1
"" – Dandini in act 1
"" – Ramiro, Dandini in act 1
"" – Ramiro in act 2
"" – Ensemble in act 2
"" – Angelina in act 2
Recordings
References
Notes
Sources
Gossett, Philip; Brauner, Patricia (2001), " La Cenerentola " in Holden, Amanda (ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam.
Osborne, Charles (1994), The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini, London: Methuen; Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press.
Osborne, Richard (1990), Rossini, Ithaca, New York: Northeastern University Press.
Osborne, Richard (1998), "La Cenerentola", in Stanley Sadie, (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, vol. 1. pp. 799–801. London: Macmillan.
External links
Libretto from Stanford University, in Italian only
Piano/vocal score
Synopsis of La Cenerentola (Metropolitan Opera)
Operas by Gioachino Rossini
Italian-language operas
Drammi giocosi
Opera semiseria
Works based on Cinderella
Operas based on works by Charles Perrault
1817 operas
Operas
Operas set in Italy
Operas based on fairy tales |
356777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-playing%20video%20game | Role-playing video game | A role-playing video game (commonly referred to as simply a role-playing game or RPG, as well as a computer role-playing game or CRPG) is a video game genre where the player controls the actions of a character (or several party members) immersed in some well-defined world, usually involving some form of character development by way of recording statistics. Many role-playing video games have origins in tabletop role-playing games and use much of the same terminology, settings and game mechanics. Other major similarities with pen-and-paper games include developed story-telling and narrative elements, player character development, complexity, as well as replay value and immersion. The electronic medium removes the necessity for a gamemaster and increases combat resolution speed. RPGs have evolved from simple text-based console-window games into visually rich 3D experiences.
Characteristics
Role-playing video games use much of the same terminology, settings and game mechanics as early tabletop role-playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons.
Players control a central game character, or multiple game characters, usually called a party, and attain victory by completing a series of quests or reaching the conclusion of a central storyline. Players explore a game world, while solving puzzles and engaging in combat. A key feature of the genre is that characters grow in power and abilities, and characters are typically designed by the player. RPGs rarely challenge a player's physical coordination or reaction time, with the exception of action role-playing games.
Role-playing video games typically rely on a highly developed story and setting, which is divided into a number of quests. Players control one or several characters by issuing commands, which are performed by the character at an effectiveness determined by that character's numeric attributes. Often these attributes increase each time a character gains a level, and a character's level goes up each time the player accumulates a certain amount of experience.
Role-playing video games also typically attempt to offer more complex and dynamic character interaction than what is found in other video game genres. This usually involves additional focus on the artificial intelligence and scripted behavior of computer-controlled non-player characters.
Story and setting
The premise of many role-playing games tasks the player with saving the world, or whichever level of society is threatened. There are often twists and turns as the story progresses, such as the surprise appearance of estranged relatives, or enemies who become friends or vice versa. The game world is often rooted in speculative fiction (i.e. fantasy or science fiction), which allows players to do things they cannot do in real life and helps players suspend their disbelief about the rapid character growth. To a lesser extent, settings closer to the present day or near future are possible.
The story often provides much of the entertainment in the game. Because these games have strong storylines, they can often make effective use of recorded dialog and voiceover narration. Players of these games tend to appreciate long cutscenes more than players of faster action games. While most games advance the plot when the player defeats an enemy or completes a level, role-playing games often progress the plot based on other important decisions. For example, a player may make the decision to join a guild, thus triggering a progression in the storyline that is usually irreversible. New elements in the story may also be triggered by mere arrival in an area, rather than completing a specific challenge. The plot is usually divided so that each game location is an opportunity to reveal a new chapter in the story.
Pen-and-paper role-playing games typically involve a player called the gamemaster (or GM for short) who can dynamically create the story, setting, and rules, and react to a player's choices. In role-playing video games, the computer performs the function of the gamemaster. This offers the player a smaller set of possible actions, since computers can't engage in imaginative acting comparable to a skilled human gamemaster. In exchange, the typical role-playing video game may have storyline branches, user interfaces, and stylized cutscenes and gameplay to offer a more direct storytelling mechanism. Characterization of non-player characters in video games is often handled using a dialog tree. Saying the right things to the right non-player characters will elicit useful information for the player, and may even result in other rewards such as items or experience, as well as opening up possible storyline branches. Multiplayer online role-playing games can offer an exception to this contrast by allowing human interaction among multiple players and in some cases enabling a player to perform the role of a gamemaster.
Exploration and quests
Exploring the world is an important aspect of many RPGs. Players will walk through, talking to non-player characters, picking up objects, and avoiding traps. Some games such as NetHack, Diablo, and the FATE series randomize the structure of individual levels, increasing the game's variety and replay value. Role-playing games where players complete quests by exploring randomly generated dungeons and which include permadeath are called roguelikes, named after the 1980 video game Rogue.
The game's story is often mapped onto exploration, where each chapter of the story is mapped onto a different location. RPGs usually allow players to return to previously visited locations. Usually, there is nothing left to do there, although some locations change throughout the story and offer the player new things to do in response. Players must acquire enough power to overcome a major challenge in order to progress to the next area, and this structure can be compared to the boss characters at the end of levels in action games.
The player typically must complete a linear sequence of certain quests in order to reach the end of the game's story. Many RPGs also often allow the player to seek out optional side-quests and character interactions. Quests of this sort can be found by talking to a non-player character, and there may be no penalty for abandoning or ignoring these quests other than a missed opportunity or reward.
Items and inventory
Players can find loot (such as clothing, weapons, and armor) throughout the game world and collect it. Players can trade items for currency and better equipment. Trade takes place while interacting with certain friendly non-player characters, such as shopkeepers, and often uses a specialized trading screen. Purchased items go into the player's inventory. Some games turn inventory management into a logistical challenge by limiting the size of the player's inventory, thus forcing the player to decide what they must carry at the time. This can be done by limiting the maximum weight that a player can carry, by employing a system of arranging items in a virtual space, or by simply limiting the number of items that can be held.
Character actions and abilities
Most of the actions in an RPG are performed indirectly, with the player selecting an action and the character performing it by their own accord. Success at that action depends on the character's numeric attributes. Role-playing video games often simulate dice-rolling mechanics from non-electronic role-playing games to determine success or failure. As a character's attributes improve, their chances of succeeding at a particular action will increase.
Many role-playing games allow players to play as an evil character. Although robbing and murdering indiscriminately may make it easier to get money, there are usually consequences in that other characters will become uncooperative or even hostile towards the player. Thus, these games allow players to make moral choices, but force players to live with the consequences of their actions. Games often let the player control an entire party of characters. However, if winning is contingent upon the survival of a single character, then that character effectively becomes the player's avatar. An example of this would be in Baldur's Gate, where if the character created by the player dies, the game ends and a previous save needs to be loaded.
Although some single-player role-playing games give the player an avatar that is largely predefined for the sake of telling a specific story, many role-playing games make use of a character creation screen. This allows players to choose their character's sex, their race or species, and their character class. Although many of these traits are cosmetic, there are functional aspects as well. Character classes will have different abilities and strengths. Common classes include fighters, spellcasters, thieves with stealth abilities, and clerics with healing abilities, or a mixed class, such as a fighter who can cast simple spells. Characters will also have a range of physical attributes such as dexterity and strength, which affect a player's performance in combat. Mental attributes such as intelligence may affect a player's ability to perform and learn spells, while social attributes such as charisma may limit the player's choices while conversing with non-player characters. These attribute systems often strongly resemble the Dungeons & Dragons ruleset.
Some role-playing games make use of magical powers, or equivalents such as psychic powers or advanced technology. These abilities are confined to specific characters such as mages, spellcasters, or magic-users. In games where the player controls multiple characters, these magic-users usually complement the physical strength of other classes. Magic can be used to attack, to defend, or to temporarily change an enemy or ally's attributes. While some games allow players to gradually consume a spell, as ammunition is consumed by a gun, most games offer players a finite amount of mana which can be spent on any spell. Mana is restored by resting or by consuming potions. Characters can also gain other non-magical skills, which stay with the character as long as he lives.
Experience and levels
Although the characterization of the game's avatar will develop through storytelling, characters may also become more functionally powerful by gaining new skills, weapons, and magic. This creates a positive-feedback cycle that is central to most role-playing games: The player grows in power, allowing them to overcome more difficult challenges, and gain even more power. This is part of the appeal of the genre, where players experience growing from an ordinary person into a superhero with amazing powers. Whereas other games give the player these powers immediately, the player in a role-playing game will choose their powers and skills as they gain experience.
Role-playing games usually measure progress by counting experience points and character levels. Experience is usually earned by defeating enemies in combat, with some games offering experience for completing certain quests or conversations. Experience becomes a form of score, and accumulating a certain amount of experience will cause the character's level to go up. This is called "levelling up", and gives the player an opportunity to raise one or more of his character's attributes. Many RPGs allow players to choose how to improve their character, by allocating a finite number of points into the attributes of their choice. Gaining experience will also unlock new magic spells for characters that use magic.
Some role-playing games also give the player specific skill points, which can be used to unlock a new skill or improve an existing one. This may sometimes be implemented as a skill tree. As with the technology trees seen in strategy video games, learning a particular skill in the tree will unlock more powerful skills deeper in the tree.
Three different systems of rewarding the player characters for solving the tasks in the game can be set apart: the experience system (also known as the "level-based" system), the training system (also known as the "skill-based" system) and the skill-point system (also known as "level-free" system)
The experience system, by far the most common, was inherited from pen-and-paper role-playing games and emphasizes receiving "experience points" (often abbreviated "XP" or "EXP") by winning battles, performing class-specific activities, and completing quests. Once a certain amount of experience is gained, the character advances a level. In some games, level-up occurs automatically when the required amount of experience is reached; in others, the player can choose when and where to advance a level. Likewise, abilities and attributes may increase automatically or manually.
The training system is similar to the way the Basic Role-Playing system works. The first notable video game to use this was Dungeon Master, which emphasized developing the character's skills by using them—meaning that if a character wields a sword for some time, he or she will become proficient with it.
Finally, in the skill-point system (as used in Vampire: The Masquerade – Bloodlines for example) the character is rewarded with "skill points" for completing quests, which then can be directly used to buy skills and attributes without having to wait until the next level up.
Combat
Older games often separated combat into its own mode of gameplay, distinct from exploring the game world. More recent games tend to maintain a consistent perspective for exploration and combat. Some games, especially earlier video games, generate battles from random encounters; more modern RPGs are more likely to have persistent wandering monsters that move about the game world independently of the player. Most RPGs also use stationary boss monsters in key positions, and automatically trigger battles with them when the PCs enter these locations or perform certain actions. Combat options typically involve positioning characters, selecting which enemy to attack, and exercising special skills such as casting spells.
In a classical turn-based system, only one character may act at a time; all other characters remain still, with a few exceptions that may involve the use of special abilities. The order in which the characters act is usually dependent on their attributes, such as speed or agility. This system rewards strategic planning more than quickness. It also points to the fact that realism in games is a means to the end of immersion in the game world, not an end in itself. A turn-based system makes it possible, for example, to run within range of an opponent and kill him before he gets a chance to act, or duck out from behind hard cover, fire, and retreat back without an opponent being able to fire, which are of course both impossibilities. However, tactical possibilities have been created by this unreality that did not exist before; the player determines whether the loss of immersion in the reality of the game is worth the satisfaction gained from the development of the tactic and its successful execution. Fallout has been praised as being "the shining example of a good turn-based combat system".
Real-time combat can import features from action games, creating a hybrid action RPG game genre. But other RPG battle systems such as the Final Fantasy battle systems have imported real-time choices without emphasizing coordination or reflexes. Other systems combine real-time combat with the ability to pause the game and issue orders to all characters under his/her control; when the game is unpaused, all characters follow the orders they were given. This "real-time with pause" system (RTwP) has been particularly popular in games designed by BioWare. The most famous RTwP engine is the Infinity Engine. Other names for "real-time with pause" include "active pause" and "semi real-time". Tactical RPG maker Apeiron named their system Smart Pause Mode (SPM) because it would automatically pause based on a number of user-configurable settings. Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel and Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura offered players the option to play in either turn-based or RTwP mode via a configuration setting. The latter also offered a "fast turn-based" mode, though all three of the game's modes were criticized for being poorly balanced and oversimplified.
Early Ultima games featured timed turns: they were strictly turn-based, but if the player waited more than a second or so to issue a command, the game would automatically issue a pass command, allowing the monsters to take a turn while the PCs did nothing.
There is a further subdivision by the structure of the battle system; in many early games, such as Wizardry, monsters and the party are arrayed into ranks, and can only attack enemies in the front rank with melee weapons. Other games, such as most of the Ultima series, employed duplicates of the miniatures combat system traditionally used in the early role-playing games. Representations of the player characters and monsters would move around an arena modeled after the surrounding terrain, attacking any enemies that are sufficiently near.
Interface and graphics
Players typically navigate the game world from a first or third-person perspective in 3D RPGs. However, an isometric or aerial top-down perspective is common in party-based RPGs, in order to give the player a clear view of their entire party and their surroundings. Role-playing games require the player to manage a large amount of information, and frequently make use of a windowed interface. For example, spell-casting characters will often have a menu of spells they can use. On the PC, players typically use the mouse to click on icons and menu options, while console games have the player navigate through menus using a game controller.
History and classification
The role-playing video game genre began in the mid-1970s on mainframe computers, inspired by pen-and-paper role-playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons. Several other sources of inspiration for early role-playing video games also included tabletop wargames, sports simulation games, adventure games such as Colossal Cave Adventure, fantasy writings by authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien, traditional strategy games such as chess, and ancient epic literature dating back to Epic of Gilgamesh which followed the same basic structure of setting off in various quests in order to accomplish goals.
After the success of role-playing video games such as Ultima and Wizardry, which in turn served as the blueprint for Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy, the role-playing genre eventually diverged into two styles, Eastern role-playing games and Western role-playing games, due to cultural differences, though roughly mirroring the platform divide between consoles and computers, respectively. Finally, while the first RPGs offered strictly a single player experience, the popularity of multiplayer modes rose sharply during the early to mid-1990s with action role-playing games such as Secret of Mana and Diablo. With the advent of the Internet, multiplayer games have grown to become massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG), including Lineage, Final Fantasy XI, and World of Warcraft.
Mainframe computers
The role-playing video game genre began in the mid-1970s, as an offshoot of early university mainframe text-based RPGs on PDP-10 and Unix-based computers, such as Dungeon, pedit5 and dnd. In 1980, a very popular dungeon crawler, Rogue, was released. Featuring ASCII graphics where the setting, monsters and items were represented by letters and a deep system of gameplay, it inspired a whole genre of similar clones on mainframe and home computers called "roguelikes".
Personal computers
One of the earliest role-playing video games on a microcomputer was Dungeon n Dragons, written by Peter Trefonas and published by CLOAD (1980). This early game, published for a TRS-80 Model 1, is just 16K long and includes a limited word parser command line, character generation, a store to purchase equipment, combat, traps to solve, and a dungeon to explore. Other contemporaneous CRPGs (Computer Role Playing Games) were Temple of Apshai, Odyssey: The Compleat Apventure and Akalabeth: World of Doom, the precursor to Ultima. Some early microcomputer RPGs (such as Telengard (1982) or Sword of Fargoal) were based on their mainframe counterparts, while others (such as Ultima or Wizardry, the most successful of the early CRPGs) were loose adaptations of D&D. They also include both first-person displays and overhead views, sometimes in the same game (Akalabeth, for example, uses both perspectives). Most of the key features of RPGs were developed in this early period, prior to the release of Ultima III: Exodus, one of the prime influences on both computer and console RPG development. For example, Wizardry features menu-driven combat, Tunnels of Doom features tactical combat on a special "combat screen", and Dungeons of Daggorath features real-time combat which takes place on the main dungeon map.
Starting in 1984 with Questron and 50 Mission Crush, SSI produced many series of CRPGs. Their 1985 game Phantasie is notable for introducing automapping and in-game scrolls providing hints and background information. They also released Pool of Radiance in 1988, the first of several "Gold Box" CRPGs based on the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules. These games feature a first-person display for movement, combined with an overhead tactical display for combat. One common feature of RPGs from this era, which Matt Barton calls the "Golden Age" of computer RPGs, is the use of numbered "paragraphs" printed in the manual or adjunct booklets, containing the game's lengthier texts; the player can be directed to read a certain paragraph, instead of being shown the text on screen. The ultimate exemplar of this approach is Sir-Tech's Star Saga trilogy (of which only two games were released); the first game contains 888 "textlets" (usually much longer than a single paragraph) spread across 13 booklets, while the second contains 50,000 paragraphs spread across 14 booklets. Most of the games from this era are turn-based, although Dungeon Master and its imitators have real-time combat. Other classic titles from this era include The Bard's Tale (1985), Wasteland (1988), the start of the Might and Magic (1986-2014) series and the continuing Ultima (1981-1999) series.
Later, in the middle to late 1990s, isometric, sprite-based RPGs became commonplace, with video game publishers Interplay Entertainment and Blizzard North playing a lead role with such titles as the Baldur's Gate, Icewind Dale and the action-RPG Diablo series, as well as the dialogue-heavy Planescape: Torment and cult classics Fallout and Fallout 2. This era also saw a move toward 3D game engines with such games as Might and Magic VI: The Mandate of Heaven and The Elder Scrolls: Arena. TSR, dissatisfied with SSI's later products, such as Dark Sun: Wake of the Ravager and Menzoberranzan, transferred the AD&D license to several different developers, and eventually gave it to BioWare, who used it in Baldur's Gate (1998) and several later games. By the 2000s, 3D engines had become dominant.
Video game consoles
The earliest RPG on a console was Dragonstomper on the Atari 2600 in 1982. Another early RPG on a console was Bokosuka Wars, originally released for the Sharp X1 computer in 1983 and later ported to the MSX in 1984, the NES in 1985 and the Sharp X68000 as New Bokosuka Wars. The game laid the foundations for the tactical role-playing game genre, or "simulation RPG" genre as it is known in Japan. It was also an early example of a real-time, action role-playing game. In 1986, Chunsoft created the NES title Dragon Quest (called Dragon Warrior in North America until the eighth game), which drew inspiration from computer RPGs Ultima and Wizardry and is regarded as the template for future Japanese role-playing video games released since then.
Also in 1986, Legend of Zelda was released for the NES
In 1987, the genre came into its own with the release of several highly influential console RPGs distinguishing themselves from computer RPGs, including the genre-defining Phantasy Star, released for the Master System. Shigeru Miyamoto's Zelda II: The Adventure of Link for the Famicom Disk System was one of the earliest action role-playing games, combining the action-adventure game framework of its predecessor The Legend of Zelda with the statistical elements of turn-based RPGs. Most RPGs at this time were turn-based. Faxanadu was another early action RPG for the NES, released as a side-story to the computer action RPG Dragon Slayer II: Xanadu. Square's Final Fantasy for the NES introduced side-view battles, with the player characters on the right and the enemies on the left, which soon became the norm for numerous console RPGs. In 1988, Dragon Warrior III introduced a character progression system allowing the player to change the party's character classes during the course of the game. Another "major innovation was the introduction of day/night cycles; certain items, characters, and quests are only accessible at certain times of day." In 1989, Phantasy Star II for the Genesis established many conventions of the genre, including an epic, dramatic, character-driven storyline dealing with serious themes and subject matter.
Console RPGs distinguished themselves from computer RPGs to a greater degree in the early 1990s. As console RPGs became more heavily story-based than their computer counterparts, one of the major differences that emerged during this time was in the portrayal of the characters. Console RPGs often featured intricately related characters who had distinctive personalities and traits, with players assuming the roles of people who cared about each other, fell in love or even had families. Romance in particular was a theme that was common in most console RPGs at the time but absent from most computer RPGs. During the 1990s, console RPGs had become increasingly dominant, exerting a greater influence on computer RPGs than the other way around. Console RPGs had eclipsed computer RPGs for some time, though computer RPGs began making a comeback towards the end of the decade with interactive choice-filled adventures.
The next major revolution came in the late 1990s, which saw the rise of optical disks in fifth generation consoles. The implications for RPGs were enormous—longer, more involved quests, better audio, and full-motion video. This was first clearly demonstrated in 1997 by the phenomenal success of Final Fantasy VII, which is considered one of the most influential games of all time. With a record-breaking production budget of around $45 million, the ambitious scope of Final Fantasy VII raised the possibilities for the genre, with its dozens of minigames and much higher production values. The latter includes innovations such as the use of 3D characters on pre-rendered backgrounds, battles viewed from multiple different angles rather than a single angle, and for the first time full-motion CGI video seamlessly blended into the gameplay, effectively integrated throughout the game. The game was soon ported to the PC and gained much success there, as did several other originally console RPGs, blurring the line between the console and computer platforms.
Cultural differences
Computer-driven role-playing games had their start in Western markets, with games generally geared to be played on home computers. By 1985, series like Wizardry and Ultima represented the state of role-playing games. In Japan, home computers had yet to take as great a hold as they had in the West due to their cost; there was little market for Western-developed games and there were a few Japanese-developed games for personal computers during this time such as The Black Onyx (1984) which followed the Wizardry/Ultima format. With the release of the low-cost Famicom console (called the Nintendo Entertainment System overseas), a new opportunity arose to bring role-playing games to Japan. Dragon Quest (1986) was the first such attempt to recreate a role-playing game for a console, and requires several simplifications to fit within the more limited memory and capabilities of the Famicom compared to computers; players in Dragon Quest controlled only a single character, the amount of control over this character limited due to the simplicity of the Famicom controller, and a less-realistic art style was chosen to better visualize the characters within a tile-based graphics system. Dragon Quest was highly successful in Japan, leading to further entries in the series and other titles such as Final Fantasy that followed the same simplifications made in RPGs for Dragon Quest.
Because of these differences, the role-playing genre eventually began to be classified into two fairly distinct styles: computer RPG and console RPG. In the early 2000s, however, as the platform differences began to blur, computer RPGs and console RPGs were eventually classified as Western role-playing games (or WRPGs) and Japanese role-playing games (or JRPGs), respectively.
Though sharing fundamental premises, Western RPGs tend to feature darker graphics, older characters, and a greater focus on roaming freedom, realism, and the underlying game mechanics (e.g. "rules-based" or "system-based"); whereas Eastern RPGs tend to feature brighter, anime-like or chibi graphics, younger characters, turn-based or faster-paced action gameplay, and a greater focus on tightly-orchestrated, linear storylines with intricate plots (e.g. "action-based" or "story-based"). Further, Western RPGs are more likely to allow players to create and customize characters from scratch, and since the late 1990s have had a stronger focus on extensive dialog tree systems (e.g. Planescape: Torment). On the other hand, Japanese RPGs tend to limit players to developing pre-defined player characters, and often do not allow the option to create or choose one's own playable characters or make decisions that alter the plot. In the early 1990s, Japanese RPGs were seen as being much closer to fantasy novels, but by the late 1990s had become more cinematic in style (e.g. Final Fantasy series). At the same time, Western RPGs started becoming more novelistic in style (e.g. Planescape: Torment), but by the late 2000s had also adopted a more cinematic style (e.g. Mass Effect series).
One reason given for these differences is that many early Japanese console RPGs can be seen as forms of interactive manga (Japanese comics) or anime wrapped around Western rule systems at the time, in addition to the influence of visual novel adventure games. As a result, Japanese console RPGs differentiated themselves with a stronger focus on scripted narratives and character drama, alongside streamlined gameplay. In recent years, these trends have in turn been adopted by Western RPGs, which have begun moving more towards tightly structured narratives, in addition to moving away from "numbers and rules" in favor of streamlined combat systems similar to action games. In addition, a large number of Western independent games are modelled after Japanese RPGs, especially those of the 16-bit era, partly due to the RPG Maker game development tools.
Another oft-cited difference is the prominence or absence of kawaisa, or "cuteness", in Japanese culture, and different approaches with respect to character aesthetics. Western RPGs tend to maintain a serious and gritty tone, whereas JRPG protagonists tend to be designed with an emphasis on aesthetic beauty, and even male characters are often young, androgynous, shōnen or bishōnen in appearance. JRPGs often have cute (and even comic-relief type) characters or animals, juxtaposed (or clashing) with more mature themes and situations; and many modern JRPGs feature characters designed in the same style as those in manga and anime. The stylistic differences are often due to differing target audiences: Western RPGs are usually geared primarily towards teenage to adult males, whereas Japanese RPGs are usually intended for a much larger demographic, including female audiences, who, for example, accounted for nearly a third of Final Fantasy XIIIs fanbase.
Modern Japanese RPGs are more likely to feature turn-based battles; while modern Western RPGs are more likely to feature real-time combat. In the past, the reverse was often true: real-time action role-playing games were far more common among Japanese console RPGs than Western computer RPGs up until the late 1990s, due to gamepads usually being better suited to real-time action than the keyboard and mouse. There are of course exceptions, such as Final Fantasy XII (2006) and Devil Summoner: Raidou Kuzunoha vs. the Soulless Army (2006), two modern Eastern RPGs that feature real-time combat; and The Temple of Elemental Evil (2003), a modern Western RPG that features turn-based combat.
Some journalists and video game designers have questioned this cultural classification, arguing that the differences between Eastern and Western games have been exaggerated. In an interview held at the American Electronic Entertainment Expo, Japanese video game developer Tetsuya Nomura (who worked on Final Fantasy and Kingdom Hearts) emphasized that RPGs should not be classified by country-of-origin, but rather described simply for what they are: role-playing games. Hironobu Sakaguchi, creator of Final Fantasy and The Last Story, noted that, while "users like to categorise" Japanese RPGs as "turn-based, traditional styles" and Western RPGs as "born from first-person shooters," there "are titles that don't fit the category," pointing to Chrono Trigger (which he also worked on) and the Mana games. He further noted that there have been "other games similar to the style of Chrono Trigger," but that "it's probably because the games weren't localised and didn't reach the Western audience." Xeno series director Tetsuya Takahashi, in reference to Xenoblade Chronicles, stated that "I don’t know when exactly people started using the term 'JRPG,' but if this game makes people rethink the meaning of this term, I’ll be satisfied." The writer Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com states that "Xenoblade throws into high relief the sheer artificiality of the gaming community's obsession over the differences between" Western and Japanese RPGs, pointing out that it "does things that don't really fit into either genre. Gamers do love their boundaries and barriers and neat little rules, I know, but just because you cram something into a little box doesn't mean it belongs there." Nick Doerr of Joystiq criticizes the claim that Japanese RPGs are "too linear," pointing out that non-linear Japanese RPGs are not uncommon—for instance, the Romancing SaGa series. Likewise, Rowan Kaiser of Joystiq points out that linear Western RPGs were common in the 1990s, and argues that many of the often mentioned differences between Eastern and Western games are stereotypes that are generally "not true" and "never was", pointing to classic examples like Lands of Lore and Betrayal at Krondor that were more narrative-focused than the typical Western-style RPGs of the time. In 2015, IGN noted in an interview with Xenoblade Chronicles Xs development team that the label "JRPG" is most commonly used to refer to RPGs "whose presentation mimics the design sensibilities" of anime and manga, that it's "typically the presentation and character archetypes" that signal "this is a JRPG."
Criticisms
Due to the cultural differences between Western and Japanese variations of role-playing games, both have often been compared and critiqued by those within the video games industry and press.
In the late 1980s, when traditional American computer RPGs such as Ultima and Defender of the Crown were ported to consoles, they received mixed reviews from console gamers, as they were "not perceived, by many of the players, to be as exciting as the Japanese imports," and lacked the arcade and action-adventure elements commonly found in Japanese console RPGs at the time. In the early 1990s, American computer RPGs also began facing criticism for their plots, where "the party sticks together through thick and thin" and always "act together as a group" rather than as individuals, and where non-player characters are "one-dimensional characters," in comparison to the more fantasy novel approach of Squaresoft console RPGs such as Final Fantasy IV. However in 1994, game designer Sandy Petersen noted that, among computer gamers, there was criticism against cartridge-based console JRPGs being "not role-playing at all" due to popular examples such as Secret of Mana and especially The Legend of Zelda using "direct" arcade-style action combat systems instead of the more "abstract" turn-based battle systems associated with computer RPGs. In response, he pointed out that not all console RPGs are action-based, pointing to Final Fantasy and Lufia. Another early criticism, dating back to the Phantasy Star games in the late 1980s, was the frequent use of defined player characters, in contrast to the Wizardry and Gold Box games where the player's avatars (such as knights, clerics, or thieves) were blank slates.
As Japanese console RPGs became increasingly more dominant in the 1990s, and became known for being more heavily story and character-based, American computer RPGs began to face criticism for having characters devoid of personality or background, due to representing avatars which the player uses to interact with the world, in contrast to Japanese console RPGs which depicted characters with distinctive personalities. American computer RPGs were thus criticized for lacking "more of the traditional role-playing" offered by Japanese console RPGs, which instead emphasized character interactions. In response, North American computer RPGs began making a comeback towards the end of the 1990s with interactive choice-filled adventures.
In more recent years, several writers have criticized JRPGs as not being "true" RPGs, for heavy usage of scripted cutscenes and dialogue, and a frequent lack of branching outcomes.[Turner] Japanese RPGs are also sometimes criticized for having relatively simple battle systems in which players are able to win by repetitively mashing buttons.[Turner] As a result, Japanese-style role-playing games are held in disdain by some Western gamers, leading to the term "JRPG" being held in the pejorative. Some observers have also speculated that Japanese RPGs are stagnating or declining in both quality and popularity, including remarks by BioWare co-founder Greg Zeschuk and writing director Daniel Erickson that JRPGs are stagnating—and that Final Fantasy XIII is not even really an RPG; criticisms regarding seemingly nebulous justifications by some Japanese designers for newly changed (or, alternately, newly un-changed) features of recent titles; calls among some gaming journalists to "fix" JRPGs' problems; as well as claims that some recent titles such as Front Mission Evolved are beginning to attempt—and failing to—imitate Western titles. In an article for PSM3, Brittany Vincent of RPGFan.com felt that "developers have mired the modern JRPG in unoriginality", citing Square Enix CEO Yoichi Wada who stated that "they’re strictly catering to a particular audience", the article noting the difference in game sales between Japan and North America before going on to suggest JRPGs may need to "move forward". This criticism has also occurred in the wider media with an advertisement for Fallout: New Vegas (Obsidian Entertainment) in Japan openly mocked Japanese RPGs' traditional characteristics in favor of their own title. Nick Doerr of Joystiq noted that Bethesda felt that Japanese RPGs "are all the same" and "too linear," to which he responded that "[f]or the most part, it's true" but noted there are also non-linear Japanese RPGs such as the Romancing SaGa series. Such criticisms have produced responses such as ones by Japanese video game developers, Shinji Mikami and Yuji Horii, to the effect that JRPGs were never as popular in the West to begin with, and that Western reviewers are biased against turn-based systems. Jeff Fleming of Gamasutra also states that Japanese RPGs on home consoles are generally showing signs of staleness, but notes that handheld consoles such as the Nintendo DS have had more original and experimental Japanese RPGs released in recent years.
Western RPGs have also received criticism in recent years. They remain less popular in Japan, where, until recently, Western games in general had a negative reputation. In Japan, where the vast majority of early console role-playing video games originate, Western RPGs remain largely unknown. The developer Motomu Toriyama criticized Western RPGs, stating that they "dump you in a big open world, and let you do whatever you like [which makes it] difficult to tell a compelling story." Hironobu Sakaguchi noted that "users like to categorise" Western RPGs as "a sort of different style, born from first person shooters." In recent years, some have also criticized Western RPGs for becoming less RPG-like, instead with further emphasis on action. Christian Nutt of GameSpy states that, in contrast to Japanese RPGs, Western RPGs' greater control over the development and customization of playable characters has come at the expense of plot and gameplay, resulting in what he felt was generic dialogue, lack of character development within the narrative and weaker battle systems.[Nutt] He also states that Western RPGs tend to focus more on the underlying rules governing the battle system rather than on the experience itself.[Nutt] Tom Battey of Edge Magazine noted that the problems often cited against Japanese RPGs (mentioned above) also often apply to many Western RPGs as well as games outside of the RPG genre. BioWare games have been criticized for "lack of innovation, repetitive structure and lack of real choice." Western RPGs, such as Bethesda games, have also been criticized for lacking in "narrative strength" or "mechanical intricacy" due to the open-ended, sandbox structure of their games.
Despite the criticisms leveled at both variations, Rowan Kaiser of Joystiq argued that many of the often mentioned differences between Eastern and Western games are stereotypes that are generally not true, noting various similarities between several Western titles (such as Lands of Lore, Betrayal at Krondor, and Dragon Age) and several classic Eastern titles (such as Final Fantasy and Phantasy Star), noting that both these Western and Japanese titles share a similar emphasis on linear storytelling, pre-defined characters and "bright-colored" graphics. The developer Hironobu Sakaguchi also noted there are many games from both that don't fit such categorizations, such as his own Chrono Trigger as well as the Mana games, noting there have been many other such Japanese role-playing games that never released in Western markets.
Controversy
In what is viewed as the largely secular nature of Japanese culture has resulted in heavy usage of themes, symbols, and characters taken from a variety of religions, including Christianity and Japanese Shinto. This tends to be problematic when JRPGs are exported to Western countries where the topics of religion and blasphemy remain sensitive, such as the United States. A JRPG can exhibit elements that would be controversial in the West, such as Xenogears or Final Fantasy Tactics featuring antagonists that bear similarities to the Abrahamic God and the Catholic Church, respectively; and Nintendo has made efforts in the past to remove references such as these prior to introducing their games into the North American market.
Subgenres
Action RPGs
Typically action RPGs feature each player directly controlling a single character in real time, and feature a strong focus on combat and action with plot and character interaction kept to a minimum. Early action RPGs tended to follow the template set by 1980s Nihon Falcom titles such as the Dragon Slayer and Ys series, which feature hack and slash combat where the player character's movements and actions are controlled directly, using a keyboard or game controller, rather than using menus. This formula was refined by the action-adventure game, The Legend of Zelda (1986), which set the template used by many subsequent action RPGs, including innovations such as an open world, nonlinear gameplay, battery backup saving, and an attack button that animates a sword swing or projectile attack on the screen. The game was largely responsible for the surge of action-oriented RPGs released since the late 1980s, both in Japan and North America. The Legend of Zelda series would continue to exert an influence on the transition of both console and computer RPGs from stat-heavy, turn-based combat towards real-time action combat in the following decades.
A different variation of the action RPG formula was popularized by Diablo (1996), where the majority of commands—such as moving and attacking—are executed using mouse clicks rather than via menus, though learned spells can also be assigned to hotkeys. In many action RPGs, non-player characters serve only one purpose, be it to buy or sell items or upgrade the player's abilities, or issue them with combat-centric quests. Problems players face also often have an action-based solution, such as breaking a wooden door open with an axe rather than finding the key needed to unlock it, though some games place greater emphasis on character attributes such as a "lockpicking" skill and puzzle-solving.
One common challenge in developing action RPGs is including content beyond that of killing enemies. With the sheer number of items, locations and monsters found in many such games, it can be difficult to create the needed depth to offer players a unique experience tailored to his or her beliefs, choices or actions. This is doubly true if a game makes use of randomization, as is common. One notable example of a game which went beyond this is Deus Ex (2000) which offered multiple solutions to problems using intricately layered story options and individually constructed environments. Instead of simply bashing their way through levels, players were challenged to act in character by choosing dialog options appropriately, and by using the surrounding environment intelligently. This produced an experience that was unique and tailored to each situation as opposed to one that repeated itself endlessly.
At one time, action RPGs were much more common on consoles than on computers. Though there had been attempts at creating action-oriented computer RPGs during the late 1980s and early 1990s, often in the vein of Zelda, very few saw any success, with the 1992 game Ultima VII being one of the more successful exceptions in North America. On the PC, Diablo's effect on the market was significant: it had many imitators and its style of combat went on to be used by many games that came after. For many years afterwards, games that closely mimicked the Diablo formula were referred to as "Diablo clones". Three of the four titles in the series were still sold together as part of the Diablo Battle Chest over a decade after Diablo's release. Other examples of action RPGs for the PC include Dungeon Siege, Sacred, Torchlight and Hellgate: London—the last of which was developed by a team headed by former Blizzard employees, some of whom had participated in the creation of the Diablo series. Like Diablo and Rogue before it, Torchlight and Hellgate: London made use of procedural generation to generate game levels.
Also included within this subgenre are role-playing shooters—games that incorporate elements of role-playing games and shooter games (including first-person and third-person). Recent examples include the Mass Effect series, Borderlands 2 and The 3rd Birthday.
First-person party-based RPGs
This subgenre consists of RPGs where the player leads a party of adventurers in first-person perspective, typically through a dungeon or labyrinth in a grid-based environment. Examples include the aforementioned Wizardry, Might and Magic and Bard's Tale series; as well as the Etrian Odyssey and Elminage series. Games of this type are sometimes called "blobbers", since the player moves the entire party around the playing field as a single unit, or "blob".
Most "blobbers" are turn-based, but some titles such as the Dungeon Master, Legend of Grimrock and Eye of the Beholder series are played in real-time. Early games in this genre lacked an automap feature, forcing players to draw their own maps in order to keep track of their progress. Environmental and spatial puzzles are common, meaning players may need to, for instance, move a stone in one part of the level in order to open a gate in another part of the level.
MMORPGs
Though many of the original RPGs for the PLATO mainframe system in the late 1970s also supported multiple, simultaneous players, the popularity of multiplayer modes in mainstream RPGs did not begin to rise sharply until the early to mid-1990s. For instance, Secret of Mana (1993), an early action role-playing game by Square, was one of the first commercial RPGs to feature cooperative multiplayer gameplay, offering two-player and three-player action once the main character had acquired his party members. Later, Diablo (1996) would combine CRPG and action game elements with an Internet multiplayer mode that allowed up to four players to enter the same world and fight monsters, trade items, or fight against each other.
Also during this time period, the MUD genre that had been spawned by MUD1 in 1978 was undergoing a tremendous expansion phase due to the release and spread of LPMud (1989) and DikuMUD (1991). Soon, driven by the mainstream adoption of the Internet, these parallel trends merged in the popularization of graphical MUDs, which would soon become known as massively multiplayer online role-playing games or MMORPGs, beginning with games like Meridian 59 (1995), Nexus: The Kingdom of the Winds (1996), Ultima Online (1997), Lineage (1998), and EverQuest (1999), and leading to more modern phenomena such as RuneScape (2001), Ragnarok Online(2002), Final Fantasy XI (2003), Eve Online (2003) Disney's Toontown Online (2003) and World of Warcraft (2004).
Although superficially similar to single-player RPGs, MMORPGs lend their appeal more to the socializing influences of being online with hundreds or even thousands of other players at a time, and trace their origins more from MUDs than from CRPGs like Ultima and Wizardry. Rather than focusing on the "old school" considerations of memorizing huge numbers of stats and esoterica and battling it out in complex, tactical environments, players instead spend much of their time forming and maintaining guilds and clans. The distinction between CRPGs and MMORPGs and MUDs can as a result be very sharp, likenable to the difference between "attending a renaissance fair and reading a good fantasy novel".
Further, MMORPGs have been criticized for diluting the "epic" feeling of single-player RPGs and related media among thousands of concurrent adventurers. Stated simply: every player wants to be "The Hero", slay "The Monster", rescue "The Princess", or obtain "The Magic Sword". But when there are thousands of players all playing the same game, clearly not everyone can be the hero. This problem became obvious to some in the game EverQuest, where groups of players would compete and sometimes harass each other in order to get monsters in the same dungeon to drop valuable items, leading to several undesirable behaviors such as kill stealing, spawn camping, and ninja looting. In response—for instance by Richard Garriott in Tabula Rasa (2007)—developers began turning to instance dungeons as a means of reducing competition over limited resources, as well as preserving the gaming experience—though this mechanic has its own set of detractors.
Lastly, there exist markets such as Korea and China that, while saturated with MMORPGs, have so far proved relatively unreceptive to single-player RPGs. For instance, Internet-connected personal computers are relatively common in Korea when compared to other regions—particularly in the numerous "PC bangs" scattered around the country, where patrons are able to pay to play multiplayer video games—possibly due to historical bans on Japanese imports, as well as a culture that traditionally sees video games as "frivolous toys" and computers as educational. As a result, some have wondered whether the stand-alone, single-player RPG is still viable commercially—especially on the personal computer—when there are competing pressures such as big-name publishers' marketing needs, video game piracy, a change in culture, and the competitive price-point-to-processing-power ratio (at least initially) of modern console systems.
Roguelikes and roguelites
Roguelike is a subgenre of role-playing video games, characterized by procedural generation of game levels, turn-based gameplay, tile-based graphics, permanent death of the player-character, and typically based on a high fantasy narrative setting. Roguelikes descend from the 1980 game Rogue, particularly mirroring Rogues character- or sprite-based graphics. These games were popularized among college students and computer programmers of the 1980s and 1990s, leading to a large number of variants but adhering to these common gameplay elements. Some of the more well-known variants include Hack, NetHack, Ancient Domains of Mystery, Moria, Angband, and Tales of Maj'Eyal. The Japanese series of Mystery Dungeon games by Chunsoft, inspired by Rogue, also fall within the concept of roguelike games.
More recently, with more powerful home computers and gaming systems, new variations of roguelikes incorporating other gameplay genres, thematic elements and graphical styles have become popular, typically retaining the notion of procedural generation. These titles are sometimes labeled as "roguelike-like", "rogue-lite", or "procedural death labyrinths" to reflect the variation from titles which mimic the gameplay of traditional roguelikes more faithfully. Other games, like Diablo and UnReal World, took inspiration from roguelikes.
Sandbox RPGs
Sandbox RPGs, or open world RPGs, allow the player a great amount of freedom and usually feature a more open free-roaming world (meaning the player is not confined to a single path restricted by rocks or fences etc.). Sandbox RPGs possess similarities to other sandbox games, such as the Grand Theft Auto series, with a large number of interactable NPCs, large amount of content and typically some of the largest worlds to explore and longest play-times of all RPGs due to an impressive amount of secondary content not critical to the game's main storyline. Sandbox RPGs often attempt to emulate an entire region of their setting. Popular examples of this subgenre include the Dragon Slayer series by Nihon Falcom, the early Dragon Quest games by Chunsoft, The Legend of Zelda by Nintendo, Wasteland by Interplay Entertainment, the SaGa and Mana series by Squaresoft, System Shock and System Shock 2 by Looking Glass Studios and Irrational Games, Deus Ex by Ion Storm, The Elder Scrolls and Fallout series by Bethesda Softworks and Interplay Entertainment, Fable by Lionhead Studios, the Gothic series by Piranha Bytes, the Xenoblade Chronicles series by Monolith Soft, and the Souls series by From Software.
Tactical RPGs
This subgenre of turn-based role-playing games principally refers to games which incorporate elements from strategy games as an alternative to traditional role-playing game (RPG) systems. Tactical RPGs are descendants of traditional strategy games, such as chess, and table-top role-playing and strategic war games, such as Chainmail, which were mainly tactical in their original form. The format of a tactical CRPG is also like a traditional RPG in its appearance, pacing and rule structure. Like standard RPGs, the player controls a finite party and battles a similar number of enemies. And like other RPGs, death is usually temporary, albeit some have permanent death of party members. But this genre incorporates strategic gameplay such as tactical movement on an isometric grid. Tactical RPGs tend not to feature multiplayer play.
A number of early Western role-playing video games used a highly tactical form of combat, including parts of the Ultima series, which introduced party-based, tiled combat in Ultima III: Exodus (1983). Ultima III would go on to be ported to many other platforms and influence the development of later titles, as would Bokosuka Wars (1983), considered a pioneer in the strategy/simulation RPG genre, according to Nintendo. Conventionally, however, the term tactical RPG (known as simulation RPG in Japan) refers to the distinct subgenre that was born in Japan; as the early origins of tactical RPGs are difficult to trace from the American side of the Pacific, where much of the early RPG genre developed.
Many tactical RPGs can be both extremely time-consuming and extremely difficult. Hence, the appeal of most tactical RPGs is to the hardcore, not casual, computer and video game player. Traditionally, tactical RPGs have been quite popular in Japan but have not enjoyed the same degree of success in North America and elsewhere. However, the audience for Japanese tactical RPGs has grown substantially since the mid-90s, with PS1 and PS2 titles such as Final Fantasy Tactics, Suikoden Tactics, Vanguard Bandits, and Disgaea enjoying a surprising measure of popularity, as well as hand-held war games like Fire Emblem. (Final Fantasy Tactics for the PS1 is often considered the breakthrough title outside Japan.) Older TRPGs are also being re-released via software emulation—such as on the Wii Virtual Console—and on handheld game consoles, giving games a new lease on life and exposure to new audiences. Japanese video games such as these are as a result no longer nearly as rare a commodity in North America as they were during the 1990s.
Western video games have utilized similar mechanics for years, as well, and were largely defined by X-COM: UFO Defense (1994) in much the same way as Eastern video games were by Fire Emblem. Titles such as X-COM have generally allowed greater freedom of movement when interacting with the surrounding environment than their Eastern counterparts. Other similar examples include the Jagged Alliance (1994–2013) and Silent Storm (2003–2005) series. According to a few developers, it became increasingly difficult during the 2000s to develop games of this type for the PC in the West (though several had been developed in Eastern Europe with mixed results); and even some Japanese console RPG developers began to complain about a bias against turn-based systems. Reasons cited include Western publishers' focus on developing real-time and action-oriented games instead.
Lastly, there are a number of "full-fledged" CRPGs which could be described as having "tactical combat". Examples from the classic era of CRPGs include parts of the aforementioned Ultima series; SSI's Wizard's Crown (1985) and The Eternal Dagger (1987); the Gold Box games of the late '80s and early '90s, many of which were later ported to Japanese video game systems; and the Realms of Arkania (1992-1996) series based on the German The Dark Eye pen-and-paper system. More recent examples include Wasteland 2, Shadowrun: Dragonfall and Divinity: Original Sin—all released in 2014. Partly due to the release of these games 2014 has been called "the first year of the CRPG renaissance".
Hybrid genres
Finally, a steadily increasing number of other non-RP video games have adopted aspects traditionally seen in RPGs, such as experience point systems, equipment management, and choices in dialogue, as developers push to fill the demand for role-playing elements in non-RPGs. The blending of these elements with a number of different game engines and gameplay styles have created a myriad of hybrid game categories formed by mixing popular gameplay elements featured in other genres such as first-person shooters, platformers, and turn-based and real-time strategy games. Examples include first-person shooters such as parts of the Deus Ex (starting in 2000) and S.T.A.L.K.E.R. (starting in 2007) series; real-time strategy games such as SpellForce: The Order of Dawn (2003) and Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War II (2009); puzzle video games such as Castlevania Puzzle (2010) and Puzzle Quest: Challenge of the Warlords (2007); and turn-based strategy games like the Steel Panthers (1995–2006) series, which combined tactical military combat with RPG-derived unit advancement. As a group, hybrid games have been both praised and criticized; being referred to by one critic as the "poor man's" RPG for omitting the dialogue choices and story-driven character development of major AAA titles; and by another critic as "promising" for shedding the conventions of more established franchises in an attempt to innovate.
Relationship to other genres
RPGs seldom test a player's physical skill. Combat is typically a tactical challenge rather than a physical one, and games involve other non-action gameplay such as choosing dialog options, inventory management, or buying and selling items.
Although RPGs share some combat rules with wargames, RPGs are often about a small group of individual characters. Wargames tend to have large groups of identical units, as well as non-humanoid units such as tanks and airplanes. Role-playing games do not normally allow the player to produce more units. However, the Heroes of Might and Magic series crosses these genres by combining individual heroes with large numbers of troops in large battles.
RPGs rival adventure games in terms of their rich storylines, in contrast to genres that do not rely upon storytelling such as sports games or puzzle games. Both genres also feature highly detailed characters, and a great deal of exploration. However, adventure games usually have a well-defined character, whereas while RPGs may do so, many allow the player to design their characters. Adventure games usually focus on one character, whereas RPGs often feature an entire party. RPGs also feature a combat system, which adventure games usually lack. Whereas both adventure games and RPGs may focus on the personal or psychological growth of characters, RPGs tend to emphasize a complex eternal economy where characters are defined by increasing numerical attributes.
Gameplay elements strongly associated with this genre, such as statistical character development, have been widely adapted to other video game genres. For example, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, an action-adventure game, uses resource statistics (abbreviated as "stats") to define a wide range of attributes including stamina, weapon proficiency, driving, lung capacity, and muscle tone, and uses numerous cutscenes and quests to advance the story.
Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos, a real-time strategy game, features heroes that can complete quests, obtain new equipment, and "learn" new abilities as they advance in level. A community-created mod based on Warcraft III, Defense of the Ancients (DotA), served as significant inspiration for the multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) genre. Due to its Warcraft III origins, MOBA is a fusion of role-playing games, real-time strategy games, and action games, with RPG elements built in its core gameplay. A key features, such as control over one character in a party, growth in power over the course of match, learning new thematic abilities, using of mana, leveling and accumulation of experience points, equipment and inventory management, completing quests, and fighting with the stationary boss monsters, have resemblance with role-playing games.
According to Satoru Iwata, former president of Nintendo, turn-based RPGs have been unfairly criticized as being outdated, and action-based RPGs can frustrate players who are unable to keep up with the battles. According to Yuji Horii, creator of the popular Dragon Quest series and Ryutaro Ichimura, producer of Square Enix, turn-based RPGs allow the player time to make decisions without feeling rushed or worry about real-life distractions.
Popularity
The best-selling RPG series worldwide is Pokémon, which has sold over 300 million units as of November 2017. The second and third best-selling RPG franchises worldwide are Square Enix's Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest series, with over 110 million units and over 64 million units sold as of March 31, 2014, respectively. Pokémon Red, Blue, and Green alone sold approximately 23.64 million copies (10.23 million in Japan, 9.85 million in US, 3.56 million in UK). Nearly all the games in the main Final Fantasy series and all the games in the main Dragon Quest series (as well as many of the spin-off games) have sold over a million copies each, with some games selling more than four million copies. Square Enix's best-selling title is Final Fantasy VII, which has sold over 10 million copies worldwide as of 2010.
Among the best-selling PC RPGs overall is the massively multiplayer online game World of Warcraft with 11.5 million subscribers as of May 2010. Among single player PC RPGs, Diablo II has sold the largest amount, with the most recently cited number being over 4 million copies as of 2001. However, copies of the Diablo: Battle Chest continued to be sold in retail stores, with the compilation appearing on the NPD Group's top 10 PC games sales, list as recently as 2010. Further, Diablo: Battle Chest was the 19th best selling PC game of 2008—a full seven years after the game's initial release; and 11 million users still played Diablo II and StarCraft over Battle.net in 2010. As a franchise, the Diablo series has sold over 20 million copies, not including Diablo III which was released for Windows and OS X in 2012.
The Dragon Quest series was awarded with six world records in the 2008 Gamer's Edition of the Guinness Book of World Records, including "Best Selling Role Playing Game on the Super Famicom", "Fastest Selling Game in Japan", and "First Video Game Series to Inspire a Ballet". Likewise, the Pokémon series received eight records, including "Most Successful RPG Series of All Time". Diablo II was recognized in the 2000 standard edition of the Guinness Book of World Records for being the fastest selling computer game ever sold, with more than 1 million units sold in the first two weeks of availability; though this number has been surpassed several times since. A number of RPGs are also being exhibited in the Barbican Art Gallery's "Game On" exhibition (starting in 2002) and the Smithsonian's "The Art of Video Games" exhibit (starting in 2012); and video game developers are now finally able to apply for grants from the US National Endowment of the Arts.
According to Metacritic, as of May 2011, the highest-rated video game by reviewers is the Xbox 360 version of Mass Effect 2, with an average metascore of 96 out of 100. According to GameRankings, the four top-rated video game RPGs, as of May 2010, are Mass Effect 2 with an average rating of 95.70% for the Xbox 360 version and 94.24% for the PC version; Fallout 3: Game of the Year Edition with an average rating of 95.40% for the PlayStation 3 version; Chrono Trigger with an average rating of 95.10%; and Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic with an average rating of 94.18% for the Xbox version. Sales numbers for these six aforementioned titles are 10 million units sold worldwide for Final Fantasy VII as of May 2010; 161,161 units of Xenoblade Chronicles sold in Japan as of December 2010; 1.6 million units sold worldwide for Mass Effect 2 as of March 2010, just three months after release; 4.7 million units for Fallout 3 on all three platforms as of November 2008, also only a few months after publication; 3 million units for both the Xbox and PC versions of Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic as of November 2004; and more than 2.65 million units for the SNES and PlayStation versions of Chrono Trigger as of March 2003, along with 790,000 copies for the Nintendo DS version as of March 31, 2009. Among these titles, none were PC-exclusives, three were North American multi-platform titles released for consoles like the Xbox and Xbox 360, and three were Japanese titles released for consoles like the SNES, PlayStation and Wii.
Final Fantasy VII topped GamePro's "26 Best RPGs of All Time" list in 2008, IGN's 2000 "Reader's Choice Game of the Century" poll, and the GameFAQs "Best Game Ever" audience polls in 2004 and 2005. It was also selected in Empire magazine's "100 Greatest Games of All Time" list as the highest-ranking RPG, at #2 on the list. On IGN's "Top 100 Games Of All Time" list in 2007, the highest ranking RPG is Final Fantasy VI at 9th place; and in both the 2006 and 2008 IGN Readers' Choice polls, Chrono Trigger is the top ranked RPG, in 2nd place. Final Fantasy VI is also the top ranked RPG in Game Informer'''s list of its 200 best games of all time list, in 8th place; and is also one of the eight games to get a cover for the magazine's 200th issue. The 2006 Famitsu readers' poll is dominated by RPGs, with nearly a dozen titles appearing in the top twenty; while most were Japanese, a few Western titles also made a showing. The highest-ranking games on the list were Final Fantasy X, followed by Final Fantasy VII and Dragon Warrior III. For the past decade, the Megami Tensei series topped several "RPGs of the Decade" lists. RPGFan's "Top 20 RPGs of the Past Decade" list was topped by Shin Megami Tensei: Digital Devil Saga & Digital Devil Saga 2 followed by Persona 3, while RPGamer's "Top RPGs of the Decade" list was topped by Persona 3, followed by Final Fantasy X and World of Warcraft.
Lastly, while in recent years Western RPGs have consistently been released on consoles such as the Xbox and Xbox 360, these systems have not shown as much market dominance in Eastern markets such as Japan, and only a few Western RPG titles have been localized to Japanese. Further, RPGs were not the dominant genre on the most popular of the seventh generation video game consoles, the Nintendo Wii, although their presence among handheld systems such as the Nintendo DS is considerably greater.
Notable developers
Notable early RPG developers include Don Daglow for creating the first role-playing video game, Dungeon, in 1975; Yuji Horii for creating the Dragon Quest series; Hironobu Sakaguchi for creating the Final Fantasy series; Richard Garriott for creating the Ultima series; and Brenda Romero for writing and design work on the Wizardry series. Other notable RPG developers include Bethesda Game Studios, creators of Fallout 3, Fallout 4, and The Elder Scrolls series; Ray Muzyka and Greg Zeschuk for founding BioWare; and CD Projekt, creators of The Witcher series and Cyberpunk 2077. Finally, Ryozo Tsujimoto (Monster Hunter series) and Katsura Hashino (Persona series) were cited as "Japanese Game Developers You Should Know" by 1UP.com in 2010.
Crowdfunding
Since 2009
there has been a trend of crowdfunding video games using services such as Kickstarter. Role-playing games that have been successfully crowdfunded include Serpent in the Staglands (2015), The Banner Saga series (2015-2018), Dead State (2014), Wasteland 2 (2014), Shadowrun Returns and its sequels (2012-2015), the Pillars of Eternity series (2015-2018), the Divinity: Original Sin series (2014-2017) and Torment: Tides of Numenera (2017). Due to the release of Wasteland 2, Divinity: Original Sin, The Banner Saga and Dead State (as well as some more traditionally funded titles such as Might and Magic X, Lords of Xulima and The Dark Eye: Blackguards) 2014 was called "the first year of the CRPG renaissance" by PC Gamer. However, it has been speculated that the spike in funded projects at around this time was the result of a "Kickstarter bubble", and that a subsequent slump in project funding was due to "Kickstarter fatigue".
The highest crowdfunded CRPG as of May 2017 is Torment: Tides of Numenera'' with $4,188,927 raised via Kickstarter. Kickstarted games have been released for the personal computer, video game console, and mobile platforms.
Footnotes
References
External links
The History of Computer Role-Playing Games at Gamasutra
Role-playing
Video game terminology
Articles containing video clips |
356778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balthasar%20G%C3%A9rard | Balthasar Gérard | Balthasar Gérard (alternative spellings Gerards or Gerardts; c. 1557 – 14 July 1584) was the assassin of the Dutch revolt's leader, William the Silent of the House of Orange (William the Silent, and later known as the 'Father of the Fatherland'). He killed William the Silent in Delft on 10 July 1584, by shooting him twice with a pair of pistols, and was afterwards tried, convicted, and executed.
Gérard was born in Franche-Comté (then belonging to Holy Roman Empire, afterwards to France). He came from a Roman Catholic family with 11 children and was a great admirer of Philip II, king of Spain and the Netherlands. He studied law at the University of Dole. On 15 March 1580, King Philip had offered a reward of 25,000 crowns, peerage and an inheritable estate to anyone who killed or captured William the Silent, to whom he referred in his decree as a "pest on the whole of Christianity and the enemy of the human race".
Preparations
After the reward offered by Philip was published, Gérard left for Luxembourg, where he learned that Juan de Jáuregui had already been preparing to attempt the assassination, but this attempt did not succeed. In March 1584 he went to Trier, where he put his plan before the regent of the Jesuits, but another Jesuit convinced him to change his original scheme and go to the prince of Parma. In Tournai, after holding counsel with a Franciscan, Father Gery, Gérard wrote a letter, a copy of which was deposited with the guardian of the convent, and the original presented personally to the Prince of Parma. In the letter Gérard wrote, in part, "The vassal ought always to prefer justice and the will of the king to his own life."
At first the prince thought him unfit but after consulting Haultepenne and others with the letter he was assigned to Christoffel d'Assonleville, who spoke with Gérard, and asked him to put this in writing, which he did on 11 April 1584. He requested absolution from the prince of Parma "as he was about to keep company for some time with heretics and atheists, and in some sort to conform himself to their customs".
For his first expenses he begged for 50 crowns, which were refused. "I will provide myself out of my own purse", Gérard told Assonleville, "and within six weeks you will hear of me." Assonleville responded: "Go forth, my son ... and if you succeed in your enterprise, the King will fulfill all his promises, and you will gain an immortal name besides." On Sunday, 8 July 1584, Gérard loitered in the courtyard of the Prinsenhof examining the premises. A halberdier asked him why he was waiting there. He excused himself by saying that in his present shabby clothing and without new shoes he was unfit to join the congregation in the church opposite. The halberdier unsuspectingly arranged from the Prince of Orange himself a gift of 50 crowns for Gérard, who the following morning purchased a pair of pistols from a soldier, haggling the price for a long time because the soldier could not supply the particular chopped bullets or slugs he wanted.
The shooting
On 10 July 1584, as William the Silent climbed the stairs to the second floor, he was spoken to by the Welsh captain Roger Williams, who knelt before him. William put his hand on the bowed head of the old captain, at which moment Gérard jumped out of a dark corner. He drew his weapons and fired two shots at the stadtholder. William the Silent collapsed. His sister knelt beside him, but it was too late. Asked whether he commended his soul to Christ, he answered in the affirmative. His last words were, Mon Dieu, ayez pitié de moi et de mon pauvre peuple ("My God, have mercy on me and on my poor people").
Gérard fled through a side door and ran across a narrow lane, pursued by Roger Williams. Gérard had almost reached the ramparts, from which he intended to jump into the moat. On the other side a saddled horse stood ready. A pig's bladder around his waist was intended to help keep him afloat. However, he stumbled over a heap of rubbish. A servant and a halberdier of the prince who had raced after him caught him. When called a traitor by his captors, he is said to have replied, "I am no traitor; I am a loyal servant of my lord." "Which lord?", they asked. "Of my lord and master, the king of Spain". At the same time more pages and halberdiers of the prince appeared and dragged him back to the house under a rain of fists and beatings with the butt of a sword. Hearing his assailants chatter and convinced he heard the prince was still alive, he cried "Cursed be the hand that missed!"
The shooting is notable for being the first recorded political assassination of a head of state with a firearm. After William the Silent's murder, more than 200 years would pass until another head of state was killed by a firearm, when Gustav III, King of Sweden, was fatally wounded at a midnight masquerade in 1792.
Trial, torture, and execution
At the house he immediately underwent a preliminary examination before the city magistrates. Upon being interrogated by the magistrates, he reportedly showed neither despair nor contrition, but rather a quiet exultation, stating: "Like David, he had slain Goliath of Gath."
At his trial, Gérard was sentenced to be tortured and then executed, in a manner considered brutal by the standards at the time. The magistrates decreed that the right hand of Gérard should be burned off with a red-hot iron, that his flesh should be torn from his bones with pincers in six different places, that he should be quartered and disemboweled alive, his heart torn from his bosom and flung in his face, and that, finally, his head should be taken off.
Gérard's torture was extraordinarily brutal. On the first night of his imprisonment, Gérard was hung on a pole and lashed with a whip. Next, his wounds were smeared with honey and a goat was brought to lick the honey off his skin with its rough tongue. The goat, however, refused to touch his body. After several other forms of torture, he was left to pass the night with his hands and feet bound together, like a ball, so sleep would be difficult. During the following three days, he was repeatedly mocked and hung on a pole with his hands tied behind his back. Then, a weight of 300 metric pounds (150 kg) was attached to each of his big toes for half an hour.
Subsequently, Gérard was fitted with shoes made of well-oiled, uncured dog skin; the shoes were two fingers shorter than his feet. In this state, he was put before a fire. When the shoes warmed up, they contracted, crushing the feet inside them to stumps. When the shoes were removed, his half-broiled skin was torn off. After his feet were damaged, his armpits were branded. He was then dressed in a shirt soaked in alcohol. Lastly, burning bacon fat was poured over him and sharp nails were stuck between the flesh and the nails of his hands and feet. On 14 July, four days after the assassination, the sentence declared at the trial was carried out and Gérard was tortured and executed in the market square of Delft. His severed head was then displayed on a pike behind the Prinsenhof, and his arms and legs displayed on four gates of the city.
Aftermath
Philip II gave Gérard's parents, instead of the reward of 25,000 crowns, three country estates in Lievremont, Hostal, and Dampmartin in the Franche-Comté, and the family was raised to the peerage. Philip II would later offer the estates to Philip William, Orange's son and the next Prince of Orange, provided the prince continue to pay a fixed portion of the rents to the family of his father's murderer; the insulting offer was rejected. The estates remained with the Gérard family. The apostolic vicar Sasbout Vosmeer tried to have Gérard canonized, to which end he removed the dead man's head and showed it to church officials in Rome, but the idea was rejected.
Legacy
The village of Vuillafans renamed the street where Gérard was born "Rue Gérard" in his memory.
References
Sources
Jardine, Lisa: The Awful End of William the Silent: The First Assassination of A Head of State with a Handgun: London: HarperCollins: 2005:
16th-century French criminals
Date of birth unknown
1550s births
1584 deaths
French assassins
French people convicted of murder
French people executed abroad
French people of the Eighty Years' War
French Roman Catholics
University of Dole alumni
People executed by the Dutch Republic
People from Doubs
Executed people from Franche-Comté
People executed by torture
Dismemberments
William the Silent
Executed assassins
People executed by the Netherlands by decapitation |
356780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Oliwa | Battle of Oliwa | The Battle of Oliwa, also known as the Battle of Oliva or the Battle of Gdańsk Roadstead, was a naval battle that took place on 28 November, 1627, slightly north of the port of Danzig off of the coast of the village of Oliva during the Polish–Swedish War. It was the largest naval engagement to be fought by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy and resulted in defeating a Swedish squadron led by Niels Stiernsköld that conducted a blockade of the harbour of Danzig. The Poles sailed out of the Danzig harbour and engaged the Swedish squadron capturing the Swedish flagship and sinking another Swedish warship.
Background
The Swedes had a long tradition of seamanship and maintained a strong navy, and were able to land troops from the Swedish mainland at will along the southern Baltic shore. They were also able to blockade the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's ports (most important being Danzig) maintaining a stranglehold on Polish-Lithuanian trade. On 28 November, a small, newly-formed Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth fleet, using purchased German ships and foreign (mainly Dutch) sailors, emerged from Danzig to defeat the Swedish blockading squadron. The admiral of the Polish fleet( at the time) was Wilhelm Appelmann, but due to illness, he could not take part in the battle and the royal commissioners appointed a new admiral of the Polish fleet before. Arend Dickmann made himself the admiral of the fleet, Jan Storch made himself the commander of the Polish marines and Herman Witte made himself the vice admiral. These three commanders formed a council of war in which they jointly developed a battle plan and decided on the attack. The galleon Ritter Sankt Georg were the Polish-Lithuanian flagship.
Battle
The Polish–Lithuanian fleet outnumbered the blockading Swedish squadron; the two Polish-Lithuanian squadrons numbered ten ships in all, but most were of small size, and only four Polish-Lithuanian ships were at full combat strength. The Polish–Lithuanian ships were commanded by Admiral Arend Dickmann in the Ritter Sankt Georg. The Swedish squadron numbered six vessels under Admiral Nils Stiernsköld in his flagship, Tigern. The Polish–Lithuanian ships had a larger complement of marines on board than the Swedish ships, and this in large part determined the tactics employed in the battle.
The Polish–Lithuanian fleet anchored off the Danzig roadstead, while the Swedish squadron sailed southwards from the Hel Peninsula. The Polish–Lithuanian squadrons weighed anchor and suddenly rushed towards the Swedish squadron, much to the surprise of the Swedes.
The battle split into two main encounters. The Polish–Lithuanian flagship Ritter Sankt Georg, supported by the Meerweib, engaged the Swedish flagship Tigern. More Polish–Lithuanian ships came alongside the Tigern and Polish–Lithuanian marines boarded, overwhelmed the Swedes and captured the vessel. Meanwhile, the Polish–Lithuanian vice-admiral's galleon, Meerman, attacked the larger Swedish galleon, Solen. The captain of the Solen, a Scotsman named Alexander Forath who served as the vice admiral of the fleet, seeing that his ship was about to be captured, detonated the powder magazine and blew his ship up rather than capture it. The four surviving Swedish ships realized their situation, quickly headed towards the open sea and managed to escape the pursuit. Both admirals were killed.
After the conclusion of the battle, Arend Dickmann (known to the Poles as the Polish Nelson) died from a cannon shot that smashed his legs and appeared to be fired from the retreating Swedish ships, while the Swedish admiral Nils Stiernsköld soon died of injuries and sustained during the fighting. Both admirals were buried with the highest honors in the St. Mary's Basilica in Danzig.
Aftermath
The after action report on the battle for Sigismund III Vasa was prepared by Wolfgang von der Oelsnitz from the Royal Ship Commission, who also presented the king with the captured Swedish flags and the personal sword of Nils Stiernsköld. James Murray was dismissed from duty after the conclusion of the battle after allegations of cowardice surfaced from the other captains of the Polish–Lithuanian fleet over the refusal of Murray to pursue the fleeing of the Swedish ships.
The immediate effect of the battle was the temporary removal of the Swedish blockade of Danzig. The court of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth used the victory to the maximum advantage in their propaganda. A popular Polish saying states that on that day "the sun went down at noon", referring to the destruction of one of the Swedish ships, the Solen. Gustavus received the news of this battle with some mark of impatience, and apparently little awareness of the difference between naval and land operations – he could not help expressing his surprise that a "city of merchants" (referring to the city of Danzig) should be able to dispute the sea with a professional navy.
Order of battle
Ships of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy
1st Squadron
Ritter Sankt Georg (Rycerz Święty Jerzy) ("Knight St George") – flagship, galleon, 31 guns, 400 tons, under the command of Arend Dickmann
Fliegender Hirsch (Latający Jeleń) ("Flying Deer") – galleon, 20 guns, 300 tons, under the command of Ellert Appelman
Meerweib (Panna Wodna) ("Sea Virgo") – full-rigged pinnace, 12 guns, 160 tons, under the command of Adolf von Arzen
Schwarzer Rabe (Czarny Kruk) ("Black Raven") – fluyt, 16 guns, 260 tons, under the command of Alexander Bley
Gelber Löwe (Żółty Lew) ("Yellow Lion") – full-rigged pinnace, 10 guns, 120 tons, under the command of Hans Kizer
2nd Squadron
Meermann (Wodnik) ("Aquarius") – galleon, 17 guns, 200 tons, under the command of Hermann Witte
König David (Król Dawid) ("King David") – galleon, 31 guns, 400 tons, under James Murray
Arche Noah (Arka Noego) ("Noah's Ark") – full-rigged pinnace, 16 guns, 180 tons, under the command of Magnus Wesman
Weißer Löwe (Biały Lew) ("White Lion") – fluyt, 8 guns, 200 tons, under the command of Peter Böse
Feuerblase (Płomień) ("Fireblaze") – fluyt, 18 guns, 240 tons
In total, the fleet consisted of 10 ships, 179 cannons and 1,160 soldiers and sailors.
Ships of the Swedish Navy
Tigern ("Tiger") – flagship, galleon, 22 guns, 320 tons, under the command of Nils Stiernsköld – captured by the Polish-Lithuanians
Solen ("Sun") – galleon, 38 guns, 300 tons – under the command of Alexander Forath – blown up
Pelikanen ("Pelican") – galleon, 20 guns, 200 tons – escaped
Månen ("Moon") – galleon, 26 guns, 300 tons – escaped
Enhörningen ("Unicorn") – galleon, 18 guns, 240 tons – escaped
Papegojan ("Parrot") – full-rigged pinnace, 16 guns, 180 tons – escaped
In total, the fleet consisted of 6 ships, 140 cannons and 700 soldiers and sailors.
Commemoration
The Battle of Oliwa was commemorated in 1990 on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Warsaw, by an inscription on one of the boards that states "OLIWA 28 XI 1627".
In Danzig, there are streets named after the battle and Arend Dickmann himself, in recognition of his naval victory.
A monument was constructed in Oliwa to celebrate the battle.
Another monument to celebrate the battle was constructed in Gdynia, but it was destroyed in 1939 by the Germans after they captured Gdynia during the German invasion of Poland.
On 28 November, 1918 (which was also the anniversary of the Battle of Oliwa), the Polish Chief of State Józef Piłsudski ordered the creation of the Polish Navy.
References
Bibliography
Anderson, R. C., Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853, (2006),
Podhorodecki L., Rapiers and Horsemen, (1985),
The Little Military Encyclopedia, Edition I, (1967)
Eugeniusz Koczorowski, The Battle of Oliwa, Gdańsk Sea Publishing House, Edition II, (1976)
See also
Battle of Vistula Lagoon
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy
List of naval battles
Military history
History of Poland
Oliwa
Oliwa
Oliwa, 1627
1627 in Europe |
356782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominal%20watt | Nominal watt | Nominal wattage is used to simplify the measurement of the efficiency of a loudspeaker.
The impedance of a loudspeaker varies with frequency. This means that if different sine wave tones are fed into the loudspeaker at the same voltage (or the same current), the amount of electric power consumed will vary.
By convention, loudspeakers are designed to generate the same sound pressure level (SPL) at the listener for the same voltage at varying frequencies - regardless of the variation in electric power. This permits a loudspeaker to be used with an amplifier having a low internal impedance and a flat frequency response is realized for the combined amplifier/loudspeaker system.
However, an amplifier with a low internal impedance delivers more electrical output power when the load impedance reduces (until the impedances become approximately matched). Such high power levels could cause damage to either the amplifier or the amplifier's power supply, or the circuit connected to the amplifier's output (including the loudspeaker).
Therefore, an additional convention exists whereby loudspeaker manufacturers specify a conservative estimate of the average impedance that the loudspeaker will present while playing typical music. This is called the nominal impedance. Amplifiers can therefore be safely specified to operate into a load that has this nominal impedance (or higher, but not lower).
Typical nominal impedances for speakers include 4, 6, 8 and 16Ω (ohms), with 4Ω being most common in in-car loudspeakers, and 8Ω being most common elsewhere. A loudspeaker with an 8Ω nominal impedance may exhibit actual impedances ranging from approximately 5 to 100Ω depending on frequency.
In this context, the nominal wattage is the theoretical electric power that would be transferred from amplifier to speaker if the loudspeaker was actually exhibiting its nominal impedance. The actual electric power may vary from about twice the nominal power down to less than one tenth.
Loudspeaker efficiency is measured with respect to nominal power in order to emulate the situation outlined above where a low internal impedance amplifier is used with a loudspeaker. The convention is to supply one nominal watt during testing. If the nominal impedance is 4 ohms, the voltage would be 2 volts. If the nominal impedance is 8Ω, the voltage would be 2.83 volts.
References
EIA RS-299-A, Loudspeakers, Dynamic, Magnet Structures and Impedance
IEC 60268-5, Sound System Equipment - Part 5: Loudspeakers
Loudspeaker technology
Units of power |
356785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional%20racism | Institutional racism | Institutional racism, also known as systemic racism, is a form of racism that is embedded in the laws and regulations of a society or an organization. It manifests as discrimination in areas such as criminal justice, employment, housing, health care, education, and political representation.
The term institutional racism was first coined in 1967 by Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton in Black Power: The Politics of Liberation. Carmichael and Hamilton wrote in 1967 that while individual racism is often identifiable because of its overt nature, institutional racism is less perceptible because of its "less overt, far more subtle" nature. Institutional racism "originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and thus receives far less public condemnation than [individual racism]".
Institutional racism was defined by Sir William Macpherson in the UK's Lawrence report (1999) as: "The collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour that amount to discrimination through prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness, and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people."
Classification
In the past, the term "racism" was often used interchangeably with "prejudice," forming an opinion of another person based on incomplete information. In the last quarter of the 20th Century, racism became associated with systems rather than individuals. In 1977, David Wellman in his book Portraits of White Racism, defined racism as "a system of advantage based on race," illustrating this definition through countless examples of white people supporting racist institutions while denying that they are prejudiced. White people can be nice to people of color while continuing to uphold systemic racism that benefits them, such as lending practices, well-funded schools, and job opportunities. The concept of institutional racism re-emerged in political discourse in the late and mid 1990s, but has remained a contested concept. Institutional racism is where race causes a different level of access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society.
Professor James M. Jones theorised three major types of racism: personally mediated, internalized, and institutionalized. Personally mediated racism includes the deliberate specific social attitudes to racially prejudiced action (bigoted differential assumptions about abilities, motives, and the intentions of others according to their race), discrimination (the differential actions and behaviours towards others according to their race), stereotyping, commission, and omission (disrespect, suspicion, devaluation, and dehumanization). Internalized racism is the acceptance, by members of the racially stigmatized people, of negative perceptions about their own abilities and intrinsic worth, characterized by low self-esteem, and low esteem of others like them. This racism can be manifested through embracing "whiteness" (e.g. stratification by skin colour in non-white communities), self-devaluation (e.g., racial slurs, nicknames, rejection of ancestral culture, etc.), and resignation, helplessness, and hopelessness (e.g., dropping out of school, failing to vote, engaging in health-risk practices, etc.).
Persistent negative stereotypes fuel institutional racism, and influence interpersonal relations. Racial stereotyping contributes to patterns of racial residential segregation and redlining, and shapes views about crime, crime policy, and welfare policy, especially if the contextual information is stereotype-consistent.
Institutional racism is distinguished from racial bigotry by the existence of systemic, institutionalized policies, practices and economic and political structures that place minority racial and ethnic groups at a disadvantage in relation to an institution's racial or ethnic majority. One example of the difference is public school budgets in the U.S. (including local levies and bonds) and the quality of teachers, which are often correlated with property values: rich neighborhoods are more likely to be more 'white' and to have better teachers and more money for education, even in public schools. Restrictive housing contracts and bank lending policies have also been listed as forms of institutional racism.
Other examples sometimes described as institutional racism are racial profiling by security guards and police, use of stereotyped racial caricatures, the under- and misrepresentation of certain racial groups in the mass media, and race-based barriers to gainful employment and professional advancement. Additionally, differential access to goods, services, and opportunities of society can be included within the term "institutional racism", such as unpaved streets and roads, inherited socio-economic disadvantage, and standardized tests (each ethnic group prepared for it differently; many are poorly prepared).
Some sociological investigators distinguish between institutional racism and "structural racism" (sometimes referred to as "structured racialization"). The former focuses upon the norms and practices within an institution, the latter upon the interactions among institutions, interactions that produce racialized outcomes against non-white people. An important feature of structural racism is that it cannot be reduced to individual prejudice or to the single function of an institution.
Algeria
The French political thinker Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859) supported colonization in general, particularly the colonization of Algeria. In several speeches on France's foreign affairs and in two official reports presented to the National Assembly in March 1847 on behalf of an ad hoc commission, he also repeatedly commented on and analysed the issue in his voluminous correspondence. In short, Tocqueville developed a theoretical basis for French expansion in North Africa. He even studied the Koran, sharply concluding that the religion of Muhammad was "the main cause of the decadence... of the Muslim world". His opinions are also instructive about the early years of the French conquest and how the colonial state was first set up and organized. Tocqueville emerged as an early advocate of "total domination" in Algeria and subsequent "devastation of the country".
On 31 January 1830, Charles X capturing Algiers made the French state thus begin what became institutional racism directed at the Kabyle, or Berbers, of Arab descent in north Africa. The Dey of Algiers had insulted the monarchy by slapping the French ambassador with a fly whisk, and the French used that pretext to invade and to put an end to piracy in the vicinity. The unofficial objective was to restore the prestige of the French crown and gain a foothold in North Africa, thereby preventing the British gaining advantage over France in the Mediterranean. The July Monarchy, which came to power in 1830, inherited that burden. The next ten years saw the indigenous population subjected to the might of the French army. By 1840, more conservative elements gained control of the government and dispatched General Thomas Bugeaud, the newly appointed governor of the colony, to Algeria, which marked the real start of the country's conquest. The methods employed were atrocious. The army deported villagers en masse, massacred the men and raped women, took the children hostage, stole livestock and harvests and destroyed orchards. Tocqueville wrote, "I believe the laws of war entitle us to ravage the country and that we must do this, either by destroying crops at harvest time, or all the time by making rapid incursions, known as raids, the aim of which is to carry off men and flocks."
Tocqueville added: "In France I have often heard people I respect, but do not approve, deplore [the army] burning harvests, emptying granaries and seizing unarmed men, women and children. As I see it, these are unfortunate necessities that any people wishing to make war on the Arabs must accept." He also advocated that "all political freedoms must be suspended in Algeria". Marshal Bugeaud, who was the first governor-general and also headed the civil government, was rewarded by the King for the conquest and having instituted the systemic use of torture, and following a "scorched earth" policy against the Arab population.
Land grab
Once the conquest of Algiers was accomplished soldier-politician Bertrand Clauzel and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidise its settlement by European farmers, which triggered a land rush. He became governor general in 1835 and used his office to make private investments in land by encouraging bureaucrats and army officers in his administration to do the same. The development created a vested interest in government officials for greater French involvement in Algeria. Merchants with influence in the government also saw profit in land speculation, which resulted in expanding the French occupation. Large agricultural tracts were carved out, and factories and businesses began exploiting cheap local labour and also benefited from laws and edicts that gave control to the French. The policy of limited occupation was formally abandoned in 1840 and replaced by one of complete control. By 1843, Tocqueville intended to protect and extend expropriation by the rule of law and so advocated setting up special courts, which were based on what he called "summary" procedure, to carry out a massive expropriation for the benefit of French and other European settlers, who could thus purchase land at attractive prices and live in villages, which the colonial government had equipped with fortifications, churches, schools and even fountains. His belief, which framed his writings and influenced state actions, was that the local people, who had been driven out by the army and robbed of their land by the judges, would gradually die out.
The French colonial state, as he conceived it and as it took shape in Algeria, was a two-tiered organization, quite unlike the regime in Mainland France. It introduced two different political and legal systems that were based on racial, cultural and religious distinctions. According to Tocqueville, the system that should apply to the Colons would enable them alone to hold property and travel freely but would deprive them of any form of political freedom, which should be suspended in Algeria. "There should therefore be two quite distinct legislations in Africa, for there are two very separate communities. There is absolutely nothing to prevent us treating Europeans as if they were on their own, as the rules established for them will only ever apply to them".
Following the defeats of the resistance in the 1840s, colonisation continued apace. By 1848, Algeria was populated by 109,400 Europeans, only 42,274 of whom were French. The leader of the Colons delegation, Auguste Warnier (1810–1875), succeeded in the 1870s in modifying or introducing legislation to facilitate the private transfer of land to settlers and continue Algeria's appropriation of land from the local population and distribution to settlers. Europeans held about 30% of the total arable land, including the bulk of the most fertile land and most of the areas under irrigation. In 1881, the Code de l'Indigénat made the discrimination official by creating specific penalties for indigenes and by organising the seizure or appropriation of their lands. By 1900, Europeans produced more than two-thirds of the value of output in agriculture and practically all of the agricultural exports. The colonial government imposed more and higher taxes on Muslims than on Europeans. The Muslims, in addition to paying traditional taxes dating from before the French conquest, also paid new taxes from which the Colons were normally exempted. In 1909, for instance, Muslims, who made up almost 90% of the population but produced 20% of Algeria's income, paid 70% of direct taxes and 45% of the total taxes collected. Also, Colons controlled how the revenues would be spent and so their towns had handsome municipal buildings, paved streets lined with trees, fountains and statues, but Algerian villages and rural areas benefited little, if at all, from tax revenues.
In education
The colonial regime proved severely detrimental to overall education for Muslims, who had previously relied on religious schools to learn reading, writing, and religion. The state appropriated the habus lands, the religious foundations that constituted the main source of income for religious institutions, including schools, in 1843, but colonial officials refused to allocate enough money to maintain schools and mosques properly and to provide for enough teachers and religious leaders for the growing population. In 1892, more than five times as much was spent for the education of Europeans as for Muslims, who had five times as many children of school age. Because few Muslim teachers were trained, Muslim schools were largely staffed by French teachers. Even a state-operated madrasa often had French faculty members. Attempts to institute bilingual, bicultural schools, intended to bring Muslim and European children together in the classroom, were a conspicuous failure, which were rejected by both communities and phased out after 1870. According to one estimate, fewer than 5% of Algerian children attended any kind of school in 1870. As late as 1954, only one Muslim boy in five and one girl in sixteen received formal schooling. Efforts were begun by 1890 to educate a small number of Muslims along with European students in the French school system as part of France's "civilising mission" in Algeria. The curriculum was entirely French and allowed no place for Arabic studies, which were deliberately downgraded even in Muslim schools. Within a generation, a class of well-educated, gallicized Muslims, the évolués (literally "evolved ones"), had been created.
Enfranchisement
Following its conquest of Ottoman-controlled Algeria in 1830, France maintained for well over a century its colonial rule in the territory that has been described as "quasi-apartheid". The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and Berber Algerians to apply for French citizenship only if they abandoned their Muslim identity; Azzedine Haddour argues that it established "the formal structures of a political apartheid". Camille Bonora-Waisman writes, "In contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates", the "colonial apartheid society" was unique to Algeria.
Under the French Fourth Republic, Muslim Algerians were accorded the rights of citizenship, but the system of discrimination was maintained in more informal ways. Frederick Cooper writes that Muslim Algerians "were still marginalized in their own territory, notably the separate voter roles of 'French' civil status and of 'Muslim' civil status, to keep their hands on power." The "internal system of apartheid" was met with considerable resistance by the Algerian Muslims affected by it, and it is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection.
There was clearly nothing exceptional about the crimes committed by the French army and state in Algeria in 1955 to 1962. On the contrary, they were part of history repeating itself.
State racism
Following the views of Michel Foucault, the French historian Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison spoke of a "state racism" under the French Third Republic, a notable example being the 1881 Indigenous Code applied in Algeria. Replying to the question "Isn't it excessive to talk about a state racism under the Third Republic?", he replied:
"No, if we can recognize 'state racism' as the vote and implementation of discriminatory measures, grounded on a combination of racial, religious and cultural criteria, in those territories. The 1881 Indigenous Code is a monument of this genre! Considered by contemporary prestigious jurists as a 'juridical monstruosity', this code planned special offenses and penalties for 'Arabs'. It was then extended to other territories of the empire. On one hand, a state of rule of law for a minority of French and Europeans located in the colonies. On the other hand, a permanent state of exception for the "indigenous" people. This situation lasted until 1945".
During a reform effort in 1947, the French created a bicameral legislature with one house for French citizens and another for Muslims, but it made a European's vote worth seven times a Muslim's vote. Even the events of 1961 show that France had not changed its treatment of the Algerians over the years, as the police took up the institutional racism that the French state had made law in its treatment of Arabs who, as Frenchmen, had moved to Mainland France.
Further reading
Original text: Library of Congress Country Study of Algeria
Aussaresses, Paul. The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957. (New York: Enigma Books, 2010) .
Bennoune, Mahfoud. The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987 (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
Gallois, William. A History of Violence in the Early Algerian Colony (2013), On French violence 1830–1847 online review
Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962, (Viking Adult, 1978)
Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina
The Battle of Algiers
The 1961 massacre was referenced in Caché, a 2005 film by Michael Haneke.
The 2005 French television drama-documentary Nuit noire, 17 octobre 1961 explores in detail the events of the massacre. It follows the lives of several people and also shows some of the divisions within the Paris police, with some openly arguing for more violence while others tried to uphold the rule of law.
Drowning by Bullets, a television documentary in the British Secret History series, first shown on 13 July 1992.
Australia
It is estimated that the population of Aboriginal peoples before British colonisation of Australia (starting in 1788) was about 314,000. It has also been estimated by ecologists that the land could have supported a population of a million people. By 1901 they had been reduced by two-thirds to 93,000. In 2011 Indigenous Australians (comprising both Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander people) comprised about 3% of the total population, at 661,000. When Captain Cook landed in Botany Bay in 1770, he was under orders not to plant the British flag and to defer to any native population, which was largely ignored.
Land rights, stolen generations, and terra nullius
Torres Strait Islander people are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are in the Torres Strait between the northernmost tip of Queensland and Papua New Guinea. Institutional racism had its early roots here due to interactions between these islanders, who had Melanesian origins and depended on the sea for sustenance and whose land rights were abrogated, and later the Australian Aboriginal peoples, whose children were removed from their families by Australian Federal and State government agencies and church missions, under acts of their respective parliaments. The removals occurred in the period between approximately 1909 and 1969, resulting in what later became known as the Stolen Generations. An example of the abandonment of mixed-race ("half-caste") children in the 1920s is given in a report by Walter Baldwin Spencer that many mixed-descent children born during construction of The Ghan railway were abandoned at early ages with no one to provide for them. This incident and others spurred the need for state action to provide for and protect such children. Both were official policy and were coded into law by various acts. They have both been rescinded and restitution for past wrongs addressed at the highest levels of government.
The treatment of the Indigenous people by the colonisers has been termed cultural genocide. The earliest introduction of child removal to legislation is recorded in the Victorian Aboriginal Protection Act 1869. The Central Board for the Protection of Aborigines had been advocating such powers since 1860, and the passage of the Act gave the colony of Victoria a wide suite of powers over Aboriginal and "half-caste" persons, including the forcible removal of children, especially "at risk" girls. By 1950, similar policies and legislation had been adopted by other states and territories, such as the Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 (Qld), the Aborigines Ordinance 1918 (NT), the Aborigines Act 1934 (SA) and the 1936 Native Administration Act (WA).
The child removal legislation resulted in widespread removal of children from their parents and exercise of sundry guardianship powers by Protectors of Aborigines up to the age of 16 or 21. Policemen or other agents of the state were given the power to locate and transfer babies and children of mixed descent from their mothers or families or communities into institutions. In these Australian states and territories, half-caste institutions (both government Aboriginal reserves and church-run mission stations) were established in the early decades of the 20th century for the reception of these separated children. Examples of such institutions include Moore River Native Settlement in Western Australia, Doomadgee Aboriginal Mission in Queensland, Ebenezer Mission in Victoria and Wellington Valley Mission in New South Wales.
In 1911, the Chief Protector of Aborigines in South Australia, William Garnet South, reportedly "lobbied for the power to remove Aboriginal children without a court hearing because the courts sometimes refused to accept that the children were neglected or destitute". South argued that "all children of mixed descent should be treated as neglected". His lobbying reportedly played a part in the enactment of the Aborigines Act 1911; this made him the legal guardian of every Aboriginal child in South Australia, including so-called "half-castes". Bringing Them Home, a report on the status of the mixed race stated "... the physical infrastructure of missions, government institutions and children's homes was often very poor and resources were insufficient to improve them or to keep the children adequately clothed, fed, and sheltered".
In reality, during this period removal of the mixed-race children was related to the fact that most were offspring of domestic servants working on pastoral farms, and their removal allowed the mothers to continue working as help on the farm while at the same time removing the whites from responsibility for fathering them and from social stigma for having mixed-race children visible in the home. Also, when they were left alone on the farm they became targets of the men who contributed to the rise in the population of mixed-race children. The institutional racism was government policy gone awry, one that allowed babies to be taken from their mothers at birth, and this continued for most of the 20th century. That it was policy and kept secret for over 60 years is a mystery that no agency has solved to date.
In the 1930s, the Northern Territory Protector of Natives, Cecil Cook, perceived the continuing rise in numbers of "half-caste" children as a problem. His proposed solution was:
"Generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated. The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the white". He did suggest at one point that they be all sterilised.
Similarly, the Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia, A. O. Neville, wrote in an article for The West Australian in 1930: "Eliminate in future the full-blood and the white and one common blend will remain. Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture and eventually, the race will become white".
Official policy then concentrated on removing all black people from the population, to the extent that the full-blooded Aboriginal people were hunted to extinguish them from society, and those of mixed race would be assimilated with the white race so that in a few generations they too would become white.
By 1900 the recorded Indigenous Australian population had declined to approximately 93,000.
Western Australia and Queensland specifically excluded Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from the electoral rolls. The Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902 excluded "Aboriginal natives of Australia, Asia, Africa and Pacific Islands except for New Zealand" from voting unless they were on the roll before 1901.
Land rights returned
In 1981 a land rights conference was held at James Cook University, where Eddie Mabo, a Torres Strait Islander, made a speech to the audience in which he explained the land inheritance system on Murray Island. The significance of this in terms of Australian common law doctrine was taken note of by one of the attendees, a lawyer, who suggested there should be a test case to claim land rights through the court system. Ten years later, five months after Eddie Mabo died, on 3 June 1992, the High Court announced its historic decision, namely overturning the legal doctrine of terra nullius, which was the term applied by the British relating to the continent of Australia – "empty land".
Public interest in the Mabo case had the side effect of throwing the media spotlight on all issues related to Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders in Australia, and most notably the Stolen Generations. The social impacts of forced removal have been measured and found to be quite severe. Although the stated aim of the "resocialisation" program was to improve the integration of Aboriginal people into modern society, a study conducted in Melbourne and cited in the official report found that there was no tangible improvement in the social position of "removed" Aboriginal people as compared to "non-removed", particularly in the areas of employment and post-secondary education.
Most notably, the study indicated that removed Aboriginal people were actually less likely to have completed a secondary education, three times as likely to have acquired a police record and were twice as likely to use illicit drugs. The only notable advantage "removed" Aboriginal people possessed was a higher average income, which the report noted was most likely due to the increased urbanisation of removed individuals, and hence greater access to welfare payments than for Aboriginal people living in remote communities.
Indigenous health and employment
In his 2008 address to the houses of parliament apologising for the treatment of the Indigenous population, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd made a plea to the health services regarding the disparate treatment in health services. He noted the widening gap between the treatment of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, and committed the government to a strategy called "Closing the Gap", admitting to past institutional racism in health services that shortened the life expectancy of the Aboriginal people. Committees that followed up on this outlined broad categories to redress the inequities in life expectancy, educational opportunities and employment. The Australian government also allocated funding to redress the past discrimination. Indigenous Australians visit their general practitioners (GPs) and are hospitalised for diabetes, circulatory disease, musculoskeletal conditions, respiratory and kidney disease, mental, ear and eye problems and behavioural problems yet are less likely than non-Indigenous Australians to visit the GP, use a private doctor, or apply for residence in an old age facility. Childhood mortality rates, the gap in educational achievement and lack of employment opportunities were made goals that in a generation should halve the gap. A national "Close the Gap" day was announced for March of each year by the Human Rights Commission.
In 2011, the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare reported that life expectancy had increased since 2008 by 11.5 years for women and 9.7 years for men along with a significant decrease in infant mortality, but it was still 2.5 times higher than for the non-indigenous population. Much of the health woes of the Indigenous people could be traced to the availability of transport. In remote communities, the report cited 71% of the population in those remote Indigenous communities lacked access to public transport, and 78% of the communities were more than from the nearest hospital. Although English was the official language of Australia, many Indigenous Australians did not speak it as a primary language, and the lack of printed materials that were translated into the Australian Aboriginal languages and the non-availability of translators formed a barrier to adequate health care for Aboriginal people. By 2015, most of the funding promised to achieve the goals of "Closing the Gap" had been cut, and the national group monitoring the conditions of the Indigenous population was not optimistic that the promises of 2008 will be kept. In 2012, the group complained that institutional racism and overt discrimination continued to be issues, and that, in some sectors of government, the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was being treated as an aspirational rather that a binding document.
Canada
Indigenous Canadians
The living standard of indigenous peoples in Canada falls far short of those of the non-indigenous, and they, along with other 'visible minorities' remain, as a group, the poorest in Canada. There continue to be barriers to gaining equality with other Canadians of European ancestry. The life expectancy of First Nations people is lower; they have fewer high school graduates, much higher unemployment rates, nearly double the number of infant deaths and significantly greater contact with law enforcement. Their incomes are lower, they enjoy fewer promotions in the workplace and as a group, the younger members are more likely to work reduced hours or weeks each year.
Many in Europe during the 19th century (as reflected in the Imperial Report of the Select Committee on Aborigines), supported the goal put forth by colonial imperialists of 'civilizing' the Native populations. This led to an emphasis on the acquisition of Aboriginal lands in exchange for the putative benefits of European society and their associated Christian religions. British control of Canada (the Crown) began when they exercised jurisdiction over the first nations and it was by Royal Proclamation that the first piece of legislation the British government passed over First Nations citizens assumed control of their lives. It gave recognition to the Indians tribes as First Nations living under Crown protection.
It was after the treaty of Paris in 1763, whereby France ceded all claims in present-day Canada to Britain, that King George III of Great Britain issued this Royal Proclamation specifying how the Indigenous in the crown colony were to be treated. It is the most significant pieces of legislation regarding the Crown's relationship with Aboriginal people. This Royal Proclamation recognized Indian owned lands and reserved to them all use as their hunting grounds. It also established the process by which the Crown could purchase their lands, and also laid out basic principles to guide the Crown when making treaties with the First Nations. The Proclamation made Indian lands transferred by treaty to be Crown property, and stated that indigenous title is a collective or communal rather than a private right so that individuals have no claim to lands where they lived and hunted long before the British came.
Indian Acts
In 1867, the British North America Act made land reserved for Indians a Crown responsibility. In 1876 the first of many Indian Acts passed, each successive one leeched more from the rights of the indigenous as was stated in the first.
The sundry revised Indian Acts (22 times by 2002) solidified the position of Natives as wards of the state, and Indian agents were given discretionary power to control almost every aspect of the lives of the indigenous. It then became necessary to have permission from an Indian agent if Native people wanted to sell crops they had grown and harvested, or wear traditional clothes off the reserves. The Indian Act was also used to deny Indians the right to vote until 1960, and they could not sit on juries.
In 1885, General Middleton after defeating the Metis rebellion introduced the Pass System in western Canada, under which Natives could not leave their reserves without first obtaining a pass from their farming instructors permitting them to do so. While the Indian Act did not give him such powers, and no other legislation allowed the Department of Indian Affairs to institute such a system, and it was known by crown lawyers to be illegal as early as 1892, the Pass System remained in place and was enforced until the early 1930s. As Natives were not permitted at that time to become lawyers, they could not fight it in the courts. Thus was institutional racism externalized as official policy.
When Aboriginals began to press for recognition of their rights and to complain of corruption and abuses of power within the Indian department, the Act was amended to make it an offence for an Aboriginal person to retain a lawyer for the purpose of advancing any claims against the crown.
Métis
Unlike the effect of those Indian treaties in the North-West, which established the reserves for the Indigenous, the protection of Métis lands was not secured by the scrip policy instituted in the 1870s, whereby the crown exchanged a scrip in exchange for a fixed (160–240 acres) grant of land to those of mixed heritage.
Although Section 3 of the 1883 Dominion Lands Act set out this limitation, this was the first mention in the orders-in-council confining the jurisdiction of scrip commissions to ceded Indian territory. However, a reference was first made in 1886 in a draft letter of instructions to Goulet from Burgess. In most cases, the scrip policy did not consider Métis ways of life, did not guarantee their land rights, and did not facilitate any economic or lifestyle transition.
Most Métis were illiterate and did not know the value of the scrip, and in most cases sold them for instant gratification due to economic need to speculators who undervalued the paper. Needless to say, the process by which they applied for their land was made deliberately arduous.
There was no legislation binding scrip land to the Métis who applied for them, Instead, Métis scrip lands could be sold to anyone, hence alienating any Aboriginal title that may have been vested in those lands. Despite the evident detriment to the Métis, speculation was rampant and done in collusion with the distribution of scrip. While this does not necessarily preclude a malicious intent by the federal government to consciously 'cheat' the Métis, it illustrates their apathy towards the welfare of the Métis, their long-term interests, and the recognition of their Aboriginal title. But the point of the policy was to settle land in the North-West with agriculturalists, not keep a land reserve for the Métis. Scrip, then, was a major undertaking in Canadian history, and its importance as both an Aboriginal policy and a land policy should not be overlooked as it was an institutional 'policy' that discriminated against ethnic indigenous to their continued detriment.
Enfranchisement
Until 1951, the various Indian Acts defined a 'person' as "an individual other than an Indian", and all indigenous peoples were considered wards of the state. Legally, the Crown devised a system of enfranchisement whereby an indigenous person could become a "person" in Canadian law. Indigenous people could gain the right to vote and become Canadian citizens, "persons" under the law, by voluntarily assimilating into European/Canadian society.
It was hoped that indigenous peoples would renounce their native heritage and culture and embrace the 'benefits' of civilized society. Indeed, from the 1920s to the 1940s some Natives did give up their status to receive the right to go to school, vote, or drink. However, voluntary enfranchisement proved a failure when few natives took advantage.
In 1920, a law was passed to authorize enfranchisement without consent, and many Aboriginal peoples were involuntarily enfranchised. Natives automatically lost their Indian status under this policy and also if they became professionals such as doctors or ministers, or even if they obtained university degrees, and with it, their right to reside on the reserves.
The enfranchisement requirements particularly discriminated against Native women, specifying in Section 12 (1)(b) of the Indian Act that an Indian status woman marrying a non-Indian man would lose her status as an Indian, as would her children. In contrast non-Indian women marrying Indian men would gain Indian status. Duncan Campbell Scott, the Deputy Superintendent of Indian Affairs, neatly expressed the sentiment of the day in 1920:
"Our object is to continue until there is not a single Indian in Canada that has not been absorbed into the body politic, and there is no Indian question and no Indian Department"
This aspect of enfranchisement was addressed by passage of Bill C-31 in 1985, where the discriminatory clause of the Indian Act was removed, and Canada officially gave up the goal of enfranchising Natives.
Residential schools
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Canadian federal government's Indian Affairs Department officially encouraged the growth of the Indian residential school system as an agent in a wider policy of assimilating Native Canadians into European-Canadian society. This policy was enforced with the support of various Christian churches, who ran many of the schools. Over the course of the system's existence, approximately 30% of native children, roughly some 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally, with the last school closing in 1996. There has long been controversy about the conditions experienced by students in the residential schools. While day schools for First Nations, Metis, and Inuit children always far outnumbered residential schools, a new consensus emerged in the early 21st century that the latter schools did significant harm to Aboriginal children who attended them by removing them from their families, depriving them of their ancestral languages, undergoing forced sterilization for some students, and by exposing many of them to physical and sexual abuse by staff members, and other students, and dis-enfranchising them forcibly.
With the goal of civilizing and Christianizing Aboriginal populations, a system of 'industrial schools' was developed in the 19th century that combined academic studies with "more practical matters" and schools for Natives began to appear in the 1840s. From 1879 on these schools were modelled after the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, whose motto was "Kill the Indian in him and save the man". It was felt that the most effective weapon for "killing the Indian" in them, was to remove children from their Native supports and so Native children were taken away from their homes, their parent, their families, friends and communities.
The 1876 Indian Act gave the federal government responsibility for Native education and by 1910 residential schools dominated the Native education policy. The government provided funding to religious groups such as the Catholic, Anglican, United Church and Presbyterian churches to undertake Native education. By 1920, attendance by natives was made compulsory and there were 74 residential schools operating nationwide. Following the ideas of Sifton and others like him, the academic goals of these schools were "dumbed down". As Duncan Campbell Scott stated at the time, they did not want students that were "made too smart for the Indian villages":
"To this end the curriculum in residential schools has been simplified and the practical instruction given is such as may be immediately of use to the pupil when he returns to the reserve after leaving school."
The funding the government provided was generally insufficient and often the schools ran themselves as "self-sufficient businesses", where 'student workers' were removed from class to do the laundry, heat the building, or perform farm work. Dormitories were often poorly heated and overcrowded, and the food was less than adequately nutritious. A 1907 report, commissioned by Indian Affairs, found that in 15 prairie schools there was a death rate of 24%. Indeed, a deputy superintendent general of Indian Affairs at the time commented:
"It is quite within the mark to say that fifty percent of the children who passed through these schools did not benefit from the education which they had received therein."
While the death rate did decline in later years, death would remain a part of the residential school tradition. The author of that report to the BNA, Dr. P.H. Bryce, was later removed and in 1922 published a pamphlet that came close to calling the governments indifference to the conditions of the Indians in the schools 'manslaughter'.
Anthropologists Steckley and Cummins note that the endemic abuses – emotional, physical, and sexual – for which the system is now well known for "might readily qualify as the single-worst thing that Europeans did to Natives in Canada". Punishments were often brutal and cruel, sometimes even life-threatening or life-ending. Pins were sometimes stuck in children's tongues for speaking their Native languages, sick children were made to eat their vomit, and semi-formal inspections of children's genitalia were carried out. The term Sixties Scoop (or Canada Scoops) refers to the Canadian practice, beginning in the 1960s and continuing until the late 1980s, of taking ("scooping up") children of Aboriginal peoples in Canada from their families for placing in foster homes or adoption.
Most residential schools closed in the 1970s, with the last one closing in 1996. Criminal and civil suits against the government and the churches began in the late 1980s and shortly thereafter the last residential school closed. By 2002 the number of lawsuits had passed 10,000. In the 1990s, beginning with the United Church, the churches that ran the residential schools began to issue formal apologies. And in 1998 the Canadian government issued the Statement of Reconciliation, and committed $350 million in support of a community-based healing strategy to address the healing needs of individuals, families and communities arising from the legacy of physical and sexual abuse at residential schools. The money was used to launch the Aboriginal Healing Foundation.
Starting in the 1990s, the government started a number of initiatives to address the effects of the Indian residential school. In March 1998, the government made a Statement of Reconciliation and established the Aboriginal Healing Foundation. In the fall of 2003, the Alternative Dispute Resolution process was launched, which was a process outside of court providing compensation and psychological support for former students of residential schools who were physically or sexually abused or were in situations of wrongful confinement. On 11 June 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued a formal apology on behalf of the sitting Cabinet and in front of an audience of Aboriginal delegates. A Truth and Reconciliation Commission ran from 2008 through to 2015 to document past wrongdoing in the hope of resolving conflict left over from the past. The final report concluded that the school system amounted to cultural genocide.
Contemporary situation
The overt institutional racism of the past has clearly had a profoundly devastating and lasting effect on visible minorities and Aboriginal communities throughout Canada. European cultural norms have imposed themselves on Native populations in Canada, and Aboriginal communities continue to struggle with foreign systems of governance, justice, education, and livelihood. Visible Minorities struggle with education, employment and negative contact with the legal system across Canada.
Perhaps most palpable is the dysfunction and familial devastation caused by residential schools. Hutchins states; "Many of those who attended residential schools have been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder, suffering from such symptoms as panic attacks, insomnia, and uncontrollable or unexplainable anger. Many also suffer from alcohol or drug abuse, sexual inadequacy or addiction, the inability to form intimate relationships, and eating disorders. Three generations of Native parents lost out on learning important parenting skills usually passed on from parent to child in caring and nurturing home environments, and the abuse suffered by students of residential schools has begun a distressing cycle of abuse within many Native communities." The lasting legacy of residential schools is but only one facet of the problem.
The Hutchins report continues: "Aboriginal children continue to struggle with mainstream education in Canada. For some Indian students, English remains a second language, and many lack parents with sufficient education themselves to support them. Moreover, schooling in Canada is based on an english written tradition, which is different from the oral traditions of the Native communities. For others, it is simply that they are ostracised for their 'otherness'; their manners, their attitudes, their speech, or a hundred other things which mark them out as different.
"Aboriginal populations continue to suffer from poor health. They have seven years less life expectancy than the overall Canadian population and almost twice as many infant deaths. While Canada as a nation routinely ranks in the top three on the United Nations Human Development Index, its on-reserve Aboriginal population, if scored as a nation, would rank a distant and shocking sixty-third."
As Perry Bellegarde National Chief, Assembly of First Nations, points out, racism in Canada today is for the most part, a covert operation. Its central and most distinguishing tenet is the vigour with which it is consistently denied. There are many who argue that Canada's endeavors in the field of human rights and its stance against racism have only resulted in a "more politically correct population who have learnt to better conceal their prejudices". In effect, the argument is that racism in Canada is not being eliminated, but rather is becoming more covert, more rational, and perhaps more deeply imbedded in our institutions.
That racism is alive is evidenced by the recent referendum in British Columbia by which the provincial government is asking the white majority to decide on a mandate for negotiating treaties with the Indian minority. The results of the referendum will be binding, the government having legislatively committed itself to act on these principles if more than 50% of those voting reply in the same way. Moreover, although it has been revised many times, "the Indian Act remains legislation which singles out a segment of society based on race". Under it, the civil rights of First Nations peoples are "dealt with in a different manner than the civil rights of the rest of Canadian citizens".
The Aboriginal Justice Inquiry in Manitoba, the Donald Marshall Inquiry in Nova Scotia, the Cawsey Report in Alberta and the Royal Commission of Aboriginal People all agree, as far as Aboriginal people are concerned, racism in Canadian society continues institutionally, systematically, and individually.
In 2020 after the death of Joyce Echaquan the Prime Minister of Canada Justin Trudeau had recognized aa case of systemic racism.
Anti-Chinese immigration laws
The Canadian government passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 levying a $50 head tax upon all Chinese people immigrating to Canada. When the 1885 act failed to deter Chinese immigration, the Canadian government then passed the Chinese Immigration Act, 1900, increasing the head tax to $100, and, upon that act failing, passed the Chinese Immigration Act, 1904 increasing the head tax (landing fee) to $500, equivalent to $8000 in 2003 – when compared to the head tax – Right of Landing Fee and Right of Permanent Residence Fee – of $975 per person, paid by new immigrants in 1995–2005 decade, which then was reduced to $490 in 2006.
The Chinese Immigration Act, 1923, better known as the "Chinese Exclusion Act", replaced prohibitive fees with a ban on ethnic Chinese immigrating to Canada – excepting merchants, diplomats, students, and "special circumstance" cases. The Chinese who entered Canada before 1923 had to register with the local authorities, and could leave Canada only for two years or less. Since the Exclusion Act went into effect on 1 July 1923, Chinese-Canadians referred to Canada Day (Dominion Day) as "Humiliation Day", refusing to celebrate it until the Act's repeal in 1947.
China
Institutional racism exists in many domains in the People's Republic of China, though certain scholars have noted the Chinese government's portrayal of racism as a Western problem, while intentionally ignoring or downplaying the existence of widespread systemic racism in China.
The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination reported in 2018 that Chinese law does not define racial discrimination.
Local ethnic minorities
Uyghurs
Under the leadership of China's Paramount Leader and Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping, the Uyghurs – a mostly Muslim ethnic minority group living in the Chinese Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region – have faced widespread persecution from authorities and mass detentions. Since 2017, it has been reported that least 1 million Uyghur Muslims have been detained in "re-education camps" commonly described as concentration camps, where they have been subject to torture, forced labor, religious discrimination, political indoctrination and other human rights abuses. Testimonials from escaped inmates have indicated inmates are subject to forced sterilization. Birth rates in two Xinjiang regions have dropped by more than 60% between 2015 and 2018, a result of measures by the Chinese government to lower the Uyghur population artificially. The situation has been described as an ongoing genocide by numerous sources, and it is likely the largest mass detention of a religious minority group since the Holocaust. A study from 2013 found local government officials in China "were 33 percent less likely to provide assistance to citizens with ethnic Muslim names than to ethnically-unmarked peers."
Tibetans
Since the People's Republic of China gained control of Tibet in 1951, there has been institutional racism in the form of an elaborate propaganda system designed by the Communist Party of China to portray Tibetans as being liberated through China and Han Chinese culture. A state-organized historical opera performed in 2016 in China portrayed Tibet as being unsophisticated prior to Princess Wencheng's marriage to Songtsen Gampo, a Tibetan emperor, in the year 641. This propaganda is described by Tibetan activist Woeser as being a "...vast project that rewrites history and 'wipes out' the memory and culture of an entire people."
A 1991 journal article identified how forced abortion, sterilization, and infanticide in Tibet were all part of a severe CCP birth control program in the region, designed specifically to target Tibetans.
A paper submitted to the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination by the Tibetan government in exile stipulates about how Tibetans face an education system which is inequitable compared with the education for Han Chinese. According to the paper, only about nine percent of Chinese adults are illiterate, compared with about sixty percent of Tibetans in the Tibetan Autonomous Region. Furthermore, Tibetan children are prevented from learning about their own history and culture, and forbidden to learn their own language. Schools in the region often have racial segregation based on ethnic characteristics, with Tibetan students receiving worse education in poorly-maintained classrooms.
During the 2008 Tibet protests, a local eyewitness claimed Chinese military police "were grabbing monks, kicking and beating them" after riots around the closure of the Sera monastery near Lhasa.
Anti-African sentiment
Racism against African people or people perceived to be of African descent has long been documented in China.
Published in 1963, African student Emmanuel Hevi's An African Student in China details "the arrests of Chinese girls for their friendships with Africans, and particularly, Chinese feelings of racial superiority over black Africans." One notable instance was the Nanjing anti-African protests of 1988, in which African university students were the subject of racist beatings and other attacks. In some cases, Chinese university students shouted racist slogans such as Down with the black devils!' and 'Blood for blood! Despite these obvious instances of racism against Africans, the Chinese state media portrayed the attacks as being instigated by the African students.
In modern China, racism remains an issue in certain universities, such as the state-funded Zhejiang Normal University. A black graduate student described how "African students would hear Professors and classmates make xenophobic comments, such as 'Africans are draining our scholarship funds and how African students, despite having higher grades, were receiving lower level scholarship funds through the ZJNU's three-tiered scholarship system than their classmates.
One study noted how Africans were being portrayed as "waste" and "triple illegals" through racial profiling by police in Guangzhou. In 2007, African nationals were targeted in Beijing's Sanlitun district by police during an anti-drug raid. They were the victims of police brutality and targeted on the basis of their skin color, something which the police later denied.
State media reports from 2008 referred to Africans in a racist manner, as Cheng explains: "...[the] language often remained demeaning regarding Africans as much less civilized people. Chinese words such as 部落 (buluo, "tribes") or 聚居地/ 群居/群落 (jujudi/qunju/qunluo, habitats), instead of 社区 (shequ, community) were often used to refer to Africans."
Yinghong Cheng asserts in a 2011 journal article that "Cyber racism against Africans is certainly not the only racial thinking but it is perhaps the most explicit and blatant one." He details the ubiquity of "manifestations of racial stereotypes, hierarchy perception and insensitivity", in addition to how "systematic discourse of race has developed in much more articulate, sophisticated and explicit ways in education and pop culture to accommodate contemporary Chinese nationalism." The adoption of a more state capitalist form of government in the PRC has led to the widespread internet popularity of commercialized Chinese singers and songwriters, some of whose material is racial in subject matter. As Cheng notes: The Yellow Race' (Huangzhongren 黄种人) and 'Yellow' (Huang 黄), [were] created in 2006 and 2007 respectively and dedicated to China's hosting of the Olympics. The racist language in these songs, such as 'the Yellow Race is now marching on the world,' combined with nationalist claims such as 'After 5,000 years, finally it is the time for us to show up on the stage,' coloured Xie's popularity among his young Chinese fans."
In 2018, CCTV New Year's Gala, a state media television programme which has in the past been viewed by up to 800 million people included a racist neocolonial skit featuring a Chinese actress who wore blackface makeup. The skit "praises Chinese-African cooperation, showing how much Africans benefit from Chinese investment and how grateful they are to Beijing." Later the same year, the Daily Monitor reported that citizens of Uganda and Nigeria were discriminated against in Guangzhou by the Chinese government, through incidents such as taxis being halted and passports from African countries being confiscated, as well as hotels and restaurants being ordered to erect notices banning service to Africans. In addition, some African-owned stores were forcibly shut down.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, multiple instances of systemic racism against African people were documented, including misinformation and racist stereotyping which portrayed Africans as carriers of the virus. According to The Guardian, Africans were "refused entry by hospitals, hotels, supermarkets, shops and food outlets. At one hospital, even a pregnant woman was denied access. In a McDonald's restaurant, a notice was put up saying 'black people cannot come in. The local government in Guangzhou implemented mass surveillance, compulsory testing, and enforced a 14-day quarantine for all African nationals, regardless of whether they had traveled outside of China in the past two weeks.
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Anti-Japanese sentiment exists as a modern issue in China. There have been reports of restaurants and public institutions refusing service or entry to Japanese people since the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Malaysia
The Malaysian Chinese and Indian-Malaysians – who make up a significant portion of ethnic minorities in Malaysia, with them making up around 23.2% and 7.0% of the population respectively – were granted citizenship by the Malaysian Constitution but this implied a social contract that left them at a disadvantage and discriminated in other ways, as Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia refers to the special "position" and "privileges" of the Muslim Malay people as supposed initial dwellers of the land.
In 1970 the Malaysian New Economic Policy a program of affirmative action aimed at increasing the share of the economy held by the Malay population, introduced quotas for Malays in areas such as public education, access to housing, vehicle imports, government contracts and share ownership. Initially meant as a measure to curb the poor economic participation of the Malays, aimed to reduce the number of hardcore poor Malays, it is now (post 2009) perceived by most conservative Malays as a form of entitlement or 'birthright'. In post-modern Malaysia, this entitlement in political, legislative, monarchy, religious, education, social, and economic areas has led to lower productivity and lower competitiveness among the Malays. As for the elite Malays, this 'privilege' has been abused to the point where the poor Malays remain poor, while the rich Malays becomes richer; which is the result of Malay cronyism, non-competitive and non-transparent government project tender processes favouring Bumiputera candidates – causing deeper intra-ethnic inequality. However, the actual indigenous people or better known as Orang Asli remain marginalised and have their rights ignored by the Malaysian government.
Since Article 160 defines a Malay as "professing the religion of Islam", those eligible to benefit from laws assisting bumiputra are, in theory, subject to religious law enforced by the parallel Syariah Court system.
Nigeria
Indigeneity
Nigeria contains over 250 ethnic groups, but it is dominated by three major ethnic groups who control most of the political power – the Hausa-Fulani of the north, the Igbo of the southeast, and the Yoruba of the southwest. Minorities accuse Nigeria's government structure of politically underrepresenting them in favor of the three dominant ethnic groups.
The Nigerian constitution promises equality among all ethnic groups, but in actuality, the concept of "indigeneity" is widespread across local and state governments (and to a lesser extent, the federal government). Citizens who are from "indigenous" ethnic groups are legally granted various political and economic privileges. The indigenes of a region are those who can trace their ethnic and genealogical origins back to the original settlers. Other Nigerians, regardless of how long they or their families have been living in a region, are considered to be non-indigenes.
Nigerians who lack a certificate of indigenity face marginalization and discrimination. During admissions, public universities actively attempt to limit the number of students who originate from non-indigene ethnic groups. Those admitted by a public university are required to pay higher fees. Persons from non-indigene ethnic groups are often unable to participate in local politics and they are also excluded from government jobs.
Niger Delta ethnic minorities
Nigeria is an oil-rich country where much of its oil resources can be found in the impoverished Niger Delta region, which is inhabited by ethnic minorities such as the Ogoni and Ijaw. The native inhabitants of the Niger Delta do not receive much of the wealth generated by Nigeria's vast oil industry, and it is paradoxically Nigeria's poorest region. The Niger Delta is constantly polluted and destroyed by the activities of both the Nigerian government and oil companies such as Shell Nigeria and Chevron Nigeria. Struggle for oil wealth has fueled violence in the Niger Delta, causing the militarization of nearly the entire region by ethnic militia groups and Nigerian military and police forces.
A 1979 amendment to the Nigerian constitution gave the federal government the authority to seize and distribute Ogoni territory to oil companies without any compensation. Ken Saro-Wiwa, an Ogoni activist, founded the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People in 1990 to protest both the Nigerian government and foreign oil corporations. In 1995, he was arrested and executed, along with nine other Ogoni activists, by the regime of the Hausa military dictator Sani Abacha, which was internationally condemned as a violation of human rights.
South Africa
In South Africa, during apartheid, institutional racism has been a powerful means of excluding from resources and power any person not categorized or marked as a white. Those marked as black were further discriminated against differentially, with Africans facing more extreme forms of exclusion and exploitation than those marked as Coloured or Indian. One such example of institutional racism in South Africa is Natives Land Act, 1913, which reserved 90% of land for white use and the Native Urban Areas Act of 1923 controlled access to urban areas, which suited commercial farmers who were keen to hold labour on their land. Africans, who formed the majority of the population, were relegated to (often barren) rural reserves, which later became homelands.
More modern forms of institutional racism in South Africa are centered around interracial relationships and official government policy. Opposition to interracial intimate relationships may be indicative of underlying racism, and that conversely acceptance and support of these relationships may be indicative of a stance against racism. Even though the prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act was repealed in 1985, the term "mixed" continued to exists, thus carrying forth the inherent stigmatization of "mixed" relationships and race. Consequently, discourse is a framework that realizes that language can produce institutional structures and relations. However, language constitutes who we are, how we interact with others and how we understand ourselves. Therefore, discourse is said to be inextricably linked to power and more than just a medium used to transmit information.
Furthermore, post-apartheid racism is still rife in South Africa, both black-on-white and white-on-black, with white-on-black racism being more advertised in the news. In 2015, black staff at a restaurant near Stellenbosch allegedly were verbally attacked and degraded by a group of white students. In response, a black student declared that everyone who did not speak Afrikaans in the area was an alien in the area. "They were whistling at them as they were whistling at dogs," he claimed. He further claimed that the white students even leapt over the counter and patted them as if they were dogs. Three white men and four other young white men allegedly followed him outside after he left the restaurant and assaulted him. The University of Stellenbosch did not continue with disciplinary action which shows the racism in academic institutions.
The South African government has done things to combat racial economic disparity in South Africa for example, BEE (Black Economic Empowerment) is a South African government programme aimed at facilitating black people's fuller participation in the economy, particularly to address imbalances established by apartheid. It offers incentives to businesses that contribute to black economic empowerment through a variety of measurable criteria, such as partial or majority black ownership, hiring black employees, and contracting with black-owned suppliers, as well as preferential treatment in government procurement processes. BEE's preferential procurement feature has been hailed as a model for a long-term procurement strategy in which government procurement is used to accomplish social policy goals.
United Kingdom
In the Metropolitan Police Service
In the United Kingdom, the inquiry about the murder of the Black Briton Stephen Lawrence concluded that the investigating police force was institutionally racist. Sir William Macpherson used the term as a description of "the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin", which "can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes, and behaviour, which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness, and racist stereotyping, which disadvantages minority ethnic people". Sir William's definition is almost identical to Stokely Carmichael's original definition some forty years earlier. Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton were Black Power activists and first used the term 'institutional racism' in 1967 to describe the consequences of a societal structure that was stratified into a racial hierarchy that resulted in layers of discrimination and inequality for minority ethnic people in housing, income, employment, education and health (Garner 2004:22).
The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry Report, and the public's response to it, were among the major factors that forced the Metropolitan Police to address its treatment of ethnic minorities. More recently, the former Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Sir Ian Blair said that the British news media are institutionally racist, a comment that offended journalists, provoking angry responses from the media, despite the National Black Police Association welcoming Blair's assessment.
The report also found that the Metropolitan Police was institutionally racist. A total of 70 recommendations for reform were made. These proposals included abolishing the double jeopardy rule and criminalising racist statements made in private. Macpherson also called for reform in the British Civil Service, local governments, the National Health Service, schools, and the judicial system, to address issues of institutional racism.
In June 2015, the Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe, said there was some justification in claims that the Metropolitan Police Service is institutionally racist.
In criminal conviction
In the English and Welsh prison system, government data compiled in 2020 showed that youths of color are dis-proportionally subject to punishment the UN regards as violating the Mandela Rules on the treatment of prisoners. The COVID-19 pandemic had caused some minors being held in pre-trial detention to be placed in solitary confinement indefinitely. Minorities under 18 comprised 50% of the youth inmates held and 27% of the overall prison population. Ethnic minorities made up 14% of the overall population.
In healthcare
Institutional racism exists in various aspects of healthcare, from maternity to psychiatric. Black women are four times more likely to die in pregnancy, labour and up to a year postpartum than whites. Asian women are twice as likely as whites to die in pregnancy. Black women are twice as likely to have a stillborn baby than whites.
According to the Institute for the Study of Academic Racism, scholars have drawn on a 1979 work by social psychologist Michael Billig – "Psychology, Racism, and Fascism" – that identified links between the Institute of Psychiatry and racist/eugenic theories, notably in regard to race and intelligence, as for example promoted by IOP psychologist Hans Eysenck and in a highly publicised talk in August 1970 at the IOP by American psychologist Arthur Jensen. Billig concluded that "racialist presuppositions" intruded into research at the Institute both unintentionally and intentionally. In 2007, the BBC reported that a "race row" had broken out in the wake of an official inquiry that identified institutional racism in British psychiatry, with psychiatrists, including from the IOP/Maudsley, arguing against the claim, while the heads of the Mental Health Act Commission accused them of misunderstanding the concept of institutional racism and dismissing the legitimate concerns of the black community in Britain. Campaigns by voluntary groups seek to address the higher rates of sectioning, over-medication, misdiagnosis and forcible restraint on members of minority groups. According to 2014 statistics, black adults had the lowest treatment rate of any ethnic group, at 5.2%. The treatment rate for whites is 17.3%. Figures from March 2019 show that black people were more than four times as likely as white people to be detained under the Mental Health Act in the previous year.
Black men were 4.2 times more likely, and black women were 4.3 times more likely, to die from COVID-19 than whites during the initial wave of the pandemic.
In education
In a 2009 report by the Department for Innovations and Business Skills, it was found that black students were the most likely to receive under-predicted grades by their teachers. It was found that 8.1% of black students received higher actual grades compared to 4.6% of white students, 6.5% of Asian students and 6.1% of Mixed students.
Critics contend that part of the institutional racism in education in the UK is in the curriculum. Arguments for and against decolonizing the curriculum are outlined on the BBC's Moral Maze podcast.
In employment
The equality and human rights commission reported that black workers with degrees earned 27.1% less income on average than whites. This gives some light for the reasons behind the stark inequalities that black people and to a lesser extent, other ethnic minorities face in the UK. For example, 56% of families with a black household head were living in poverty compared to 13% of families led by a white person.
Standards of employment in the UK, as well as in the United States and other Western European countries, often disregard how certain standards, such as eye contact, have different meanings around the world. Asian, Latin American and African cultures can consider eye contact as disrespect or as challenging authority, often resulting in them maintaining an on-and-off eye contact to show respect in interviews and employment processes. Opposingly, most people in countries in North America and Western Europe see eye contact as expressing enthusiasm and trust.
United States
In housing and lending
Institutional racism in the housing sector could be seen as early as the 1930s with the Home Owners' Loan Corporation. Banks would determine a neighborhood's risk for loan default and redline neighborhoods that were at high risk of crime. These neighborhoods tended to be African-American neighborhoods, whereas whites were able to receive housing loans. Over several decades, as whites left the city to move to nicer houses in the suburbs, predominantly African-American neighborhoods fell apart. Retail stores also started moving to the suburbs to be closer to the customers and to avoid being robbed. Commencing with President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal in the 1930s and through the 1960s, the FHA contributed to the economic growth of the white population by providing loan guarantees to banks, which in turn financed white homeownership and enabled white flight, and it did not make loans available to black people. As minorities were not able to get financing and aid from banks, whites pulled ahead in equity gains. Moreover, many college students were then, in turn, financed with the equity in homeownership that was gained by having gotten the earlier government handout, which was not the same accorded to black and other minority families. The institutional racism of the FHA's 1943 model has been tempered after the recent recession by changes in the 1970s and most recently by President Obama's efforts to stabilize the housing losses of 2008 with his Fair Housing Finance (GSE) reform.
These changes, which were brought on by government-funded programs and projects, have led to a significant change in inner-city markets. Due to robberies, black neighborhoods have been left with fewer food stores, but more liquor stores. The low-income neighborhoods are left with independently owned smaller grocery stores that tend to have higher prices. Poor consumers are left with the option of traveling to middle-income neighborhoods, or spending more for less.
The racial segregation and disparities in wealth between European Americans and African-American people include legacies of historical policies. In the Social Security Act of 1935, agricultural workers and servants, who disproportionately were black, were excluded because key whites did not want governmental assistance to change the agrarian system. In the Wagner Act of 1935, "blacks were blocked by law from challenging the barriers to entry into the newly protected labor unions and securing the right to collective bargaining." In the National Housing Act of 1939, the property appraisal system tied property value and eligibility for government loans to race. The 1936 Underwriting Manual used by the Federal Housing Administration to guide residential mortgages gave 20% weight to a neighborhood's protection, for example, zoning ordinances, deed restrictions, high speed traffic arteries, from adverse influences, such as infiltration of inharmonious racial groups. Thus, white-majority neighborhoods received the government's highest property value ratings, and whites were eligible for government loans and aid. Richard Rothstein, in his book "The Color of Law," tells of a history of residential segregation in America. He noted that government institutions in all branches and at all levels and were complicit in excluding African Americans from home-ownership. "We have created a caste system in this country, with African Americans kept exploited and geographically separate by racially explicit government policies," he wrote. In covering topics like racial covenants – where loans to developers were contingent on contracts that spelled out specific exclusion of black people, he showed that it was a policy spelled out by the Federal Housing Administration's underwriting manual, which denied any guarantees for a federal bank loan to a developer if they were to sell properties to African Americans in white communities. Homeowners in one such subdivision, Levittown, Long Island, New York, were forbidden to rent or sell to persons "other than members of the Caucasian race". Between 1934 and 1962, less than two percent of government-subsidized housing went to non-white people.
In 1968, the Fair Housing Act (FHA) was signed into law to eliminate the effects of state-sanctioned racial segregation. But it failed to change the status quo as the United States remained nearly segregated as in the 1960s. A newer discriminating lending practice was the subprime lending in the 1990s. Lenders targeted high-interest subprime loans to low-income and minority neighborhoods who might be eligible for fair-interest prime loans. Securitization, mortgage brokers and other non-deposit lenders, and legislative deregulation of the mortgage lending industry all played a role in promoting the subprime lending market.
Numerous audit studies conducted in the 1980s in the United States found consistent evidence of discrimination against African Americans and Hispanics in metropolitan housing markets.
The long-outlawed practice of redlining (in which banks choke off lending to minority communities) recently re-emerged as a concern for federal bank regulators in New York and Connecticut. A settlement with the Justice Department and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau was the largest in the history of both agencies, topping $33 million in restitution for the practice from New Jersey's largest savings bank. The bank had been accused of steering clear of higher crime neighborhoods and favoring whites in granting loans and mortgages, finding that, of the approximately 1,900 mortgages made in 2014, only 25 went to black applicants. The banks' executives denied bias, and the settlement came with adjustments to the banks' business practices. This followed other successful efforts by the federal, state and city officials in 2014 to expand lending programs directed at minorities, and in some cases to force banks to pay penalties for patterns of redlining in Providence, Rhode Island; St. Louis, Missouri; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and Buffalo and Rochester, New York. The Justice Department also has more active redlining investigations underway, and officials have stated to reporters that "redlining is not a thing of the past". It has evolved, they explained, into a more politically correct version, where bankers do not talk openly about denying loans to black people. The Justice Department officials noted that some banks quietly had institutionalized bias in their operations. They have moved their operations out of minority communities entirely, while others have moved in to fill the void and compete for clients. Such management decisions are not the stated intent, it is left unspoken so that even the bank's other customers are unaware that it is occurring. The effect on minority communities can be profound as home ownership, a prime source of neighborhood stability and economic mobility can affect its vulnerability to blight and disrepair. In the 1960s and 1970s, laws were passed banning the practice; its return is far less overt, and while the vast majority of banks operate legally, the practice appears to be more widespread as the investigation revealed a vast disparity in loans approved for black people as compared to whites in similar situations.
Studies in major cities, such as Los Angeles and Baltimore, show that communities of color have lower levels of access to parks and green space. Parks are considered an environmental amenity and have social, economic, and health benefits. The public spaces allow for social interactions, increase the likelihood of daily exercise in the community and improve mental health. They can also reduce the urban heat island effect, provide wildlife habitat, control floods, and reduce certain air pollutants. Minority groups have less access to decision-making processes that determine the distribution of parks. A recent study published by Suffolk University found that black renters face discrimination when renting compared to similarly situated white renters.
In health and environment
Institutional racism impacts health care accessibility within non-white minority communities by creating health disparities among racial groups. For example, from 1865 to 1906, many black veterans were unfairly denied disability pension by the Union Army disability pension system. Racism may also account for disproportionate rates of diseases, such as AIDS, among ethnic minorities. In a 1992 article, Janis Hutchinson argues that the federal government has responded slowly to the AIDS epidemic in minority communities and that their attempts have been insensitive to ethnic diversity in preventive medicine, community health maintenance, and AIDS treatment services. In addition, the mass incarceration of black males along, with vectors for addiction in co-relation to the higher number of minority females found infected with the HIV virus after 2000, has been the subject of study, and findings have shown that previous analyses of the rise incorrectly attributed it to male-on-male sex habits, rather than the causal effects found in current studies. Public health studies found incarcerated men, when returned to their communities, raise the risk of infection by passing the virus on to heterosexual partners, having acquired it in prison due to higher than average rates of sexual assault and rape, no access to condoms, injectable drugs and lack of clean needles, along with tattooing, and inadequate access to health care and treatment after being released due to poverty and unemployment. The studies also found that the high rates of incarceration reduced the number of available men in black communities and rupture social relationships, leading each man to have an increase in the number of concurrent sexual partners.
Institutional racism can affect minority health directly through health-related policies, as well as through other factors indirectly. For example, racial segregation disproportionately exposed black communities to chemical substances such as lead paint, respiratory irritants such as diesel fumes, crowding, litter, and noise. Members of racial minority groups that have a disadvantaged status in education and employment are more likely to be uninsured, which significantly impedes them from accessing preventive, diagnostic, or therapeutic health services.
Racial minorities in the United States are exposed to greater health and environmental risks than the general population. In 1982, there was a proposed polychlorinated biphenyl landfill in an African-American community in Warren County, NC. PCBs are toxic chemicals that can leach into the groundwater and contaminate the drinking water supply. The community resisted and said this was an act of environmental racism. This incident is considered to be the beginning of the environmental justice movement: a movement to address the fact the injustice that communities of color face. Research shows that there is racial discrimination in the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations. People of color and the poor are more likely to live, work and play in America's most polluted environments. Communities of color tend to be disproportionately exposed to lead, pesticides, and petrochemical plants. Unfortunately, race and class is a reliable indicator of how where industrial plants and waste facilities are located. Institutional environmental racism encompasses these land use decisions that contribute to health issues such as asthma, obesity and diabetes.
The opioid epidemic in the United States is overwhelmingly white, sparing African-American and Latino communities because doctors unconsciously prescribe narcotics more cautiously to their non-white patients. "Racial stereotyping is having a protective effect on non-white populations," according to Dr. Andrew Kolodny, the co-director of the Opioid Policy Research Collaborative at Brandeis.
The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected African Americans, with more dying of the disease during its initial wave than other racial groups. In testifying before Congress, the leading epidemiologist on the U.S. Coronavirus task force, Dr. Anthony Fauci, testified that a combination of factors affect the disproportionate numbers of minorities infected. In responding as to whether institutional racism has played a part in the data gleaned by the CDC, he pointed out the risk of infection along with underlying conditions in certain demographics was a factor, but affirmed his opinion that this was the case. A Queen's University Belfast study found that there is insufficient evidence to attribute the greater susceptibility of black, Middle-Eastern and Asian individuals to the virus.
Black women are two and one-half times more likely to die from maternal causes than are white women. The infant-mortality rate for African Americans is 11 per 1,000 births, which is higher than the 2018 U.S. average of 5.7. There exists a persistent racial gap between black and white Americans in life expectancy; on average this life-expectancy gap is around 4 years. However, this greatly varies depending on both the state and city level. For example, in Wisconsin, the black-white life expectancy gap is about 6 years for females and 7 years for males, and in Washington D.C this gap is about 12 years for females and greater than 17 years among males.
In criminal conviction
Although approximately two-thirds of crack cocaine users are white or Hispanic people (reported past-year use in 2013 of 0.8%, 0.3% and 0.1% for blacks, whites and Hispanics, respectively), a large percentage of people convicted of possession of crack cocaine in federal courts in 1994 were black people. In 1994, 86.3% of the defendants convicted of crack cocaine possession were black people, while 10.3% were whites and 5.2% were Hispanics. Possession of powder cocaine was more racially mixed, with 52% of the offenders being whites, 29.7% blacks, and 17% Hispanics. Within the federal judicial system, a person convicted of possession with intent to distribute powder cocaine carries a five-year sentence for quantities of 500 grams or more, while a person convicted of possession with intent to distribute crack cocaine faces a five-year sentence for quantities of 5 grams or more. With the combination of severe and unbalanced drug-possession laws, along with the rates of conviction in terms of race, the judicial system has created a racial disparity. This racial disparity has been attributed to legislation that was sponsored by U.S. Senator Joe Biden. In 2015, sitting President Barack Obama visited a federal prison (a presidential first) to discuss how disparate sentencing affected prisoners and highlight how, in the United States, excessive sentencing was a detrimental outcome of harsh sentencing laws, as well as to discuss the need to change the approach. In the Senate, top Republican and Democratic senators, in a rare bi-partisan effort, negotiated for months to produce concrete fixes to these laws. The law was changed in 2010 to reduce disparity; it affected only new cases. The need, according to Senate, was for a retroactive fix to reduce the thousands serving long sentences after four decades of extreme sentencing policies. Studies have shown it is possible to reduce both prison populations and crime at the same time. The U.S. Sentencing commission announced a retroactive reduction in drug sentences following a year-long review, which will result in a mass release of 6,000 prisoners, all of whom have already served substantial time in prison. This action was done in an effort to reduce overcrowding and provide comfort to wrongfully accused drug offenders who were sent to jail over the past couple of decades. Some of those to be released will be deported, and all will be subject to further judicial review.
The issue of policies that target minority populations in large cities, also known as stop and frisk and arrest quotas, as practiced by the NYPD, have receded from media coverage due to lawsuits that have altered the practice. In Floyd vs City of New York, a ruling that created an independent Inspector General's office to oversee the NYPD, the federal judge called a whistle-blower's recordings of superiors' use of "quotas" the 'smoking gun evidence' that police were racially profiling and violating civilians' civil rights. The police officer at the center of the case settled with the city for $1.1 million and in a separate case won an additional settlement against the hospital where he was involuntarily confined after cops retaliated and unlawfully placed him in a psych ward for reporting fudged stats in his precinct. After taking office in 2014, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio declined to continue litigating stop-and-frisk practices, and the number of minorities stopped under the practice dropped dramatically. The use of quotas to pad arrest figures also has fallen after lawsuits exposed the practice as carried on by drug enforcement officers.
A Stanford University study that analyzed 93 million traffic stops in the United States revealed that African Americans are twenty percent more likely to be stopped despite being less likely to be in possession of contraband compared to white people. In the state of California, 38% of people halted by police officers in Los Angeles were black people, despite accounting for only 9% of the population. In Washington, D.C., black people make up 46% of the population but composed 72% of the people stopped even though the difference in contraband hit rates between blacks and whites are not statistically significant. In Boston, blacks made up 64% of those stopped despite making up only 24% of the population; even after controlling for alleged gang involvement and prior arrest records, blacks were more likely to experience repeat police encounters and to be frisked or searched during an encounter. In Illinois, minority drivers are stopped 1.5 more times than white drivers, and Latino drivers are nearly 2 times more likely to be subjected to dog-sniff searches than are non-Hispanic whites but are found with contraband 1.6 times less often.
A Harvard University study found that in Massachusetts's criminal justice system minorities face greater risk to be represented across all parts of the criminal justice system in excess of their proportion of the population in that state. The likelihood that they will get arrested and convicted due to drug or weapons charges is eight times greater than for whites. Black people were found to receive average sentences that were 238 days longer, and Latino people 178 days longer, for the same offences. The study concluded that regarding 'stop and frisk' "The disparity in searches was more consistent with racial bias than with differences in criminal conduct,". The 24 percent of the city of Boston's population that was black made up 83 percent of those interrogated or frisked by police.
The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) has found that, since 2008, after Barack Obama's election into office, racist hate groups have increased above 400%. The SPLC asserts that racism at the institutional level dies hard, and is still prevalent in many U.S. institutions, including law enforcement and the criminal justice system. Frequently these institutions use racial profiling along with greater police brutality. Another major disparity between race and capital punishment in the United States is that murder cases with white victims were more likely than those with black victims to result in a death sentence.
A recent report by former Homeland Security secretary Jeh Johnson found both overt and institutional racism to be a pervasive problem in the NYS court system. Citing a "Second class system of justice for people of color in NYS", Johnson's report set out recommendations to combat bias and systematic racism in interactions between the court system and people of color, particularly in New York City. Chief administrative Judge Lawrence K. Marks found the reports findings troubling and said the state would attempt to implement all the report's solutions. The report also highlighted intolerant racism among court officers. The team conducted interviews of over 300 court personnel, including lawyers whom reported instances of discrimination from court officers and Judges. Judges who were interviewed said that the lack of resources in the busiest courts had a disparate impact on minority clients making up the bulk of cases, and judicial diversity failed to mitigate the effect as few black candidates could pass muster in Upstate New York, where connections mattered in their appointment as judges. One judge said the reluctance to provide funding to New York city courts was "the very definition of institutional bias".
Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986
The disparity between the sentences given to black people and white offenders has been most highlighted by that of crack- and powdered-cocaine offenses, which received disparate sentencing pursuant to federal law. Between 1986 and 1997,
the number of federal drug prisoners quintupled, with 74% of those minorities
convicted of low-level drug offenses and sentenced under mandatory minimum laws
and later added conspiracy amendments to the law.
Members of Congress and state legislators believed these harsh, inflexible sentences would catch those at the top of the drug trade and deter others from entering it. Instead, this broad response to the drug problem brought in more low-level offenders, which resulted in overcapacity prison populations and increased burdens for taxpayers. Mandatory sentencing laws disproportionately affected minorities and, because of their severity, families were destroyed. As a result, many states are
experiencing efforts to roll back these laws and there are efforts in Congress
to end mandatory minimums. (See Mandatory sentencing.)
Juvenile court
A federal investigation initiated before the 2014 Michael Brown shooting in Ferguson, Missouri, found faults with the treatment given youths in the juvenile justice system in St. Louis County, Missouri. The Justice Department, following a 20-month investigation based on 33,000 cases over three years, reported that black youths were treated more harshly than were whites and that all low-income youths, regardless of race, were deprived of their basic constitutional rights. Youths who encountered law enforcement got little or no chance to challenge detention or get any help from lawyers. With only one public defender assigned to juveniles in a county of one million, and that Legal Aid handled 394 cases in 2014. The investigation was unrelated to the notorious case that roiled St. Louis, beginning before the police shooting of the unarmed black youth. The failure to grant access to counsel brought to light the practice of an informal process that could let offenders off with a warning or having them enter into diversion programs in lieu of being charged in court. But to be accepted into the informal process, offenders had to admit to guilt, which runs afoul of the right not to incriminate oneself in criminal proceedings. The investigation following Michael Brown's shooting found an enormous disparity in the way juvenile cases were handled, with black youths being 67% more likely than whites to be put through the formal criminal proceedings. It also found them more likely to be held in detention, and also subsequently sentenced to incarceration once the case was finished. They were also more likely to be detained for violating parole from a previous case.
The county did not cooperate fully with the Justice Department, and the St. Louis Family Court declined to comment, as did the state court system, of which it is a part. A Justice Department official faulted "the role of implicit bias when there are discretionary decisions to be made". They also reported that the court rarely considers the evidence for probable cause and juveniles are illegally denied the opportunity to challenge that evidence or a transfer of the case out of the juvenile justice system to adult court. In most state courts, the public defender's office decides who is poor enough to merit representation; in St. Louis Family Court the judge or court commissioner, sometimes based on different standards, decides who gets access to counsel. Most troubling to the justice official was the continuing use of court officials to recite complicated statutory language about the alleged crimes, then leading the defendants through "formulaic 'do you understand' and yes/no questions." Judges made no effort to find out if the pleas were coerced, whether the child had any criminal intent or especially, did they fully understand the consequences of pleading guilty to the charges. Their competency to take part in their own defense was never established and the legal aide in the cases examined never challenged a probable cause finding, hired an expert witness or challenged hearsay evidence or leading questions and most cases ended with the child pleading guilty. The Civil Rights Division (of the Justice Department) began four investigations beginning in 2013 delving into juvenile justice systems in Mississippi, Tennessee, Texas, and Missouri, and, while settlements were reached, it has had to file suit to overcome the disparities in criminal convictions.
Coupled with zero-tolerance discipline in schools, a "one-size-fits-all solution" decried by the American Bar Association, black and Latino youths are more likely to encounter negative contact with law enforcement and accrue violations, which leads to fines and failure to pay, which in turn leads to warrants and/or probation violations. This cycle has been shown to put children, particularly low-income minorities, in the school-to-prison pipeline.
Judicial misconduct
In 2010, two Washington state supreme court justices, Richard B. Sanders and James M. Johnson, were baffled at a court meeting to determine the fate of $25,000 in funding for various boards and commissions. They stated that there was too much African-American representation in the prison population because African Americans are known to commit a number of crimes and not because of their race. A black lawyer said that she was shocked to hear these two justices refer to a former Legal Aid lawyer's assertions in a report using the phrase poverty pimp. Shirley Bondon, a state Administrative Office of the Courts (AOC) manager who oversaw court programs critical of the legal system, told the justices that she believed that there was racial "bias in the criminal-justice system, from the bottom up." The response from Justice Saunders was critical of black people, stating that he did not believe that the barriers existed, except for poverty because it might restrict the ability to afford an attorney. James M. Johnson, who was noted as the most conservative judge on the court, agreed, noting that African Americans commit crimes against their own communities, to which Bondon objected, requesting a closed-door meeting with the court. Within, Justice Debra Stephens said that she heard Sanders and Johnson make the comments, including Johnson using the words "you all" or "you people" when he stated that African Americans commit crimes in their own communities. Others who attended the meeting stated that they were offended by the justices' remarks, saying that the comments showed a lack of knowledge and sensitivity. A Kitsap County District Court judge, James Riehl, concurred, as he was "acutely aware" of barriers to equal treatment in the legal system. In 2010, African Americans represented 4 percent of Washington State's population but 20 percent of the prison population. Nationwide, similar disparities have been attributed by researchers to sentencing practices, inadequate legal representation, drug-enforcement policies and criminal-enforcement procedures that unfairly affect African Americans.
In 2020, an investigation revealed that Oklahoma Judges who violated their judicial oaths and failed to comply with laws faced no sanctions as none had been imposed since 2004. Across the United States, thousands more were privately sanctioned in chambers by Supreme Court Justices and had their cases closed without the public ever being notified of what they were charged with. Some of the cases alleged racist statements, failure to notify defendants in jail of their right to a lawyer and lying to state officials investigating misconduct. The report identified 3,600 cases from 2008 to 2018 where judges were disciplined but had their identities hidden, along with the nature of the offences- from public scrutiny. Many of the justices whom resigned under threat of penalty did not face any sanctions and kept practicing law, as they did not admit to wrongdoing and confidential justice was doled out by other judges. The report found that 9 out of 10 judges sanctioned for misconduct were allowed to return to their duties, revealing a lax oversight and lenient disciplinary system in place for significant transgressions.
Bisbee Deportation
In 1918, the U.S. Department of Justice pursued charges against 21 officers and executives of the Phelps Dodge Mining Company for the kidnapping of 1,200 workers across state lines from Bisbee, Arizona. The men were subsequently released based on a pre-trial motion from the defense, claiming that the federal government had no basis for charging them, as no federal law was broken. Arizona officials never initiated criminal proceedings in state court against those responsible for the deportation of workers and their lost wages and other losses. The Justice Department appealed, but in United States v. Wheeler, 254 U.S. 281 (1920), Chief Justice Edward Douglass White wrote for an 8-to-1 majority that the U.S. Constitution did not empower the federal government to enforce the rights of the deportees. Rather it "necessarily assumed the continued possession by the states of the reserved power to deal with free residence, ingress, and egress." Only in a case of "state discriminatory action" would the federal government have a role to play. By this calculated reasoning, the officials situated at the Supreme Court erred in not taking the side that in today's legal lexicon had every right to seek justice and redress, not only for the stolen wages, union busting, false imprisonment and other crimes, but for the inherent right not to be forcibly removed from your home by men with guns and shipped in cattle cars across state lines as many homeowners were. That 8 of the 9 Supreme Court justices concurred and, based on anti-radical speech sentiment at the time (post WWI anti-union and IWW), leads to the conclusion that the government gave the company cover to remove the workers, many of whom were Mexicans advocating for better pay and working condition, to a place in the next state closer to the border with the admonition never to return. That few deportees returned and those that contested the deportations lost their cases to have their homes returned to necessity, and that in 1966 Finally, in United States v. Guest, 383 U.S. 745 (1966), the Supreme Court overruled Chief Justice White's conclusion that the federal government could protect the right to travel only against state infringement.
At the end of the conflict, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and others advocated for a peacetime equivalent of the Sedition Act, using the Bisbee events as a justification. They stated that the only reason the company representatives and local law enforcement had taken the law into their own hands was that the government lacked the power to suppress radical sentiment directly. If the government was armed with appropriate legislation and the threat of long prison terms, private citizens would not feel the need to act. Writing in 1920, Harvard Professor Zechariah Chafee mocked that view: "Doubtless some governmental action was required to protect pacifists and extreme radicals from mob violence, but incarceration for a period of twenty years seems a very queer kind of protection." That this was considered vigilante actions by private citizens duly deputized by the local sheriff gives no weight to the racist component directed towards those of Mexican descent in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, who were being systematically forced from their homes in the United States beginning in 1910.
Lynching of people of Mexican descent
Vigilante actions and violence against Mexicans in the Southwest has been documented from the 1850s to 1930s. Hundreds to thousands of Mexicans were killed, many of them American citizens, by white Anglo Americans and government forces. Some were killed to drive them off their land or because they were suspected as bandits or rebels. Many were lynched, including some taken from jail cells or killed in front of hundreds. 571 Mexicans were lynched between 1848 and 1928. Some Mexicans were killed in response to bandit raids, or because they were accused of murder, cattle thefts, cheating at cards, or sometimes for standing up to injustice. For example, a month after the Brite Ranch raid in Texas, Rangers committed the Porvenir massacre near the Mexican border where 15 men and boys were executed and falsely accused of involvement in the raid. Efforts to increase awareness for the Porvenir massacre were initially stalled by the state commissions on historic places, with the chairwoman of the local historical commission opposing a marker, claiming it was being used by 'militant Hispanics' to get reparations. She was later over-ruled by the head of the State Historical Commission, who brokered a deal to erect markers at Anglo ranches that were victims of suspected Mexican Villistas as well.
Palmer Raids
According to the United States Department of Justice, Palmer violated his oath of office by misusing the Department of Justice to go illegally after those advocating for better wages. Strikers became targets of agent provocateurs who infiltrated meetings of "communist labor" and anti-war activists. After the Bisbee deportations became exposed in the press, Americans were divided about the treatment of illegal aliens, who were purported communists. Former President Theodore Roosevelt opined in the press that the Bisbee miners "had it coming, as they were hell-bent on havoc!" The Department of Justice went from advocating for persons deprived of rights and liberty by state actors to detaining them under dubious warrants and suspicion of radicalism. The Red Scare that fueled institutional racism in the 1920s against Russian Jews and other Eastern European immigrants was a backlash to the 1917 Bolshevik revolution in Russia and a bombing campaign early in 1919 by Italian anarchists advocating the overthrow of the government. The result was the infamous Palmer raids, ostensibly a deportation measure to remove dangerous aliens. In 1919 Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer began a series of raids cooked up to remove radicals and anarchists from the United States. Warrants were requested from compliant officials in the Labor Department, and a number of foreign nationals caught up in the sweeping raids were eventually deported. As only the department of labor had the legal right to deport aliens, they did object to the methods; nevertheless, under color of law, the raids began on 7 November 1919. It was led by a 24-year-old J. Edgar Hoover heading a new division of the Justice Department's Bureau of Investigation, called the General Intelligence Division. Armed with responsibility for investigating the programs of radical groups and identifying their members, the raids began with agents of the Bureau of Investigation, together with local police, executing a series of well-publicized and violent raids against the Union of Russian Workers in 12 cities.
Newspaper accounts reported some were "badly beaten" during the arrests. Many later swore they were threatened and beaten during questioning. Government agents cast a wide net, bringing in some American citizens, passers-by who admitted being Russian, some not members of the Russian Workers. Others were teachers conducting night school classes in space shared with the targeted radical groups. Arrests far exceeded the number of warrants. Of 650 arrested in New York City, the government managed to deport just 43. Hoover organized the next raids. He successfully persuaded the Department of Labor to ease its insistence on promptly alerting those arrested of their right to an attorney. Instead, Labor issued instructions that its representatives could wait until after the case against the defendant was established, "in order to protect government interests." Less openly, Hoover decided to interpret Labor's agreement to act against the Communist Party to include a different organization, the Communist Labor Party. Finally, despite the fact that Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson insisted that more than membership in an organization was required for a warrant, Hoover worked with more compliant Labor officials and overwhelmed Labor staff to get the warrants he wanted. Justice Department officials, including Palmer and Hoover, later claimed ignorance of such details.
The Justice Department launched a series of raids on 2 January 1920, with follow-up operations over the next few days. Smaller raids extended over the next six weeks. At least 3,000 were arrested, and many others were held for various lengths of time. The entire enterprise replicated the November action on a larger scale, including arrests and seizures without search warrants, as well as detention in overcrowded and unsanitary holding facilities. Hoover later admitted "clear cases of brutality". Some cases in Boston included torture, where detainees were placed in a 'hot box' above a furnace and given one glass of water and a slice of bread a day and kept there for 50 hours. The raids covered more than 30 cities and towns in 23 states, but those west of the Mississippi and south of Ohio were "publicity gestures" designed to make the effort appear nationwide in scope. Because the raids targeted entire organizations, agents arrested everyone found in organization meeting halls, not only arresting non-radical organization members but also visitors who did not belong to a target organization, and sometimes American citizens not eligible for arrest and deportation. In a few weeks, after changes in personnel at the Department of Labor, Palmer faced a new and very independent-minded Acting Secretary of Labor in Assistant Secretary of Labor Louis Freeland Post, who canceled more than 2,000 warrants as being illegal. Of the 10,000 arrested, 3,500 were held by authorities in detention; 556 resident aliens were eventually deported under the Immigration Act of 1918.
At a Cabinet meeting in April 1920, Palmer called on Secretary of Labor Wilson to fire Post, but Secretary Wilson defended him. The President listened to his feuding department heads and offered no comment about Post, but he ended the meeting by telling Palmer that he should "not let this country see red." Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, who made notes of the conversation, thought the Attorney General had merited the President's "admonition", because Palmer "was seeing red behind every bush and every demand for an increase in wages."
Other
On 28 May 1920, the ACLU published its "Report Upon the Illegal Practices of the United States Department of Justice", which carefully documented the Justice Department's unlawful activities in arresting suspected radicals, illegal entrapment by agents provocateurs, and unlawful incommunicado detention. Such prominent lawyers and law professors as Felix Frankfurter, Roscoe Pound and Ernst Freund signed it. Harvard Professor Zechariah Chafee criticized the raids and attempts at deportations and the lack of legal process in his 1920 volume Freedom of speech. He wrote: "That a Quaker should employ prison and exile to counteract evil-thinking is one of the saddest ironies of our time." The Rules Committee gave Palmer a hearing in June, where he attacked Post and other critics whose "tender solicitude for social revolution and perverted sympathy for the criminal anarchists...set at large among the people the very public enemies whom it was the desire and intention of the Congress to be rid of." The press saw the dispute as evidence of the Wilson administration's ineffectiveness and division as it approached its final months.
In June 1920, a decision by Massachusetts District Court Judge George W. Anderson ordered the discharge of 17 arrested aliens and denounced the Department of Justice's actions. He wrote that "a mob is a mob, whether made up of Government officials acting under instructions from the Department of Justice or of criminals and loafers and the vicious classes." His decision effectively prevented any renewal of the raids.
In Montana, copper miners were dissatisfied with the Western Federation of Miners and thus clashes between the miners were formed leading to the detainment of many workers in the field. The U.S. District Court Judge George M. Bourquin, wrote in a decision granting a writ releasing them on 12 February 1920, "The Declaration of Independence, the writings of the Fathers of our Country, the Revolution, the Constitution and the Union, all were inspired to overthrow the like governmental tyranny. They are yet living, vital, potential forces to safeguard all domiciled in the country, aliens as well as citizens. If evidence of the alien's evil advocacy and teaching is so wanting that it exists in only that herein, and as secured herein, he is a far less danger to this country that are the parties who in violation of law and order, of humanity and justice, have brought him to deportation. They are the spirit of intolerance incarnate, and the most alarming manifestation in America today." In so saying, he placed the blame for the actions taken squarely on those creating a hysteria against a primarily Russian ethnic minority, and who managed to sidestep all blame by continuing to call such actions lawful. Hoover went on to head the FBI, which over its history also came to be known for the institutional racism of the COINTELPRO, Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X operations and Palmer lost all support for his bid seeking the Democratic presidential nomination to replace Wilson. The judge summed it up neatly;
"Thoughtful men who love this country and its institutions see more danger in them and in their practices and the government by hysteria they stimulate, than in the miserable, hated "Reds" that are the ostensible occasion of them all. Those people may confidently assume that even as the "Reds", they too in due time will pass, and the nation still lives. It is for the courts to deal with both, to hold both in check when brought within the jurisdiction."
Zechariah Chafee went on to write many significant works about civil liberties. His first book, Freedom of Speech, established modern First Amendment theory.
In immigration
Many other minorities also suffered from institutional racism. One example is immigration policies against Chinese. The intensified job competition during the 1870s on the West Coast between Chinese workers and whites invoked anti-Chinese movement. The first Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed to prohibit Chinese immigrating to the United States, resulting in only ten Chinese immigrants into the United States in 1887. The 1917 Asiatic Barred Zone Act, sought to block immigration from Turkey to Indonesia and China, eliminating virtually all new arrivals from the South Asian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. There were other anti-immigration policies throughout U.S. history against France and Ireland in the late 1700s, and Southern Europeans, Eastern Europeans, Jews, Africans, Arabs, East Asians and Indians with the Immigration Act of 1924. Anti-immigration sentiment can also affect minorities who have been U.S. citizens for many generations, such as the internment of Japanese Americans during the World War 2 and Mexican Repatriation of the 1930s. The 1965 Immigration Act reversed the national-origins quota system that had been in place since the 1920s, which had discriminated against certain ethnic minorities, particularly those originating in the Eastern Hemisphere.
Between 1929 and 1939, during the Great Depression, 355,000 to one million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were repatriated or deported to Mexico, 40 to 60% of whom were U.S. citizens, overwhelmingly children. Voluntary repatriation was more common than formal deportation. The government formally deported at least 82,000 people to Mexico between 1929 and 1935. According to the INS, around 400,000 to 1 million Mexicans and Mexican-Americans moved to Mexico during the 1930s. Few were formally deported, with most going to Mexico from their own towns where officials using threats of deportation coerced them; or were repatriated through voluntary – though often coercive – repatriation programs directed by state and local governments, and charitable aid agencies.
The repatriation campaign was a response to migration west by the Oakies and housing and wage labor shortages in the United States during the Great Depression. Until the Great Depression, many American citizens had seen the value of the Mexicans as cheap labor. With increased poverty and fewer jobs, many Americans and officials scapegoated Mexicans. The Secretary of Labor in the Hoover administration, William N. Doak (Hoovervilles) scapegoated "illegal immigrants" (migrant workers) as taking jobs from Americans. While not specifying Mexicans, repatriation campaigns overwhelmingly targeted Mexicans. In 1931, the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, the Wickersham Commission found the methods employed by Doak's subordinates to be unconstitutional. The policy continued into the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
According to Abraham Hoffman, "from 1931 on, cities and counties across the country intensified and embarked upon repatriation programs, conducted under the auspices of either local welfare bureaus or private charitable agencies". The Los Angeles chairman of the board of supervisors' charities and public welfare committee (and later Los Angeles mayor), Frank L. Shaw had researched the legality of deportation but was advised by that only the federal government was legally allowed to deport people. As a result, the L.A. County supervisors called their campaign "repatriation", which Balderrama asserts was a euphemism for deportation.
C.P. Visel, the spokesman for Los Angeles Citizens Committee for Coordination of Unemployment Relief began his "unemployment relief measure" that would create a "psychological gesture" intended to "scarehead" Mexicans out of Los Angeles, through a series of "publicity releases announcing the deportation campaign, a few arrests would be made 'with all publicity possible and pictures', and both police and deputy sheriffs would assist". The Bureau of Immigration was responsible for many mass raids and deportations, and the local government was responsible for the media attention given to these raids to "scarehead" immigrants, specifically Mexicans, provoking many complaints and criticisms from the Mexican Consulate and the Spanish-language magazine La Opinión.
Numerous books have been written about the repatriations including 'Decade of Betrayal', by social history professor Raymond Rodriguez and Francisco Balderrama.
In 1995, they wrote a book, which sparked legislative hearings and formal apologies from the state of California and Los Angeles County officials. In 2006, the House of Representatives congresspersons Hilda Solis and Luis Gutierrez called for an apology from the U.S. Government for the Repatriation. The Mexican repatriation campaign is not widely discussed in U.S. textbooks. In a 2006 survey of the nine most commonly used American history textbooks in the United States, four did not mention the topic, and only one devoted more than half a page to the topic. In total, they devoted four pages to the repatriation.
The Mexican labor that supplied U.S. agribusiness has cycled between needing workers and calls to repatriate them. Some calls were by Mexican farmers, because from time to time there were acute labor shortages in Mexico. With the growing diplomatic and security issues surrounding illegal border crossings, the INS increased its raids and apprehensions beginning in the early 1950s leading up to Operation Wetback in 1954 in cooperation with the Mexican government. While the Bracero program was in force, the INS deported one million Mexicans starting in 1954. Those apprehended were often deported without recovering property or contacting family and were often stranded without food or employment when they entered Mexico. Deported Mexicans often faced extreme conditions, and some were left in the desert; 88 deported workers died in 112-degree heat in July 1955. Most deported were sent by ship to Veracruz or transported by land to southern Mexican cities. During the Operation, recruitment of illegal workers by American growers continued due to the inexpensiveness of illegal labor and desire to avoid the bureaucratic obstacles of the Bracero program.
In the civil service
Merit-based hiring to civil service titles are race-blind in terms of hiring preferences; in practice, however, there are titles that have resisted integration to the present day. Institutions that resist even past the civil right fights of the 1950s and 1960s resulted in court interventions in the 1970s and even up to the last decade. Many of the Consent Decrees that resulted from court intervention came about as a result of the federal government intervening due to EEOC complaints in hiring or attempts to litigate discrimination that was overt. Until 2007, when the Vulcan Society of the FDNY prevailed in court using the legal theory of disparate impact, many lawsuits resulted in racial quotas being imposed in hiring. Police and Fire Departments across the country have been slow to change the insular culture that kept them lacking in diversity and open to challenges.
Civil Service, as an institution, was traditionally used to prevent nepotism and the influence of politics in appointments to the position. Authorized at the federal level in 1871, it came about due to reforms of the spoils system in place since the 1830s, and abuses of the post-Civil War era, when Congress authorized the president to appoint a Civil Service Commission and prescribe regulations for admission to public service. A dissatisfied office-seeker assassinated President Garfield in 1881, and Congress was motivated to pass the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883, which firmly established the Civil Service. During Reconstruction, this enabled the federal government to provide jobs for newly freed black people in the South (primarily the Postal Service) where no other employment opportunities existed for them. Since the inception of the merit system in 1881, the numbers of black people in federal Civil Service positions rose from 0.057 to 5.6% by 1910. Since 1883, the majority of federal employees are placed in positions that are classified by Civil Service designations. (see Also: U.S. Civil Service Reform)
In 1913, with segregation the law of the land, Southern Democrats in Congress under the administration of President Woodrow Wilson had attempted to remove as many minorities as possible from their established position in the federal Civil Service, especially at the Postal Service. This was accomplished by requiring the race of each applicant to a position be shown by a photograph.
This enabled the administration to demote and eliminate black civil servants from positions held in Civil Service and further prevented any new appointments, thus purposefully exacerbating black exclusion from the federal Civil Service. Wilson had campaigned promising to elevate blacks in his administration by matching the patronage offered them by past Republican administrations. Many black newspapers, based on his inaugural speech, supported him, but those Southern Democrats in Congress opposed to integration actively rendered him moot, and patronage appointments fell even lower. Claiming 'friction' among blacks and whites at the post office, they proposed segregating them. This was taken up by the Postmaster General and the Secretary of the Treasury, and when the cabinet and the president did not oppose the measure, Jim Crow practices in some departments was taken up with a vengeance. By 1921, those black postal workers not demoted or fired were behind a wall at the 'Dead Letter Office' in Washington, D.C., or placed behind screens where the other workers did not have to see them. Without any basis in fact or accumulation of complaints to justify segregation, it became unofficial policy. Signs appeared restricting toilets and lunchrooms, whole offices were segregated by room and workers were paired off by race. A virtual flood of proposed discriminatory laws were proposed in Congress ranging from 'Jim Crow' streetcars to excluding blacks from military commissions to officer in the Army or Navy and anti-miscegenation bills. There were also bills to restrict black immigration. This spread to the states where more bills passed restricting black people. Federal Civil Service did not fare well under Wilson, as he held that "it was to their advantage" and "likely to remove many of the difficulties which have surrounded the appointment and advancement of colored men and women", espousing the segregation taking place under his administration.
The next chapter was the Hatch Act of 1939, which prevented state and local civil servants from taking part in political activities or running for office. It was a response to conservative forces in Congress who wanted to prevent administration appointments to certain agencies aligned with the WPA and FDR presidential confidante Harry Hopkins, whom they felt were giving jobs to the 'wrong people'. Until the Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court decision and the related cases that ushered in the Civil Rights era, institutional segregation was upheld at the federal level by the Plessy v. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case decision, which the court overturned in 1954. Following this, cities consulted with their attorneys and as a result, integration began. This was replaced in turn by institutional racism, the practice of upholding the letter of the law, but not the spirit, in an effort to prevent minority hires from gaining ground in titles where they were disproportionately underrepresented, such as police and fire departments, and in management positions.
Post-integration period
Around the country in the 1950s, black people found common cause in challenging employment discrimination, and the colored newspapers took up the cause. Economically, jobs were becoming scarce for minorities during the post-war years as returning servicemen reclaimed the manufacturing and factory base. Civil Service looked to be a reasonable alternative to black people returning from World War II service overseas and black officers leaving the newly desegregated armed services. In Los Angeles in the 1950s, the NAACP fueled an integration campaign in the California Eagle and petitioned the fire commission to provide more jobs in the LAFD. When the Fire Chief Engineer John Alderson attempted to integrate the department, the resistance to integration created so-called 'Hate Houses' and resulted in the formation of The Stentorians as a protective force of guardians to protect minority firefighters. New York had previously experienced its own revelations when the Vulcan Society appeared before the city council and demanded the elimination of 'the black bed' in firehouses for black firemen. At that hearing in 1944, the NYC council chambers filled with FDNY brass on one side and black firefighters protesting the lack of promotional opportunities and racial harassment on the other.
With that as the backdrop, integration began and segregation was replaced by institutional racism, which took the form much the same way it did when black people first got hired before and during World War II. Black people once appointed to a Civil Service position were subjected to isolation, ostracism, outright hostility and separate quarters. After 1956, the first black hires to the LAFD after integration unfairly failed to finish academy training. The Vulcan Society in New York mentored many blacks, but progress was slow, with hiring not reflected in mirroring the population of the cities served until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, when the number of minority hirings increased. The U.S. Department of Labor in the 1970s began enforcing racial quotas during the Nixon administration that mandated black hiring, but it was the lawsuits of the 1970s that exploded the imposition of consent decrees across the country forcing the diversity of the hard to integrate titles. In 1971, the Vulcan Blazers of the Baltimore, Maryland fire department filed a groundbreaking lawsuit that resulted in the appointment of blacks to positions of officers up to assistant chief when the court ruled there had been discrimination in promotions. Other minority groups followed their lead and also took to the courts. In 2009, the City of Baltimore paid $4.6 million to settle a case filed by minority policemen alleging racial discrimination. As other recent lawsuits have proved, civil departments have held their heads responsible for cases of institutional racism, an example of which is the case in 2007 of the LAFD Chief, William Bamattre, who was retired by the mayor of Los Angeles after being perceived of kowtowing to racial pandering in responding to lawsuits affecting his department. Payouts to blacks and women had topped $7.5 million for cases alleging racism and harassment, and also the failure to diversify.
Affirmative action
Affirmative action, while originally meant to refer to a set of policies and practices preventing discrimination based on race, creed, color, and ethnicity, now often refers to policies positively supporting members of disadvantaged or underrepresented groups that have in the past suffered discrimination in areas such as education, employment, and housing. Historically and internationally, support for affirmative action has sought to achieve goals such as bridging inequalities in employment and pay, increasing access to education, promoting diversity, and redressing apparent past wrongs, harms, or hindrances.
In the 1990s President George H. W. Bush attempted to eliminate affirmative action during his term of office. Filing a brief against quotas in college admissions, he also stood against the use of quotas, preferences, and set-asides on the basis of race, sex, religion, or national origin, and abolished their use in hiring. Congress responded with the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which only covered the terms for settling cases where discrimination had previously been confirmed. It had been near impossible to prove a case of institutional discrimination in the courts, and many other cases were terminated upon imposition of a consent decree. While President George H. W. Bush's attempt failed, it did give rise to the 1997 California Proposition 209, a ballot initiative abolishing affirmative action in California universities. This closed down the avenues affirmative action initiatives had opened for minorities, as legislation no longer required California universities to actively facilitate the development of ethnically diverse campus populations. Consequently, employment discrimination lawsuits seeking compensation for discriminatory hiring declined, as arguments for redress on account of past wrongs under the 'catchup provisions' no longer worked in favor of claimants. Proposition 209 has withstood challenges such as the 2013 Amendment No. 5, which would have reversed 209 had it not been retracted by its main Senate sponsor prior to passage. In 2014 the UCLA Board of Regents publicly renounced 209 on account of the decline in minority admissions to California universities after 209 was implemented. The regents re-affirmed this in 2020.
Similar ballot initiatives to California 209 spread around the country, primarily in red states. In the 2003 case of Gratz v. Bollinger, the Supreme Court ruled that the University of Michigan's mis-implementation of affirmative action in its point-allocation-based admittance process had resulted in a homogenized statistical advantage for minority applicants and unconstitutionally rendered the university incapable of differentiating between the distinct diversity contributions of each individual. On the same day and concerning another University of Michigan (Law School) applicant, the supreme court ruled in the case of Grutter v. Bollinger that while failing to recognize the distinct contributions of minority groups was unconstitutional, the overall initiative of affirmative action – creating an inclusive, racially diverse demographic – was not.
Efforts to abolish affirmative action were not limited to California and Michigan. In 2008 American Civil Rights Institute chairman Ward Connerly successfully campaigned for the passage of legislation banning affirmative action in Nebraska. Three of the five states that ACRI pushed anti-affirmative action ballots in rejected them and it failed to make the ballot in another. Connerly stated, "I think that in some quarters, many parts of the country, a white male is really disadvantaged... Because we have developed this notion of women and minorities being so disadvantaged and we have to help them, that we have, in many cases, twisted the thing so that it's no longer a case of equal opportunity. It's a case of putting a fist on the scale."
Conservative objections to affirmative action include that although aimed at rectifying discriminatory practices, affirmative action is inherently discriminatory against the majority and the fulfillment of 'racial quotas' precludes employers from hiring the most qualified candidate available for a position. Supporters of affirmative action cite the extent to which past institutionalized racism adversely affected minorities. Their endorsement of measures to aid in the restitution of agency to marginalized and disenfranchised communities has resulted in push back in the form of claims of reverse racism.
In 2020, a study concluded that proposition 209 had caused harm to black and Hispanic students without any tangible gains for white or Asian students replacing them in the University of California system. With repeal of the controversial measure on the California ballot in 2020, the eleven other states that passed similar anti-affirmative action laws are also reviewing its effects on their minority admissions. Conservatives are still at the supreme court challenging race based admissions, with the DOJ under the Trump administration suing Yale university over alleged discrimination.
In education
Standardized testing has also been considered a form of institutional racism, because it is believed to be biased in favor of people from particular socio-cultural backgrounds. Some minorities have consistently tested worse than whites on virtually all standardized tests, even after controlling for socioeconomic status, while others have tested consistently better. The cause of the achievement gaps between black, Hispanic, white and Asian students has yet to be fully elucidated. In March 2017, the New York Times reported, "The Board of Regents on Monday eliminated a requirement that aspiring teachers in New York State pass a literacy test to become certified after the test proved controversial because black and Hispanic candidates passed it at significantly lower rates than white candidates."
Three cases before the SCOTUS have determined whether there is institutional racism in education. Bakke (1978) allowed minorities to gain an edge in university admissions and hiring. Justice Connors swing vote in Grutter (2003) was a rebuke of Proposition 209 and similar initiatives, giving a 25-year timeline where such interventions would no longer be necessary. Schuette (2013) banned the use of race in public university admissions. Through the use of discriminatory ballot initiatives (1997–2008) to bypass the law, gaining public acceptance of anti-affirmative action endeavors, the process of placing undue burdens on minorities seeking advancement has, in this century, become entrenched. In her dissent to Schutte, Associate Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote that the voters of Michigan had "changed the basic rules of the political process in that State in a manner that uniquely disadvantaged racial minorities." Citing reverse-racism after the effects have been proven deleterious to minority admissions is repeating failed policy and furthers this bias. This offends portions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, where discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin was prohibited.
In higher education
In the 1960s, students of color started attending colleges and universities in record numbers after the passage of the Civil Rights and Higher Education Acts. However, the obstacles of integration in predominantly white institutions of higher education led to unforeseen obstacles for faculty and students of color working and studying in such environments. According to a review of educational research, tension and violence followed, one reason being the lack of preparedness of many colleges and universities to teach a diversity of students. Initially, it was also difficult for many black students to attend college due to the poor quality of education in segregated schools.
The 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision was the beginning of the process of desegregation and the elimination of de jure discrimination. However, it was hard to determine the challenges that the process would present and the obstacles that would continue to exist. While the concept of "separate but equal" had been overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court, it was clear that the racial divide had not yet been resolved. As the years since Brown v. Board of Education passed, both verbal and physical abuse continued. After Brown v. Board of Education, the desegregated environment proved to be strenuous and was going to require some work. The increase of racial tension and racial incidents in institutes of higher education is said to be due to the "lack of knowledge, experience, and contact with diverse peers; peer-group influence; increased competition and stress; the influence of off-campus groups and the media; alcohol use; changing values; fear of diversity; and the perception of unfair treatment". Although Brown v. Board of Education was ruled in 1954, actual integration did not completely occur until many years later; the U.S. Supreme Court held multiple hearings on the desegregation of schools, continuously they maintained that Brown v. Board of Education must be followed by schools, colleges, and universities. The manner in which Brown v. Board of Education was drawn out years after the decision helped instill racism in education by illustrating the extraordinary lengths some educational institutions would go to to avoid integration.
While unfair treatment remains, other lasting effects have yet to be resolved. The underlying issue of minority presence of college campuses occurs. In 2008, the National Center for Education Statistics reported that while enrollment of minorities and students of color had risen, white enrollment still held the majority on average, accounting for 63 percent of undergraduate college and university students. While this varies based on the region, state, and elite status, in general the majority of colleges and universities in the United States are predominantly white. According to the U.S. Department of Education, there has also been a rise in hate crimes on college campuses, with 1250 hate crimes in 2016, up 25 percent from 2015.
Access to post-secondary education seems to be an issue as well. According to the U.S. Department of Education, being prepared for college is integral to whether or not a student is successful. While the government offers college preparation programs for minority and low-income students, programs such as GEAR UP and Federal TRIO Programs help prepare students for college to better ensure their success and retention, the access to these programs is relatively limited. While programs such as Federal TRIO Programs have grown since conception, there is still work that needs to be done if more minority students are expected to attend and succeed in a post-secondary institution. Due to availability of Federal TRIO Programs being subjective based on where geographically a student may be, the benefits are not completely being felt be the targeted communities. However, the positive effects of Federal TRIO Programs have been pretty bolstering – more minorities and low-income individuals are prepared when going to post-secondary institutions.
Institutionalized racism in higher education has received little national attention, even though it is a relevant issue affecting many colleges and universities. Despite efforts to improve the situation on college and university campuses, such as implementing affirmative action plans, anti-black racism and violence continue to occur. The effects of this violence extend beyond the incident itself. According to a U.S. study in Baltimore, racism has a correlation with health complications, such as high systolic blood pressure. Likewise, a study held from 1997 to 2003 found that racism led to higher rates of breast cancer. While this extends beyond education, it could illustrate why many minorities and students of color would feel uneasy putting themselves into an environment that could potentially garner more racism. While illustrations of institutional racism on college campuses can be found in newspapers and blogs, there are other places to learn more about these incidents. Aside from the media, one source that can be used to keep up to date on institutional racism in higher education is The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (JBHE). This journal aims to provide as much information as possible about anti-black institutional racism. JBHE publishes resources, statistics, and current reports of race-related actions on college and university campuses. For example, JBHE reported on the 2015 University of Oklahoma Sigma Alpha Epsilon racism incident. Other media resources where reports on racial incidents on college campuses can be found is Inside Higher Ed and the Southern Poverty Law Center
In 2016, the U.S. Department of Education released a report on crime in schools. Of the racial hate crimes reported on college campuses in 2013, 41% were vandalisms, 37% were intimidations, and 38% were simple assaults. According to the U.S. Department of Education, there were 146 reported cases of racial harassment on college and university campuses in 2015. However, this number by no means is a true portrayal of the actual amount of racial harassment that occurs. Research conducted by the Higher Education Research Institute claims that only 13% of these incidents get reported. According to the Center for College Health and Safety, one reason that so few incidents get reported is that there is a lack of awareness about what consists of a hate crime, as well as where one must report such a crime. Although data is limited to what has been reported, the FBI allows public access to numerous tables and statistics about hate crimes reported in 2015. There were 4,029 hate crimes motivated by race/ethnicity/ancestry, 52.7% of which the FBI reports were motivated by anti-black bias. Out of 3,310 racial bias hate crimes, 7.9% occurred at schools/colleges. As of May 2017, the Anti-Defamation League has reported that 107 incidents of white-supremacist posters being posted on American campuses since the beginning of the 2016 school year have been verified. 65 of these reported incidents have occurred since January 2017.
Fakehatecrimes.org provides a database with links to news sources that report hate crimes that have been falsely reported. For example, a student at Capital University claimed to have found a race-related note on his door, and his story was shared on the university newspaper. Later, in another article, the newspaper shared how the student confessed after investigation that he made the story up. Complex, a news source, published an article naming the "most hate-filled colleges in America" based on data from College Stats.
Numerous news sources, including Inside Higher Ed and Southern Poverty Law Center, and the Brookings Institution, reported that there was a spike in racial hate crimes and harassment following the election of Donald Trump as President of the United States. Although each case has not been verified, the SPLC claimed to have counted 201 racial incidents in less than a week. The largest number of incidents are labeled as "anti-black" and account for over 50 of the occurrences, nearly 40 of which took place on college campuses. Kimberly Griffin, a professor at the University of Maryland who studies and has authored numerous publications on campus racial climate, states the following in an Inside Higher Ed article: Under Title VI, all higher education institutions that receive federal funding must take certain actions against incidents of racial discrimination that are deemed "sufficiently serious" or that negatively impact a student's education. These actions include investigating the incident, making efforts to stop the current and possible future occurrence, and fixing the issues that have come about due to the incident. Similar to Title VI, the Clery Act is another act that requires higher education institutions that receive federal funding to have certain obligations regarding campus crime. The main requirement is that these institutions must create an annual report that details the crime that has taken place in the past three years on campuses and the efforts made to stop it. These reports must be made available to all students and staff, which allows for greater transparency about the existing crime on campuses.
Students across the nation have worked to end racial discrimination on campuses by organizing and participating in protests. One of the most notable examples is that of the 2015–16 University of Missouri protests, which led to protests at 50 universities. Lists of demands made by students at 80 American universities detailing what should be done to combat racism on campuses have been collected by WeTheProtesters, an advocacy group.
Impact on faculty
Faculty of color face racism within institutions of higher education as they challenge widely held beliefs regarding race relations in America. Structural inequality may be ignored under the assumption that racism will disappear within its own time. Racism is manifest in a variety of ways, including but not limited to, undervaluation of research, unwritten rules and policies regarding the tenure process, and a lack of mentorship for faculty of color. Women of color faculty are often caught within a double bind as they face discrimination based on both race and gender. According to 2005 data, faculty members at institutions of higher education were predominantly white, with faculty of color constituting roughly 17% of total faculty, with 7.5% Asian, 5.5% black, 3.5% Latino and 0.5% American Indian (see chart). Failure to fully implement affirmative action is identified as another contributing factor to low numbers of representation.
Faculty members of color often engage in research regarding issues of diversity, which many whites deemed "risky". Widespread beliefs founded on the concept of meritocracy, where success is based solely on individual effort, put into question research revealing structural issues that contribute to success. Political undertones of research within the social sciences are used to put the validity and scientific nature of the findings into question, despite the fact that research in these fields is conducted in the same manner as research in less politically contentious areas of interest. Research methodologies long accepted in other disciplines are called into question depending on the implications of findings, particularly when these findings may reveal racial inequities in the general population and/or the institution itself. "Thus, research appearing to be neutral and scholarly, has important political manifestations, including the justification for racial inequalities that are replicated within the student and alumni bodies of institutions that formally state that they value diversity even as all of their internal mechanisms reproduce exclusionary dominance for some racial groups".
This concern is especially glaring in private institutions, where concerns regarding the reception of said research by alumni, corporate interests, and other potential donors play into acceptance of research by faculty. In one case study, race- and diversity-related research deemed valid by the highest level of national disciplinary associations was rejected by faculty and administrators, alluding to the existence and enforcement of unwritten rules regarding research acceptance. The rejection of research by faculty of color is a contributing factor to difficulty attaining tenure, with a higher performance bar set for those whose findings may contradict widely accepted beliefs regarding race relations.
Faculty members of color also face barriers as they work to include topics of diversity in their courses, as whites often resist the inclusion of multicultural perspectives. Challenges in the classroom appear to be connected to issues of gender and age as well as race. For example, African-American women faculty aged 35 and younger are challenged more by whites in their 20s, while those 40 and older face more challenges from students in nontraditional age groups.
Impact on students
The racial demographics of institutions of higher education in the United States are quickly changing. Institutions of higher education were often traditionally known as "predominantly white institutions" (PWIs). These institutions are now challenged to improve their diversity efforts and create policies that address the root cause of negative racial climates on PWI campuses. It is estimated that by 2010, 40% of high school graduates would be non-white. While racial homogeneity in high schools increased, institutions of higher education were becoming more racially diverse. Due to racial homogeneity in high schools, some college students occasionally find themselves having their first interracial contact in college. Universities and colleges that have identified diversity as one of their priorities should plan how to strategically and in a sensitive manner create a campus climate in which all students, in particular students of color in a PWI, do not have to risk feeling unsafe, discriminated against, marginalized, or tokenized to obtain a post-secondary degree.
Data have shown that students of color and whites have different perceptions of campus racial climates. In a survey of 433 undergraduate students at one institution found that, in comparison to whites, students of color felt differently about campus policies. Whites were more often to describe their campus racial climate as positive, while students of African descent rated it as negative. Findings indicate that students of color experience harassment that is, "offensive, hostile, or intimidating" at higher rates than whites, which interferes with their learning. Further, "students of color perceived the climate as more racist and less accepting than did whites, even though whites recognized racial harassment at similar rates as students of color". In addition, many African-American students have a hard time to fit in at predominantly white colleges because of the fear of "becoming white."
Whites also felt more positive about their classroom experience and the way professors presented various viewpoints in the curriculum, about institutional policies as well as recruitment and retention of Student of Color. Students of African descent and other students of color felt the campus environment was not friendly and that they had been targets of racism. In another study of 5,000 first year students at 93 institutions, whites were more likely to agree with the statement that "racial discrimination is no longer a problem" than students of color. whites were also more likely to feel that the campus climate is improving in comparison to students of color. Whites felt the campus climate was non-racist, friendly, and respectful while students of color felt that it was racist, hostile, and disrespectful. Research has shown that racial diversification in colleges and universities, without intentional education about systemic racism and the history of race in the United States, can lead to creating a racial campus climate that is oppressive towards students of color. History textbooks in the United States generally gloss over the unpleasant portions of history, resulting in many students being unaware of the Trail of Tears, the workers struggles of the 20th century and the removal in the west of the indigenous. There needs to be, "intentional education interventions related to the changing racial composition of college students [which] would likely influence how the climate of an environment changes".
If institutional racism is to be addressed in institutes of higher education, different types of interventions need to be created, in particular, interventions created specifically for the academy. Rankin and Reason's research concluded that for intervention to be effective, faculty would need to be used as socializing agents on campus, in particular, because intellectual and behavioral norms on most campuses are set by faculty and, these norms have a heavy impact on campus climate. An example of students trying to change racial campus climate is the Being Black at the University of Michigan #BBUM moment. The Black Student Union is organizing and collaborating with organizations to bring attention to the racial climate at the University of Michigan and how it is affecting all students. To create interventions that lead to sustainable learning about race, institutions of higher education need to equally value the histories and experiences of students of color and whites. One example of this is required coursework through the departments of African/African-American Studies, Chicano studies, Asian-American studies, Arab-American studies, and Native American studies alongside the History department. Research has shown that curricular diversity is positively associated with intergroup attitudes, decreased racial prejudice and intergroup understanding, and attitudes toward campus diversity.
In politics
Reconstruction
After slavery was abolished, the government went through a series of changes that reflected the presence of new (black) citizens in the United States. Newly acquired freedom founded a growth in African-American participation in politics. This period of increased African-American participation, from 1867 to 1877, is known as Reconstruction. Despite the increase in African-American participation in politics, Reconstruction is not mentioned as an example of how black politics strive to be. There are very distinct viewpoints concerning this time period. Some believed that corruption had run rampant in the South with the introduction of newly freed slaves into legislatures, and a great deal of attention was given to the negativity that surrounded the introduction of black individuals into government. Reconstruction in South Carolina particularly was under scrutiny as the legislators were predominantly black. The happenings in the South Carolina legislature were described negatively and seen as pro-black and significantly focused on issues that only pertained to black people. Attention was solely focused on the misgivings occurring within the legislature, such as "unethical appropriation of state funds by members of the legislature" and other unethical or illegal acts committed by both black and white legislators in South Carolina. Another set of issues brought up was the multitude of expensive decorative items and embellishments that were purchased for the refurbishment of the State House. Whites were generally left out of the criticisms, despite their own contributions, and were referred to as victims of corruption due to the influence of black people.
Others believed that Reconstruction was not to blame for all corruption in legislation. This faction of people saw the constructive debates and conversations that flowed within the Southern legislatures. They were also more receptive to the positive aspects and characteristics of black legislators that were displayed during their time in office.
Despite the amount of eager participants, this period eventually led to a decline in black participation in politics. The backlash of those against increase of black participation in politics effectively began to cause the number of participants to stop and then decline. In the mid-20th century, despite past involvement, black participation in politics was low. Black participation was not a common occurrence in comparison to overall participation, and it was often celebrated when black candidates or politicians did particularly well in their political endeavors. This decline was attributed to a white counterattack of the Reconstruction movement. Many methods were used to dissuade black people from taking office. One of the most prominent was violence. An example of that would be the Ku Klux Klan, a secretive group whose members believed in white supremacy. The lynching, beatings, and intimidation of black people helped to hasten the decline of black participation in politics. Coercion was also another method used to dissuade black participation in politics, particularly voting. Threats of loss jobs and refusal of medical care are some of the coercion methods employed. Coercion did not play as big of a role as direct physical violence however it did serve to further hinder the growth of black participation in politics. These methods helped to forge a political system that has a scarce amount of minorities in office.
Representation
Black representation in Congress had been scarce, with fewer than eight blacks in Congress per Congressional periods since the end of the Civil War up until the Nixon era, when there were 11 black members of Congress (ten in the House and one in the Senate). After the 91st Congress, black representation began to increase, particularly among black Democrats.
In technology
Institutional racism's connections to technology have been an area that has not been sufficiently addressed. In her article "Race and Racism in Internet Studies", Jessie Daniels writes "the role of race in the development of Internet infrastructure and design has largely been obscured. As Sinclair observes, 'The history of race in America has been written as if technologies scarcely existed, and the history of technology as if it were utterly innocent of racial significance. Sociologist Ruha Benjamin writes further in her book Race After Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code that researchers "tend to concentrate on how the Internet perpetuates or mediates racial prejudice at the individual level rather than analyze how racism shapes infrastructure and design." Benjamin makes connections between institutional racism and racism in technology and notes the importance of future research on institutionalized racism in technology as well as the "technology of structural racism."
In the military
The U.S. Army in June 2020 instituted changes to its promotion policy to counteract institutional racism, as part of its efforts to counter unconscious bias that caused black officer candidates to be passed over more often than were similarly qualified whites. For instance, photographs of candidates will no longer be part of their promotional packages, which had been found to hinder advancement opportunities for black soldiers.
See also
Critical race theory
First world privilege
Institutional abuse
Institutionalized discrimination
Ketuanan Melayu
Legacy preferences
National Origins Formula
Race and crime
Structural violence
Teaching for social justice
Weaver v NATFHE
White privilege
References
Bibliographies
Stokes, DaShanne. (In Press) Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom
External links
Institutional Racism and the Police Institutional Racism and the Police: Fact or Fiction?, Civitas thinktank pamphlet about the Macpherson Report
Paying the Price: The Human Cost of Racial Profiling On causes and effects of institutional racism in the Canadian criminal justice system
Canada Consolidation Indian Act R.S.C., 1985, c. I-5 Current to 9 June 2015. Last amended on 2 April 2015 and published by the Minister of Justice at the following address: "Justice Laws Website" / "Site Web de la législation (Justice)", Government of Canada
Racism
Definition of racism controversy
Institutional abuse
Political science terminology
Sociological terminology
Articles containing video clips |
356787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Slovakia | Communist Party of Slovakia | The Communist Party of Slovakia (, KSS) is a communist party in Slovakia, formed in 1992, through the merger of the Communist Party of Slovakia – 91 and the Communist League of Slovakia.
The party is observer of the Party of the European Left although it criticizes the Political Theses for the 1st Congress of European Left. For the 2019 European Parliament election the KSS formed a unity list together with VZDOR – strana práce. The list was called Socialistický Front. It received 0.62% of the votes.
Electoral results
See also
Communist Party of Slovakia (1939)
Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia
Politics of Slovakia
List of political parties in Slovakia
References
External links
1992 establishments in Slovakia
Communist parties in Slovakia
Far-left political parties
Party of the European Left observer parties
Political history of Slovakia
Political parties established in 1992
Political parties in Czechoslovakia
International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties |
356788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27italiana%20in%20Algeri | L'italiana in Algeri | L'italiana in Algeri (; The Italian Girl in Algiers) is an operatic dramma giocoso in two acts by Gioachino Rossini to an Italian libretto by Angelo Anelli, based on his earlier text set by Luigi Mosca. It premiered at the Teatro San Benedetto in Venice on 22 May 1813. The music is characteristic of Rossini's style, remarkable for its fusion of sustained, manic energy with elegant, pristine melodies.
Composition history
Rossini wrote L'italiana in Algeri when he was 21. Rossini stated that he composed the opera in 18 days, though other sources claim that it took him 27 days. Rossini entrusted the composition of the recitatives as well as the aria "Le femmine d'Italia" to an unknown collaborator. The opera is notable for Rossini's mixing of opera seria style with opera buffa. The overture is widely recorded and performed today, known for its distinct opening of slow, quiet pizzicato basses, leading to a sudden loud burst of sound from the full orchestra. This "surprise" reflects Rossini's early admiration for Joseph Haydn, whose Symphony No. 94 in G major, "The Surprise Symphony", is so named for the same shocking and semi-comic effect.
Performance history
The work was first performed at the Teatro San Benedetto, Venice on 22 May 1813. It was a notable success and Rossini made progressive changes to the work for later performances in Vicenza, Milan and Naples, during the following two years.
The opera was first presented in London at His Majesty's Theatre on 28 January 1819 and on 5 November 1832 in New York. It fell somewhat out of favour as the 19th century progressed, but notable performances were presented from the 1920s in "Turin (1925), Rome (1927) and London (1935)" and it has been revived frequently since World War II with many successful productions. In the 21st century, Rossini’s opera continues to be performed regularly.
Roles
Synopsis
Place: Algiers
Time: The past
Act 1
The palace of the Bey of Algiers
Elvira accompanied by her slave Zulma regrets the loss of the love of her husband, the Turkish Bey Mustafà. Left alone with Haly (since the Italian 'h' is silent, this corresponds to the name Ali, more familiar in the English-speaking world), Captain of the Corsairs, Mustafà reveals his plan to marry Elvira off to Lindoro, his Italian slave. The Bey is bored with his submissive harem, desiring a new challenge to his virility: he wants an Italian girl, and Haly must find one! Lindoro enters alone and sings about Isabella, his true love (Languir per una bella). Mustafà comes in to explain Lindoro's impending marriage. The enthusiastic Bey describes the attractions of the match, while Lindoro struggles to refuse (Se inclinassi a prender moglie).
The seashore
A ship has been wrecked in a storm. Its passengers include Isabella, in search of Lindoro, and Taddeo, her travelling companion and would-be lover. Isabella enters with a sorrowful cavatina Cruda sorte! Amor tiranno!, however she is not afraid (Già so per pratica) and will master the situation. Haly and his men take them prisoner. She passes off Taddeo as her uncle. Haly is delighted to learn she is an Italian – exactly what the Bey wanted! Left to consider their fate, Isabella is irritated by Taddeo's jealousy of Lindoro (Ai capricci della sorte), but they resolve to join forces.
The palace
Back in the palace, Lindoro and Elvira do not wish to marry, but Mustafà offers Lindoro passage on a ship returning to Italy if he takes Elvira. Lindoro agrees, admitting a vague possibility of marrying her in Italy. Haly enters with news of the arrival of the Italian beauty. Mustafà is elated (Già d'insolito ardore nel petto agitare).
Surrounded by eunuchs (Viva, viva il flagel delle donne), Mustafà receives Isabella in a grand hall. He is enchanted, though she is rather amused by his appearance (Oh! Che muso, che figura!). At that moment, Lindoro, Elvira and Zulma arrive to say goodbye to Mustafà (Pria di dividerci da voi, Signore). Lindoro and Isabella are astonished to come face to face. Recovering herself, Isabella asks about Elvira, learning she is Mustafà's ex-wife, who is being sent away to Italy, where she is to marry Lindoro. Isabella demands that Mustafà allow Elvira (and therefore Lindoro) to remain in Algiers, telling Mustafà that he does not know how to love (Voi non sapete amar). Mustafà capitulates to Isabella's insistence. The act ends with an ensemble of confusion (Confusi e stupidi).
Act 2
In the palace
Elvira and Zulma note Isabella's skill with men. Mustafà reveals his strategy for seducing Isabella: he installs Lindoro as Isabella's servant and his informer, and Taddeo will also be induced to help. Elvira and Zulma must tell Isabella he is coming to take coffee with her.
Isabella and Lindoro are alone. He explains that he had no intention of marrying Elvira. They agree to escape together and Lindoro sings of his happiness (Ah come il cor di giubilo). Mustafà enters with a reluctant Taddeo, acclaimed by the Turks as "Lord Kaimakan" (Viva il grande Kaimakan). He dislikes interceding with Isabella for the Bey, but is frightened to refuse (Ho un gran peso sulla testa).
In her apartment
Isabella is dressing in Turkish style. Zulma and Elvira deliver Mustafà's message: he is coming for coffee. Isabella orders three cups. Elvira should wait in a side room. As Mustafà approaches, Isabella sings a romantic cavatina, Per lui che adoro – she will receive him. Mustafà tells Taddeo to leave when he sneezes (Ti presento di mia man). Isabella greets Mustafà warmly and he sneezes, but Taddeo ignores the signal. Isabella calls for coffee and then – to Mustafà's horror and amazement – invites Elvira to join them.
Elsewhere in the palace
Haly sings in praise of the women of Italy (Le femmine d'Italia). The Italians enter, and Taddeo reveals to a surprised Lindoro that he is not her uncle but her lover (he himself is unaware of the other man's true identity). Lindoro tells Mustafà that Isabella will declare him her adored pappataci (literally a "silent eater": a man unable to resist the opposite sex). This, as Lindoro explains (Pappataci! Che mai sento!), is an Italian custom and a great honour, as the pappataci enjoy an idyllic life dedicated to eating, drinking and sleeping. Zulma and Haly speculate about Isabella's real intentions and the quantity of alcohol ordered for the ceremony.
Isabella's apartment
She addresses the Italian slaves who will be pappataci in the ceremony – she will lead them to freedom (Pensa alla patria). The ceremony begins (Dei pappataci s'avanza il coro); Mustafà is delighted with his new honour and changes into appropriate costume. Isabella explains his obligations. He must swear an oath of eating, drinking, and keeping silent, repeating the words after Taddeo. Following that his oath is tested, under provocation by Isabella and Lindoro.
A European ship lies alongside the palace: time to escape! Taddeo finally realizes who Lindoro is, but decides to go along with them anyway. Elvira, Zulma and Haly find the Bey still acting as a mad pappataci. Suddenly recovering his sanity, Mustafà calls his troops but they are all drunk. The Italians bid farewell and Mustafà begs Elvira's forgiveness. No more Italian girls for him!
Recordings
References
Notes
Sources
Beghelli, Marco & Gallino, Nicola (ed.) (1991), Tutti i libretti di Rossini, Milan: Garzanti.
Osborne, Charles (1994), The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini, London: Methuen; Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press.
Further reading
Fabbri, Paolo & Bertieri, Maria Chiara (ed.) (1997), L'italiana in Algeri, Pesaro: Fondazione "G. Rossini"
Gossett, Philip; Brauner, Patricia (2001), "L'italiana in Algeri" in Holden, Amanda (ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam.
Osborne, Richard (1990), Rossini, Ithaca, New York: Northeastern University Press.
Osborne, Richard (1998), "L'italiana in Algeri", in Stanley Sadie (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, vol. 2, pp. 833-836. London: Macmillan Publishers, Inc.
External links
Libretto (in Italian)
Operas by Gioachino Rossini
Italian-language operas
Drammi giocosi
1813 operas
Operas
Operas set in the Maghreb |
356789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Cheng | François Cheng | François Cheng (, born 30 August 1929) is a Chinese-born French academician, writer, poet and calligrapher. He is the author of essays, novels, collections of poetry and books on art written in the French language, and the translator of some of the great French poets into Chinese.
Biography
Born in Nanchang, Jiangxi in 1929, Cheng traveled at the age of 19 to France in 1948 on a study grant. In his 2002 speech to the Académie française, Cheng said,
"I became a Frenchman in law, mind and heart more than thirty years ago [...] especially from that moment when I resolutely went over to the French language, making it the weapon, or the soul, of my creative work. This language, how can I say everything that I owe to it? It is so intimately bound up with the way I live and my inner life that it has proved to be the emblem of my destiny."
Cheng's first works were academic studies about Chinese poetry and painting. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, he worked with the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan on studying and translating texts from the classical Chinese canon. These exchanges informed Lacan's late teaching on psychoanalytic interpretation. Later he began to write poems in French, before finally turning to the writing of novels.
Cheng won the 1998 Prix Femina for his novel Le Dit de Tianyi ("The Tale of Tianyi") (pub. Albin Michel, Paris, 1998). In 2002 he was elected to the Académie française, the first person of Asian origin to be so honored. Since 2008, he has been a member of the Fondation Chirac's honour committee.
Marriage and family
Cheng married a painter who was also a Chinese national. They became French citizens and had a family. Their daughter Anne Cheng was born in Paris in 1955. She has become an academic and sinologist.
Bibliography
Analyse formelle de l'œuvre poétique d'un auteur des Tang : Zhang Ruoxu (1970)
Le Pousse-pousse, by Lao She, (translation, 1973)
L'Écriture poétique chinoise (1977)
Vide et plein: le langage pictural chinois (1979)
L'espace du rêve: mille ans de peinture chinoise (1980)
Sept poètes français (1983)
Henri Michaux, sa vie, son œuvre (1984)
Chu Ta : le génie du trait (1986)
Some Reflections on Chinese Poetic Language and its Relation to Chinese Cosmology dans The Vitality of the Lyric Voice (1986)
The Reciprocity of Subject and Object in Chinese Poetic Language dans Poetics East and West (1988)
De l'arbre et du rocher (1989)
Entre source et nuage, Voix de poètes dans la Chine d'hier et d'aujourd'hui (1990)
Saisons à vie (1993)
Trente-six poèmes d'amour (1997)
Quand les pierres font signe (1997) (with Fabienne Verdier)
Le Dit de Tyanyi (1998, Prix Femina)
Shitao : la saveur du monde (1998, Prix André Malraux)
Cantos toscans (1999)
D'où jaillit le chant (2000)
Double chant (2000, Prix Roger Caillois)
Et le souffle devient signe (2001)
Qui dira notre nuit (2001)
L'éternité n'est pas de trop, Albin Michel, (2002)
Le Dialogue, Une passion pour la langue française, Desclée de Brouwer, (2002)
Le Long d'un amour, Arfuyen, (2003)
Le Livre du vide médian, Albin Michel, (2004)
Que nos instants soient d'accueil, with Francis Herth (2005)
À l'orient de tout, Gallimard, (2005)
Cinq méditations sur la beauté, Albin Michel, (2006)
L'un vers l'autre. En voyage avec Victor Segalen, Albin Michel, (2008)
Qand reviennent les âmes errantes, Albin Michel, (2012)
Cinq méditations sur la mort – autrement dit sur la vie – Broché (2013)''
See also
Chinese diaspora in France
References
External links
Biography on the Académie française website
1929 births
Living people
People from Nanchang
Members of the Académie Française
Chinese emigrants to France
20th-century Chinese poets
Nanjing University alumni
École pratique des hautes études alumni
Prix Roger Caillois recipients
Prix Femina winners
20th-century French male writers
20th-century French poets
21st-century French poets
21st-century French male writers
French translators
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Audiobook narrators
Chevaliers of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
French male non-fiction writers
Naturalized citizens of France
University of Nanking alumni
French-language writers from China |
356790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizardry%20II%3A%20The%20Knight%20of%20Diamonds | Wizardry II: The Knight of Diamonds | Wizardry II: The Knight of Diamonds (originally known as Wizardry: Knight of Diamonds - The Second Scenario) is the second game in the Wizardry series of role-playing video games. It was published in 1982 by Sir-Tech.
Gameplay
The game begins with the city of Llylgamyn under siege. Llylgamyn's rulers have been killed, and the city's only hope is for the recovery of the staff of Gnilda, only obtainable from trading the mystic "Knight of Diamonds" armor from the legendary Knight of Diamonds to fend off the invaders.
The game functions virtually identically to the first scenario, Wizardry: Proving Grounds of the Mad Overlord, with the player guiding a party of up to six adventurers into a six-level dungeon. The original version required players to import characters from the first game, whilst later versions include a pre-generated party and the ability to create new characters. As the game is intended to be played by those who have successfully completed the first game, the difficulty level is intended for characters of at least level 13, and no training area means that lower level characters will go through a "baptism by fire". Mechanical differences include the ability to save the game in the dungeon rather than forcing the characters to exit the dungeon and return to the training grounds, and some of the spells increasing in power (as noted by a message in the dungeon).
Unlike the first scenario, where half of the levels had no purpose plot-wise and could be skipped if the player wished, exploration all of the levels in Knight of Diamonds is necessary to complete the game. Each of the six levels has a piece of the Knight's armor somewhere in the level, and all of the pieces must be collected in order to finish the game. Furthermore, unlike in the first scenario, there are no elevators that can be used to skip levels, and teleportation spells will fail if the party attempts to use them to teleport to a level that has not yet been reached via stairs.
Reception
Softline in 1982 praised Knight of Diamonds variety of monsters and liked that each level of the dungeon had quests. The magazine concluded, "One can only wonder what this amazing duo of Greenberg and Woodhead will do for the next scenario". Computer Gaming World in 1991 and 1993 called Wizardry II a "disappointingly weak follow-up", criticizing its small size and noting that the first game was necessary to play. The magazine concluded that it was "best for the hard-core fan only".
Philip L. Wing reviewed Knight of Diamonds in Space Gamer No. 76. Wing commented that "I recommend this scenario. This is an interesting and challenging adventure for higher-level Wizardry characters."
Knight of Diamonds was named "Best Adventure Game for Home Computer" at the 1982 Origins Game Fair, defeating Ultima II among other nominees. It also received a Certificate of Merit in the category of "1984 Best Computer Adventure" at the 5th annual Arkie Awards.
References
External links
1982 video games
Apple II games
Commodore 64 games
Commodore 128 games
Game Boy Color games
FM-7 games
Classic Mac OS games
MSX2 games
NEC PC-8801 games
NEC PC-9801 games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Origins Award winners
Role-playing video games
Sharp X1 games
Single-player video games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Kentarō Haneda
Wizardry
First-person party-based dungeon crawler video games |
356820 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USL%20Second%20Division | USL Second Division | The United Soccer Leagues Second Division (commonly referred to as USL-2) was a professional men's soccer league in the United States, part of the United Soccer Leagues (USL) league pyramid. It was at the third tier of soccer in the United States, behind Major League Soccer (top tier) and the USL First Division (second tier), and one step up from the USL Premier Development League and other leagues in the fourth tier.
History
In 1995 the United States Interregional Soccer League (USISL), the de facto second tier of American soccer at the time, the league changed its name to the United States International Soccer League, and split into two leagues, one professional and one amateur. The professional league, initially called the USISL Pro League, was a FIFA-sanctioned Division 3 league, while the amateur league, (the 'Premier League'), was given Division 4 status and would later go on to become the USL Premier Development League. The first champions of the new USISL Pro League were the Long Island Rough Riders, who beat Minnesota Thunder 2–1 in the championship game.
In 1996, the USISL established a new USISL Select League. The strongest USISL Pro League teams joined this new league, which was given Division 2 status alongside the existing A-League, while the remainder of the teams (plus expansion teams) remained at Division 3 level. Charleston Battery became the league's second champions in this year, beating the Charlotte Eagles in a penalty shootout in the 1996 USISL Pro League championship game.
In 1997 the league changed its name to the USISL D-3 Pro League to further distinguish itself from the A-League, and then in 1999 the umbrella USISL changed its name to the United Soccer Leagues (USL), and as such the Pro League officially became known as the USL D3 Pro League. In 2003 the name was changed again to the USL Pro Select League, but during the season had to be changed to the USL Pro Soccer League for to legal reasons. In 2005 the league took its final name as the USL Second Division.
The USL Second Division dissolved following the 2010 season to make way for USL Pro, which combined the existing USL First and Second divisions and began play in 2011.
List of current and former member clubs
A total of 102 clubs have competed in USL-2.
Below is a list of clubs in the USL Second Division between 2005 and 2010 along with their current league affiliation (if any)
Past champions
Championships by Team
References
Second
Defunct soccer leagues in the United States
Sports leagues established in 1995
Sports leagues disestablished in 2010
1995 establishments in the United States
2010 disestablishments in the United States |
356824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20River%20%28band%29 | Green River (band) | Green River was an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1984. Although the band had very little commercial impact outside their native Seattle, Green River were pioneers of the grunge music genre. The grunge style was featured both in Green River's own music and the music its members would create in future bands, including Mudhoney, Mother Love Bone, Temple of the Dog and Pearl Jam. Green River reunited for several live shows in 2008 and 2009.
History
Green River were formed in 1984 by vocalist/guitarist Mark Arm, guitarist Steve Turner, drummer Alex Vincent and bassist Jeff Ament. Guitarist Stone Gossard joined the band later to allow Arm to concentrate on singing.
Vincent, Turner and Gossard (as well as future The Presidents of the United States of America drummer Jason Finn) attended the Northwest School together in Seattle. Prior to joining Green River, each member had played with punk and hardcore groups. Arm and Turner had played together in both Mr Epp & The Calculations and the Limp Richerds. Turner had also performed with Vincent in Spluii Numa, and Gossard in March of Crimes and The Ducky Boys.
In early 1984, Vincent, Turner and Arm decided to form a new band. They asked Ament to join after his band at the time, Deranged Diction, had broken up. They called the band Green River, taking their name from the Green River Killer, a serial killer who was infamous in Washington state. Gossard joined shortly thereafter. "We knew we wanted Ament," said Vincent. "Stone was in another band with Jonathan Evison called March of Crimes. [Stone] got fired and we picked him up just before we recorded the first demo."
On June 23, 1984, Green River recorded their first demos at Reciprocal Recording. They were released on vinyl in 2016.
By late 1984, the band was playing shows in and around Seattle. The band began production in December 1984 on its first record, Come on Down. By the time the band finished the record in mid-1985, Turner had left the group, citing his distaste with the rest of the band's heavy metal leanings. He was replaced by former Deranged Diction guitarist Bruce Fairweather.
In late 1985, the band embarked on its first nationwide tour to promote Come on Down. Release of the record was delayed, however, thus negating the purpose of the tour. From all accounts the experience was less than positive, though it helped cement alliances with other emerging American indie rock bands. Among them was Sonic Youth, who later quoted the song "Come on Down" on its own composition "Nevermind (What Was It Anyway)". After the tour, Come on Down was finally released by the New York-based Homestead Records. The record was released to little fanfare, and did not sell well. However it is often considered the first record to be released by a "grunge" band, as it predated both the Melvins debut EP and the Deep Six compilation album.
In 1986, the band continued to play in and around the Pacific Northwest to steadily larger crowds (especially in the band's hometown of Seattle). Early in the year, the now legendary Deep Six compilation album was released on the local C/Z Records label. Alongside two Green River songs, the compilation features the music of fellow Washington bands Malfunkshun, Melvins, Skin Yard, Soundgarden, and The U-Men. Kathleen C. Fennessy of AllMusic stated that the compilation "documents a formative period in Northwest rock history".
In June 1986, the band began production on its second EP, Dry as a Bone, with local producer Jack Endino. Green River chose to record Dry as a Bone for Bruce Pavitt's new label, Sub Pop. However, Pavitt couldn't afford to release it until the following year, and, as had happened with Come on Down, the record was delayed. In the meantime the band issued the one-off "Together We'll Never" single on the local Tasque Force Records label. Dry as a Bone was finally released through Sub Pop in July 1987, a full year after it was recorded. It was the new label's first non-compilation release. Dry as a Bone was promoted by Sub Pop as "ultra-loose GRUNGE that destroyed the morals of a generation". Steve Huey of AllMusic called it Green River's "strongest individual release...perfecting their sleazy, raucous fusion of '70s hard rock and post-hardcore punk".
Almost immediately following the release of Dry as a Bone, the group re-entered the studio to begin production on its first full-length album, Rehab Doll. Band in-fighting, though, took center stage over the music. A stylistic division developed between Ament and Gossard on one side, and Arm on the other. Ament and Gossard wanted to pursue a major-label deal, while Arm wanted to remain independent, viewing the duo as being too careerist. The in-fighting came to a head following an October 1987 show in Los Angeles, California. Apparently, without informing the group, Ament had filled the show's guest list with major label representatives, instead of the band's friends; nonetheless only two of the representatives appeared. On October 31, 1987, Ament, Gossard and Fairweather stated their desire to quit the band. Although the band members agreed to complete production of Rehab Doll during the next three months, Green River had by late October 1987 ceased as a band. Rehab Doll was released in June 1988. Ned Raggett of AllMusic called it "a record that sounded caught somewhere between grunge mania and metal/corp rock folly".
Reunions
A Green River reunion occurred on November 30, 1993 during a Pearl Jam concert in Las Vegas, Nevada. Participating in the reunion were Arm, Turner, Gossard, Ament and Chuck Treece, who filled in on drums for Vincent, who at that time was living in Japan. The band performed the songs "Swallow My Pride" and "Ain't Nothing to Do" before leaving the stage. Green River reunited for four shows in 2008. The line-up for the shows included Ament, Arm, Turner, Vincent, Gossard, and Fairweather. The first show was a warm-up show on July 10, 2008 at the Sunset Tavern in Seattle. The band next played on July 13, 2008 at Marymoor Park near Seattle to honor Sub Pop's 20th anniversary. Green River played another live show on November 28, 2008 at Dante's in Portland, Oregon. Afterward, the band played on November 29, 2008 at the Showbox in Seattle to celebrate the Supersuckers' 20th anniversary. Green River played on May 22, 2009 and May 23, 2009 at the Showbox in Seattle to celebrate the Melvins' 25th anniversary. On August 10, 2018 at Safeco Field, Mark Arm and Steve Turner joined Pearl Jam for two songs creating another Green River reunion.
Post-Green River
After the break-up, Arm and Turner began rehearsing together. They recruited bassist Matt Lukin (formerly of Melvins) and drummer Dan Peters (of Bundle of Hiss and Feast) to form Mudhoney in January 1988. Mudhoney quickly gained popularity in the Seattle scene, with debut releases "Touch Me I'm Sick" and Superfuzz Bigmuff receiving positive reviews in the music press. Since releasing its debut album in 1989, Mudhoney has recorded a further nine albums and continues to tour.
Following the demise of Green River in late 1987, Gossard, Ament and Fairweather formed the short-lived covers band Lords of the Wasteland with Malfunkshun frontman Andrew Wood. By early 1988 the Lords of the Wasteland had become Mother Love Bone. Mother Love Bone quickly rose to popularity in the Seattle scene, and were about to release its debut album in 1990, when Wood fatally overdosed on heroin. That same year, Ament and Gossard (along with Chris Cornell, Matt Cameron, Mike McCready, and a guest appearance by Eddie Vedder) recorded the Andrew Wood tribute album Temple of the Dog (amidst the formation of the band Pearl Jam), which went on to achieve international mainstream success. After Temple of the Dog, Gossard and Ament founded Pearl Jam along with Mike McCready of Shadow, Eddie Vedder of Bad Radio, and Dave Krusen. Pearl Jam gained fame with the debut album Ten and is still active today. Pearl Jam has released eleven studio albums in total and continues to tour.
Fairweather joined Gossard and Ament as a member of Mother Love Bone. Following the band's demise, he replaced Tommy Simpson on bass in the psychedelic rock band Love Battery in 1992. He played on two of the band's albums and many of its tours before leaving that band as well and dropping off the radar. In 2006, he resurfaced in The Press Corps, with Garret Shavlik (The Fluid) and Dan Peters (Mudhoney). Vincent, Green River's drummer, moved to Japan after the break-up and did not return to the United States for many years. He now plays in his own band, Ex's With Benefits (with vocalist Dmitra Smith – a high school classmate of Gossard, Turner and Vincent's).
Legacy
Green River made very little commercial impact outside Seattle, but what the band lacked in commercial success it made up for in influence. In general, Green River is widely regarded as being one of the pioneers of the grunge music genre. With its sludgy mix of hard rock, punk and metal, heavily influenced by The Stooges, Black Sabbath and Aerosmith, coupled with Arm's twisted lyrics and vocal delivery, Green River greatly influenced both its peers and bands that followed them. Even without the fact that some of its members would later go on to form some of the biggest bands of the Northwest music scene, Green River is still remembered for its musical foresight and innovation, years ahead of the rise of grunge.
Band members
Mark Arm – vocals (1984–1988, 1993, 2008–09)
Steve Turner – guitar, backing vocals (1984–1985, 1993, 2008–2009)
Alex Vincent – drums, percussion (1984–1988, 2008–09)
Jeff Ament – bass, backing vocals (1984–1988, 1993, 2008–09)
Stone Gossard – guitar, backing vocals (1984–1988, 1993, 2008–09)
Bruce Fairweather – guitar, backing vocals (1985–1988, 2008–2009)
Chuck Treece – drums (1993)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Demo albums
Compilations
Extended plays
Singles
Other appearances
See also
List of alternative rock artists
References
External links
Sub Pop's Green River page
Alternative rock groups from Washington (state)
Grunge musical groups
C/Z Records artists
Homestead Records artists
Musical groups established in 1984
Musical groups disestablished in 1988
Musical groups reestablished in 2008
Musical groups disestablished in 2009
Musical groups from Seattle
1984 establishments in Washington (state)
Sub Pop artists |
356825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Soccer%20League | United Soccer League | United Soccer League (USL), formerly known as United Soccer Leagues, is the organizer of several soccer leagues with teams in the United States and Canada. It includes men's and women's leagues, both professional and amateur. Leagues currently organized are the USL Championship, USL League One, USL League Two and the youth Super Y League. A new women's league, the USL W League, will begin play in 2022. It is directly affiliated with the United States Soccer Federation and the United States Adult Soccer Association. The USL is headquartered in Tampa.
History
Year by year
1986 Established as Southwest Indoor Soccer League
1989 Added an outdoor league known as the Southwest Outdoor Soccer League. This was soon changed to Southwest Independent Soccer League which included both the indoor and outdoor leagues.
1990 Renamed Sunbelt Independent Soccer League
1991 Renamed United States Interregional Soccer League
1995 Renamed United States International Soccer League
1995 Renamed United Systems of Independent Soccer Leagues and formally established professional Pro League and amateur Premier Development League
1995 The USL W-League women's semi-pro league is launched.
1996 Established Select League consisting of strongest teams from Division 3 Pro League and Amateur Premier League in hopes of gaining Division 2 sanctioning.
1997 Select League and the former American Professional Soccer League merged to form A-League under the USISL umbrella.
1999 Umbrella USISL changed its name to the United Soccer Leagues.
2009 Nike sells organization to NuRock Soccer Holdings, LLC. As a result, nine clubs left the First Division to form the North American Soccer League: Atlanta Silverbacks, Carolina RailHawks FC, Miami FC, Minnesota Thunder, Montreal Impact, Rochester Rhinos, Tampa Bay Rowdies, Vancouver Whitecaps, and the AC St. Louis expansion group. United Soccer League was a division in the temporary USSF Division 2 league.
2010 USL announced the formation of USL Pro, which merged the USL First Division and USL Second Division.
2011 Inaugural season of USL Pro.
2011 USL takes over operation of the Major Indoor Soccer League.
2013 USL Pro and Major League Soccer announce a multi-year agreement, beginning that season, to integrate MLS Reserve League play with USL Pro teams, first through team affiliations and "interleague" play, eventually fully merging MLS Reserves into the USL Pro structure.
2013 The W-20 League is launched, a youth league that is operationally aligned with the USL W-League.
2015 USL Pro renamed United Soccer League
2015 USL W-League and W-20 League cease operations.
2017 USL is granted Provisional Division II status by U.S. Soccer.
2017 USL creates USL Division III league and files for Division III status with U.S. Soccer.
2018 USL announces re-branding of its top league to the USL Championship, USL Division III to USL League One, and the Premier Development League to USL League Two beginning with the 2019 season
2021 USL announces two new women's competitions, the amateur W League launching in the 2022 season and the professional Super League launching in 2023
Narrative
Founded in 1985 by Francisco Marcos, the Southwest Indoor Soccer League was first intended as a minor indoor league associated with Major Indoor Soccer League. The league began with five teams, all owned by individuals who owned or operated indoor soccer arenas in the Southwest United States. League headquarters was in Austin, Texas. In 1986, Marcos' team, the Austin Sockadillos, entered the league giving it six teams. By 1989, the league had set its sights on greater prospects than remaining a small, semi-professional indoor league. A 1989 press release stated, "It is envisioned the league will be part of the USSF's plan to professionalize soccer in the USA prior to the 1994 World Cup, and the league plans to push its teams to be considered for the "three-tiered first, second and third divisions" plan the USSF envisions for soccer."
Complete historical team list
SISL
USISL
Champions
Indoor seasons
The USL began operations in 1986 as the Southwest Indoor Soccer League, a semi-professional indoor league. The league quickly expanded and added an outdoor season in 1989. In 1991, the league renamed itself the United States Interregional Soccer League. By then, the outdoor league overshadowed the indoor league which continued to slowly dwindle in importance. By the 1997–98 season, only five teams remained indoors while the outdoor season had over a hundred teams divided into a three-division structure. This led the league to stop running an indoor league.
In 2010, the USL began to consider relaunching an indoor season. However, it decided instead to take over operations of the Major Indoor Soccer League; beginning indoor operations in 2011. The champions were determined by a single games in 1987, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 and 1998. The champions were determined by a best of three series in 1998 and a best of five series in 1989, 1990 and 1991 and a home-and-home series in 2012 and 2013.
Outdoor seasons 1989–2010
In 1989, the Southwest Indoor Soccer League added a summer, outdoor season known as the Southwest Outdoor Soccer League. In 1990, the league dropped both "indoor" and "outdoor" from its name as it ran both a semi-professional indoor and outdoor season. By 1995, the outdoor season had grown to such a size that the USISL, as it was known at the time, split the league into two levels, the aptly named, fully professional Professional League and the semi-professional Premier League. In 1996, the USISL added a third, higher, Select League. This was formed from the strongest teams from both the Professional and Premier League. The Select League, along with the competing A-League, both received official Division II status from FIFA. However, the A-League was in decline while the USISL was expanding. Therefore, in 1997, the A-League ceased operations and merged into the USISL Select League which was renamed the USISL A-League. From that point, the USL's three-level structure remained stable until 2010. Some teams left to start the North American Soccer League and the First and Second Divisions were merged to become the USL Professional Division.
Outdoor seasons 2011–2018
United Soccer League 2019–present
W-League seasons 1995–2015
Staff
Rob Hoskins – chairman
Alec Papadakis – chief executive officer, managing partner
Jake Edwards – president
Justin Papadakis – chief operating officer
Court Jeske - executive vice president
Karen Gittens - chief financial officer
Mark Cartwright - sporting director
Steven Short – senior vice president, USL League One
Joel Nash – vice president, USL League Two & Super-Y League
Garrison Mason – vice president, general counsel
Lizzie Seedhouse – vice president, digital & content
John Cochol – vice president, club services
Brett Luy – senior vice president, league operations
Gordon Bengtson – vice president, competition and technical development
Josh Keller – vice president, business development
References
External links
Companies based in Tampa, Florida
American companies established in 1986
Entertainment companies established in 1986
Soccer governing bodies in the United States
Soccer governing bodies in Canada |
356826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane | Mfecane | The Mfecane (isiZulu, Zulu pronunciation: [m̩fɛˈkǀaːne]), also known by the Sesotho names Difaqane or Lifaqane (all meaning "crushing, scattering, forced dispersal, forced migration") is a historical period of heightened military conflict and migration associated with state formation and expansion in Southern Africa. The exact range of dates that comprise the Mfecane varries between sources. At its broadest the period lasted from the late eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century CE, but scholarship often focuses on an intensive period from the 1810s to the 1840s. The concept first emerged in the 1830s and centered on the actions of Shaka Zulu, who was alleged to have waged near-genocidal wars that depopulated the land and sparked a chain reaction of violence as fleeing groups sought to conquer new lands. Since the later half of the 20th century this interpretation has fallen out of favor due to a lack of compelling historical evidence. Current scholarly understanding revises the mortality figure significantly downward and attributes the root causes to complex political, economic, and environmental developments. The Mfecane is significant in that it saw the formation of novel states, institutions, and ethnic identities in Eastern Southern Africa. The Mfecane's historiography itself is also historically significant, with different versions having been employed to serve a range of political purposes since its inception as a historical concept.
Causes
Theories vary as to the causes of the catastrophic warfare and migration of many ethnic groups in the area. Populations had increased greatly in Zululand following the Portuguese introduction of maize from the Americas in the late 17th century, reaching the inland around 1750. While maize was more productive than the grains from native grasses, it required more water during cultivation. The agricultural surpluses and increased population enabled Shaka to field more impis. By the end of the 18th century, the Zulus occupied much of their arable land. Declining rainfall and a ten-year drought in the early 19th century set off a competition for land and water resources among the peoples of the area. Another possible cause is the increased trade of ivory with the Portuguese in the Delagoa Bay. This led to deepening inequality within African societies which led people being even more vulnerable in a region that was already being hit by multiple droughts.
There were three major ethnic groups that occupied the areas now known as Nquthu, Babanango, Empangeni, Mtubatuba, Hlabisa, Nongoma, Pongola, Vryheid, Melmoth and Mahlabathini – those ethnic groups were the Ngwane, the Ndwandwe and the Mthethwa. They were respectively led by kings Sobhuza of Ngwane, Zwide, and Dingiswayo and were the most powerful ethnic groups. The language now known as Zulu was spoken by the Ndwandwes. At that time, the Zulus were a very weak ethnic group under the leadership of Senzangakhona. These three ethnic groups are to this day found in the same areas. The Zulus were a weak minority occupying a small piece of land in the area now known as Makhosini near Babanango. The Ikhoshlo side of the Buthelezi led by Mvulane became instrumental in the defeat of Phungashe by Shaka. Mvulane's son Ngqengelele became Shaka's induna and chief advisor. Ngqengele's son, Mbangambi led his section of the Buthelezis against Hhamu of Ngenetsheni.
Oral history says that after the death of Mvulane, the younger brother of Phungashe, Mvulane's sons Khoboyela and Ngqengelele escaped being killed by Phungashe over their father Mvulane's estate and went to live with Senzangakhona in the Zulu royal court. Most of the members of the Buthelezi ethnic group had left with Khoboyela and Ngqengelele. When Shaka attacked the Ngwane, Sobhuza's men were outnumbered by the combination of the Mthethwas, the Buthelezis under Ngqengelele and the Zulus. In summary, the causes of mfecane are; the need for land, population growth in Natal, Shaka's military and expansionist strategy.
Rise of the Zulu Kingdom
In about 1817, Chief Dingiswayo of the Mthethwa group in the south near the Tugela River, entered into an alliance with the Tsongas, who controlled the trade routes to Delagoa Bay (now Maputo). This alliance encroached on the routes used by the Ndwandwe alliance, who occupied the region in the north, near the Pongola River. Battles between the allied forces of Chief Dingiswayo and of Chief Zwide, and the Ndwandwe probably mark the start of what became the Mfecane.
Zwide defeated the Mthethwa and executed Chief Dingiswayo. Dingiswayo was a mentor to King Shaka. He took him in together with his mother Queen Nandi and gave them refuge. Many of the Mthethwa leaders formed a confederation with the Zulu clan, under the leadership of Shaka. The Zulus conquered and assimilated smaller clans in the area. Zwide attacked King Shaka and was defeated at the Battle of Gqokli Hill, which marked the start of Shaka's conquest of the Ndwandwe. The Zulu practice was to absorb only the women and young men of a clan or village. They killed the elderly and men of fighting age; the lucky ones escaped. Having learned Zulu tactics, the escapees in turn descended upon more distant clans unfamiliar with the new order.
Consequences for the Nguni Societies
Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan defied Zulu king Shaka, and set up his own kingdom. He quickly made many enemies: not only the Zulu king, but also the Boers, and the Griqua and Tswana. Defeats in several clashes convinced Mzilikazi to move north towards Swaziland. Going north and then inland westward along the watershed between the Vaal and the Limpopo rivers, Mzilikazi and his followers, the AmaNdebele, (called Matebele in English) established a Ndebele state northwest of the city of Pretoria.
During this period, the Matebele left a trail of destruction in their wake. From 1837 to 1838, the arrival of Boer settlers and the subsequent battles of Vegtkop and Mosega, drove the Matebele north of the Limpopo. They settled in the area now known as Matabeleland, in present-day southern Zimbabwe. Mzilikazi set up his new capital in Bulawayo. The AmaNdebele drove the AmaShona of the region northward and forced them to pay tribute. This caused resentment that has continued to the current day in modern Zimbabwe.
At the Battle of Mhlatuze River in 1818, the Ndwandwe were defeated by a Zulu force under the direct command of Shaka. Soshangane, one of Zwide's generals, fled to Mozambique with the remainder of the Ndwandwe. There, they established the Gaza kingdom. They oppressed the Tsonga people living there, some of whom fled over the Lebombo Mountains into the Northern Transvaal. In 1833, Soshangane invaded various Portuguese settlements, and was initially successful. But a combination of internal disputes and war against the Swazi caused the downfall of the Gaza kingdom.
The Ngwane people lived in present-day Eswatini (Swaziland), where they had settled in the southwest. They warred periodically with the Ndwandwe.
Zwangendaba, a commander of the Ndwandwe army, fled north with Soshangane after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers were henceforth called Ngoni. Continuing north of the Zambezi River, they formed a state in the region between lakes Malawi and Tanganyika. Maseko, who led another part of the Ngoni people, founded another state to the east of Zwangendaba's kingdom.
To the east, refugee clans and tribes from the Mfecane fled to the lands of the Xhosa people. Some of them such as the amaNgwane were driven back by force and defeated. Those who were accepted were obliged to be tributary to the Xhosas and lived under their protection. They were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life, becoming part of the Xhosa people. After years of oppression by the Xhosas, they later formed an alliance with the Cape Colony.
Consequences for the Sotho-Tswana peoples
Southern Tswana populations had experienced an increase in conflict as early as the 1780s. There was significant population growth in the region which lead to more competition for resources. There was an increasing amount of trade with the Cape colony and the Portuguese; this had the consequence of separate chiefdoms becoming more eager to conquer land for themselves in order to control trade routes. Dutch settlers from the Cape Colony encroaching upon the Khoikhoi and San into regions where Tswana people live resulted in the formation of the Korana who started to launch raids on other communities by the 1780s. The fact that many of them had access to firearms and horses likely exacerbated the devastation caused by their raiders. Xhosa who were escaping the already violent region of the Eastern Cape often launched their own raids as well. All of these of events led to making the region progressively more unstable. Missionary interference, internal politics, and raids by Dutch settlers also impacted the region. By the start of the 19th century, the most powerful Tswana chiefdom, the Bahurutse, were increasingly being challenged by the Bangwaketse.
Moshoeshoe I gathered the mountain clans together in an alliance against the Zulus. Fortifying the easily defended hills and expanding his reach with cavalry raids, he fought against his enemies with some success, despite not adopting the Zulu tactics, as many clans had done. The territory of Moshoeshoe I became the kingdom of Lesotho.
The Tswana were pillaged by two large invading forces set on the move by the Mfecane. Sebitwane gathered the Kololo ethnic groups near modern Lesotho and wandered north across what is now Botswana, plundering and killing many of the Tswana people in the way. They also took large numbers of captives north with them, finally settling north of the Zambezi River in Barotseland, where they conquered the Lozi people. The next force was the Mzilikazi and the Matebele who moved across Tswana territory in 1837. Both of these invading forces continued to travel north across Tswana territory without establishing any sort of state. In addition to these major kingdoms, a number of smaller groups also moved north into Tswana territory, where they met with defeat and ultimately vanished from history. Among those involved in these invasions were European adventurers such as Nathaniel Isaacs (who was later accused of slave trading).
Controversy
In 1988, Rhodes University professor Julian Cobbing advanced a different hypothesis on the rise of the Zulu state; he contended the accounts of the Mfecane were a self-serving, constructed product of apartheid-era politicians and historians. According to Cobbing, apartheid-era historians had mischaracterised the Mfecane as a period of internally induced Black-on-Black destruction. Instead, Cobbing argued that the roots of the conflicts laid in the labour needs of Portuguese slave traders operating out of Delagoa Bay, Mozambique and European settlers in the Cape Colony. The resulting pressures led to forced displacement, famine, and war in the interior, allowing waves of Afrikaner settlers to colonize large swaths of the region. Cobbing's views were echoed by historian Dan Wylie, who argued that colonial-era white writers such as Isaacs had exaggerated the brutality of the Mfecane to justify European colonialism.
Cobbing's hypothesis generated an immense volume of polemics among historians; the discussions were termed the "Cobbing Controversy". While historians had already embarked upon new approaches to the study of the Mfecane in the 1970s and 1980s, Cobbing's paper was the first major source that overtly defied the hegemonic "Zulu-centric" explanation at the time. This was followed by fierce discourse in the early 1990s prompted by Cobbing's hypothesis. Many agree that Cobbing's analysis offered several key breakthroughs and insights into the nature of early Zulu society. The historian Elizabeth Eldredge challenged Cobbing's thesis on the grounds that there is scant evidence of the resumption of the Portuguese slave trade out of Delagoa Bay before 1823, a finding that undermines Cobbing's thesis that Shaka's early military activities were a response to slave raids. Moreover, Eldredge argues that the Griqua and other groups (rather than European missionaries as asserted by Cobbing) were primarily responsible for the slave raids coming from the Cape. Eldredge also asserts that Cobbing downplays the importance of the ivory trade in Delagoa Bay, and the extent to which African groups and leaders sought to establish more centralised and complex state formations to control ivory routes and the wealth associated with the trade. She suggests these pressures created internal movements, as well as reactions against European activity, that drove the state formations and concomitant violence and displacement. She still agreed with Cobbing's overall sentiment in that the Zulu-centric explanation for the Mfecane is not reliable. By the early 2000s, a new historical consensus had emerged, recognizing the Mfecane to be not simply a series of events resulting from the founding of the Zulu Kingdom but rather a multitude of factors caused before and after Shaka Zulu came into power.
References
Notes
Citations
Further resources
J.D. Omer-Cooper, The Zulu Aftermath: A Nineteenth-Century Revolution in Bantu Africa, Longmans, 1978: ; outstanding example of the traditional view.
Norman Etherington, The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815–1854, Longman, 2001: ; refutes accounts of the Mfecane
Carolyn Hamilton, The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History, Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1995:
19th century in Africa
Genocides in Africa
History of KwaZulu-Natal
Monarchies of South Africa
Zulu culture |
356827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Virginia%20FC | Northern Virginia FC | Northern Virginia FC (formerly Northern Virginia Royals and Evergreen FC) is an American soccer club from Leesburg, Virginia competing in USL League Two and in the Major Arena Soccer League 3.
The club's women's team was known as the Northern Virginia Majestics, who played in the women's USL W-League, and fielded a team in the USL’s Super-20 League, a league for players 17 to 20 years of age run under the United Soccer Leagues umbrella. Throughout their recent history, NVFC previously enjoyed minor league affiliation with D.C. United, the nearby Major League Soccer franchise.
History
Professional
Northern Virginia FC was founded in 1998 and joined the USISL D-3 Pro League as an expansion franchise in 1998, entering the team under the name Northern Virginia Royals. They ended their first season in 7th place in the Atlantic Division with a 5-12-1 record. In their second season, they improved, winning 10 of their 18 regular season games, finishing fourth in the Atlantic Division and also qualified for their first US Open Cup campaign in 1999, where they were upset in the first round by Florida PDL side Cocoa Expos 5-3. In the playoffs they beat divisional rivals South Carolina Shamrocks 2-1 in the first round before falling 4-0 to Charlotte in the conference semi-final. The 1998 season and the Royals were featured in the book "Unlucky: A Season of Struggle in Minor League Professional Soccer" by Dave Ungrady, who trained and played briefly for the Royals as well
The D-3 Pro League became the USL Pro Select League in 2003, and the Royals finished bottom of the 3-team Southern Division, with just 6 wins for the year.
The USL Pro Select League became the USL Second Division in 2005, and dispensed with divisions in favor of a single-table format; for the Royals, this proved to be yet another disastrous season.
Move to PDL
After finishing bottom of the league in the USL Second Division, the Royals management took the decision to self-relegate themselves to the USL Premier Development League for the 2006 season. The Royals won their first match in the amateur PDL 3-1 over West Virginia Chaos, ultimately finishing fourth in the Mid Atlantic Division in their debut 2006 season.
The Northern Virginia Royals were inducted into the USL Soccer Hall of Fame in 2007.
Partnership with D.C. United
In 2015, the Royals rebranded as Evergreen FC and partnered with Major League Soccer club D.C. United and formed a joint PDL team called D.C. United U-23, who combined their NPSL side with the Royals, to play in the PDL, finishing fifth in the Mid-Atlantic Division.
Evergreen Hammers
After the 2015 season, the Royals transferred their operations and relocated to Loudon County, Virginia in 2016 playing under the Evergreen FC banner as the Evergreen Hammers.
Northern Virginia FC
For the 2021 season, Evergreen which was already part of the Northern Virginia FC club, renamed the USL League Two club to the Northern Virginia banner. NoVa FC had already operated teams under that name in the lower level United Premier Soccer League and Eastern Premier Soccer League.
On 27 August 2021, NoVa FC announced they would be reviving the women's program with a new side in the USL W League beginning in 2022.
Logo history
Year-by-year
Head coaches
Silvino Gonzalo (1998–2007)
John Pascarella (2007–2008)
Tom Torres (2009–2010)
Richie Burke (2011–2012)
Grady Renfrow (2013–2014)
Richie Burke (2014–2015)
Brian Welsh (2014–2015)
Ian Bishop (2016)
Grady Renfrow (2017)
Paul Ngend (2018–2019)
Grady Renfrow (2021–)
References
External links
Official website
Official PDL site
Association football clubs established in 1998
USL League Two teams
Sports in Northern Virginia
Leesburg, Virginia
Soccer clubs in Virginia
D.C. United
USISL D-3 Pro League teams
USL Second Division teams
1998 establishments in Virginia |
356831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Virginia%20Majestics | Northern Virginia Majestics | Northern Virginia Majestics was an American women’s soccer team, founded in 1998 that played in the United Soccer Leagues W-League, the second tier of women’s soccer in the United States and Canada in the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference. The team is the women's team of Northern Virginia FC, which plays in the USL League Two. They also operated teams in the Super Y League for youth. The team played home games at Hellwig Memorial Field Stadium in the city of Manassas, Virginia. The team's colors are gold, blue and white.
History
Part of Northern Virginia FC, the Majestics were formed in 1998 as the women's senior team. They joined the USL W-League in 1999, joining the W-2 division, playing in the South Division. They played their home opener on May 8 against the Indiana Blaze. They had a difficult debut season, going winless, finishing with an 0-11 record. Like most teams in the division, their roster was made up of primarily high school and college players.
Over their thirteen seasons, the Majestics reached the W-League playoffs four times (2002, 2003, 2006 and 2007). On the youth side, Northern Virginia Majestics and male equivalent Northern Virginia Royals were named the fifth best Super Y-League club program in North America. In 2008, the Majestics were inducted into the USL Soccer Hall of Fame, as a 10+ Club, earning the honor for the longevity of their programs in North America.
The team ended its operations following the 2012 season, although they continued to operate their Super Y U20 program.
Several players earned All W-League First and Second Team selections and Players of the Week honors. In addition, player Elizabeth Baidu won W-League Rookie of the Year and coach Hank Leung won Coach of the Year (Hank Leung) in 2002. The Majestics also won Executive of the Year honors in 2000 and in 2011, with owner/general Tim Schweitzer. Schweitzer was also USL Soccer Hall of Fame under the Builder category in 2011 for his work with the Majestics.
Year-by-year
The record for the Majestics in their seasons:
Notable Former players
Ali Krieger
Elizabeth Baidu
Alberta Sackey
Adjoa Bayor
Basilea Amoah-Tetteh
References
External links
Official Site
Northern Virginia Majestics on USL Soccer
Women's soccer clubs in the United States
Sports in Northern Virginia
Prince William County, Virginia
Soccer clubs in Virginia
USL W-League teams
Association football clubs established in 1998
1998 establishments in Virginia |
356834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum%20Barracks | Drum Barracks | The Drum Barracks, also known as Camp Drum and the Drum Barracks Civil War Museum, is the last remaining original American Civil War era military facility in the Los Angeles area. Located in the Wilmington section of Los Angeles, near the Port of Los Angeles, it has been designated as a California Historic Landmark, a Los Angeles Historic Cultural Monument and has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Since 1987, it has been operated as a Civil War museum that is open to the public.
History
With the outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861, there were concerns on the Union side about the loyalty and security of the Los Angeles area. Many of the area's residents were recent arrivals from the Southern states, and southerner John C. Breckinridge received twice as many local votes as Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 Presidential election. A company of secessionists was also holding public drills in El Monte, California, displaying California's Bear flag instead of the Stars and Stripes.
Phineas Banning, the founder of Wilmington (then known as New San Pedro), wrote a letter to President Lincoln advising that the Union would lose California unless some provision was made to quell pro-Confederacy sentiment. Initially, the Union moved a garrison from Fort Tejon to Camp Latham near Culver City, California. Later in 1861, Banning and Benjamin Davis Wilson, the first mayor of Los Angeles, donated in Wilmington to the government for one dollar each for use in construction of a Union garrison. By January 1862, the military command had moved from Camp Latham to Camp Drum in Wilmington, and by March 1862, all but one company of Camp Latham's troops had been moved to Camp Drum. The camp was built between 1862 and 1863 at a cost of $1 million and consisted of 19 buildings located on in Wilmington with another near the harbor. By March 1864, official letters and papers referred to the encampment as Drum Barracks rather than Camp Drum.
Camp Drum and Drum Barracks get their name from Col. Richard Coulter Drum, then Assistant Adjutant General of the Army's Department of the Pacific, stationed in San Francisco, and not after a percussion instrument. There is no record that Col. Drum ever saw or set foot in the station bearing his name.
During the Civil War, Camp Drum was the headquarters of the District of Southern California and the home to the California Column, commanded by Colonel James Henry Carleton. Between 2,000 and 7,000 soldiers were stationed at Camp Drum, and Wilmington became a thriving community with a population greater than Los Angeles during the war.
In 1862, Texas Volunteers had taken control of large portions of New Mexico Territory (which included present-day Arizona) for the Confederacy, and Colonel Carleton was ordered to retake control of the territory. Approximately 2,350 soldiers from the California Column marched from Camp Drum and fought the Battle of Picacho Pass, the westernmost battle of the Civil War.
In 1864, the federal government feared attempts by Confederate sympathizers to outfit privateers to sink ships carrying gold and silver from the Comstock Lode to aid the Union. To deprive them of an anchorage, Company C, 4th California Infantry under Captain West, occupied Catalina Island on January 1, 1864, and put an end to gold mining by ordering everyone off the island. A small garrison of Union troops were stationed at Camp Santa Catalina Island on the isthmus on the island's west end for about nine months. Their barracks remain as the oldest structure on the island in the Two Harbors area and are currently the home of the Isthmus Yacht Club.
Camp Drum also served as a deterrent to Confederate sympathizers in the Los Angeles area, helped keep the territory loyal to the Union, and prevented Confederate use of the Los Angeles harbor.
After the Civil War, Camp Drum remained active for several years in the Indian Wars. By 1870, it had been deactivated and fallen into disrepair. In October 1871, the Los Angeles Star reported that all remaining troops at Drum Barracks had been ordered to Fort Yuma.
In 1873, the government returned the land to Banning and Wilson after auctioning off the buildings. Banning bought five of the buildings for $2,917, and Wilson bought one for $200.
Historic designations, preservation and use as a museum
In 1927, the Drum Barracks was designated a historic monument by the Native Sons of the Golden West, and in 1935 it was officially designated as California Historic Landmark #169. With the formation of the Los Angeles Cultural Heritage Commission in 1962, Drum Barracks was one of the first sites designated as a Historic Cultural Landmark (HCM #21), receiving the monument designation in 1963. It was also designated as and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.
In 1963, the owner of the property offered the property for sale, and concerns arose about its potential demolition. Under the leadership of Walter Holstein, local residents formed The Society for The Preservation of Drum Barracks, raising funds to purchase the property. In 1967, under the leadership of Oliver Vickery, curator of the Banning House, and Joan Lorenzen, the State of California purchased the Drum Barracks, with the Society retaining responsibility for maintenance and operation of the barracks as a historic site. In 1986, the State turned over the property to the City of Los Angeles on the condition that it be operated as a Civil War museum.
The surviving 16-room structure was the officers' quarters, which was once one of 19 similar buildings on the site. Today, the barracks is open as a museum which commemorates California's contribution to the Civil War.
Disturbances
The surviving building holds a local reputation as the locale of various paranormal activity, with visitors and local residents claiming to hear the sound of rattling chains or wagon wheels and horses' hooves, seeing smoke (presumably from soldiers' pipes), spotting apparitions of a woman in a hoop skirt, and smelling a strong lavender violet perfume. The Drum Barracks was profiled on Unsolved Mysteries in the early 1990s in a segment called 'Civil War Ghosts'. Some of the people interviewed in that segment claimed to have seen apparitions of Civil War soldiers. In 2005 the Barracks was featured in an episode of Most Haunted.
California Historical Landmark
California Historical Landmark Marker #169 at the site reads:
NO. 169 DRUM BARRACKS - Established in 1862, Drum Barracks became the United States military headquarters for Southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico. It was a garrison and base for supplies, and a terminus for camel pack trains operated by the Army until 1863. Abandoned in 1866, the site remains a landmark of the Civil War in California.
See also
List of Registered Historic Places in Los Angeles
List of Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments in the Harbor area
Mojave Road Los Angeles California Historical Landmark near Drum Barracks
Camp Cady California Historical Landmark on road to Drum Barracks
Footnotes
External links
Official Drum Barracks Civil War Museum website
California State Military Museum: "History of the Drum Barracks" webpage
Los Angeles Public Library files:
Brochure from Drum Barracks Museum
Pamphlet used by tour guides at Drum Barracks Museum
"Drum Barracks and Camel Corps" – article by The Society for Preservation of Drum Barracks.
Articles on Drum Barracks
"Is local museum haunted?", by Eric Wilhelmus – article in Random Lengths, Oct. 31 – Nov. 13, 1991
American Civil War army posts
American Civil War museums in California
Barracks in the United States
Museums in Los Angeles
Wilmington, Los Angeles
California in the American Civil War
Forts in California
Formerly Used Defense Sites in California
California Historical Landmarks
Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments
Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Los Angeles
Closed installations of the United States Army
Government buildings completed in 1863
Residential buildings completed in 1863
History of Los Angeles
Reportedly haunted locations in Los Angeles
Supernatural legends
1863 establishments in California
1870 disestablishments in California
19th century in Los Angeles
American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places |
356842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%20%28disambiguation%29 | China (disambiguation) | China, officially the People's Republic of China, is a country in East Asia.
China may also refer to:
Places
China-related regions, polities, and concepts
China (region), a region that occupies the eastern part of the Eurasian continent (Asia continent), and the states and societies established there
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China
Mainland China, the geographical territory controlled by the People's Republic of China, excluding the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macao, and territories controlled by the Republic of China
Free area of the Republic of China, the geographical territory under de facto control of the Republic of China, including Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu islands
Republic of China (1912–1949), a sovereign state based in Mainland China prior to its government's relocation to Taiwan
Greater China, a geographical region encompassing mainland China, Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan
China proper, also called "Inner China" or the "Eighteen Provinces", the core part of China during the Qing dynasty
Empire of China (1915–1916), a short-lived state established by Yuan Shikai
Dynasties in Chinese history, the historical dynasties that ruled and represented China
Little China (ideology), the various historical Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese regimes that considered themselves as rightful representatives of "China" and the Chinese civilization
United States
China, Indiana
China, Maine
China Township, Michigan
China, Missouri
China, New York
China, Texas
China Grove, Texas
China Spring, Texas
Elsewhere
China, Kagoshima, a town in Japan
China, Nuevo León, a municipality in Mexico
China, Pakistan
China Beach (Canada), a beach on Vancouver Island, Canada
Film and television
China (1943 film), a film by John Farrow
China (2017 film), an Indian film
"China" (The Office), an episode of The Office
Music
China (band), a hard rock band from Switzerland
China (China album)
China (Vangelis album) (1979)
China (The Parlotones album) (2018)
"China" (Anuel AA song)
"China" (Red Rockers song)
"China" (Tori Amos song)
China cymbal, a type of accent cymbal
China Records, a record label
People
Football
China (footballer, born 1939) born José Ricardo da Silva, Brazilian striker
China (footballer, born 1948), born Ademir Ueta, Brazilian football forward
China (footballer, born 1959) born Henrique Valmir da Conceição, Brazilian defensive midfielder
China (footballer, born 1964) born Carlos Alberto Gomes Kao Yien, Brazilian rightback
China (footballer, born 1980) born Leonardo Bruno dos Santos Silva, Brazilian rightback
China (footballer, born 1982) born João Pedro dos Santos Gonçalves, Portuguese leftback
China (footballer, born 1996), born Rogerio Alves dos Santos, Brazilian football striker
Other uses
China (insect), a genus of grasshopper
China (material) or porcelain
China (schooner), a schooner destroyed in 1883
China (Superleague Formula team), a national racing team from China
1125 China, an asteroid
HMS Africa, launched 1862, renamed China in the Lay-Osborn Flotilla
HMHS China, a British hospital ship in World War I
Smilax china, a plant species
Chinas, a people mentioned in ancient Indian literature
People with the name
Edd China (born 1971), British motor specialist
China Chow (born 1974), English actress
China Kantner (born 1971), American actress
China Machado (1929–2016), fashion model and editor
China Anne McClain (born 1998), American actress and singer
China Miéville (born 1972), British novelist
China Moses (born 1978), American singer and television host living in Paris
China Zorrilla (born 1922), Uruguayan actress
China P. Arnold (born 1980), American convicted killer
See also
China doll (disambiguation)
China Lake (disambiguation)
Chinatown, sometimes referred to as "Little China"
Imperial China, China from the Qin to the Qing dynasties
Names of China, common names for China
Republic of China (disambiguation)
Chinese (disambiguation)
Chinese civilization (disambiguation)
Chinna (disambiguation)
Cochinchina, a region in modern Vietnam
Indochina, a peninsula in Southeast Asia
Chyna (name), given name and surname, including a list of people with the name
Cina, a former kingdom absorbed by Luwu in Indonesia
Zhonghua (disambiguation) |
356844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Jena | University of Jena | The University of Jena, officially the Friedrich Schiller University Jena (, abbreviated FSU, shortened form Uni Jena), is a public research university located in Jena, Thuringia, Germany.
The university was established in 1558 and is counted among the ten oldest universities in Germany. It is affiliated with six Nobel Prize winners, most recently in 2000 when Jena graduate Herbert Kroemer won the Nobel Prize for physics. It was renamed after the poet Friedrich Schiller who was teaching as professor of philosophy when Jena attracted some of the most influential minds at the turn of the 19th century. With Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, G. W. F. Hegel, F. W. J. Schelling and Friedrich Schlegel on its teaching staff, the university was at the centre of the emergence of German idealism and early Romanticism.
, the university has around 19,000 students enrolled and 375 professors. Its current president, Walter Rosenthal, was elected in 2014 for a six-year term.
History
Early history
Elector John Frederick of Saxony first thought of a plan to establish a university at Jena upon Saale in 1547 while he was being held captive by emperor Charles V. The plan was put into motion by his three sons and, after having obtained a charter from the Emperor Ferdinand I, the university was established on 2 February 1558. The university, jointly maintained by the Saxon Duchies who derived from partitioning of John Frederick's duchy, was thus named Ducal Pan-Saxon University () or Salana (after the river Saale).
Prior to the 20th century, University enrollment peaked in the 18th century. The university's reputation peaked under the auspices of Duke Charles Augustus, Goethe's patron (1787–1806), when Gottlieb Fichte, G. W. F. Hegel, Friedrich Schelling, Friedrich von Schlegel and Friedrich Schiller were on its teaching staff.
Founded as a home for the new religious opinions of the sixteenth century, it has since been one of the most politically radical universities in Germany. Jena was noted among other German universities at the time for allowing students to duel and to have a passion for Freiheit, which were popularly regarded as the necessary characteristics of German student life. The University of Jena has preserved a historical detention room or Karzer with famous caricatures by Swiss painter Martin Disteli.
In the latter 19th century, the department of zoology taught evolutionary theory, with Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel and others publishing detailed theories at the time of Darwin's "Origin of Species" (1858). The later fame of Ernst Haeckel eclipsed Darwin in some European countries, as the term "Haeckelism" was more common than Darwinism.
In 1905, Jena had 1,100 students enrolled and its teaching staff (including Privatdozenten) numbered 112. Amongst its numerous auxiliaries then were the library, with 200,000 volumes; the observatory; the meteorological institute; the botanical garden; the seminaries of theology, philology, and education; and the well-equipped clinical, anatomical, and physical institutes.
After the end of the Saxon duchies in 1918, and their merger with further principalities into the Free State of Thuringia in 1920, the university was renamed as the Thuringian State University (Thüringische Landesuniversität) in 1921. In 1934 the university was renamed again, receiving its present name of Friedrich Schiller University. During the 20th century, the cooperation between Zeiss corporation and the university brought new prosperity and attention to Jena, resulting in a dramatic increase in funding and enrollment.
Nazi period
During the Third Reich, staunch Nazis moved into leading positions at the university. The racial researcher and SS-Hauptscharführer Karl Astel was appointed professor in 1933, bypassing traditional qualifications and process; he later became rector of the University in 1939. Also in 1933, many professors had to leave the university as a consequence of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. Student fraternities – in particular the Burschenschaften – were dissolved and incorporated into the Nazi student federation. The Nazi student federation enjoyed before the transfer of power and won great support among the student body elections in January 1933, achieving 49.3% of the vote, which represents the second best result. Between the Jena connections and the NS students wide-ranging human and ideological connections were recorded.
When the Allied air raids to Jena in February and March struck in 1945, the University Library, the University main building and several clinics in the Bachstraße received total or significant physical damage. Completely destroyed were the Botanical Garden, the psychological and the physiological institute and three chemical Institutes. An important event for the National Socialist period was the investigation of the pediatrician Yusuf Ibrahim. A Senate Commission noted the participation of the physician to the "euthanasia" murders of physically or mentally disabled children.
Present
In the 20th century the university was promoted through cooperation with Carl Zeiss (company) and thereby enabling it to increase the student population as a mass university. In 1905 the university had 1,100 students and 112 university teachers, so this figure has since been almost twenty-fold. The Friedrich-Schiller University is the only comprehensive university in Thuringia.
Since 1995, there is a university association with the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg and the University of Leipzig. The aim is firstly to give the students the opportunity to visit with relatively few problems at the partner universities and events in order to broaden the range of subjects and topics. Currently e. g. has joined a cooperation in teaching in the field of bioinformatics. In addition, the cooperation provides the university management the opportunity to share experiences with their regular meetings and initiate common projects. So z. B. went from the successful bid to the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) from the University network. The co-operation continues at other levels: for example in a joint mentoring program for female postdocs or in the central German archives network. And last but not least, there are common sports activities.
Since October 2014, the pharmacologist Walter Rosenthal is the president of the University; Chancellor is since 2007 the mathematician Klaus Bartholmé.
Organization
The university is organized in 10 schools:
theology
jurisprudence
economics and business administration
humanities
social and behavioural sciences
mathematics and computer science
physics and astronomy
chemical and earth sciences
biology and pharmacy
medicine
Research
Research at Friedrich Schiller University traditionally focusses on both humanities and sciences. In addition to the faculties the following "Collaborative Research Centers" (German "Sonderforschungsbereich", short: "SFB") operate at the university:
CRC 1076 AquaDiva : Understanding the Links Between Surface and Subsurface Biogeosphere
CRC/TR 124 FungiNet: Pathogenic fungi and their human host: Networks of interaction
CRC 1127 ChemBioSys: Chemical Mediators in Complex Biosystems
CRC/TR 166 ReceptorLight: High-end light microscopy elucidates membrane receptor function
CRC 1278 Polymer-based nanoparticle libraries for targeted anti-inflammatory strategiesde
CRC / TR 234 CataLIGHT: Light-driven Molecular Catalysts in Hierarchically Structured Materials – Synthesis and Mechanistic Studiesde
CRC 1375 NOA: Nonlinear Optics down to Atomic Scales
Participations in DFG-Collaborative Research Centres:
CRC 950 Manuskriptkulturen in Asien, Afrika und Europa
CRC/TRR 212 A Novel Synthesis of Individualisation across Behaviour, Ecology and Evolution: Niche Choice, Niche Conformance, Niche Construction
In 2006 the research center, Jena Center – History of the 20th century, was founded. In 2007 the graduate school "Jena School for Microbial Communication" (JSMC) was established within the German Universities Excellence Initiative. In 2008 the Center for Molecular Biomedicine (CMB) and the interdisciplinary research center Laboratory of the Enlightenment were developed as research institutions. 2014 the "Center of Advanced Research" (ZAF) was established.
Jena University is one of the founder of The German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, that was founded in 2013. It is a research centre of the German Research Foundation (DFG).
Friedrich Schiller University is the only German University with a chair for gravitational theory and one for Caucasus Studies.
Notable faculty and alumni
Manuk Abeghian Armenian philologist and linguist
Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs (doctorate in astronomy 1951)
Wilibald Artus (1811–1880), Professor of Philosophy
Johann Bachstrom, writer, scientist, physician and Lutheran theologian
Ernst Gottfried Baldinger, German physician
Hans Berger
Otto Binswanger
Albrecht von Blumenthal taught Classical Philology as Privatdozent 1922-8
Rudolf Brandt (1909–1948), Nazi SS officer, executed for war crimes
Werner Braune (1909–1951), Nazi SS officer, executed for war crimes
Alfred Brehm
Clemens Brentano
Rudolf Carnap
Heinrich Cotta, pioneer of scientific forestry
Georg Friedrich Creuzer
Claus Dierksmeier, German philosopher
Carl H. Dorner
Ernst Christoph Dressler (1734–1779), German composer, operatic tenor, violinist and music theorist
Rudolf Christoph Eucken
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Gottlob Frege
Roland Freisler
Johann Matthias Gesner
Nelson Glueck
Peter Griess
Friedrich von Hagedorn
Arvid Harnack
Karl Hase
Gerhart Hauptmann Nobel Prize–winning writer
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Cuno Hoffmeister
Thede Kahl
George Kessler
Georg Klaus
Christian Knaut, 17th Century botanist after whom Knautia arvensis was named by Linnaeus
Karl Korsch (graduated from the University of Jena's law school summa cum laude superato, 1911)
Jan Kollár, Panslavist and poet
Li Linsi, Chinese educator and diplomat
István Kováts
Karl Christian Friedrich Krause
Herbert Kroemer, Nobel Prize–winning physicist
August Leskien
Robert Ley
Francis Lieber, emigrant to USA, author of "Lieber Code"
Lucas Maius
Karl Marx (doctorate in absentia, 1841)
Ernest Nash
Novalis
Ernst Ottwalt
Axel Oxenstierna
Henri Pittier
Samuel von Pufendorf
Gerhard von Rad
Werner Rolfinck
Erich Roth (1910–1947), Nazi Gestapo member executed for war crimes
Solomon Marcus Schiller-Szinessy, doctorate (philosophy) (mathematics)
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling
Friedrich Schiller
August Wilhelm Schlegel
August Schleicher, German Linguist, Stammbaumtheorie (family-tree theory)
Arthur Schopenhauer (philosophy doctorate in absentia, 1813)
Otto Schott, inventor of borosilicate glass
Hugo Schuchardt, linguist
David Spence (rubber chemistry), early pioneer in rubber chemistry
Johann Gustav Stickel, orientalist
Michael Stifel
Kurt Tucholsky
Erhard Weigel
Christa Wolf
Christian Wolff
Carl Zeiss
Museums and collections at the University
Among the collections which are open to the public are the (Phyletisches Museum), an institution which is unique in Europe for illustrating the history of evolution, the Ernst-Haeckel-Memorialmuseum, the Mineralogical Collection which traces its roots back to Goethe and the second oldest Botanical Garden of Middle Europe. The (Schillers Gartenhaus) and the Goethe Memorial at the Botanical Garden are reminders of the two towering geniuses of Jena. Both buildings are also open to the public.
Oriental Collections / Papyrus Collection
The Alphons-Stübel-Collection of Early Photographs from the Orient (1857–1890)
Hilprecht Collection
Orientalisches Münzkabinett (OMJ)
Papyrus Collection
Archaeological Collections
Collection of Ancient Art
Collection of Plaster Casts of Ancient Sculpture
The Photo- and Slide Collection of the Institute of Classical Archaeology
The Collection of Prehistory and Early History
The Bilzingsleben collection
Departement of Art History and Custodia
Natural Sciences and Natural History
The Ernst-Haeckel-Haus
Zygomycetes (Mould Fungi)
Didactics of Biology
Herbarium Haussknecht (JE)
Botanical garden
Phyletic Museum
Mineralogy & Geology
Mineralogical Collection
Teaching Collection of Models for Mineralogy
History of Sciences
Collection of scientific and technical devices for physics
Astronomical collection
Medicine
The Meyer Steineg Collection of Medical History in Jena
Anatomical Collection
Medical History
Goethe Memorial
See also
List of early modern universities in Europe
Notes
References
Literature
Mayhew, Henry (1864): German Life and Manners as Seen in Saxony at the Present Day: With an Account of Village Life – Town Life – Fashionable Life – Domestic Life – Married Life – School and University Life, &c., of Germany at the Present Time: Illustrated with Songs and Pictures of the Student Customs at the University of Jena. In Two Volumes. London [Vol. II, Section VII, Chapter VI-XI: Student Life at Jena].
External links
University of Jena
University of Jena, statistics
Norbert Nail: Der schottische Dichter Charles Hamilton Sorley als Student im Sommer 1914 an Saale, Lahn und Mosel (in German)
Norbert Nail: John Baillie - Schotte, Pastor, Student 1909/11 in Jena und Marburg. In: Studenten-Kurier 3/2017, pp. 16–18. (in German)
Norbert Nail: Ein tödliches Pistolenduell 1848 auf der Trießnitz in (Jena-)Winzerla. In: Studenten-Kurier 1-2/2019, pp. 12-17 (in German - a deadly student duel at Jena)
Jena
Jena
1558 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Jena
Public universities
Friedrich Schiller
Buildings and structures in Jena |
356854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estelle%20Morris | Estelle Morris | Estelle Morris, Baroness Morris of Yardley, PC (born 17 June 1952), is a British politician and life peer who served as Secretary of State for Education and Skills from 2001 to 2002. A member of the Labour Party, she was Member of Parliament (MP) for Birmingham Yardley from 1992 to 2005.
Early life
Morris was born in Manchester into a political family. Her uncle, Alf Morris, was Labour MP for Manchester Wythenshawe (1964–1997) and her father, Charles, was Labour MP for Manchester Openshaw (1963–1983) and a Post Office union official who married Pauline Dunn. She attended Rack House primary school in Wythenshawe and Whalley Range High School in Whalley Range where she failed her English and French A-levels.
She is a graduate of the Coventry College of Education, where she gained a BEd degree in 1974. Morris remembered the long-serving Principal, Joan Dillon Browne (1912–2009), as "a pioneer in showing what women could achieve, long before it was fashionable to do so." Morris was a PE and Humanities teacher at the inner-city Sidney Stringer School in Coventry from 1974 to 1992, becoming Head of Sixth Form Studies, and was a member of Warwick District Council from 1979 to 1991.
Parliamentary career
Morris was elected to Parliament in 1992 for Birmingham Yardley, gaining the seat from the Conservatives with a majority of only 162. She became a minister in the Department for Education and Employment in 1997 and was promoted to Secretary of State for Education and Skills in 2001. She was the first former comprehensive school teacher to have the position. She suddenly resigned her post in October 2002, explaining that she did not feel up to the job. She had made a commitment to the then Conservative Shadow Education Secretary, David Willetts to resign if the literacy and numeracy targets were not met. In interviews following her resignation she stated that she had felt happier and more effective as a junior Education minister.
She rejoined the Government in 2003 as Minister for the Arts in the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, and caused further comment when she admitted that she did not know much about contemporary art. She stepped down from the government and as a Member of Parliament at the 2005 general election. Her constituency was gained by the Liberal Democrats at that election.
On 13 May 2005 it was announced that she would be created a life peer, and she was conferred as Baroness Morris of Yardley, of Yardley in the County of West Midlands, on 14 June 2005.
Career outside Parliament
Between 2005 and 2009 she was Pro Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sunderland. In May 2005, she was appointed chair of the Children's Workforce Development Council. In September 2005, it was announced that she would succeed Lady Kennedy of The Shaws as President of the National Children's Bureau. Also, since September 2005 she has been a member of the council of Goldsmiths, University of London and she is currently Chair of Council.
Since 2007 she has been chair of the Executive Group of the Institute for Effective Education at the University of York.
Morris is the Chair of the medical charity, APS Support UK, for Antiphospholipid syndrome and was patron of Hanover Foundations.
Awards
In 2004, Morris was awarded an Honorary D.A. degree from Leeds Metropolitan University and an Honorary D.Ed. degree from the University of Wolverhampton. She received an Honorary D.Litt. degree from the University of Bradford on 21 July 2005, and the University of Chester on 18 March 2011, on 18 July 2007 she was awarded an Honorary D.Ed. degree by Manchester Metropolitan University in recognition of her contribution to education throughout a lifelong career as a dedicated teacher and politician with an education portfolio that has spanned ten years. She was awarded an Honorary Fellowship in 2007 from the University of Cumbria.
References
External links
TheyWorkForYou.com – Estelle Morris profile, theyworkforyou.com; accessed 21 March 2014.
BBC Estelle Morris profile, news.bbc.co.uk; accessed 21 March 2014.
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Living people
Alumni of Manchester Metropolitan University
Alumni of the University of Warwick
Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
British Secretaries of State
British Secretaries of State for Education
Councillors in Warwickshire
Female life peers
Female members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Party (UK) life peers
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People associated with the University of Sunderland
People from Wythenshawe
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
20th-century British women politicians
21st-century British women politicians
20th-century English women
20th-century English people
21st-century English women
21st-century English people
Women councillors in England |
356857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVD | HVD | HVD may refer to:
High-voltage differential signaling, an electrical signalling method
Hosted Virtual Desktop, a type of computer desktop virtualization
High-Definition Versatile Disc, a DVD format
Holographic Versatile Disc, an optical disc technology
High-value detention site, a type of United States military prison
Humanistischer Verband Deutschlands, a German humanist organization
Khovd Airport, in Mongolia |
356859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magpie%20%28TV%20series%29 | Magpie (TV series) | Magpie was a British children's television programme shown on ITV from 30 July 1968 to 6 June 1980. It was a magazine format show, intended to compete with the BBC's Blue Peter, but it attempted to be more "hip", focusing more on popular culture. The show's creators, Lewis Rudd and Sue Turner, named the programme Magpie, as a reference to the magpie's habit of collecting small items and also because of "mag" being evocative of "magazine" and "pie" being evocative of a collection of ingredients.
Broadcast history
The programme, made by Thames Television, was first transmitted on 30 July 1968 which was Thames Television's first day of broadcasting. It was shown weekly until 1969, after which, until it ended on 6 June 1980, it went out twice a week. It was not fully networked to all other ITV companies until the autumn of 1969. Approximately 1,000 episodes were made, each 25 minutes in duration.
The first presenters were the former BBC Radio 1 disc jockey Pete Brady, Susan Stranks and Tony Bastable. Brady left the show in 1971 to be replaced by Douglas Rae, and Bastable left his presenting role to become the show's producer in 1972, being replaced by Mick Robertson. Jenny Hanley replaced Susan Stranks in 1974. This lineup remained until 1977, when Tommy Boyd replaced Rae.
Like Blue Peter, Magpie featured appeals for various causes and charities. Unlike its rival programme, however, it asked for cash donations rather than stamps or secondhand goods, familiar on Blue Peter. The cash totaliser was a long strip of paper which ran out of the studio and along the adjacent corridor walls. Unlike the BBC programme, Magpie was unscripted and the presenters were free to improvise the presentation of the show.
The show's mascot was a magpie called Murgatroyd.
Theme song
The theme tune was played by the Spencer Davis Group under the alias of The Murgatroyd Band, and composed by Eddie Hardin (lead voc., keyb.), Ray Fenwick (harm. voc., guit.) and Spencer Davis (harm. voc.guit.). The main lyric is an old children's nursery rhyme One for Sorrow:
One for sorrow
Two for joy
Three for a girl
Four for a boy
Five for silver
Six for gold
Seven for a secret never to be told
Eight's a wish and
Nine a kiss
Ten is a bird you must not miss.
The rhyme refers to an old English superstition concerning the portent of the number of magpies seen together in a flock, and an older version of the ending runs:
Eight for Heaven
Nine for Hell
Ten for the Devil himself
Steam engine and boat
In 1973, Magpie adopted a steam railway locomotive, "Black 5" 44806, which was given the name "Magpie" (Blue Peter already had a locomotive with the same name as that show). After an eventful history, it is still being used today on the North Yorkshire Moors Railway, although now with a different name.
Magpie also adopted a boat, originally called "Mankadu" and renamed "Thames Magpie". Its current whereabouts are unknown.
References
External links
British Film Institute Screen Online
Television Heaven page
.
1968 British television series debuts
1980 British television series endings
1960s British children's television series
1970s British children's television series
1980s British children's television series
ITV children's television shows
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television shows produced by Thames Television
English-language television shows |
356860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillian%20Shephard | Gillian Shephard | Gillian Patricia Shephard, Baroness Shephard of Northwold, PC, DL (née Watts; born 22 January 1940), is an English Conservative politician. She was the Member of Parliament for South West Norfolk and served as a Cabinet Minister, and is now Chairman of the Association of Conservative Peers.
Baroness Shephard is currently the chair of the Alumni Association of Oxford University. She was the chair of the Council of the Institute of Education until 2015 and deputy commissioner of the Social Mobility and Child Poverty Commission until 2017.
Early life and career
The daughter of Reginald and Bertha Watts, she was born in Cromer, Norfolk, and spent her early years in Mundesley on Sea, her father being a haulier with a small garage. She was educated at North Walsham Girls' High School and St Hilda's College, Oxford, from which she gained an MA in Modern Languages. She became a schoolteacher and then worked as an Education Inspector for Norfolk County Council from 1963 to 1975. From 1975 to 1977 she worked for Anglia Television. She was elected to Parliament in 1987, and became Parliamentary Private Secretary to Peter Lilley in 1988. She was appointed Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Department of Social Security in 1989, and then in 1990, Minister of State at HM Treasury. In 1990 she was given the additional role of Deputy Chairman of the Party. She married Thomas Shephard on 27 December 1975 and has two stepsons. The British econometrician Neil Shephard FBA, currently Professor of Economics and Statistics at Harvard University, is her stepson.
Ministerial career
After the 1992 general election, she was appointed Secretary of State for Employment, then Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food in 1993. She moved to Secretary of State for Education in 1994, and stayed at the department when the Department for Employment merged into it in 1996. She remained in this position until the 1997 general election.
Shephard was one of two women promoted to John Major's Cabinet in 1992; the other was Virginia Bottomley. The two believed the media was looking for stories of Ministerial "catfights" and made a pact to work together, despite differences in backgrounds and working styles. In an interview, Shephard said, "We said that we would never give anybody the chance to say that we were criticising the other. We would be supportive; end of. And we were."
Gillian Shephard provided considerable information regarding her role as Secretary of State for Education in interviews conducted by Brian Sherratt in October 1994 and March 1996 for his book on the agenda for educational reform which the Conservative Party had developed since 1979.
In opposition
After the defeat of the Conservatives, William Hague made her Shadow Leader of the House of Commons and later Shadow Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions. She returned to the backbenches in 1999 and stepped down from the House of Commons at the 2005 general election. Her memoirs Shephard's Watch: Illusions of Power in British Politics were published in 2000.
In 2013 following the death of Margaret Thatcher, Shephard published a memoir, The Real Iron Lady, of her time working with the former prime minister.
Life peerage
On 13 May 2005 it was announced that she would be created a life peer, and on 21 June 2005 the peerage was created as Baroness Shephard of Northwold, of Northwold in the County of Norfolk.
She is currently Chairman of the Association of Conservative Peers. She was Deputy Chair of the Social Mobility and Child Poverty Commission until 2017, when she resigned in frustration with Prime Minister Theresa May's lack of action.
Arms
Honours
She was appointed as a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 1992, giving her the Honorific Title "The Right Honourable" and after Ennoblement the Post Nominal Letters "PC" for life.
She is a Deputy Lieutenant of Norfolk, giving her the post nominal letters "DL" for life.
On 21 June 2005 she was awarded a Life Peerage. The peerage was created as Baroness Shephard of Northwold, of Northwold in the County of Norfolk. This entitled her to a seat in the House of Lords where she sits with the Conservative Party Benches.
In 2009 she was awarded the Legion of Honour by France.
She holds Honorary Fellowships from St Hilda's College, Oxford, Queen Mary University of London, and Royal Veterinary College.
In July 2018 she was awarded the Honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) from the University of East Anglia.
References
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1940 births
Alumni of St Hilda's College, Oxford
Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
British memoirists
British Secretaries of State
British Secretaries of State for Education
British Secretaries of State for Employment
Conservative Party (UK) life peers
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Deputy Lieutenants of Norfolk
Female life peers
Female members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Living people
Agriculture ministers of the United Kingdom
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People from Cromer
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
People from Northwold
20th-century British women politicians
21st-century British women politicians
British women memoirists
20th-century English women
20th-century English people
21st-century English women
21st-century English people |
356861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Dawes | William Dawes | William Dawes Jr. (April 6, 1745 – February 25, 1799) was one of several men who in April 1775 alerted colonial minutemen in Massachusetts of the approach of British army troops prior to the Battles of Lexington and Concord at the outset of the American Revolution. For some years, Paul Revere had the most renown for his ride of warning of this event.
Childhood
Dawes was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on April 6, 1745, to William and Lydia Dawes (née Boone), and baptized at Boston's Old South Church. He became a tanner and was active in Boston's militia. On May 3, 1768, Dawes married Mehitable May, the daughter of Samuel and Catherine May (née Mears). The Boston Gazette noted that for his wedding, he wore a suit entirely made in North America. At the time, Whigs were trying to organize a boycott of British products in order to pressure Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts.
Role in Boston's militia
On April 8, 1768, Dawes was elected as a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts. He was appointed as the Company's second sergeant in 1770. When the Company was revived in 1786, after becoming dormant during the American Revolution, he was appointed as the Company clerk. His father, William Dawes Sr., was also a member of the Company.
It is likely that in September 1774, Dawes was instrumental in helping Boston's militia artillery company secure its four small cannons from British army control. The Massachusetts Provincial Congress certainly sent word to him in February 1775 that it was time to move two of those weapons out of Boston.
On another occasion, Dawes and some others daringly stole two cannons which were in a building that was under guard by a British grenadier at the time. They sneaked the cannon out through a window in the back of the building then hid them in a woodbox in a schoolhouse next door for retrieval later. Upon discovery of the loss, the British authorities closely questioned the schoolmaster, who coolly denied any knowledge of the affair, while keeping his feet casually propped up on the woodbox. Dawes hurt his wrist in the escapade, and some days later, went to a fellow member of the Sons of Liberty, Dr. Joseph Warren for treatment. Warren asked Dawes how he hurt himself. Dawes demurred, and Warren (who probably knew about the cannon incident) wisely responded by saying that it was best that he did not know...
Midnight ride
Dawes, who was known and trusted by Sons of Liberty leader Dr. Joseph Warren, was assigned by Warren to ride from Boston to Lexington, Massachusetts, on the night of April 18, 1775, when it became clear that a British column was going to march into the countryside. Dawes' mission was to warn John Hancock and Samuel Adams that they were in danger of arrest. Dawes took the land route out of Boston through the Boston Neck, leaving just before the British military sealed off the town.
Also acting under Dr. Warren, Paul Revere arranged for another rider waiting across the Charles River in Charlestown to be told of the army's route with lanterns hung in Old North Church. To be certain the message would get through, Revere rowed across the river and started riding westward himself. Later, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's historically inaccurate poem "Paul Revere's Ride" would focus entirely on Revere, making him a composite of the many alarm riders that night.
Dawes and Revere arrived at the Hancock-Clarke House in Lexington about the same time, shortly after midnight. Revere arrived slightly earlier, despite having stopped to speak to militia officers in towns along the way, as his route was shorter and his horse faster. After warning Adams and Hancock to leave, Revere and Dawes proceeded to Concord in case that was the British column's goal. Revere no doubt knew that the Provincial Congress had stored munitions there, including the cannon which Dawes had helped to secure. Along the way, the two men met Samuel Prescott, a local young physician, who joined them.
A squad of mounted British officers awaited on the road between Lexington and Concord. They had already arrested some riders heading west with news of the troops, and they called for Dawes, Revere, and Prescott to halt. The three men rode in different directions, hoping one would escape. Dawes, according to the story he told his children, rode into the yard of a house shouting that he had lured two officers there. Fearing an ambush, the officers stopped chasing him. Dawes's horse bucked him off, however, and he had to walk back to Lexington. He later said that in the morning, he returned to the same yard and found the watch that had fallen from his pocket. Otherwise, Dawes's activity during the Battle of Lexington and Concord remains unknown.
Dawes and his companions' warnings allowed the town militias to muster a sufficient force for the first open battle of the American Revolutionary War and the first colonial victory. The British troops did not find most of the weapons they had marched to destroy and sustained serious losses during their retreat to Boston while under attack by the colonists.
Service in the American Revolution
On September 9, 1776 Dawes was commissioned second major of the Boston militia regiment.
Also during the war, Dawes worked as a quartermaster in central Massachusetts. British POWs from the Battle of Saratoga complained to Parliament that he gave them short supplies; his family countered that Dawes believed that they were stealing from farmers while being marched to Boston – as most armies on the march were prone to do.
Later life and death
Dawes refused to join a punitive expedition against Indians ordered by Governor Phillip in December 1790.
Mehitable died on May 19, 1794 but he remarried (to Lydia) two years later.
Dawes died in Marlborough, Massachusetts, on February 25, 1799. He was believed to have been buried in the King's Chapel Burying Ground, but modern research points to his resting place now being in his first wife's family plot in Forest Hills Cemetery in Jamaica Plain.
Legacy
The poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, "Paul Revere's Ride", has been criticized by modern historians for overstating the role of Revere in the night's events. Revere's may have been a better story, but Dawes and Prescott were more successful in achieving their missions. In 1896 Helen F. Moore, dismayed that William Dawes had been forgotten, penned a parody of Longfellow's poem.
The difference in Revere's and Dawes's achievement and legacy is examined by Malcolm Gladwell in his book The Tipping Point, where he concludes that Revere would be classified as a connector whereas Dawes was an "ordinary man."
Dawes's ride is commemorated on a traffic island in Cambridge, Massachusetts, heavily travelled by pedestrians, at the intersection of Garden Street and Massachusetts Avenue in Harvard Square, and known as Dawes Island. Dawes's passage through the area is represented by bronze horseshoes embedded in the sidewalk, as hoofprints, accompanied by an inscription giving his name and the date (inaccurately stated as April 19, 1775), and by historical displays.
In the film Knowing, the early events take place in Lexington, Massachusetts, at William Dawes Elementary School.
Descendants
William Dawes' great-grandson, Rufus Dawes, was a Civil War military officer and congressman; Rufus Dawes' children included Charles G. Dawes, who served as Vice President of the United States under Calvin Coolidge, Rufus C. Dawes, a businessman, Beman Gates Dawes, a businessman and congressman, and Henry M. Dawes, a businessman and banker. A brother of Congressman Rufus Dawes was Major Ephraim C. Dawes. Television personality Bill Schulz (William Dawes Schulz) is another descendant of Dawes, as the grandson of Henry M. Dawes' daughter Mary.
William Dawes was also a first cousin of Thomas Dawes, who was a Revolutionary War colonel, a noted architect/builder, and held numerous government positions; another cousin twice removed was Congressman Henry L. Dawes (1812-1903).
See also
The Charles G. Dawes House has portraits of William Dawes and his wife, Mehitable May, in its collection.
The Dawes Arboretum also has a portrait of William Dawes in its collection.
Israel Bissell
Sybil Ludington
References
Further reading
David Hackett Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, Oxford University Press, 1994, .
External links
William Dawes' grave at findagrave.com.
SOAS Special Collections holds four notebook vocabularies written by Dawes and his team documenting the languages of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. These have been digitised and are available online here.
Additional information regarding the legendary midnight ride can be found on history.com.
1745 births
1799 deaths
Dawes,William
Massachusetts militiamen in the American Revolution
People from colonial Boston
People of colonial Massachusetts
Dawes family
Burials in Boston |
356864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junius%20Brutus%20Booth | Junius Brutus Booth | Junius Brutus Booth (1 May 1796 – 30 November 1852) was an English stage actor. He was the father of actor John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. His other children included Edwin Booth, the foremost tragedian of the mid-to-late 19th century, Junius Brutus Booth Jr., an actor and theatre manager, and Asia Booth Clarke, a poet and writer.
Early life and education
Booth was born in St. Pancras, London, Great Britain, the son of Richard Booth, a lawyer and avid supporter of the American cause, and Jane Elizabeth Game. His paternal grandfather was John Booth, a silversmith, and his paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Wilkes, was a relative of the English radical and politician John Wilkes. While he was growing up, Booth's father tried to settle his son in a lengthy succession of professions. Booth recalls of his childhood, "I was destined by my Controllers first for the Printing office, then to be an architect, then to be a sculptor and modeler, then a lawyer, then a sailor, of all of these I preferred those of sculptor and modeler."
On 26 September 1811, a single woman named Sarah Blackbeard, of St Leonard, Shoreditch, gave birth to a son, William. Called before a magistrate in March 1812, she stated that "one Junius Brutus Booth who resides at his Father's No. 1 Dove Row in the said Parish of St Leonard Shoreditch Gentleman... is the true and only Father of such Child." She repeated this as sworn evidence in 1813, when the child became chargeable on the parish under the Poor Law, giving Booth's address then as Queen Street, Bloomsbury.
In August 1814, Junius met Marie Christine Adelaide Delannoy while boarding at her mother's home in Brussels. She followed him to London where they eventually married on 17 May 1815, soon after his 19th birthday. Their first child, Amelia Portia Adelaide Booth, was born later, on October 5, 1815, but died July 7, 1816. Their only child to survive infancy was Richard Junius Booth (1819–1868).
Career
Booth’s interests in theatre came after he attended a production of Othello at the Covent Garden Theatre. The prospects of fame, fortune and freedom were very appealing to young Booth. He displayed a talent for acting from an early age, deciding on a career in the theatre by the age of 17. He performed roles in several small theatres throughout England, and joined a tour of the Low Countries in 1814, returning the following year to make his London debut.
Booth gained national renown in England with his performance in the title role of Richard III in 1817 at the Covent Garden Theatre. Critics compared his performances favorably with those of Edmund Kean, who was at the time the foremost tragedian in Britain. Partisans of the two actors, called Boothites and Keanites, would occasionally start rows at venues where the two were playing together. This did not stop the two from performing in the same plays; Kean and Booth acted in several Shakespearean productions at the Drury Lane Theatre from 1817 to 1821. Kean then saw Booth as a threat and orchestrated a way for the two of them to perform those roles yet again, planning to outperform his opponent. Kean’s long-standing presence contributed to Booth’s neverending comparisons to his rival.
Move to the United States
In 1821, Booth emigrated to the United States with Mary Ann Holmes, a flower girl, abandoning his wife and their young son. Booth and Holmes claimed to be married that year and settled in 1822 near Bel Air, Maryland. For years they lived in a log cabin Booth bought, moved to his 150 acres, and whitewashed. Just before his death, he began building a much grander house which he named Tudor Hall. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.
Booth was quickly hired to play Richard III. In less than a year, Booth became the most prominent actor in the United States. Critic William Winter said, "He was followed as a marvel. Mention of his name stirred an enthusiasm no other could awaken" (Smith 23). He embarked upon a 30-year acting career that made him famous throughout the country. Booth traveled to Baltimore, Boston, and New York.
A persistent story, but apocryphal according to some sources, is that Junius Brutus Booth was acclaimed for performing Orestes in the French language in New Orleans. Theatrical manager Noah Ludlow, who was performing with Booth at the time at the American theatre there, recounts the actual events starting on page 230 of his memoir Dramatic Life As I Found It and concludes: "Therefore, I consider the story of Mr. Booth having performed Orestes in the French language, on the French stage, altogether a mistake arising from his having acted that character in the French theatre of New Orleans in 1822, but in the English language."
However, Stephen M. Archer notes that Ludlow was in Mobile, Alabama, in 1828, so was not present for this performance. The Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, DC, has two playbills from the production and both are in French. Booth's daughter Asia wrote that her father spoke fluent French and cited a review on the subject. The review was not oblivious to the fact that Booth's French pronunciation was less than perfect, however. In 1823, Booth did the role in New York in the English adaptation by Ambrose Philips with Mary Ann Duff as Hermione.
In 1825–1826 and 1836–1837, Booth made tours of his native England. He took his whole family with him for the second of these. During their stay in England, one of his children, Henry Byron, succumbed to smallpox. By 1831, he had become the manager of the Adelphi Theatre in Baltimore. His acclaim continued to grow throughout the rest of his life; Walt Whitman described him as "the grandest histrion [sic] of modern times." Although his relationship with Holmes, his supposed wife, was relatively happy, four of their children died, three in the same year (1833), when epidemics of cholera occurred. In addition, he suffered from alcoholism, which had an effect on the entire family.
Booth’s alcoholism also caused him to become increasingly unpredictable and reckless. He would drop lines, miss scenes, and cause chaos onstage. During a performance of Hamlet, Booth suddenly left the scene he was playing with Ophelia, scurried up a ladder, and perched up in the backdrops crowing like a rooster until his manager retrieved him. He was once booked for a sold-out performance in Richmond, then disappeared from town for several days. Eventually, he was found with "ragged, besotted wretches, the greatest actor on the American stage."
Booth's alcoholism and violent nature often caused problems onstage during his performances. On several occasions, when he played the title character in Richard III, the actor playing the Earl of Richmond fled the stage when Booth became too aggressive during their dueling scene. One night, when Booth was appearing as Othello, the actress playing Desdemona had to be rescued by other cast members when Booth tried to genuinely suffocate her with a pillow.
Booth soon became so unreliable that he had to be locked into his hotel rooms with a guard standing watch. Often, he would still find ways of escaping to drink at a nearby tavern. Once, when a theater manager locked Booth in his dressing room before a performance, Booth bribed a stage hand to go out and buy a bottle of whiskey. As the stage hand stood outside the door, Booth stuck a drinking straw through the keyhole and sipped whiskey from the bottle.
Booth's violent behavior offstage was notable as well. In Charleston, in 1838, Booth was so intoxicated that he attacked a friend, Tom Flynn, with a fireplace andiron. To defend himself, Flynn hit Booth in the face, breaking his nose and forever altering the actor's profile and voice.
Some historians and critics have claimed that reality could become overwhelming for Booth, so he would flee into alcoholism and the roles he played. One critic said of Booth that the "personality of the actor was forgotten, and all the details seemed spontaneous workings and unconscious illustrations of the character he represented. He seemed to be possessed by the characters, losing his own identity." Such subjective judgments are perhaps too facile, as Edwin Booth's later comment about his father certainly was: "Great minds to madness closely are allied." In any case, from February 1817 onward, Junius Booth played almost 3000 performances. Booth brought a romantic, natural acting style to America, which he pioneered in the hearts of American audiences.
To help him maintain a modicum of stability and also to ensure that he sent his earnings home to the family, Junius and Mary Ann chose their son Edwin to accompany him as his dresser, aid, and guardian. This was an exhausting job because Junius Brutus could go without sleep for very long periods of time and would often disappear.
In 1835, Booth wrote a letter to President Andrew Jackson, demanding he pardon two pirates. In the letter, he threatened to kill the President. Though there would also be an actual attempt of assassination on the President early that year, the letter was believed to be a hoax, until a handwriting analysis of a letter written some days after the threat concluded that the letter was, in fact, written by Booth. Booth apologized to Jackson, though since he and Jackson were friends, the "threat" likely was Booth's clumsy attempt at a joke.
Decades later, Booth’s son, John Wilkes, assassinated president Abraham Lincoln.
Later life
In 1852, Booth was involved in a tour of California with his sons Edwin and Junius Jr., performing in San Francisco and Sacramento, where torrential rains not only closed the theatres, but also seriously depleted food supplies. Inflation skyrocketed, and the Booths returned to San Francisco without having made a penny. On 1 October, he left San Francisco without either of his sons. (Junius Jr. had previously established his home there, and Edwin struck out on his own, acting in various venues in northern California.)
Booth had told his first wife, at the time of his initial departure from England, that he would be touring the United States for several years, but would send her money to support her and his young son, Richard, but Booth's sister and brother-in-law later arrived with their children from England and demanded to be housed and supported in exchange for keeping quiet about his American family. After some years, this arrangement became financially untenable, and Booth stopped sending his wife money so regularly. This prompted Adelaide to send their son, now 25, to Baltimore. For three years, Booth somehow fooled him into believing that he lived alone, but eventually Richard discovered the truth. He sent word to his mother, who arrived in Baltimore in December 1846 and confronted Booth when he returned home from touring in March. After living the requisite three years in Maryland, she was able to divorce him in February 1851.
On 10 May 1851, with the youngest of their 10 children now 11 years of age, Booth finally legally married Mary Ann Holmes.
Death
While traveling by steamboat from New Orleans to Cincinnati in 1852, Booth developed a severe fever, presumably from drinking impure river water. No physician was on board, and he died aboard the steamboat near Louisville, Kentucky, on 30 November 1852. Booth's widow, Mary Ann, traveled to Cincinnati alone to claim his body.
Booth is buried in Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore.
Legacy
Junius Brutus Booth was posthumously inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame in 1981.
Screen portrayals
Robert Warwick portrayed Junius Brutus Booth in The Farmer Takes a Wife (1935)
Raymond Massey portrayed Junius Brutus Booth in Prince of Players (1955)
See also
Booth family
References
External links
1796 births
1852 deaths
19th-century English male actors
Male actors from London
Burials at Green Mount Cemetery
English expatriates in the United States
English male stage actors
People from St Pancras, London
English male Shakespearean actors
Junius Brutus |
356868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian%20Voloshin | Maximilian Voloshin | Maximilian Alexandrovich Kirienko-Voloshin (), commonly known as Max Voloshin (May 28, 1877 – November 8, 1932), was a Russian poet. He was one of the significant representatives of the symbolist movement in Russian culture and literature. He became famous as a poet and a critic of literature and the arts, being published in many contemporary magazines of the early 20th century, including Vesy, Zolotoye runo ('The Golden Fleece'), and Apollon. He was known for his translations of a number of French poetic and prose works into Russian.
Biography
Early life
Voloshin was born in the Russian Empire Kiev (Today Kyiv Ukraine) in 1877. He spent his early childhood in Sevastopol and Taganrog. Reportedly, "his schooling included a few years at the Polivanov establishment and a school in the Crimea, where in 1893 his mother had bought a cheap plot of land at Koktebel." After secondary school, Voloshin entered Moscow University during "a time of the resurgence of the radical student movement in Russia." Voloshin reportedly actively participated in it, "which resulted in his expulsion from the University in 1899."
Not discouraged, Voloshin "resumed his travels the length and breadth of Russia, often on foot." In 1900, he worked with an expedition surveying the route of the Orenburg-Tashkent Railway. He described this period in his life as:
Upon his return to Moscow, Voloshin did not seek reinstatement at the university, but continued his travels to such places as Western Europe, Greece, Turkey, and Egypt. Reportedly, "his stay in Paris and travels all over France had a particularly deep effect on" him and he came back to Russia "a veritable Parisian."
While during this time in Russia there were "numerous literary groups and trends, known as the Silver Age," Voloshin remained aloof despite "being a close friend of many outstanding cultural figures of the day." In verses devoted to Valery Bryusov he wrote: "In your world, I am a passerby, close to all and yet a stranger to all."
When "a madman" ripped Repin's famous canvas Ivan the Terrible Killing His Son with a knife, shocking Intellectual Russia, Voloshin was the only person in the country to defend the man, "indicating that it was an esthetic statement appropriate to the painting, which displayed gore and bad taste." Voloshin had a brief affair with Miss Sabashnikova, but they soon broke up, and this had a profound effect on his work. Gradually, Voloshin was drawn back to Koktebel in the Crimea, where he had spent much of his childhood. His first collection of poetry appeared in 1910, soon followed by others. His collected essays were published in 1914.
Life and work
During the years of the First World War, Voloshin, in Switzerland at the time, showed himself to be an author of profoundly insightful poems, engaging in a philosophically- and historically-based exploration of the tragic events of his contemporary Russia. He was known for his humanism, appealing "in the days of revolutions to be a human, not a citizen" and "in the disturbances of wars to realize the oneness. To be not a part, but all: not from one side, but from both."
Eventually Voloshin made it back to France, where he stayed until 1916. A year before the February Revolution in Russia, Voloshin returned to his home country and settled in Koktebel. He would live there until the end of his life. The ensuing Civil War prompted Voloshin to write long poems linking what was happening in Russia to its distant, mythologized past. Later, Voloshin would be accused of the worst sin in the Soviet ideologue's book: keeping aloof from the political struggle between Reds and Whites. In fact, he tried to protect the Whites from the Reds and the Reds from the Whites. His house, today a museum, still has a clandestine niche in which he hid people whose lives were in danger.
Reportedly, "never were a poet's works so closely bound up with the place where he lived. He recreated the semi-mythical world of the Cimmerii in pictures and verses. He painted landscapes of primeval eastern Crimea. Nature itself seemed to respond to Voloshin's art. If one looks west from the Voloshin Museum, there is a mountain whose shape is uncannily similar to Voloshin's profile."
Miraculously, Voloshin survived the Civil War, and in the 1920s set up a free rest home for writers in his house, in accordance with his rejection of private property. Yet he continued to draw most of his inspiration from solitude and contemplation of nature.
During the latter years of his life, he gained additional recognition as a subtle water-colour painter. Many of his art works now belong to museums around the world, while others are kept in private collections in Russia and abroad.
Legacy
Although some critics may note that Voloshin's poetry "may be esthetically inferior to that of Pasternak, say, or Akhmatova, and it is somewhat patchy," it has been noted that "it contains deep philosophical insights and tells us more about Russian history than the works of any other poet." Many of Voloshin's comments seem to be prophetic. In a normal state, he wrote, two classes are outside the law: the criminal and the ruling class. Today, Russia has fully realized this principle. Voloshin's integrity and profound ideas made him a non-person in Soviet Union, and not a single poem of his was published in USSR from 1928 to 1961. It has been theorized that "if he had not died in 1932, he would certainly have become another victim of the Great Terror. "'This is not the first time that, dreaming of freedom, we build a new prison," read the first line of one of Voloshin's finest poems.
Voloshin's small village of Koktebel in Southern-Eastern Crimea, which inspired so much of his poetry, still retains the memory of its famous poet, who was buried there on a mountain now bearing his name. His "House of a Poet" (now a museum) continues to attract people from all areas of the world, reminiscent of the days when its owner served as the host of countless poets, artists, actors, scientists, and wanderers. He is regarded as one of the most notable poets of Russian Silver Age. His poems were set to music and frequently performed by singers-songwriters.
Russian progressive rock band Little Tragedies recorded music to three of Voloshin's poems.
Works
Deafmute Demons (1923)
Verses on Terror (1923)
The Ways Of Cain (1923)
Notes
References
Maximilian Voloshin and the Russian Literary Circle: Culture and survival in revolutionary times by Barbara Walker. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2005 .
Maximilian Voloshin, "Ways of Cain" (Tragedy of material culture), a poem. (Trans. by V.Postnikov), Drift Aweigh Press, 2001 .
Russian Poetry, An Anthology. Chosen and Translated by Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky. New York, INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHERS, 1927.
External links
Poems translated to English
Maximilian Voloshin watercolors
A creative biography of the poet
Wormwood – A poem, translated into English.
Maximilian Voloshin site (Russian)
Maximilian Voloshin site (Russian)
Photographs by Maximilian Volochine
Translations of selected Watercolor Inscription poems
1877 births
1932 deaths
Moscow State University alumni
20th-century Russian poets
Russian male poets
Poets from Kyiv
Russian duellists |
356870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6ta | Göta | Göta is a Swedish given name, which is the female equivalent of Göte. It may refer to:
Göta Ljungberg (1893–1955), Swedish singer
Göta Pettersson (1926–1993), Swedish gymnast
Other uses
Göta, Sweden
Göta älv, a river in Sweden
Göta älvbron, a bridge in Gothenburg
Göta Canal, a waterway in Sweden
Göta Court of Appeal, in Jönköping
Göta highway, in southern Sweden
Göta Lejon, a theatre in Stockholm
Swedish feminine given names |
356871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ministries%20of%20transport%20by%20country | List of ministries of transport by country | A ministry of transport or transportation is a ministry responsible for transportation within a country. It usually is administered by the minister for transport. The term is also sometimes applied to the departments or other government agencies administering transport in nations who do not employ ministers.
Specific responsibilities may include overseeing road safety, civil aviation, maritime transport, rail transport, developing government transportation policy, organizing public transport, and the maintenance and construction of infrastructural projects. Some ministries have additional responsibilities in related policy areas such as infrastructure, public works, waterworks, construction, communication, housing and economic activities, such as industry and trade.
In many jurisdictions, transportation policy is often assumed by an infrastructure ministry.
Country-related articles and lists
See also
Department of Transportation
References
Transport |
356878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xcode | Xcode | Xcode is Apple's integrated development environment (IDE) for macOS, used to develop software for macOS, iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, and tvOS. It was initially released in late 2003; the latest stable release is version 13.2.1, released on December 17, 2021, and is available via the Mac App Store free of charge for macOS Monterey users. Registered developers can download preview releases and prior versions of the suite through the Apple Developer website. Xcode includes Command Line Tools (CLT), which enable UNIX-style development via the Terminal app in macOS. They can also be downloaded and installed without the GUI.
Major features
Xcode supports source code for the programming languages: C, C++, Objective-C, Objective-C++, Java, AppleScript, Python, Ruby, ResEdit (Rez), and Swift, with a variety of programming models, including but not limited to Cocoa, Carbon, and Java. Third parties have added support for GNU Pascal, Free Pascal, Ada, C#, Go, Perl, and D.
Xcode can build fat binary (universal binary) files containing code for multiple architectures with the Mach-O executable format. These helped ease the transitions from 32-bit PowerPC to 64-bit PowerPC, from PowerPC to Intel x86, from 32-bit to 64-bit Intel, and from x86 to Apple silicon by allowing developers to distribute a single application to users and letting the operating system automatically choose the appropriate architecture at runtime. Using the iOS SDK, tvOS SDK, and watchOS SDK, Xcode can also be used to compile and debug applications for iOS, iPadOS, tvOS, and watchOS.
Xcode includes the GUI tool Instruments, which runs atop a dynamic tracing framework, DTrace, created by Sun Microsystems and released as part of OpenSolaris.
Xcode also integrates built-in support for source code management using the Git version control system and protocol, allowing the user to create and clone Git repositories (which can be hosted on source code repository hosting sites such as GitHub, Bitbucket, and Perforce, or self-hosted using open-source software such as GitLab), and to commit, push, and pull changes, all from within Xcode, automating tasks that would traditionally be performed by using Git from the command line.
Composition
The main application of the suite is the integrated development environment (IDE), also named Xcode. The Xcode suite includes most of Apple's developer documentation, and built-in Interface Builder, an application used to construct graphical user interfaces.
Up to Xcode 4.1, the Xcode suite included a modified version of the GNU Compiler Collection. In Xcode 3.1 up to Xcode 4.6.3, it included the LLVM-GCC compiler, with front ends from the GNU Compiler Collection and a code generator based on LLVM. In Xcode 3.2 and later, it included the Clang C/C++/Objective-C compiler, with newly-written front ends and a code generator based on LLVM, and the Clang static analyzer. Starting with Xcode 4.2, the Clang compiler became the default compiler, Starting with Xcode 5.0, Clang was the only compiler provided.
Up to Xcode 4.6.3, the Xcode suite used the GNU Debugger (GDB) as the back-end for the IDE's debugger. Starting with Xcode 4.3, the LLDB debugger was also provided; starting with Xcode 4.5 LLDB replaced GDB as the default back-end for the IDE's debugger. Starting with Xcode 5.0, GDB was no longer supplied.
Removed features
Formerly, Xcode supported distributing a product build process over multiple systems. One technology involved was named Shared Workgroup Build, which used the Bonjour protocol to automatically discover systems providing compiler services, and a modified version of the free software product distcc to facilitate the distribution of workloads. Earlier versions of Xcode provided a system named Dedicated Network Builds. These features are absent in the supported versions of Xcode.
Xcode also includes Apple's WebObjects tools and frameworks for building Java web applications and web services (formerly sold as a separate product). As of Xcode 3.0, Apple dropped WebObjects development inside Xcode; WOLips should be used instead. Xcode 3 still includes the WebObjects frameworks.
Version history
1.x series
Xcode 1.0 was released in fall 2003. Xcode 1.0 was based on Project Builder, but had an updated user interface (UI), ZeroLink, Fix & Continue, distributed build support, and Code Sense indexing.
The next significant release, Xcode 1.5, had better code completion and an improved debugger.
2.x series
Xcode 2.0 was released with Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger". It included the Quartz Composer visual programming language, better Code Sense indexing for Java, and Ant support. It also included the Apple Reference Library tool, which allows searching and reading online documentation from Apple's website and documentation installed on a local computer.
Xcode 2.1 could create universal binary files. It supported shared precompiled headers, unit testing targets, conditional breakpoints, and watchpoints. It also had better dependency analysis.
The final version of Xcode for Mac OS X v10.4 was 2.5.
3.x series
Xcode 3.0 was released with Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard". Notable changes since 2.1 include the DTrace debugging tool (now named Instruments), refactoring support, context-sensitive documentation, and Objective-C 2.0 with garbage collection. It also supports Project Snapshots, which provide a basic form of version control; Message Bubbles, which show build errors debug values alongside code; and building four-architecture fat binaries (32 and 64-bit Intel and PowerPC).
Xcode 3.1 was an update release of the developer tools for Mac OS X, and was the same version included with the iPhone SDK. It could target non-Mac OS X platforms, including iPhone OS 2.0. It included the GCC 4.2 and LLVM GCC 4.2 compilers. Another new feature since Xcode 3.0 is that Xcode's SCM support now includes Subversion 1.5.
Xcode 3.2 was released with Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard" and installs on no earlier version of OS X. It supports static program analysis, among other features. It also drops official support for targeting versions earlier than iPhone OS 3.0. But it is still possible to target older versions, and the simulator supports iPhone OS 2.0 through 3.1. Also, Java support is "exiled" in 3.2 to the organizer.
Xcode 3.2.6 is the last version that can be downloaded for free for users of Mac OS X Snow Leopard (though it’s not the last version that supports Snow Leopard; 4.2 is). Downloading Xcode 3.2.6 requires a free registration at Apple's developer site.
4.x series
In June 2010, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference version 4 of Xcode was announced during the Developer Tools State of the Union address. Version 4 of the developer tools consolidates the Xcode editing tools and Interface Builder into one application, among other enhancements. Apple released the final version of Xcode 4.0 on March 9, 2011. The software was made available for free to all registered members of the $99 per year Mac Developer program and the $99 per year iOS Developer program. It was also sold for $4.99 to non-members on the Mac App Store (no longer available). Xcode 4.0 drops support for many older systems, including all PowerPC development and software development kits (SDKs) for Mac OS X 10.4 and 10.5, and all iOS SDKs older than 4.3. The deployment target can still be set to produce binaries for those older platforms, but for Mac OS platforms, one is then limited to creating x86 and x86-64 binaries. Later, Xcode was free to the general public. Before version 4.1, Xcode cost $4.99.
Xcode 4.1 was made available for free on July 20, 2011 (the day of Mac OS X Lion's release) to all users of Mac OS X Lion on the Mac App Store. On August 29, 2011, Xcode 4.1 was made available for Mac OS X Snow Leopard for members of the paid Mac or iOS developer programs. Xcode 4.1 was the last version to include GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) instead of only LLVM GCC or Clang.
On October 12, 2011, Xcode 4.2 was released concurrently with the release of iOS 5.0, and it included many more and improved features, such as storyboarding and automatic reference counting (ARC). Xcode 4.2 is the last version to support Mac OS X 10.6 "Snow Leopard", but is available only to registered developers with paid accounts; without a paid account, 3.2.6 is the latest download that appears for Snow Leopard.
Xcode 4.3, released on February 16, 2012, is distributed as one application bundle, Xcode.app, installed from the Mac App Store. Xcode 4.3 reorganizes the Xcode menu to include development tools. Xcode 4.3.1 was released on March 7, 2012 to add support for iOS 5.1. Xcode 4.3.2 was released on March 22, 2012 with enhancements to the iOS Simulator and a suggested move to the LLDB debugger versus the GDB debugger (which appear to be undocumented changes). Xcode 4.3.3, released in May 2012, featured an updated SDK for Mac OS X 10.7.4 "Lion" and a few bug fixes.
Xcode 4.4 was released on July 25, 2012.
It runs on both Mac OS X Lion (10.7) and OS X Mountain Lion (10.8) and is the first version of Xcode to contain the OS X 10.8 "Mountain Lion" SDK. Xcode 4.4 includes support for automatic synthesizing of declared properties, new Objective-C features such as literal syntax and subscripting, improved localization, and more. On August 7, 2012, Xcode 4.4.1 was released with a few bug fixes.
On September 19, 2012, iOS 6 and Xcode 4.5 were released. Xcode added support for iOS 6 and the 4-inch Retina Display on iPhone 5 and iPod touch 5th generation. It also brought some new Objective-C features to iOS, simplified localization, and added auto-layout support for iOS. On October 3, 2012, Xcode 4.5.1 was released with bug fixes and stability improvements. Less than a month later, Xcode 4.5.2 was released, with support for iPad Mini and iPad with Retina Display, and bug fixes and stability improvements.
On January 28, 2013, iOS 6.1 and Xcode 4.6 were released.
5.x series
On June 10, 2013, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, version 5 of Xcode was announced.
On September 18, 2013, Xcode 5.0 was released. It shipped with iOS 7 and OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion SDKs. However, support for OS X 10.9 Mavericks was only available in beta versions. Xcode 5.0 also added a version of Clang generating 64-bit ARM code for iOS 7. Apple removed support for building garbage collected Cocoa binaries in Xcode 5.1.
6.x series
On June 2, 2014, at the Worldwide Developers Conference, Apple announced version 6 of Xcode. One of the most notable features was support for Swift, an all-new programming language developed by Apple. Xcode 6 also included features like Playgrounds and live debugging tools. On September 17, 2014, at the same time, iOS 8 and Xcode 6 were released. Xcode could be downloaded on the Mac App Store.
7.x series
On June 8, 2015, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Xcode version 7 was announced. It introduced support for Swift 2, and Metal for OS X, and added support for deploying on iOS devices without an Apple Developer account. Xcode 7 was released on September 16, 2015.
8.x series
On June 13, 2016, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Xcode version 8 was announced; a beta version was released the same day. It introduced support for Swift 3. Xcode 8 was released on September 13, 2016.
9.x series
On June 5, 2017, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Xcode version 9 was announced; a beta version was released the same day. It introduced support for Swift 4 and Metal 2. It also introduced remote debugging on iOS and tvOS devices wirelessly, through Wi-Fi.
Xcode 9 was publicly released on September 19, 2017.
10.x series
On June 4, 2018, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Xcode version 10 was announced; a beta version was released the same day. Xcode 10 introduced support for the Dark Mode announced for macOS Mojave, the collaboration platforms Bitbucket and GitLab (in addition to already supported GitHub), training machine learning models from playgrounds, and the new features in Swift 4.2 and Metal 2.1, as well as improvements to the editor and the project build system. Xcode 10 also dropped support for building 32-bit macOS apps and no longer supports Subversion integration.
Xcode 10 was publicly released on September 17, 2018.
11.x series
On June 3, 2019, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Xcode version 11 was announced; a beta version was released the same day. Xcode 11 introduced support for the new features in Swift 5.1, as well as the new SwiftUI framework (although the interactive UI tools are available only when running under macOS 10.15). It also supports building iPad applications that run under macOS; includes integrated support for the Swift Package Manager; and contains further improvements to the editor, including a "minimap" that gives an overview of a source code file with quick navigation. Xcode 11 requires macOS 10.14 or later and Xcode 11.4 requires 10.15 or later.
Xcode 11 was publicly released on September 20, 2019.
12.x series
On June 22, 2020, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, Xcode version 12 was announced; a beta version was released the same day. Xcode 12 introduced support for Swift 5.3 and requires macOS 10.15.4 or later.
Xcode 12 was publicly released on September 16, 2020.
13.x series
Xcode 13 was announced on June 7, 2021 at WWDC21; the first beta version was released on the same day.
The new version introduced support for Swift 5.5 and requires macOS 11.3 or later. Xcode 13 contains SDKs for iOS / iPadOS 15, macOS 12, watchOS 8, and tvOS 15. Xcode 13’s major features include the new concurrency model, improved support for version control providers (such as GitHub), including the ability to browse, view, and comment on pull requests right in the app interface.
Xcode 13 was publicly released on September 20, 2021.
Version comparison table
Xcode 1.0 - Xcode 2.x (before iOS support)
Xcode 3.0 - Xcode 4.x
Xcode 5.0 - 6.x (since arm64 support)
Xcode 7.0 - 10.x (since Free On-Device Development)
Xcode 11.x - 13.x (since SwiftUI framework)
Toolchain versions
Xcode 1.0 - Xcode 2.x (before iOS support)
Xcode 3.0 - Xcode 4.x
Xcode 5.0 - 6.x (since arm64 support)
Xcode 7.0 - 10.x (since Free On-Device Development)
Xcode 11.x - 13.x (since SwiftUI framework)
See also
XcodeGhost
References
External links
Xcode – Mac App Store
Apple Developer Connection: Xcode tools and resources
Xcode Release Notes — Archive
Download Xcode
2003 software
Freeware
History of software
Integrated development environments
IOS
IOS development software
MacOS programming tools
MacOS text editors
MacOS-only software made by Apple Inc.
Software version histories
User interface builders |
356879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision%20mathematics | Decision mathematics | Decision mathematics may refer to:
Discrete mathematics
Decision theory, identifying the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in a decision |
356889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygophyllaceae | Zygophyllaceae | Zygophyllaceae is a family of flowering plants that contains the bean-caper and caltrop. The family includes around 285 species in 22 genera.
Plants in the family Zygophyllaceae may be trees, shrubs, or herbs. They are often found in dry habitats. The leaves are usually opposite, often with stipules and spines. Some are cultivated as ornamental plants, such as species of the Guaiacum, Zygophyllum, Tribulus, and Larrea genera. King Clone, a creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in California, is among the world's oldest living organisms.
Genera
Peganum was in Zygophyllaceae before being moved to the newly created family Nitrariaceae.
Systematics
In the APG III system of classification, the families Zygophyllaceae and Krameriaceae compose the order Zygophyllales. In the previous version of their classification system, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group had included the option of placing Krameria within Zygophyllaceae.
Zygophyllaceae are divided into five subfamilies. Molecular phylogenies of the family were published in 2000 and 2018. Phylogenies of groups within the family, particularly the predominantly southern African species of Zygophylloideae have also been published.
Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships:
References
External links
Family Zygophyllaceae Flowers in Israel
Chilean Zygophyllaceae Chileflora
Rosid families |
356890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guaiacum | Guaiacum | Guaiacum (), sometimes spelled Guajacum, is a genus of flowering plants in the caltrop family Zygophyllaceae. It contains five species of slow-growing shrubs and trees, reaching a height of approximately but usually less than half of that. All are native to subtropical and tropical regions of the Americas and are commonly known as lignum-vitae, guayacán (Spanish), or gaïac (French). The genus name originated in Taíno, the language spoken by the native Taínos of the Bahamas; it was adopted into English in 1533, the first word in that language of American origin.
Members of the genus have a variety of uses, including as lumber, for medicinal purposes, and as ornamentals. The trade of all species of Guaiacum is controlled under CITES Appendix II.
Guaiacum officinale is the national flower of Jamaica, while Guaiacum sanctum is the national tree of the Bahamas.
Uses
The genus is famous as the supplier of lignum vitae, which is the wood of several species in the genus. It is the fourth-hardest variety of wood as measured by the Janka hardness test, requiring a force of to embed a steel ball in diameter half that distance into the wood.
The Spanish encountered guaiacum wood when they conquered San Domingo in the sixteenth century. It was soon brought back to Europe, where epidemic syphilis had been raging for nearly a century. Gum guiacum quickly acquired a reputation as a cure for syphilis, a practice Benvenuto Cellini records in his memoirs. Thomas Nashe referred to its supposed medical properties in his tract Nashe's Lenten Stuff, alluding to the exotic sound of the word itself: "Physicians deafen our ears with the honorificabilitudinitatibus of their heavenly panacaea, their sovereign guiacum." The detailed engraving, Preparation and Use of Guayaco for Treating Syphilis, published by Philips Galle after a design by the Flemish artist Jan van der Straet, depicts four servants preparing a concoction of gum guiacum for their wealthy master under the supervision of a physician. Paracelsus, the famous if controversial Swiss physician, disputed the effectiveness of this treatment and was censured for his criticism.
Gum guaicum was used to stimulate menstruation; in a 1793 Virginia court case, Martha Jefferson Randolph testified that she had provided gum guaiacum to a female relative to "produce an abortion", suggesting that it was also used as an abortifacient. In A Treatise of the Materia Medica (1789), Scottish physician William Cullen noted: "Several physicians have apprehended mischief from the use of the guaiacum in a spirituous tincture."
The 1955 edition of the Textbook of Pharmacognosy states:
"Guaiacum has a local stimulant action which is sometimes useful in sore throat. The resin is used in chronic gout and rheumatism, whilst the wood is an ingredient in the compound concentrated solution of sarsaparilla, which was formerly much used as an alternative in syphilis."
A phenolic compound derived from the resin of Guaiacum trees is used in a common test for blood in human stool samples. The presence of heme in the blood causes the formation of a coloured product in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The effect of peroxidases in horseradish on guiacum was first noted in 1810.
As a food additive, Guaiacum is designated E314 and classified as an antioxidant.
A widely used derivative drug is the expectorant known as guaifenesin.
The soap fragrance oil of guaiac comes from Bulnesia sarmientoi, a South American tree from the same family.
Members of the genus are grown in Florida and California as ornamental plants.
Species
Formerly placed here
Porlieria microphylla (Baill.) Descole et al. (as G. microphyllum Baill.)
Schotia afra (L.) Thunb. (as G. afrum L.)
References
External links
USDA PLANTS Profile
Medicinal plants
Rosid genera |
356892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beware%20%28EP%29 | Beware (EP) | Beware is the fifth release by the American punk rock band Misfits. First issued in January 1980, this EP combined the Misfits' previously released singles "Bullet" and "Horror Business", and was originally intended as a recording that the Misfits could bring with them on their tour of the United Kingdom with the British punk rock group the Damned in late 1979. Along with songs from "Bullet" and "Horror Business", Beware also includes the track "Last Caress", which had never been released previously.
Background
In November 1979, the Misfits flew to the United Kingdom for a six-date tour with the Damned. The Damned, having scheduled a different opening act for their tour, were not expecting their arrival, but the Misfits were added to the bill nonetheless. After not receiving any payment for performing, the Misfits soon cancelled their remaining appearances on the tour. This was followed by the arrest of Misfits vocalist Glenn Danzig and then-Misfits guitarist Bobby Steele, who had been involved in a fight with a group of skinheads at the Rainbow Theatre in London on December 2, 1979. Danzig and Steele spent two nights in jail in Brixton, England, which inspired them to create the song "London Dungeon".
Then-Misfits drummer Joey Image returned to the United States by himself on December 15, effectively quitting the band. On December 18, the other members of the group flew back to their home state of New Jersey, where they produced Beware. The title of the EP was derived from a series of road signs that the Misfits had come across while in London, which read "Beware Bollards". The band, unfamiliar with the term "bollard", initially thought that it might refer to a cryptid such as their own Jersey Devil. Originally planned as a record that the Misfits could bring with them on their tour with the Damned (they were not able to do so, as the cover artwork had not been completed in time), Beware combined songs from the Misfits' previously issued singles "Bullet" and "Horror Business", except the latter's track "Children in Heat" was replaced by the song "Last Caress", which had never been released prior to Beware.
Beware was the Misfits' only original UK release, and was issued in the UK by Armageddon/Spartan Records and in the U.S. by the band's own label, Plan 9 Records.
Track listing
Personnel
Band
Glenn Danzig – vocals, guitar
Jerry Only – bass, background vocals
Franché Coma – guitar, background vocals (1978 session only)
Mr. Jim – drums (1978 session only)
Bobby Steele – guitar, background vocals (1979 session only)
Joey Image – drums (1979 session only)
Production
Dave Achelis – engineer
References
Sources
Misfits (band) EPs
Horror punk EPs
1980 debut EPs
Plan 9 Records EPs |
356896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Cunningham%2C%20Baron%20Cunningham%20of%20Felling | Jack Cunningham, Baron Cunningham of Felling | John Anderson Cunningham, Baron Cunningham of Felling, PC, DL (born 4 August 1939) is a British politician who was a Labour Member of Parliament for over 30 years, serving for Whitehaven from 1970 to 1983 and then Copeland until the 2005 general election, and had served in the Cabinet of Tony Blair.
Background
His father was Andrew Cunningham, leader of the Labour Party in the Northern Region in the 1970s, who was disgraced in the 1974 Poulson scandal. Dr Cunningham was first elected as member for Whitehaven in 1970, and the renamed Copeland constituency, which was the same as Whitehaven, in 1983.
Early life
He was educated at Jarrow Grammar School (now Jarrow School) in the same class as Doug McAvoy, future general secretary of the National Union of Teachers. Cunningham then studied at Bede College of Durham University, receiving a BSc in Chemistry in 1962, and a PhD in 1967. He stayed at the university to become a research fellow from 1966–8, whilst working as an officer for the General and Municipal Workers' Union.
He was a district councillor for Chester-le-Street Rural & Parish Council, prior to becoming an MP and continued to live in the Garden Farm area of the town, bringing up his family there.
Political career
Cunningham joined the Shadow Cabinet in 1983, and was appointed to be a Deputy Lieutenant of the County of Cumbria in 1991. He ran the Labour Party's general election campaign in 1992. He also appeared on many television election programmes as one of the main spokesmen of the Labour Party.
Minister
After the Labour landslide victory at the 1997 general election, he became Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and embarked on a modernisation programme for the Ministry. He worked to secure the lifting of the EU ban on the export of UK beef, and achieved some limited success on this.
Cabinet
He was shifted in 1998 to Minister for the Cabinet Office and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The media dubbed him cabinet enforcer, claiming that his role was effectively to sell the Government and its policies to the public and the media. He also led the government's work on modernising government, and chaired the Ministerial Committee on genetically modified foods and crops.
Backbenches
He retired from the Cabinet in 1999, and returned to the backbenches. He stood down from Parliament at the 2005 general election.
Having represented the parliamentary constituency that includes Sellafield, the UK's largest nuclear facility for 35 years; he is a strong proponent of nuclear power and is the founding European legislative Chairman of the Transatlantic Nuclear Energy Forum.
House of Lords
In the 2005 Dissolution Honours, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Cunningham of Felling, of Felling in the County of Tyne and Wear.
Lord Cunningham of Felling is still active in politics and chairs an all-party parliamentary committee to review the powers of the House of Lords.
Lobbyist allegations
Cunningham was suspended from the Labour Party whip, and the party, in June 2013 pending an investigation over claims he had offered to work for lobbyists. He was subsequently cleared of any wrongdoing by the parliamentary standards authorities, and had the Labour whip restored.
Expenses claimed in the House of Lords
Research conducted by the Guardian newspaper revealed that Lord Cunningham claimed a total of £75,122 for 154 days’ attendance in 2017–2018. This was the largest claim for attendance and travel expenses out of all the sitting members in the House of Lords. £23,108 of the £75,122 was claimed for travel expenses.
Personal life
He lives with his wife near Stocksfield, in Northumberland and is an avid fly fisherman. In 2016 Cunningham was awarded with the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star.
References
Announcement of his introduction at the House of Lords House of Lords minutes of proceedings, 11 October 2005
External links
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Living people
Agriculture ministers of the United Kingdom
Alumni of the College of the Venerable Bede, Durham
Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster
Councillors in County Durham
Cumbria MPs
Deputy Lieutenants of Cumbria
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Party (UK) life peers
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Parliamentary Private Secretaries to the Prime Minister
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
People from Stocksfield
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 2nd class |
356897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasherbrum%20I | Gasherbrum I | Gasherbrum I (; ), surveyed as K5 and also known as Hidden Peak, is the 11th highest mountain in the world at above sea level. It is located in Shigar District in the Gilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan-administered Kashmir. Gasherbrum I is part of the Gasherbrum Massif, located in the Karakoram region of the Himalaya. Gasherbrum is often claimed to mean "Shining Wall", presumably a reference to the highly visible face of the neighbouring peak Gasherbrum IV; but in fact it comes from "rgasha" (beautiful) + "brum" (mountain) in Balti, hence it actually means "beautiful mountain."
Gasherbrum I was designated K5 (meaning the 5th peak of the Karakoram) by T.G. Montgomerie in 1856 when he first spotted the peaks of the Karakoram from more than 200 km away during the Great Trigonometric Survey of India. In 1892, William Martin Conway provided the alternate name, Hidden Peak, in reference to its extreme remoteness.
Gasherbrum I was first climbed on July 5, 1958, by Pete Schoening and Andy Kauffman of an eight-man American expedition led by Nicholas B. Clinch, Richard K. Irvin, Tom Nevison, Tom McCormack, Bob Swift and Gil Roberts were also members of the team.
Timeline
1934 - A large international expedition, organized by the Swiss G.O. Dyhrenfurth, explores Gasherbrum I and II. Two climbers get to .
1936 - A French expedition gets to .
1958 - An American team led by Nicholas Clinch makes the first ascent, via Roch ridge.
1975 - Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler reached the summit on a new route (northwest route) in pure alpine style (first time on an 8000-metre peak) taking three days total. One day later, a team of three led by Austrian Hanns Schell reached the summit on the American route.
1977 - The fourth successful ascent by two Slovenians (Nejc Zaplotnik and Andrej Stremfelj), again on a new route. Team member Drago Bregar died.
1980 - Frenchmen Maurice Barrard and Georges Narbaud are successful with the fifth ascent and pass the South Ridge for the first time.
1981 - A Japanese team follows the Clinch route with fixed ropes for the sixth successful ascent.
1982 - Michael Dacher, Siegfried Hupfauer and Günter Sturm of a German expedition summit via a new route on the north face. In the same year, French Marie-José Valençot is the first woman who reaches the summit. Her husband, Sylvain Saudan from Switzerland, performs the first ski descent from the top of an 8000-metre peak to base camp.
1983 - Jerzy Kukuczka with Wojciech Kurtyka, new route. Alpine style ascent without the aid of oxygen.
1983 - Teams from Switzerland and Spain are successful.
1984 - Reinhold Messner and Hans Kammerlander traverse Gasherbrum II and Gasherbrum I without returning to base camp in between
1985 - Solo ascent by Benoît Chamoux. On July 14, the Italian Giampiero Di Federico (solo ascent) opens a new route on the north-west face.
1997 - Magnus Rydén and Johan Åkerström reach the summit.
2003 - 19 people reach the summit, 4 deaths, including Mohammad Oraz.
2012 - March 9, Adam Bielecki (Poland) and Janusz Gołąb (Poland) made the first winter ascent. The ascent was made without the aid of supplementary oxygen. The same day, three climbers from a different expedition — Austrian Gerfried Goschl, Swiss Cedric Hahlen and Pakistani Nisar Hussain Sadpara — went missing, never to be found again. They were trying to ascend via a new route and are considered to have been blown off by strong winds.
2013 - 7 July, Artur Hajzer died after falling in the Japanese Couloir after an attempt to reach the summit.
2013 - 21 July, Spaniards Abel Alonso, Xebi Gomez and Álvaro Paredes climbed to the top to then disappear while descending after a storm.
2017 - 30 July, in an alpine style six-day ascent without supplementary oxygen, Czechs Marek 'Mára' Holeček and Zdeněk Hák established a new route named Satisfaction! (in memory of Zdeněk Hrubý) up the Southwest Face.
See also
List of mountains in Pakistan
Highest Mountains of the World
Bibliography
Notes and references
External links
Gasherbrum I on Summitpost
Gasherbrum I on Himalaya-Info.org (German)
Summit Video of Alex Gavan's First Romanian Ascent of Gasherbrum 1 (July 30th 2007)
Eight-thousanders of the Karakoram
Mountains of Xinjiang
Mountains of Gilgit-Baltistan
China–Pakistan border
International mountains of Asia |
356898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick%20Brown | Nick Brown | Nicholas Hugh Brown (born 13 June 1950) is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Newcastle upon Tyne East since 1983, making him the sixth longest serving MP in the House of Commons. He is the longest serving Chief Whip of the Labour Party, holding the position in three separate periods under six Labour leaders - Tony Blair, Gordon Brown, Harriet Harman, Ed Miliband, Jeremy Corbyn and Keir Starmer. He also held several ministerial positions whilst his party was in government from 1997 until 2010. On 26 May 2021, Brown was elected as chair of the Finance Committee.
Early life
Brown was born in Hawkhurst, Kent, and brought up in nearby Tunbridge Wells, attending Tunbridge Wells Grammar School for Boys before studying at the University of Manchester. After graduating from university, Brown worked in the advertising department for Procter & Gamble. He then became a legal adviser to the Northern Region of the GMBATU, later GMB, based in Newcastle upon Tyne.
Political career
Early political career: 1980–1997
In 1980, Brown was elected to Newcastle City Council as a Labour Councillor, representing the Walker ward.
Brown was chosen as the new Labour Party candidate for the parliamentary seat after Mike Thomas, the Labour Member of Parliament (MP) for Newcastle upon Tyne East, defected to the SDP. Brown easily retained the seat for Labour at the 1983 general election. Originally elected to the Commons in the same year as Gordon Brown and Tony Blair, Brown was initially close to both men, but over time became his namesake Brown's staunchest ally, though the two are unrelated.
Brown was first appointed to Labour's frontbench team in 1985 as a shadow solicitor general. In 1988, he was moved to the position of Treasury spokesperson before briefly becoming shadow spokesperson for health between 1994 and 1995.
In the 1994 Labour leadership election, he supported Gordon Brown and acted as his unofficial campaign manager and, according to biographer Paul Routledge, advised against him pulling out of the contest in Blair's favour.
In 1995, Brown was appointed as Deputy Chief Whip in the House of Commons and played a central role in Parliament in trying to defeat the Conservative government's parliamentary agenda.
Government: 1997–2010
Following Labour's election victory in 1997, he was appointed as Government Chief Whip in the House of Commons, but stayed there only for just over a year, to then be moved to the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food in during Tony Blair's first ministerial shuffle in July 1998. This change, which followed the publication of the Routledge biography earlier that year, was widely seen as a demotion, and ascribed to his close connection with Gordon Brown.
His tenure as the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food saw several animal health crises, ending with the 2001 foot-and-mouth outbreak. Brown's handling of the outbreak was criticised by some and used to attack the government, though his handling of the crisis maintained the support of the farming and food industries and the veterinary profession throughout the crisis. Suggestions that a vaccination strategy should have been practised in preference to the culling of hundreds of thousands of animals, made with the benefit of hindsight, did not help his cause, and he was demoted out to be the Minister of State for Work, with non-voting Cabinet rank, after the general election of 2001. In June 2003, he was dropped from the Government altogether.
In 2004, he was one of the organisers of a backbench rebellion against the government's proposals for the introduction of tuition fees, but hours before the vote announced that he had received significant concessions from the Government and would now support it. Some suspected that the Chancellor had placed considerable pressure on him to back down and the affair cost Brown some credibility.
On 29 June 2007, Gordon Brown become Prime Minister and immediately appointed Nick Brown as the Regional Minister for the North East and simultaneously as the new Deputy Chief Whip.
Following a government reshuffle in 2008, Gordon Brown returned Nick Brown to his original government position of Government Chief Whip, whilst retaining his position as Minister for the North East.
In 2009, Brown was appointed to investigate the legitimacy of expense claims by Labour MPs between 2004 and 2008. According to The Daily Telegraph in this period Brown himself claimed a total of £87,708 for his constituency home.
Brown's mortgage interest repayments for 2007-8 totalled £6,600, but he also claimed a total of £23,068, just £15 below the maximum allowable amount for the year. The claim included £4,800 for food – the maximum allowable amount – £2,880 for repairs and insurance, £2,880 for services, £897.65 for cleaning, £1,640 for phones and £1,810 for utilities. Brown, however, has said that he saved the taxpayer a considerable amount of money by turning down a Government car and driver upon being made Chief Whip, the annual cost of which would have been around £100,000.
Opposition: 2010–present
On 29 September 2010, newly elected Labour Party leader Ed Miliband asked Brown to stand down as Chief Whip due to the need for a "break from the past".
On 29 January 2011, during the News of the World phone hacking affair, Brown said that his landline may have been bugged in 1998, around the time of his outing. He was also contacted by an undisclosed police force in the West of England in 2003, who told him that they were pursuing a phone-tapping prosecution and he was one of those who may have been targeted. The case collapsed when it reached court and full details of the allegations were never disclosed. Brown said that: "Given that it was near [Prince Charles' home] Highgrove, my assumption was that this might involve the Royal Family. But I was never explicitly told that."
In 2014, Brown publicly opposed his party's proposal to scrap the position of Police and Crime Commissioner (PCC), citing the effectiveness of the three PCCs in North East England at the time.
Ahead of the 2016 EU membership referendum, Brown stated he supported remaining in the European Union.
On 6 October 2016, Brown was appointed by Jeremy Corbyn as Chief Whip of the Labour Party, and thus became Opposition Chief Whip in the House of Commons. Brown went on to play an important role in the Parliamentary debates and votes over Brexit during 2018 and 2019, including inflicting the largest ever defeat upon the government in history.
Brown was reappointed as Labour Chief Whip by Sir Keir Starmer after the latter's victory in the 2020 Labour Party leadership election. This reappointment meant that Brown was the only person to have held the role for three non-consecutive terms, as well as under six different leaders (Blair, Brown, Harman, briefly Miliband, Corbyn and Starmer) across four decades. Brown left the role of Chief Whip for the third time as a result of Starmer's Shadow Cabinet reshuffle in May 2021.
Brown is a member of the Labour Friends of Israel group.
Personal life
Brown is a holder of the freedom of the City of Newcastle upon Tyne award, a supporter of Humanists UK, a member of GMB, and an honorary associate of the National Secular Society. He is known to have a love for classical music, which developed during his time at Manchester University. Since 2012, he has been a Non-Executive Director of the Mariinsky Theatre Trust (the Anglo-Russian friendship organisation that supports the work of the Mariinsky Theatre in the UK). He is a governor of Walker Riverside Academy, a patron of Leeds Youth Opera and a trustee of the Biscuit Factory art exhibition in Shieldfield, Newcastle. He formerly chaired the all-party parliamentary group for motorcycle speedway racing.
Although born and raised in Kent, Brown is sometimes referred to as 'Newcastle Brown' - a reference to the ale and his long-standing connections to Newcastle.
Notes
References
External links
Nick Brown MP official constituency website
Profile at the Labour Party
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Agriculture ministers of the United Kingdom
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English humanists
Gay politicians
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
LGBT politicians from England
Labour Friends of Israel
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Tunbridge Wells Grammar School for Boys
People from Hawkhurst
Treasurers of the Household
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
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UK MPs 2019–present |
356900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvin%20Camras | Marvin Camras | Marvin Camras (January 1, 1916 – June 23, 1995) was an electrical engineer and inventor who was widely influential in the field of magnetic recording.
Camras built his first recording device, a wire recorder, in the 1930s for a cousin who was an aspiring opera singer named Willy. He also built Willy a telephone, due to the fact that he could not afford one, at the age of 8. Shortly afterwards he discovered that using magnetic tape made the process of splicing and storing recordings easier.
Camras's work attracted the notice of his professors at what is now Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) and was offered a position at Armour Research Foundation (which merged with Lewis Institute in 1940 to become IIT) to develop his work.
Before and during World War II Camras' early wire recorders were used by the armed forces to train pilots. They were also used for disinformation purposes: battle sounds were recorded and amplified and the recordings placed where the D-Day invasion was not going to take place. This work was kept secret until after the war.
In June 1944 he was awarded , titled "Method and Means of Magnetic Recording". In all, Camras received more than 500 patents, largely in the field of electronic communications.
Camras received a bachelor's degree in 1940 and a master's degree in 1942, both in electrical engineering, from IIT. In 1968, the institution awarded him an honorary doctorate.
In May 1962 Camras wrote a predictive paper titled "Magnetic recording and reproduction - 2012 A.D.". In his paper Camras predicted the existence of mass-produced portable media players he described as memory packs the size of a package of playing cards holding up to 1020 bits of information. Such devices would not have any mechanically moving parts and would store both sound and movies. He also predicted music and movie downloads, online shopping, access to online encyclopedias and newspapers and the widespread use of online banking transactions.
He built his own house, by hand, doing everything except laying the foundation. He also built a bomb-shelter in this house.
In recognition of his achievements, he received the National Medal of Technology award in 1990.
Marvin Camras died of kidney failure at the age of 79 in Evanston, Illinois.
See also
Tape bias
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20031207053754/
http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/26.html
http://voices.iit.edu/camrasbio.html
People from Chicago
1916 births
1995 deaths
20th-century American inventors
Illinois Institute of Technology alumni
National Medal of Technology recipients
Deaths from kidney failure
Jewish American scientists
20th-century American Jews |
356904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20craters%20on%20Ganymede | List of craters on Ganymede | Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, and has a hard surface with many craters. Most of them are named after figures from Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and other ancient Middle Eastern myths.
List
back to top
Dropped or not approved names
back to top
External links
USGS: Ganymede nomenclature
USGS: Ganymede Nomenclature: Craters
Ganymede |
356905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Mellor | David Mellor | David John Mellor (born 12 March 1949) is a British broadcaster, barrister, and former politician. As a member of the Conservative Party, he served in the Cabinet of Prime Minister John Major as Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1990–92) and Secretary of State for National Heritage (April–September 1992), before resigning in 1992. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Putney from 1979 to 1997.
Since leaving Parliament, Mellor has worked as a newspaper columnist, a radio presenter, and an after-dinner speaker. He also served as Chairman of the government's 'Football Task Force'.
Education and early career
Born in Wareham, Dorset, Mellor was educated at Swanage Grammar School, and Christ's College, Cambridge, during which time he was Chairman of the Cambridge University Conservative Association and a contestant on University Challenge. After briefly working for Jeffrey Archer (at the time a Member of Parliament) while studying for his bar exams, Mellor was called to the Bar in 1972. He ceased to practise in 1979 upon being elected as an MP, and he remains "non-practising". He was appointed Queen's Counsel in 1987.
Parliamentary career
After contesting West Bromwich East in the general election in October 1974, Mellor became the MP for Putney at the age of 30 in the general election of 1979. He was re-elected in the general elections of 1983, 1987, and 1992.
Government minister
Mellor was made Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Department of Energy in 1981, becoming Margaret Thatcher's youngest minister, aged 32.
In 1983, Mellor was appointed as a minister in the Home Office where he was involved in several pieces of legislation, including the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and the Prosecution of Offenders Act 1985 (which established the Crown Prosecution Service). He was also involved with legislation enabling the re-investigation of miscarriages of justice and the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986.
In 1987, Mellor was moved to the Foreign Office by Thatcher, and was made responsible for the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union (before the fall of the Iron Curtain). At this point he made an extended appearance on the Channel 4 discussion programme After Dark speaking about the Mafia.
Mellor was briefly Minister for Health in 1988, where he was responsible for health service reforms. He was made a Privy Councillor in 1990 by Thatcher, shortly before she resigned as Prime Minister.
Mellor was briefly Arts Minister in 1990 before entering John Major's new Cabinet as Chief Secretary to the Treasury in November of that year. He was interviewed in December 1991 on the TV programmne Hard News following the establishment of the Calcutt Review inquiring into Press Standards. Mellor said during the interview that "the press – the popular press – is drinking in the last chance saloon" and called for curbs on the "sacred cow" of press freedom to curb their more extreme activities.
Following the 1992 general election he remained a Cabinet Minister as Secretary of State in the newly created Department of National Heritage (now the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport), during which period he was occasionally referred to as the "Minister for Fun" after comments he made to the waiting press on leaving 10 Downing Street on his appointment.
Resignation
Retaliation from the media for his "last chance saloon" comment came in July 1992, when Mellor's former mistress, actress Antonia de Sancha, sold her “kiss and tell” story of Mellor's extra-marital affair with her for £35,000. Their telephone conversations had been secretly recorded by de Sancha's landlord, an activity which at the time was legal in England. The Sun, relying on material supplied by the publicist Max Clifford, made a number of untrue claims about the relationship, that de Sancha later admitted. This was subsequently confirmed by David Mellor in 2011 at the Leveson Inquiry into Press Behaviour.
The Prime Minister John Major supported Mellor, but the media maintained their interest. A libel case brought by Mona Bauwens against The People, which came to the High Court in September 1992, led to the revelation that Mellor had accepted the gift of a month-long holiday in Marbella from Bauwens for his family which took place in August 1990. Mellor's connection to Bauwens, the daughter of Jaweed al-Ghussein, the finance director of the PLO (formally the Palestine National Fund) maintained the pressure on him. Mellor resigned on 24 September 1992.
Defeat at 1997 general election
Mellor contested the 1997 general election, but was defeated by the Labour Party's Tony Colman as one of the most notable Tory casualties as Labour won by a landslide to end nearly 20 years of Conservative government. The election night was memorable for Mellor's showdown with the Referendum Party founder Sir James Goldsmith — Mellor was taunted by Goldsmith and Michael Yardley, the Spokesperson for the Sportsman's Alliance (who gave him a slow hand clap and shouted "Out! Out! Out!") during Mellor's concession speech. Mellor retorted:
Goldsmith would die from pancreatic cancer two months later on 18 July 1997.
After Parliament
Mellor was chairman of the incoming Labour government's 'Football Task Force' from August 1997 until its dissolution in 1999. Among the recommendations accepted by the Labour government and introduced into law was the criminalisation of racial abuse by an individual spectator, as distinct from a group.
Mellor has also pursued a career in journalism, and has written columns for six national newspapers including the Evening Standard, The Guardian and The People, often on current affairs, but also his specialist interests of sport and the arts. He regularly presented football-related programmes on BBC Radio 5 until 2001, and classical music programmes on BBC Radio 2 and BBC Radio 3 for six years.
He currently presents David Mellor and Mellors Melodys on Saturday night. He is Opera and Classical Music critic for British newspaper The Mail on Sunday. He is a regular contributor to the radio station LBC, on which he previously co-hosted a Saturday morning politics and current affairs discussion programme for eight years with former London Mayor Ken Livingstone. This continued until 2016, when Livingstone was sacked and Mellor's contract was not renewed.
In June 2010, it was reported in The Daily Telegraph and the Daily Mirror that Mellor called a chef a "fat bastard" during a licensing wrangle at the River Lounge restaurant near his home at St Katharine Docks, East London. The articles claimed Mellor used bad language and told the chef he should "do his £10-an-hour job somewhere else".
In November 2014 The Daily Telegraph and The Independent reported that Mellor had been secretly recorded by a taxi driver, saying "you think that your experiences are anything compared to mine?" In the secret recording of an encounter on 21 November, Mellor and the cab driver argue over which is the better route to their destination. The article alleged that he swore at the driver. Mellor later told the media that he regretted losing his temper but blamed the driver for provoking him.
Private life
Mellor married Judith on 20 July 1974. The couple had two sons before divorcing in 1995.
Mellor lives with his partner, Penelope Lyttelton, Viscountess Cobham.
References
External links
Profile at Speakers International
David Mellor on Classic FM
David Mellor (Rt. Hon. David Mellor QC) – Broadcaster, Journalist and Former MP (agent's site)
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1949 births
Living people
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
British Secretaries of State
Classical music radio presenters
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
English radio personalities
English Queen's Counsel
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
People educated at Swanage Grammar School
People from Wareham, Dorset
Contestants on University Challenge |
356907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Gummer | John Gummer | John Selwyn Gummer, Baron Deben, (born 26 November 1939) is a British Conservative Party politician, formerly the Member of Parliament (MP) for Suffolk Coastal and now a member of the House of Lords. He was Conservative Party Chairman from 1983 to 1985 and held various government posts including Secretary of State for the Environment from 1993 to 1997.
Gummer stood down from the House of Commons at the 2010 general election and was appointed to the House of Lords as Lord Deben.
Lord Deben is Chairman of the UK's independent Committee on Climate Change. He also chairs the sustainability consultancy Sancroft International, recycler Valpak, and PIMFA (Personal Investment & Financial Advice Association). He is a director of The Catholic Herald and the Castle Trust – a mortgage and investment firm. He is a trustee of climate change charity Cool Earth, alongside the ocean conservation charity, Blue Marine Foundation.
Early life
Gummer was born in Stockport, Cheshire. He is the eldest son of a Church of England priest, Canon Selwyn Gummer, and his younger brother is Peter Gummer, Baron Chadlington, a PR professional.
Gummer attended King's School, Rochester, before going to Selwyn College, Cambridge, where he read History. Whilst there, as chairman of the Cambridge University Conservative Association and later President of the Cambridge Union Society, he was a member of what became known as the Cambridge Mafia – a group of future Conservative Cabinet ministers, including Leon Brittan, Michael Howard, Kenneth Clarke, Norman Lamont, and Norman Fowler.
Public life
Elections
First elected to Parliament at the 1970 general election, where he defeated sitting MP James Dickens in Lewisham West, Gummer had previously contested Greenwich in 1964 and 1966. He was unseated in February 1974 by Labour's Christopher Price who achieved a 3.4% swing compared with a 1.3% swing to Labour nationally, deciding not to stand for the seat in the second election that year.
In 1979, he returned to the House of Commons, securing Eye in Suffolk, following the retirement of veteran Tory MP Harwood Harrison. He held the constituency and its successor Suffolk Coastal until his retirement from the Commons in 2010.
In government
Gummer was Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Agriculture in Edward Heath's government, before being appointed Conservative Party Vice-Chairman – a position he held until the government's fall in 1974. Following his return to the House in the 1979 election, he held various government posts and was Conservative Party Chairman from 1983 to 1985 – an office he held at the time of the Brighton hotel bombing during the 1984 Conservative Party conference. He joined the Cabinet in 1989 as Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, moving to become Secretary of State for the Environment under John Major in 1993.
As Environment Secretary he introduced the Environment Act 1995 and the Landfill Tax, which was the first such environmental tax in the UK. The BBC Wildlife magazine described Gummer as the "Environment Secretary against which all others are judged", placing him as one of its top ten environmental heroes. In 1997, he was also awarded the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Medal, and was described by Friends of the Earth as "the best Environment Secretary we've ever had".
He had responsibility for food safety during the mad cow disease epidemic in 1989–90 which eventually claimed 178 British lives. At the height of the crisis in May 1990, he attempted to refute the growing evidence for BSE/Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease by feeding his four-year-old daughter Cordelia a burger in front of press cameras.
Gummer opposed the reduction of beds at the Aldeburgh Cottage Hospital in July 2005.
In opposition
Following the 1997 Labour election victory he became a backbencher and chairman of the All-Party Group on Architecture and Planning. During this time he pursued environmental causes, introducing an Early Day Motion on global warming to Parliament along with Michael Meacher and Norman Baker. He was also instrumental in the passing of the Climate Change Act of 2008.
Because of his environmental credentials, in 2005 David Cameron asked Gummer to chair the Quality of Life Policy Group with Zac Goldsmith as his deputy.
In 2009, Gummer was involved in the United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal, after claiming £36,000 for gardening over four years, as a parliamentary expense. Although the claims were encouraged and initially approved by the Parliamentary Fees Office, rules state claims should only be made on expenses essential to parliamentary duties. He repaid £11,538 for gardening and household bills and donated £11,500 to charity, saying that he was paying above the minimum required in order to demonstrate "corporate social responsibility" for the expenses system. Subsequently, the Legg Report showed that 343 MPs had been asked to repay some money with Gummer paying the seventh highest figure.
House of Lords
It was announced that Gummer would be awarded a peerage in the 2010 Dissolution Honours List. On 21 June he was created a Life Peer as Baron Deben, of Winston in the County of Suffolk. He takes his title from the River Deben. He was introduced in the House of Lords the same day, supported by his brother, Lord Chadlington, and the composer Lord Lloyd-Webber.
As a pro-European moderate, Lord Deben supported Kenneth Clarke's leadership bids.
In September 2012, Lord Deben was confirmed as Chairman of the UK's independent Committee on Climate Change, succeeding Adair, Lord Turner. The committee advises the UK Government on setting and meeting carbon budgets and on preparing for the impacts of climate change.
Personal life
Lord Deben has been married to Penelope Gardner since 1977, and lives at Winston Grange, a Grade II listed property in Suffolk. They have four children, including Ben Gummer, who was MP for Ipswich from 2010, until he lost his seat in 2017.
He converted to the Catholic Church in 1992, having previously been a practising Anglican and a member of the General Synod of the Church of England. He has supported the creation of the Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham for former Anglicans who have, like him, joined the Catholic Church, including serving as an Honorary Vice-President of the Friends of the Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham.
In July 2018 he was awarded the Honorary degree of Doctor of Science (D.Sc) from the University of East Anglia.
Arms
See also
River Deben
Bibliography
1966: When the Coloured People Come, by John Gummer, Oldbourne,
1969: To Church with Enthusiasm, by John Gummer
1971: The Permissive Society: Fact or Fantasy?, by John Selwyn Gummer, Cassell,
1974: The Christian Calendar, by Leonard W. Cowie and John Selwyn Gummer, Weidenfeld & Nicolson,
1987: Faith in Politics: Which Way Should Christians Vote?, by John Gummer, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
1990: Christianity and Conservatism, by John Gummer
1997: Green Buildings Pay, edited by B. W. Edwards, foreword by John Gummer, Spon Press,
1998: From Earth Summit to Local Agenda 21: Working Towards Sustainable Development, edited by William Laffery, Katarina Eckerberg, William M. Laffery, foreword by John Gummer, Earthscan Publications,
1998: Precision Agriculture: Practical Applications of New Technologies, by John Gummer and Peter Botschek, The International Fertiliser Society,
Weekly columnist in Estates Gazette magazine
References
External links
Debrett's People of Today
Guardian Unlimited Politics – Ask Aristotle: John Gummer MP
TheyWorkForYou.com – John Gummer MP
BBC article on the burger / BSE story
Castle Trust
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1939 births
Living people
People from Cheshire
People educated at King's School, Rochester
Alumni of Selwyn College, Cambridge
British Secretaries of State
British Secretaries of State for the Environment
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Deben
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism
English Roman Catholics
Agriculture ministers of the United Kingdom
People from Mid Suffolk District
Presidents of the Cambridge Union
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
United Kingdom Paymasters General
Chairmen of the Conservative Party (UK)
Members of the General Synod of the Church of England |
356908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Rockies | Canadian Rockies | The Canadian Rockies () or Canadian Rocky Mountains, comprising both the Alberta Rockies and the B.C. Rockies, is the Canadian segment of the North American Rocky Mountains. It is the easternmost part of the Canadian Cordillera, which is the northern segment of the North American Cordillera, the expansive system of interconnected mountain ranges between the Interior Plains and the Pacific Coast that runs northwest–southeast from central Alaska to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico.
Canada officially defines the Rocky Mountains system as the mountain chains east of the Rocky Mountain Trench extending from the Liard River valley in northern British Columbia to the Albuquerque Basin in New Mexico, not including the Mackenzie, Richardson and British Mountains/Brooks Range in Yukon and Alaska (which are all included as the "Arctic Rockies" in the United States' definition of the Rocky Mountains system). The Canadian Rockies, being the northern segment of this chain, is thus defined as comprising the central-eastern section of the North American Cordillera, between the Prairies of Alberta and the Liard Plain of northeastern British Columbia to the east and the Interior Mountains/Plateau and Columbia Mountains to the west. It is divided into the Northern Rockies (which is further subdivided into the Muskwa and Hart Ranges) and Continental Ranges, separated by the McGregor River valley, the McGregor Pass and the Kakwa River valley.
The southern end of the Canadian Rockies extends into the U.S. state of Montana at various sites such as the Wilson Range, Upper Waterton Lake, Boundary Creek, Cameron Lake, Forum Peak, Long Knife Peak, North Fork Flathead River and Frozen Lake. In geographic terms, the boundary is at the Canada–United States border on 49th parallel north, but in geological terms it might be considered to be at Marias Pass in northern Montana.
The Canadian Rockies have numerous high peaks and ranges, such as Mount Robson () and Mount Columbia (). The Canadian Rockies are composed of shale and limestone. Much of the range is protected by national and provincial parks, several of which collectively comprise a World Heritage Site.
Geography
The Canadian Rockies are the easternmost part of the Canadian Cordillera, the collective name for the mountains of Western Canada. They form part of the American Cordillera, an essentially continuous sequence of mountain ranges that runs all the way from Alaska to the very tip of South America. The Cordillera, in turn, is the eastern part of the Pacific Ring of Fire that runs all the way around the Pacific Ocean.
The Canadian Rockies are bounded on the east by the Canadian Prairies, on the west by the Rocky Mountain Trench, and on the north by the Liard River. Contrary to popular misconception, the Rockies do not extend north into Yukon or Alaska, or west into central British Columbia. North of the Liard River, the Mackenzie Mountains, which are a distinct mountain range, form a portion of the border between the Yukon and the Northwest Territories. The mountain ranges to the west of the Rocky Mountain Trench in southern British Columbia are called the Columbia Mountains, and are not considered to be part of the Rockies by Canadian geologists.
Highest peaks
Mount Robson () is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies, but not the highest in British Columbia, since there are some higher mountains in the Coast Mountains and Saint Elias Mountains. Mount Robson lies on the continental divide near Yellowhead Pass, one of the lowest passes in the Canadian Rockies, and is close to the Yellowhead Highway. Its base is above sea level, with a total vertical relief of .
Mount Columbia () is the second-highest peak in the Canadian Rockies, and is the highest mountain in Alberta.
Snow Dome () is one of two hydrological apexes of North America. Water flows off Snow Dome into three different watersheds, into the Pacific Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Atlantic Ocean via Hudson Bay.
The Canadian Rockies are not the highest mountain ranges in Canada. Both the Saint Elias Mountains (highest point in Canada Mount Logan at ) and the Coast Mountains (highest point Mount Waddington at ) have higher summits.
Mountain ranges
The Canadian Rockies are subdivided into numerous mountain ranges, structured in two main groupings, the Continental Ranges, which has three main subdivisions, the Front Range, Park Ranges and Kootenay Ranges, and the Northern Rockies which comprise two main groupings, the Hart Ranges and the Muskwa Ranges. The division-point of the two main groupings is at Monkman Pass northwest of Mount Robson and to the southwest of Mount Ovington.
Rivers
The Canadian Rockies are noted for being the source of several major river systems, and also for the many rivers within the range itself. The Rockies form the divide between the Pacific Ocean drainage on the west and that of Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean on the east. Of the range's rivers, only the Peace River penetrates the range. Notable rivers originating in the Canadian Rockies include the Fraser, Columbia, North Saskatchewan, Bow and Athabasca Rivers.
Geology
The Canadian Rockies are quite different in appearance and geology from the American Rockies to the south of them. The Canadian Rockies are composed of layered sedimentary rock such as limestone and shale, whereas the American Rockies are made mostly of metamorphic and igneous rock such as gneiss and granite.
The Canadian Rockies are overall more jagged than the American Rockies, because the Canadian Rockies have been more heavily glaciated, resulting in sharply pointed mountains separated by wide, U-shaped valleys gouged by glaciers, whereas the American Rockies are overall more rounded, with river-carved V-shaped valleys between them. The Canadian Rockies are cooler and wetter, giving them moister soil, bigger rivers, and more glaciers. The tree line is much lower in the Canadian Rockies than in the American Rockies.
Parks
Five national parks are located within the Canadian Rockies, four of which are adjacent and make up the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks. These four parks are Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho. The fifth national park, Waterton is not adjacent to the others. Waterton lies farther south, straddling the Canada–US border as the Canadian half of the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. All five of these parks, combined with three British Columbia provincial parks, were declared a single UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 for the unique mountain landscapes found there.
Numerous provincial parks are located in the Canadian Rockies, including Hamber, Mount Assiniboine and Mount Robson parks.
Throughout the Rockies, and especially in the national parks, the Alpine Club of Canada maintains a series of alpine huts for use by mountaineers and adventurers.
Human history
The Rockies and the Canadian Pacific Railway
The Canadian Pacific Railway was founded to provide a link from the province of British Columbia to the eastern provinces. The main difficulty in providing such a link were the Rockies themselves: treacherous mountain passes, fast rivers and sheer drops made for a difficult railway construction process. The following articles describe in detail the political and technical feats involved:
Canadian Pacific Survey
Big Hill
Field Hill
Kicking Horse Pass
See also
Ecology of the Rocky Mountains
Geology of the Rocky Mountains
Arctic Cordillera: an example of another major mountain system in North America east of the Canadian Rockies.
The Rocky Mountain Rangers
Notes
References
Adams, Ansel (2013). Ansel Adams In The Canadian Rockies. Little, Brown and Company.
Roger W. Patillo: The Canadian Rockies: Pioneers, Legends and True Tales. Trafford Publishing 2005, 9781412056274 (restricted online version (Google Books))
Brenda Koller: The Canadian Rockies Adventure Guide. Hunter Publishing Inc. 2006, (restricted online version (Google Books))
Canadian Rockies. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 22, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online<ref>Canadian Rockies at Encyclopædia Britannica
Mountain ranges of Canada |
356910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mountains%20on%20Io | List of mountains on Io | More than 135 mountains have been identified on the surface of Jupiter's moon Io. Despite the extensive active volcanism taking place on Io, most mountains on Io are formed through tectonic processes. These structures average 6 km (4 mi) in height and reach a maximum of 17.5 ± 1.5 km (10.9 ± 1 mi) at South Boösaule Montes. Mountains often appear as large (the average mountain is 157 km (98 mi) long), isolated structures with no apparent global tectonic patterns outlined, in contrast to the situation on Earth. To support the tremendous topography observed at these mountains requires rock compositions consisting mostly of silicate, as opposed to sulfur.
Mountains on Io (generally, structures rising above the surrounding plains) have a variety of morphologies. Plateaus are most common. These structures resemble large, flat-topped mesas with rugged surfaces. Other mountains appear to be tilted crustal blocks, with a shallow slope from the formerly flat surface and a steep slope consisting of formerly sub-surface materials uplifted by compressive stresses. Both types of mountains often have steep scarps along one or more margins. Only a handful of mountains on Io appear to have a volcanic origin. These mountains resemble small shield volcanoes, with steep slopes (6–7°) near a small, central caldera and shallow slopes along their margins. These volcanic mountains are often smaller than the average mountain on Io, averaging only 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1.2 mi) in height and 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi) wide. Other shield volcanoes with much shallower slopes are inferred from the morphology of several of Io's volcanoes, where thin flows radiate out from a central patera, such as at Ra Patera.
Some of Io's mountains have received official names from the International Astronomical Union. The names are a combination of a name of a person or place derived from the Greek mythological story of Io, Dante's Inferno, or from the name of a nearby feature on Io surface and an approved descriptive term. The descriptive terms, or categories, used for these mountains depends on their morphology, which is a reflection of the mountain's age, geologic origin (volcanic or tectonic), and mass wasting processes. Mountains consisting of massifs, ridges, or isolated peaks use the descriptive term, mons or the plural montes, the Latin term for mountain. These features are named after prominent locations from the Greek mythological travels of Io or places mentioned in Dante's Inferno. Plateaus are normally given the descriptive term mensa (pl. mensae), the Latin term for mesa, though some mountains with plateau morphology use mons. Ionian mensae are named after mythological figures associated with the Io myth, characters from Dante's Inferno. Like mountains, these features can also be named after nearby volcanoes. Some units of layered plains have names using the descriptive term planum (pl. plana). However other more mountainous structures, such as Danube Planum, use the term. Partly as a result of the inconsistent use of this term, planum has not been used since the Voyager era. Ionian plana are named after locations associated with the Io myth. Rare cases of volcanic mountains, such as the shield volcano Tsũi Goab Tholus, use the term tholus (plural: tholi). Ionian tholi are named after people associated with the Io myth or nearby features on Io's surface.
See also the list of volcanic features on Io and the list of regions on Io.
List of named Ionian mountains
The following table lists those positive topographic structures (mountains, plateaus, shield volcanoes, and layered plains) that have been given names by the International Astronomical Union. Coordinates and Length come from the USGS website that hosts that nomenclature list. Height information from Paul Schenk's 2001 paper, "The mountains of Io: Global and geological perspectives from Voyager and Galileo". When the name refers to multiple mountains, the tallest peak from Schenk et al. 2001 is listed. Those whose heights come from another sources are noted and sourced in the table. Height ranges result from uncertainties due to different methods used to determine the height of the mountain.
See also
List of mountains
List of mountain types
:Category:Lists of mountains
List of mountain ranges
List of highest mountains
List of peaks by prominence
List of tallest mountains in the Solar System
Mountaineering
References
External links
USGS: Io nomenclature
USGS: Io nomenclature: mountains
Io's Tall Mountains – Planetary Society article
Io Mountain Database, including those without official names
Io |
356911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919%20in%20science | 1919 in science | The year 1919 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.
Astronomy
The International Astronomical Union is established in Paris.
Chemistry
June 1 – The term covalence in relation to chemical bonding is first used by Irving Langmuir.
History of science
Leonard Eugene Dickson begins publication of History of the Theory of Numbers.
Mathematics
Viggo Brun proves Brun's theorem B2 for twin primes.
Medicine
Dr George Newman is appointed as the first Chief Medical Officer to the Ministry of Health in England and Wales.
Physics
May 29 – Einstein's theory of general relativity is tested by Arthur Eddington's observation of the "bending of light" during the total solar eclipse on this day observed in Principe, and by Andrew Crommelin in Sobral, Ceará, Brazil (confirmed November 6).
Arnold Sommerfeld and Walther Kossel publish their displacement law.
James Jeans discovers that the dynamical constants of motion determine the distribution function for a system of particles.
Betz's law is published by German physicist Albert Betz, indicating the maximum power that can be extracted from the wind, independent of the design of a wind turbine in open flow.
Psychology
In Berlin Dr Magnus Hirschfeld and Arthur Kronfeld found the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft.
Technology
First crossings of the Atlantic Ocean by air.
May 8–27 – United States Navy Curtiss flying boat NC-4 commanded by Albert Cushing Read makes the first transatlantic flight, from Naval Air Station Rockaway to Lisbon via Newfoundland and the Azores.
June 14–15 – A Vickers Vimy flown by John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown makes the first nonstop transatlantic flight, from St. John's, Newfoundland, to Clifden, Ireland.
July 2–6 – British airship R34 makes the first transatlantic flight by dirigible, and the first westbound flight, from RAF East Fortune, Scotland, to Mineola, New York.
May 29 – Charles Strite files a United States patent for the pop-up electric bread toaster.
October 17 – Dr. Frank Conrad begins broadcasting from 8XK in Pittsburgh (United States).
Lee De Forest files his first United States patent for the Phonofilm sound-on-film process.
United States firearms designer John Browning finalizes the design of the M1919 Browning machine gun.
United States firearms designer John T. Thompson finalizes the design of the Thompson submachine gun.
A United States patent for the self-folding shirt collar is obtained by the Phillips-Jones Corporation.
Awards
Nobel Prize
Physics – Johannes Stark
Chemistry – not awarded
Medicine – Jules Bordet
Births
January 23 – Hans Hass (died 2013), Austrian zoologist and oceanographer.
April 1 – Joseph Murray (died 2012), American Nobel Prize-winning transplant surgeon.
June 22 – Henri Tajfel (died 1982), Polish-born social psychologist.
July 26 – James Lovelock, English environmentalist and futurologist.
August 12 – Margaret Burbidge, born Eleanor Margaret Peachey (died 2020), English-born American astronomer.
September 6 – Wilson Greatbatch (died 2011), American biomedical engineer.
September 21 – Mario Bunge (died 2020), Argentine-born philosopher of science.
November 10 – Mikhail Kalashnikov (died 2013), Russian small arms designer.
December 8 – Kateryna Yushchenko (died 2001), Ukrainian computer scientist and academic.
Deaths
January 15 – Rosa Luxemburg (born 1871), Polish Marxist theorist, philosopher, economist, anti-war activist, and revolutionary socialist.
February 19 – Frederick DuCane Godman (born 1834), English lepidopterist, entomologist and ornithologist.
April 4 – Sir William Crookes (born 1832), English chemist and physicist.
April 17 – Bernhard Sigmund Schultze (born 1827), German obstetrician.
May 8 – LaMarcus Adna Thompson (born 1848), American inventor.
c. June 1 – Caroline Still Anderson (born 1848), African American physician, educator and activist.
June 30 – John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (born 1842), English Nobel Prize-winning physicist.
July 15 – Emil Fischer (born 1852), German Nobel Prize-winning chemist (suicide).
July 21 – Gustaf Retzius (born 1842), Swedish anatomist.
August 8 – Ernst Haeckel (born 1834), German zoologist.
August 23 – Augustus George Vernon Harcourt (born 1834), English chemist.
November 23 – Henry Gantt (born 1861), American project engineer.
December 16 – Julia Lermontova (born 1846), Russian chemist.
December 29 – Sir William Osler (born 1849), Canadian-born physician.
References
20th century in science
1910s in science |
356913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Papanicolaou | George Papanicolaou | George Papanicolaou or Papanikolaou may refer to:
Georgios Papanikolaou (1883–1962), Greek pathologist
George C. Papanicolaou (born 1943), American mathematician
Giorgos Papanikolaou (born 1977), Greek politician, Member of the European Parliament
(born Georgios Papanikolaou in 1976), Greek Orthodox metropolitan bishop of Nea Ionia and Philadelphia
See also |
356917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Prior | Jim Prior | James Michael Leathes Prior, Baron Prior, (11 October 1927 – 12 December 2016) was a British Conservative politician. A Member of Parliament from 1959 to 1987, he represented the Suffolk constituency of Lowestoft until 1983 and then the renamed constituency of Waveney from 1983 to 1987, when he stood down from the House of Commons and was made a life peer. He served in two Conservative cabinets, and outside parliament was Chairman of the Arab British Chamber of Commerce from 1996 to 2004.
Under Edward Heath, Prior was Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food from 1970 to 1972, then Leader of the House of Commons until Heath lost office in the wake of the February 1974 election. His party returned to power under Margaret Thatcher in 1979, and Prior was Secretary of State for Employment from 1979 to 1981, disagreeing with some of her views on trade unions and her monetarist economic policies generally. This made him a leader of the so-called "wet" faction in the Conservative ranks. In 1981 he was moved to the less pivotal role of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, from which he stood down in 1984; he never returned to government.
Life and career
Prior was born in Norwich, the son of solicitor Charles Bolingbroke Leathes Prior (1883–1964) and Aileen Sophia Mary (1893–1978), daughter of barrister Charles Storey Gilman. Charles Prior's uncle was head of the family of Prior of Adstock Manor, Bletchley, Buckinghamshire; the family was closely related to the Lake baronets, the Stuart-Menteth baronets, the Blackett family of Wylam, Northumberland, and the Prideaux-Brune family of Prideaux Place, Cornwall. Prior was educated at Orwell Park School, then at Charterhouse School before going on to Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he earned a first class honours degree in Land economy. He performed his two-year National Service as an officer in the Royal Norfolk Regiment of the British Army, serving in Germany and India.
He was first elected to Parliament in 1959, and was Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food from 1970 to 1972, then Leader of the House of Commons and Lord President of the Council until March 1974. He was one of several unsuccessful candidates in the Conservative Party's 1975 leadership election, entering at the second round and gaining 19 votes to Margaret Thatcher's 146.
Cabinet years
Under Margaret Thatcher he was Secretary of State for Employment from May 1979 to 14 September 1981. Thatcher said of their relationship, "we agreed that trade unions had acquired far too many powers and privileges. We also agreed that these must be dealt with one step at a time. But when it came down to specific measures, there was deep disagreement about how fast and how far to move."
Prior is believed to have annoyed Thatcher by being too friendly with trade union leaders, with Thatcher writing "He [Prior] had forged good relations with a number of trade union leaders whose practical value he perhaps overestimated." And during his period in the Cabinet, he is believed to have angered the right wing of his party and the Prime Minister for not pressing far enough with anti-trade union legislation. In the September 1981 cabinet reshuffle Prior was moved from the Employment portfolio to become Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, an office he held until September 1984. At the time of the reshuffle, it was reported that Prior considered following the sacked Ian Gilmour to the back benches to oppose the Thatcher Government's economic policies. However, Prior ultimately decided to accept being moved to the Northern Ireland Office after consulting cabinet colleagues William Whitelaw, then Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party, and Francis Pym. This transfer was widely seen as a move by Thatcher to isolate Prior, who disagreed with her on a number of economic issues. The post of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland was seen as a dumping ground to marginalise ministers. However, when Prior resigned, Thatcher revealed that she was going to offer him another Cabinet post during the reshuffle, which would have very likely been a non-economic one.
Later years
In 1986, he collaborated with John Cassels and Pauline Perry to create the Council for Industry and Higher Education (CIHE), which would become the National Centre for Universities and Business in 2013.
He retired from Parliament in 1987, and was created a life peer as Baron Prior, of Brampton in the County of Suffolk, on 14 October 1987.
He was chairman and later vice-president of the Rural Housing Trust.
Following his retirement from politics he was much sought after in the world of business: he served as chairman of both GEC and Allders, and had directorships at Barclays, Sainsbury's and United Biscuits.
Prior was interviewed about the rise of Thatcherism for the 2006 BBC TV documentary series Tory! Tory! Tory! and in 2012 as part of The History of Parliament's oral history project.
Personal life and death
In January 1954 Prior married Jane Primrose Gifford Lywood, daughter of Air Vice-Marshal Oswyn George William Gifford Lywood, CB, CBE, a developer of the Typex cypher machines, of a landed gentry family of Woodlands, near Sevenoaks, Kent. They had four children. Prior's eldest son David Prior held the seat of North Norfolk between 1997 and 2001, and was appointed Parliamentary-Under Secretary of State for NHS Productivity; he was later, in May 2015, elevated to the peerage in his own right as Baron Prior of Brampton.
James Prior died on 12 December 2016 at the age of 89.
Following Prior's death, Keith Simpson MP said of him: "In many ways he was a larger than life figure. He had a ruddy face, he played up to being the farmer. People underestimated him because he didn't claim to be a Keith Joseph or Enoch Powell parading their intellectualism. But he was somebody who was well-loved by the grassroots and was a decent man who was in politics out of a sense of public service."
References
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2016 deaths
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Agriculture ministers of the United Kingdom
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356919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bare-knuckle%20boxing | Bare-knuckle boxing | Bare-knuckle boxing (also known as bare-knuckle, bare-knuckle fighting, prizefighting, fist fight or fisticuffs) is the sport of boxing without the usage of boxing gloves or other padding on their hands.
The difference between street fighting and a bare-knuckle boxing match is that the latter has an accepted set of rules, such as not striking a downed opponent. The rules that provided the foundation for bare-knuckle boxing for much of the 18th and 19th centuries were the London Prize Ring Rules.
Bare-knuckle boxing has seen a resurgence in the 21st century with the English promotion BKB️ (Bare Knuckle Boxing) which is a sanctioned Bare Knuckle promotion along with other big UK promotions such as Warrington’s UBKB (ultimate bareknuckle boxing) and Bare Fist Boxing Association (BFBA) & American promotion Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship (BKFC).
Early history
According to the boxing chronicle Pugilistica, the first newspaper report of a boxing match in England dates from 1681, when the Protestant Mercury stated: "Yesterday a match of boxing was performed before his Grace the Duke of Albemarle, between the Duke's footman and a butcher. The latter won the prize, as he hath done many before, being accounted, though but a little man, the best at that exercise in England."
The first bare-knuckle champion of England was James Figg, who claimed the title in 1719 and held it until his retirement in 1730. Before Jack Broughton, the first idea of current boxing originated from James Figg, who is viewed as the organizer of cutting edge boxing. In 1719, he set up a 'pugilistic foundation' and charged himself as 'a professional in the Noble Science of Defense' to instruct boxers on the utilization of clench hands, sword, and quarterstaff. Noted champions were Jack Broughton, Elizabeth Wilkinson, Daniel Mendoza, Jem Belcher, Hen Pearce, John Gully, Tom Cribb, Tom Spring, Jem Ward, James Burke, William "Bendigo" Thompson, Ben Caunt, William Perry, Tom Sayers and Jem Mace.
The record for the longest bare-knuckle fight is listed as 6 hours and 15 minutes for a match between James Kelly and Jonathan Smith, fought near Fiery Creek, Victoria, Australia, on December 3, 1855, when Smith gave in after 17 rounds.
The bare-knuckle fighter Jem Mace is listed as having the longest professional career of any fighter in history. He fought for more than 35 years into his 60s, and recorded his last exhibition bout in 1909 at the age of 78.
Professional bare-knuckle boxing was never legal under any federal or state laws in the United States until Wyoming became the first to legalize on March 20, 2018. Prior to that date, the chief sanctioning organization for bare-knuckle boxing was the magazine National Police Gazette, which set up matches and issued championship belts throughout the 1880s. The Police Gazette sanctioned what is considered the last major bare-knuckle heavyweight world championship, between John L. Sullivan and Jake Kilrain on July 8, 1889, with Sullivan emerging as the victor.
Since then, other claimants to being sanctioned bare-knuckle championship bouts include the August 5, 2011, match at Fort McDowell Casino on the Yavapai Nation reservation in Arizona. The Native American tribe sanctioned the bout between Rich Stewart of New Castle, Delaware and Bobby Gunn, with Gunn emerging as the victor. Other noted champions were Tom Hyer, Yankee Sullivan, Nonpareil Dempsey, Tom Sharkey, Bob Fitzsimmons and John Morrissey.
With the emergence of contemporary bare-knuckle promotions like the BKFC and BKB, a number of sanctioned and officially recognized bare-knuckle boxing champions have been crowned. This includes former mixed martial artist Joey Beltran, who holds the BKFC Heavyweight Championship and the National Police Gazette American Heavyweight Championship.
Techniques
Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits and no referee, resulting in very chaotic fights. An early account of boxing was published in Nottingham, 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, 2nd Baronet, a landowner in Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he described. The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing, Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler, described a system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not recognized in boxing today. Consequently, there were no round limits to fights. When a man could not come to scratch, he would be declared loser and the fight would be brought to a halt. Fights could also end if broken up beforehand by crowd riot, police interference or chicanery, or if both men were willing to accept that the contest was a draw. While fights could have enormous numbers of rounds, the rounds in practice could be quite short with fighters pretending to go down from minor blows to take advantage of the 30-second rest period.
Even though Broughton's era brought rules to make boxing more civilized, there were still many moves in this era that are illegal in today's gloved boxing. That being said, there were also new revolutionary techniques that were formulated during this time. Grappling was allowed during this time and many favored the use of cross-buttocks throw and suplexes, although grabs below the waist were illegal. Clinching, known as chancery, were also legal and in-use. Fibbing, where a boxer grabs hold of an opponent by the neck or hair and pummel him multiple times, were allowed. The traditional bare-knuckle boxing stance was actually designed to combat against the use of grappling as well as block punching. Kicking was also allowed in boxing at that time, with Wiliam "Bendigo" Thompson being an expert in kicks during his fight with Ben Caunt, and the Lancanshire Navigator using purring kicks in his battle with Tom Cribb.
It was during classical pugilism where many famous boxing techniques were invented. Samuel Elias was the first to invent a punch that would later become known as the uppercut. Tom Spring popularized the use of the left hook and created a technique called the "Harlequin Step" where he would put himself just within reach of his opponent, then avoiding the instinctive punch while simultaneously delivering one himself, basically inventing the boxing feint. Daniel Mendoza would become the inventor of the outboxer-style of boxing.
Irish stand down
"Irish stand down" is a type of traditional bare knuckle fighting where the aspect of maneuvering around the ring is removed, leaving only the less nuanced aspects of punching and "taking" punches. This form of combat was popular in Irish American ghettos in the United States in the late 19th century but was eclipsed in the Irish American community first by bare knuckle boxing and then later by regulation boxing. The Irish stand down is also known as strap fighting or toe to toe.
Modern bare-knuckle boxing
Modern rules
With the resurgence of bare-knuckle boxing in the 21st century, several modifications have been made to the London Prize Ring Rules that controlled historical bare-knuckle boxing. Additionally, there are several changes from the Marquess of Queensberry Rules. Most notably, there is an 18-second count on any knockdown in the BKB, although the BKFC uses the traditional 10-count. In most modern bare-knuckle promotions, there is no three-knockdown rule and fighters cannot be saved by the bell. Fights consists of 5 rounds of 2 minutes in BKFC and 7 rounds of 2 minutes in BKB. One of the distinguishing characteristics of modern bare-knuckle boxing is the inclusion of punching in the clinch, also known as "dirty boxing".
The Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship enforces and are diferente from others matchmakers in the following ruleset:
1. Fighters are permitted to wrap and tape the wrist, thumb, and mid-hand. No gauze or tape can be within of the knuckles.
2. Fighters will “toe the line”. There are two lines, apart, in the center of the ring where the fighters will start each round. The front foot will be on the line, and the referee will instruct the fighters to “knuckle up”, which indicates the beginning of the bout/round.
3. Punches are the only strike allowed and must be with a closed fist (no kicks, elbows, knees or grappling).
4. In the clinch, the fighter may punch his way out with the open hand. If there is a three-second lull in action while clinching, the referee will break the fighters.
5. A fighter who is knocked down will have 10 seconds to return to his feet, or the referee will stop the fight. It is not permitted to hit a downed fighter. Any fighter who does will be disqualified, and the purse will be withheld. While a fighter is downed, the other fighter will be instructed to report to a neutral space.
6. If a fighter is cut and the blood is impairing a fighter’s vision, the referee may call a timeout to give the cutman 30 seconds to stop the bleeding. If the blood cannot be controlled and the blood inhibits the fighter’s vision, the referee will stop the fight and award victory to the other fighter.
7. Fights are two minutes per round and each bout will be 3 or 5 rounds in length. In BKB can be 3, 5 or 7.
8. Attire: All fighters must have a groin protector with a cup, a mouthpiece, trunks or boxing trunks, and boxing/wrestling shoes. In Russia Topdog the hand has no protection at all.
9. All fighters are expected to give 100% effort and behave with complete sportsmanship.
Current titleholders
Bare Knuckle Boxing (BKB)
Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship (BKFC)
List of English Heavyweight Bare-Knuckle Boxing Champions
James Figg 1719-1730
Tom Pipes 1730-1734
George Taylor 1734-1736
Jack Broughton 1736-1750
Jack Slack 1750-1760
William Stevens 1760-1761
George Meggs 1761-1762
Tom Juchau 1765-1766
William Darts 1766-1769
Tom Lyons 1769
Willam Darts 1769-1771
Peter Corcoran 1771-1776
Harry Sellers 1776-1779
Duggan Fearns 1779
Tom Johnson 1787-1791
Benjamin Brain 1791-1794
Daniel Mendoza 1794-1795
John Jackson 1795-1796
Thomas Owen 1796-1797
Jack Bartholomew 1797-1800
Jem Belcher 1800-1805
Hen Pearce 1805-1807
John Gully 1807-1808
Tom Cribb 1808-1822
Tom Spring 1823-1824
Tom Cannon 1824-1825
Jem Ward 1825-1827
Peter Crawley (boxer) 1827
Jem Ward 1827-1832
James Burke (boxer) 1833-1839
William Thompson (boxer) 1839-1840
Ben Caunt 1840-1841
Nick Ward (boxer) 1841
Ben Caunt1841-1845
William Thompson (boxer) 1845-1850
William Perry (boxer)1850-1851
Harry Broome 1851-1856
Tom Paddock 1856-1858
Tom Sayers 1858-1860
Sam Hurst 1860- 1861
Jem Mace 1861-1862
Tom King (boxer) 1862-1863
Joe Wormald 1865
Jem Mace 1866-1871
List of United States Heavyweight Bare-knuckle Boxing Champions
Tom Molineaux 1810-1815
Tom Hyer 1841-1851
John Morrissey 1853-1859
John Camel Heenan 1860-1863
Joe Coburn 1863-1865
Jimmy Elliott 1865-1870
Mike McCoole 1870
Tom Allen (boxer) 1870
Jem Mace 1870-1871
Tom Allen (boxer) 1873-1876
Joe Goss 1876-1880
Paddy Ryan 1880-1882
John L. Sullivan 1882-1889
See also
List of bare-knuckle lightweight champions
Bare Knuckle Boxing Hall of Fame
London Prize Ring rules
Russian boxing
Lethwei
Chivarreto boxing
Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship
References
Sources and Further reading
The Outsiders – Exposing the Secretive World of Ireland's Travellers Chapters 4 and 5 () by Eamon Dillon, published Nov 2006 by Merlin Publishing
David Snowdon, Writing the Prizefight: Pierce Egan's Boxiana World (2013)
Interview with bare knuckle boxer from the 1950s
Boxing
Combat sports
Individual sports
Boxing terminology
et:Rusikavõitlus |
356920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20Macmillan | Maurice Macmillan | Maurice Victor Macmillan, Viscount Macmillan of Ovenden (27 January 1921 – 10 March 1984), was a British Conservative Party politician and Member of Parliament. He was the only son of Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1963.
Background and education
Macmillan was the only son of Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, and Lady Dorothy Cavendish, daughter of Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire. He was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He served with the Sussex Yeomanry in Europe in the Second World War. Like his father, he was chairman of Macmillan Publishers, as well as a director of two news agencies.
Political career
Macmillan contested Seaham at the 1945 election, Lincoln in 1951 and Wakefield at a 1954 by-election. He served on Kensington Borough Council from 1949 to 1953, then was elected MP for Halifax at the 1955 general election but lost this seat in 1964. He was then elected for Farnham in 1966. This latter seat became South West Surrey at the 1983 election. He served as Economic Secretary to the Treasury (1963–64) under Alec Douglas-Home, and as Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1970–72), Secretary of State for Employment (1972–73) and Paymaster General (1973–74) under Edward Heath. He was made a Privy Counsellor in 1972.
Family
Macmillan married the Honourable Katharine Ormsby-Gore, daughter of William Ormsby-Gore, 4th Baron Harlech, on 22 August 1942. They had four sons and a daughter:
Alexander Daniel Alan Macmillan, 2nd Earl of Stockton (born 10 October 1943)
Hon. Joshua Edward Andrew Macmillan (1945–1965)
Hon. Adam Julian Robert Macmillan (1948–2016)
Hon. Rachel Mary Georgia Macmillan (1955–1987)
Hon. David Maurice Benjamin Macmillan (born 1957); married English fashion designer Arabella Pollen in 1995 and has issue.
Macmillan was for a time the owner of Highgrove House, which he sold to the Prince of Wales in 1980. Upon his father's elevation to the peerage as Earl of Stockton on 10 February 1984, Macmillan acquired the courtesy title Viscount Macmillan of Ovenden. He died suddenly in Westminster, London, on 10 March 1984, aged 63, following a heart operation. His father outlived him by almost three years, dying in December 1986 at the age of 92.
Macmillan's son Alexander has held the title 2nd Earl of Stockton since the death of the first Earl.
References
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1921 births
1984 deaths
British Army personnel of World War II
Sussex Yeomanry officers
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
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Children of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Members of Kensington Metropolitan Borough Council
British courtesy viscounts
Heirs apparent who never acceded
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People educated at Eton College
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UK MPs 1955–1959
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Ministers in the Macmillan and Douglas-Home governments, 1957–1964 |
356924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20craters%20on%20Callisto | List of craters on Callisto | This is a list of named craters on Callisto, one of the many moons of Jupiter, the most heavily cratered natural satellite in the Solar System (for other features, see list of geological features on Callisto).
As of 2020, the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature has officially named a total of 142 craters on Callisto, more than on any other non-planetary object such as Ganymede (131), Rhea (128), Vesta (90), Ceres (90), Dione (73), Iapetus (58), Enceladus (53), Tethys (50) and Europa (41). Although some Callistoan craters refer to the nymph Callisto from Greek mythology, they are officially named after characters from myths and folktales of cultures of the Far North.
List of Craters
back to top
See also
List of craters on the Moon
List of craters on Mars
List of craters on Mercury
List of craters on Venus
Note
References
External links
USGS: Callisto nomenclature
USGS: Callisto Nomenclature: Craters
Callisto Crater Database Lunar and Planetary Institute
Callisto
Impact craters on Jupiter's moons |
356925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiramide | Semiramide | Semiramide () is an opera in two acts by Gioachino Rossini.
The libretto by Gaetano Rossi is based on Voltaire's tragedy Semiramis, which in turn was based on the legend of Semiramis of Assyria. The opera was first performed at La Fenice in Venice on 3 February 1823.
Semiramide was Rossini's final Italian opera and according to Richard Osborne, "could well be dubbed Tancredi Revisited". As in Tancredi, Rossi's libretto was based on a Voltaire tragedy. The music took the form of a return to vocal traditions of Rossini's youth, and was a melodrama in which he "recreated the baroque tradition of decorative singing with unparalleled skill". The ensemble-scenes (particularly the duos between Arsace and Semiramide) and choruses are of a high order, as is the orchestral writing, which makes full use of a large pit.
After this splendid work, one of his finest in the genre, Rossini turned his back on Italy and moved to Paris. Apart from Il viaggio a Reims, which is still in Italian, his last operas were either original compositions in French or extensively reworked adaptations into French of earlier Italian operas.
Musicologist Rodolfo Celletti sums up the importance of Semiramide by stating that it "was the last opera of the great Baroque tradition: the most beautiful, the most imaginative, possibly the most complete; but also, irremediably, the last."
Composition history
After making his mark with a number of brilliant comic operas (most notably Il barbiere di Siviglia, La Cenerentola, Il turco in Italia, and L'italiana in Algeri), Rossini turned more and more to serious opera (opere serie). During the years 1813 (when Rossini composed Tancredi) until 1822 he wrote a considerable series of them, mostly for the Teatro di San Carlo, Naples.
One reason for his new interest in the serious genre was his connection with the great dramatic soprano Isabella Colbran, who was first his mistress, then his wife. She created the leading female roles in Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra (1815), Otello (1816), Armida (1817), Mosè in Egitto (1818), Maometto II (1820), and five other Rossini operas up to and including his final contribution to the genre, Semiramide, which was also written with Colbran in the major role.
Work began with the librettist in October 1822, composer and librettist taking Voltaire's story and making significant changes. Actual composition took Rossini 33 days to complete the score.
Performance history
19th century
Following its premiere, the opera was given twenty-eight times for the rest of the season in Venice (and, at some point, for four nights in a row) and it went on to presentations throughout Italy and Europe, including Paris in 1825, Milan in 1829 and 1831, and Vienna in 1830. It reached London on 15 July 1824, was given its US premiere at the St. Charles Theatre in New Orleans on 1 May 1837, but it took until 3 January 1845, before it was performed in New York.
Other prima donnas emerged in the major roles by about 1825, since Colbran's vocal powers had greatly diminished by the time of the Venice premiere performances and she "was in no state to ever sing the role again". For 25 years after 1830, Giulia Grisi triumphed in the role notably in St Petersburg in 1849 and New York in 1854.
By the late 1800s, the opera had virtually disappeared from the repertoire. However, it was chosen in 1880 to inaugurate the Teatro Costanzi, new venue of the Rome Opera company, and appeared as part of the Cincinnati Opera Festival 1882 which was attended by Oscar Wilde and which featured the famous diva Adelina Patti who chose the aria "Bel raggio lusinghiero" for her farewell performance. The Metropolitan Opera revived Semiramide in 1892, 1894 (with Nellie Melba), and 1895.
20th century and beyond
It took until 1932 until the opera was again revived (in a German translation) in Rostock, and it then reappeared under Tullio Serafin at the 1940 Maggio Musicale Fiorentino.
Presentations at La Scala in Milan in December 1962 with Joan Sutherland and Giulietta Simionato required the re-assembly of the entire score from the Rossini autograph, since no other texts were known to exist.
Musicologist Philip Gossett noted that between 1962 and 1990 "some seventy opera houses have included the work in one or more seasons". A major revival at the Aix-en-Provence Festival in 1980 was directed by Pier Luigi Pizzi and featured Montserrat Caballé in the title role with Marilyn Horne as Arsace. The same staging was then billed in sequence by the Teatro Carlo Felice in Genoa and by the Teatro Regio in Turin which had co-produced it, starring respectively Lella Cuberli/Martine Dupuy and Katia Ricciarelli/Lucia Valentini Terrani. It was not until the Met's 1990 revival after almost 100 years that a production based on a new critical edition was mounted. It alternated Lella Cuberli and June Anderson in the title role with Marilyn Horne again as Arsace. Among other performances, the work was given by the Rossini in Wildbad Festival in 2012, which was recorded with Alex Penda in the title role. In November 2017, the Royal Opera House, London, mounted its first production of the opera since the 1890s, with Joyce DiDonato in the title role.
Roles
Synopsis
Time: Antiquity or "Some 2,000 Years before the Christian era"
Place: Babylon
OvertureSemiramide has its own overture, which was almost certainly composed last. Unlike many operatic overtures of the day, it borrowed musical ideas from the opera itself, thus making it unsuitable for use with another score. The range and balance of musical ideas, from the hushed, rhythmic opening through the Andantino for four horns (drawn from the opera itself) and the repetition with pizzicato countermelodies in the strings to the lively allegro, make the overture to Semiramide one of Rossini's finest contributions to the genre and deservedly one of the most popular.
Act 1Temple of Baal, BabylonThe High Priest Oroe invites all to enter the temple, and Babylonians (along with others from abroad, including Idreno the Indian King) do so carrying offerings to Baal. Assur states that the day has come for the Queen to choose a successor and he reminds all of his own valour. Idreno expresses surprise at Assur's aspirations and all express their individual concerns and fears.
Semiramide enters to the acclaim of all, but Idreno and Assur individually speculate as to who will be chosen. They press the queen to announce her decision, but at the same time Semiramide herself is fearful about making that decision, especially as she appears to be expecting someone's arrival. Suddenly, the temple is plunged into darkness and there is general consternation amidst fears of its imminent collapse. All desert the temple.
Arsace, a young warrior from Scythia, enters. He has been told by his dying father to go to the temple in Babylon, and he was also urgently sent for by Semiramide. He brings with him a casket belonging to his father, but he is puzzled as to why he has been called back to Babylon. He declares his love for Princess Azema who loves him though she has been promised to the dead King Nino's lost son, Ninia. Arsace states his unwillingness to support Assur in his bid for the throne: (Scena and aria: Eccomi alfine in Babilonia... Ah! quel giorno ognor rammento / "Here I am at last in Babylon... Oh, I shall ever remember the day of glory and happiness...").
Arsace asks to see the High Priest. Oroe enters, opens the casket, and exclaims upon seeing it that it contains the holy relics of the dead king. He hints to Arsace about some treachery that had been involved. Seeing Assur approach, Oroe leaves with the relics. Assur arrives and questions the reason for Arsace's return. The two men discuss Azema, with Arsace reaffirming his love for her (Duet: Bella imago degli dei / "Beautiful, divine image") while Assur states that he too loves her. "You have no idea what love is", the younger man tells the older: (Aria/duet: D'un tenero amor / "Of tender love...")The entrance hall of the palaceAzema enters, happy that Arsace is now in Babylon. Idreno follows her and asks for her hand; she tells him that this must be Semiramide's decision. "What of your heart?" he asks, assuming that his rival can only be Assur. Scornfully told that it will never be Assur, Idreno is comforted, although he expresses his desire "to punish the wicked boldness of a rival" and continues to express desire for Azema: (Aria: Ah, dov'è, dov'è il cimento? / "Oh, where is it, where is the challenge?")The Hanging GardensHaving fallen in love with Arsace and believing that he loves her, Semiramide waits for his arrival: (Aria: Bel raggio lusinghier / "Beautiful, enchanting ray"). She receives a message from the Oracle, telling her that a wedding will make a new king. She believes this to be a sign from the gods that they approve of her plans, and orders preparations for a wedding. When Arsace arrives, he alludes to his love for Azema without specifically naming her, but he also declares that he will die for his queen if necessary. Semiramide still believes that he really loves her, and vows that she will give him all he desires: (Duet: Serbami ognor sì fido il cor / "Always keep your heart this faithful to me"). They leave separately.The Palace Throne RoomAll enter to await Semiramide's arrival and her announcement of her choice of successor. Arsace, Idreno, Oroe, and Assur all swear to obey her command, no matter what she decides: (Ensemble: Semiramide, Arsace, Idreno, Oroe and Assur: ( Giuri ognuno, a' sommi Dei / "Let everyone swear to the highest gods"). She demands loyalty to the man she chooses, stating he will also be her own husband. When Semiramide names Arsace as her chosen one, Assur is outraged and Idreno accepts the decision but requests Azema's hand, which is granted. After asking Oroe to unite her and Arsace, Semiramide is horrified by the uproar which emits from the near-by tomb of King Nino: (Ensemble: Qual mesto gemito da quella tomba / "What a mournful groaning from the tomb there"). All are horrified as King Nino's ghost appears, warning of the crimes to be expiated, telling Arsace that he will reign and to respect the High Priest's wisdom, and commanding him to come down into his tomb. Each character expresses their own anguish.
Act 2A hall in the palaceIn a brief encounter, Mitrane warns the royal guard to keep Assur under surveillance and not to allow him to leave the palace. Then Semiramide enters, followed shortly after by Assur.
Conflict between the two soon emerges. She reminds him that it was he who gave the cup of poison to Nino, thus causing his death, and he reminds her that it was she who had prepared it: "Who handed me the cup of death?" he asks. Recalling that at that time she had a son, Ninia, she speculates that he might have been killed by the same man who killed Nino. Assur continues to pressure Semiramide to make him king. In turn, she threatens to reveal the crime, and they sing an extended duet: (Se la vita ancor t'è cara / "If you still hold life dear") recalling the terror and retribution that each could inflict upon the other if the truth came to light. Semiramide continues to demand that Assur acknowledge Arsace as his king.
Rejoicing is heard in the distance, and while Semiramide regains some of her former happiness, Assur becomes resigned to his fate.King Nino's tombOroe and the Magi are assembled in the tomb. The High Priest urges Arsace to come forward but makes him aware that there may be some unpleasant news awaiting him. Upon his arrival, Oroe tells him that he is Ninia, Nino's son, who had been saved by devoted Fradate and brought up as his own. Aghast at this news, Arsace then learns that Semiramide is his mother. To reinforce this news, Oroe hands him a scroll, written by the King before his death, the reading of which confirms the Priest's statements. The final blow comes when Arsace reads Nino's words, and realises that his mother and Assur were the ones who killed his father: "Assur was the traitor".
Almost collapsing in grief into Oroe's arms, he asks for comfort: (Aria: In sì barbara sciagura / "In such barbarious misfortune"), but the priests quickly reinforce his need to take immediate revenge. They equip him with armour and a sword and give him the determination to proceed: (cabaletta: Si, vendicato, il genitore / "Yes, my father avenged"). Sword in hand, Arsace leaves.Semiramide's apartmentsAzema and Mitrane are alone, the former complaining that she has lost everything now that Arsace, the love of her life, is due to marry the queen. Entering, Idreno overhears this and is distraught. Azema promises him her hand if he so desires it, but he wishes that she would love him: (Aria: La speranza più soave / "The sweetest hope"). Two choruses of Maids, Lords, and Indians lead them all to the temple.In the templeSemiramide confronts Arsace, who finally hands her the scroll which has revealed all. Horrified, she then understands Arsace's real identity, and becomes remorseful, offering herself to his revengeful blows. He swears filial loyalty, expressing the wish to spare his mother: (Duet: Ebben, a te, ferisci! ... Giorno d'orror! E di contento! ... Madre, addio! / "Behold, you, strike me! ... Day of horror, and of joy! ... Mother, adieu!"). Together, they each accept the reality, but Arsace declares that he must go to his father's tomb and take whatever action is necessary. Knowing what is in store, Semiramide urges him to "return to me victorious".The entrance to the sepulchre of King NinusDefiantly, Assur enters and proclaims that this will be Arsace's last day on earth. Learning from his men that the people have turned against him, he still vows to kill Arsace. He moves towards the tomb only to find some unknown force, some apparition holding him back: (Chorus, scena and aria: Deh ti ferma ... Que' numi furenti, Quell'ombre frementi / "Oh, stop ... Those wrathful gods, those quivering shades"). His men urge him on, but still the apparition remains in his mind. His men are puzzled, until he seems to recover and then, with his men beside him, vows to fight on.Finale - Inside the sepulchre of NinusAlong with Oroe, Arsace enters the vaults. He searches for his rival. Assur enters as well, also searching for Arsace. Semiramide then comes in to pray at Nino's tomb, asking for forgiveness and protection for her son: (Solo: Al mio pregar t'arrendi: il figlio tuo difendi / "Yield to my prayer: protect your son"). In the confusion of the darkness, all three – Arsace, Semiramide, and Assur – express some bewilderment as to the loss of their courage at this crucial moment: (Trio: L'usato ardir / "My former valour"). But in the darkness and seeking to strike Assur, Arsace strikes Semiramide as she steps between them to forestall her erstwhile accomplice. Surprised to learn Arsace's real identity, Assur is arrested, Semiramide dies, and to general acclaim by the people, Arsace reluctantly accepts that he shall be King.
Recordings
References
Notes
Sources
Further reading
Celletti, Rodolfo (1983), A History of Bel Canto (pub. as Storia del belcanto), Discanto (1983) and Oxford University Press, 1996, in translation.
Gossett, Philip (2003), "Piracy in Venice: The Selling of Semiramide", online at uchicago.edu. Originally published in David Rosen; Claire Brook (Eds.) (2003), Words on Music: Essays in Honor of Andrew Porter on the Occasion of His 75th Birthday. Hillsdale, New York, Pendragon Press.
Narici, Ilaria, Semiramide, in Gelli, Piero & Poletti, Filippo (Eds.) (2007), Dizionario dell'Opera 2008. Milan: Baldini Castoldi Dalai, pp. 1204-1207.
Osborne, Richard (1998), "Semiramide", in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Four. London: Macmillan Publishers, Inc. 1998
Toye, Francis (1947), Rossini: The Man and His Music'', Dover Publications, 1987.
External links
Operas by Gioachino Rossini
Italian-language operas
Opera seria
1823 operas
Operas
Opera world premieres at La Fenice
Operas based on plays
Operas set in Asia
Operas based on works by Voltaire
Libretti by Gaetano Rossi |
356926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Galindo | Juan Galindo | Juan Galindo (1802 – 30 January 1840) was an Anglo-Irish political activist and military and administrative officer under the Liberal government of the Federal Republic of Central America. He represented the government in a diplomatic mission to the United States and England. His duties in Central America allowed him to explore the region and examine Maya ruins. The reports on his findings earned him recognition as an early pioneer of Maya archaeology.
Early Years
Galindo was born in Dublin in 1802 as John Galindo. His father, Philemon Galindo was an Englishman of Spanish descent and his mother, Catherine Gough, was Irish. Both parents were actors who met while working at a theater in Bath. They married in Dublin in 1801. His early life is obscure and it is not known why or exactly when he left for the New World. Sources differ on his emigration but sometime before he was twenty he either joined Admiral Thomas Cochrane to fight for Chile's independence or he joined his uncle, a plantation owner in Jamaica.
The first clear record of his early career occurred in 1827 when he worked as secretary and translator for the British consul in Guatemala. By 1828 he was the superintendent for improvements at the port of Iztapa as well as a major in a Honduras battalion.
Federal Republic of Central America
In 1829 the Liberal forces led by Francisco Morazán invaded Guatemala. Galindo joined the Liberals and Morazán's army quickly brought the revolution to a successful end. Morazán established the Federal Republic of Central America and Galindo enjoyed the patronage of Morazán and Mariano Gálvez, the chief of state in Guatemala. The new federal congress granted Galindo naturalization papers and he changed his name to Juan.
Galindo undertook several military assignments for the new government, including officer of a military garrison at Omoa, commander of the port at Trujillo, and military governor of Petén. In 1834, he received a million-acre land grant in Petén with the stipulations that he pacify the native Lacandon Maya and settle the area in five years with colonists who would be loyal to the Guatemalan government. He soon realized that the boundary between Guatemala and British Honduras was in dispute and the British claimed that Galindo's new land grant belonged to British Honduras. British mahogany cutters were actively logging the area, depriving Galindo of the land's most valuable asset. When discussions with Frederick Chatfield in British Honduras failed to resolve the issue, Central America appointed Galindo as envoy to negotiate directly with the British Foreign Office in London.
Galindo left Central America in January, 1835, stopping first in Washington, DC in hopes of enlisting the United States to support his cause against Britain. In return, Galindo offered to provide information regarding possible canal routes through Nicaragua. He met with Secretary of State John Forsyth and President Andrew Jackson in May, 1835 but failed to gain their support. Galindo proceeded to London and arrived there in August. He had a meeting with Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston soon after his arrival but then talks proceeded in a desultory fashion. By April 1836 Palmerston had determined not to work with Galindo and offered the expedient excuse that since Galindo was born a British subject, he could not represent a foreign government.
Without a clear title to his land grant in Petén, Galindo was unable to attract settlers. Instead, he petitioned Central America for another opportunity and was provided a grant on the Mosquito Coast. While still in London, Galindo recruited his father and other relatives to lead a group of colonists to settle on this remote coast. This enterprise ended in failure; the settlers were ill-equipped, lacked sufficient supplies, and found no way to earn a living once they arrived. By the time Galindo returned to Central America in 1836, the settlement had collapsed and his father had returned to England. He also found that his influence with the Central America government was greatly diminished.
The Liberal regime that had governed Central America was under pressure on several fronts. Galindo attempted to rally support against perceived British aggression but this effort failed to gain popular attention. When civil war broke out, he rejoined the army under Liberal general, Trinidad Cabañas. Cabañas was defeated by the joint forces of Honduras and Nicaragua near the city of Tegucigalpa and Galindo was killed on January 30, 1840 in the aftermath of the battle.
Maya archaeology
As military governor of Petén, Galindo undertook an exploratory trip down the Usumacinta River and then crossed overland to reach the Maya ruins at Palenque in April 1831. He spent a month exploring the site and wrote an account of the various structures, drew plans, and sketched several of the decorations he encountered. Later that year his account was published by the London Literary Gazette and the Geographical Society in Paris. He also sent a small collection of Maya objects to the Royal Society in London.
In 1834, Galindo was sent by the Central American government to survey and report on the ruins at Copán. He spent about ten weeks exploring the area, writing reports and sketching his findings. He wrote two brief reports for the London Literary Gazette and the American Antiquarian Society. A more detailed report with twenty-six illustrations was sent to the Société de Géographie in Paris and the original was sent to his government with the mistaken assumption that it would be published. Instead, it was filed away and "lost" for more than a hundred years when it was uncovered and published in 1945.
Although it was just a small part of his career, Galindo proved to be an astute observer and an effective communicator who earned recognition as an early pioneer of Maya archaeology. He wrote some thirty-two letters to the Société de Géographie sharing his ideas and insights. Galindo was one of the first to point out the close resemblance between the contemporary Maya peoples and the carved images of the ancient Maya to be found among the ruins. He correctly suggested that the original Maya civilization was created by the ancestors of the contemporary Mayas. He was also the first investigator to carefully copy the Maya hieroglyphics and identify them as a unique form of writing.
See also
History of Central America
Notes
References
Further reading
Griffith, William J. "Galindo, Juan (1802–1840)." Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, edited by Jay Kinsbruner and Erick D. Langer, 2nd ed., vol. 3, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008, pp. 353–354.
External links
Juan Galindo at www.englishgalindos.co.uk
1802 births
1839 deaths
19th-century explorers
19th-century Mesoamericanists
Explorers of Central America
Guatemalan archaeologists
Guatemalan Mesoamericanists
Guatemalan people of Irish descent
Irish people of Spanish descent
Mayanists
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Mesoamerican archaeologists |
356928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s%20Make%20a%20Deal | Let's Make a Deal | Let's Make a Deal (also known as LMAD) is an American television musical comedy variety-game show that originated in the United States in 1963 and has since been produced in many countries throughout the world. The program was created and produced by Stefan Hatos and Monty Hall, the latter serving as its host for nearly 30 years.
The format of Let's Make a Deal involves selected members of the studio audience, referred to as "traders", making deals with the host. In most cases, a trader will be offered something of value and given a choice of whether to keep it or exchange it for a different item. The program's defining game mechanism is that the other item is hidden from the trader until that choice is made. The trader thus does not know if they are getting something of equal or greater value or a prize that is referred to as a "zonk," an item purposely chosen to be of little or no value to the trader.
Let's Make a Deal is also known for audience members who dress in outrageous costumes in order to increase their chances of being selected as a trader.
The current edition of Let's Make a Deal has aired on CBS since October 5, 2009, when it took over the spot on the network's daytime schedule vacated by the long-running soap opera Guiding Light. Wayne Brady is the host of the current series, with Jonathan Mangum as his announcer/assistant. Tiffany Coyne is the current model, joining in 2010, with musician Cat Gray in 2011.
Starting in fall 2020, Let's Make a Deal began filming with a hybrid of audience members in-studio seated in pods as well as virtual contestants playing from their homes due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. According to executive producer John Quinn, all COVID-19 protocols are in effect during production including social distancing, testing, masks (only for crewmembers and while off set), and personal protective equipment.
The 13th season of the current version premiered on September 13, 2021. Three primetime episodes will be filmed during the season.
The show is owned by a joint venture of Camping World Holdings (Marcus Lemonis) and Glass Entertainment following an August 2021 acquisition of Hatos-Hall assets, with Sharon Hall, a former Endemol Shine executive, as the consultant. From January 2022, CAN'T STOP media will be in charge of the format's international distribution.
Broadcast history
Let's Make a Deal first aired on NBC in 1963 as part of its daytime schedule. The show moved to ABC in 1968, where it remained until 1976; and on two occasions the show was given a weekly nighttime spot on those networks. The first syndicated edition of Let's Make a Deal premiered in 1971. Distributed by ABC Films, and then by its successor Worldvision Enterprises once the fin-syn rules were enacted, the series ran until 1977 and aired weekly.
A revival of the series based in Hall's native Canada was launched in 1980 and aired in syndication on American and Canadian stations for one season. This series was produced by Catalena Productions and distributed in America by Rhodes Productions, Catalena's partner company; Catalena was forced into bankruptcy by an unpaid Monty Hall in August 1981. In the fall of 1984, the series returned for a third run in syndication as The All-New Let's Make a Deal. Running for two seasons until 1986, this series was distributed by Telepictures.
NBC revived Let's Make a Deal twice in a 13-year span. The first was a daytime series in 1990 that was the first to not be produced or hosted by Monty Hall. Instead, the show was a production of Ron Greenberg and Dick Clark, and featured Bob Hilton (best known for announcing other game shows) as host (although Hall would eventually return as guest host after Hilton's dismissal).
A primetime edition was launched in 2003 but drew poor ratings and was cancelled after three of its intended five episodes had aired. This version had reporter Billy Bush as host, and had a significantly larger budget.
A partial remake called Big Deal, hosted by Mark DeCarlo, was broadcast on Fox in 1996. In 1998 and 1999, Buena Vista Television (now Disney–ABC Domestic Television) was in talks with Stone-Stanley (the producers of Big Deal) to create a revival hosted by Gordon Elliott, but it was never picked up. The show was one of several used as part of the summer series Gameshow Marathon on CBS in 2006, hosted by Ricki Lake.
As noted above, CBS revived Let's Make a Deal in 2009. The revival premiered on October 5, 2009, and CBS airs the show daily at 10:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. Eastern Time (9:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. in other time zones). Like the program that it replaced, the long-running soap opera Guiding Light, affiliates can choose to air it in either time slot; most affiliates, however, prefer the early slot in order to pair the two CBS daytime game shows together. Markets running the show in the later slot include Bakersfield, Baton Rouge, Chattanooga, Chicago, Dayton, Des Moines, Gainesville (FL), Houston, Jefferson City (MO), Kansas City, Las Vegas, Lexington (KY), Macon, Minneapolis, Nashville, New Orleans, Orlando, St. Louis, Memphis, and Wichita.
From September 27, 2010 to October 1, 2010, Let's Make a Deal and The Price Is Right aired two episodes a day on an alternating week. CBS did this to fill a gap between the final episode of As the World Turns, which ended a fifty-four-year run on September 17, 2010, and the debut of The Talk. The double-run games aired at 2:00 p.m. Eastern.
Although the current version of the show debuted in September 2009, long after The Price Is Right (which made the switch in 2008, first with primetime episodes in February, then daytime in September) and the two Bell created daytime soap operas had made the switch to high definition, Let's Make a Deal was, along with Big Brother, one of only two programs across the five major networks that was still being actively produced in standard definition. For the start of production for its 2014–15 season in June 2014, Let's Make a Deal began being produced in high definition, with Big Brother 16 making the switch later in June. Let's Make a Deal was the last remaining CBS program to make the switch by air date, with the first HD episode airing on September 22, 2014.
In 2020, Let's Make a Deal Primetime on CBS was announced, making the show one of the first to appear in primetime on the three legacy networks as a regular primetime series. Three primetime episodes were announced, with the first airing October 27 as part of CBS launching both of their daytime game shows' pandemic-delayed seasons in primetime, the second on December 1 featuring guest star Phil Keoghan, and the third, a Holiday-themed episode with families on December 22. Three more primetime episodes will air during the 2021-22 season.
Past personnel
Monty Hall was the host of nearly every episode of Let’s Make a Deal that aired from 1963 until 1986, and he or later his family has been involved on all versions of the show in one form or another. This encompassed the entire original daytime series, which ran until 1976, as well as the accompanying primetime episodes that aired on both NBC and ABC and the three syndicated productions that launched in 1971, 1980, and 1984. He was absent only twice during that span due to illness; in 1971 Dennis James was called on to substitute while in 1985 Geoff Edwards hosted a week of episodes while Hall recovered from a bout of laryngitis.
Bob Hilton became the new host for the NBC 1990 series; however, due to low ratings, Hilton was fired from the show and in October 1990, Hall returned to the show (but was announced as "guest host") and remained as host until the series was canceled in January 1991. Billy Bush emceed the 2003 series, with Hall making a cameo appearance in one episode.
Each Let's Make a Deal announcer also served as a de facto assistant host, as many times the announcer would be called upon to carry props across the trading floor. The original announcer for the series was Wendell Niles, who was replaced by Jay Stewart in 1964. Stewart remained with Let's Make a Deal until the end of the syndicated series in 1977. The 1980 Canadian-produced syndicated series was announced by Chuck Chandler. The 1984 syndicated series had Brian Cummings in the announcer/assistant role for its first season, with disc jockey Dean Goss taking the position for the following season. The 1990 NBC revival series was announced by Dean Miuccio, with the 2003 edition featuring Vance DeGeneres in that role.
The longest tenured prize model on Let's Make a Deal was Carol Merrill, who stayed with the series from its debut until 1977. The models on the 1980s series were Maggie Brown, Julie Hall (1980), Karen LaPierre, and Melanie Vincz (1984). For the 1990 series, the show featured Georgia Satelle and identical twins Elaine and Diane Klimaszewski, who later gained fame as the Klimaszewski Twins.
Hall (2010 and 2013) and Merrill (2013) both appeared on the current Brady version, each making one-week appearances. The 2013 celebration of the franchise's 50th anniversary was Hall's last official appearance on the show prior to his death, but Hall also appeared in 2017 CBS publicity shots with Brady as part of a CBS Daytime publicity photo celebrating the network's daytime ratings. Hall served as a consultant on the show from 2009 until his death, although episodes which he worked continued to air into 2018 because of taping days (Hall's death resulted in a later-season episode to be repurposed and aired earlier as a memorial episode). After the acquisition of Hatos-Hall by Camping World Holdings and Glass Entertainment, his daughter Sharon became a consultant to the show.
When the current version debuted in 2009 at Las Vegas, Alison Fiori was the show's original model, lasting for much of the first season in Las Vegas before the show moved to Los Angeles. During the 2013–14 season, Danielle Demski was the show's model for most of the season while Tiffany Coyne was on parental leave, and remains as Coyne's backup when necessary, most recently during the 2019–20 season.
Production locations
The original daytime series was recorded at NBC Studios in Burbank, California, and then at ABC Television Center in Los Angeles once the program switched networks in 1968. The weekly syndicated series also taped at ABC Television Center, doing so for its first five seasons. After ABC cancelled the daytime series in 1976, production of the syndicated series ceased there as well and the sixth and final season was recorded in the ballroom of the Westgate Las Vegas hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada.
The 1980 Canadian series was taped at Panorama Film Studios in West Vancouver, British Columbia, which production company Catalena Productions used as its base of operations. The All-New Let's Make a Deal taped its first season of episodes in Burbank at NBC Studios, then moved to Sunset Las Palmas Studios in Hollywood, California, for the second and final season. The 1990 NBC daytime series was recorded at Disney-MGM Studios on the grounds of Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida. The 2003 revival returned production to Burbank.
The current edition of the series first originated from the Tropicana in Las Vegas. The show returned to Hollywood in 2010, first at Sunset Bronson Studios and later at Raleigh Studios. The show currently tapes at Saticoy Studios in Van Nuys, California.
Music
The theme music for the 1963-77 versions was composed by Sheldon Allman. The theme, along with all incidental music, was performed by an in-studio combo led by Ivan Ditmars, consisting of an electric organ, guitar, drums, and on the nighttime version, a harp. In some seasons of the nighttime show, the combo was further augmented by a horn section. The final season of the nighttime show taped in Las Vegas eliminated the in-studio band in favor of pre-recorded tracks, due to Ivan Ditmars' retirement.
The 1980-81 theme, composed by Stan Worth, was an updated version of the original theme, with more of a disco sound.
The 1984-86 version featured a brand new theme provided by Score Productions, although original composer Sheldon Allman returned as music director for the first season. Todd Thicke replaced Allman in that role for the second season. Both music directors utilized music from previous Hatos-Hall shows, such as Split Second, as incidental cues during the show.
The 2009 revival features another new theme composed by Brian Teed. Since 2011, keyboardist Cat Grey has provided in-studio musical accompaniment.
Format
Game play
Each episode of Let's Make a Deal consists of several "deals" between the host and one or more members of the studio audience, referred to as "traders." Audience members are picked at the host's whim as the show moves along, and married couples are often selected to play together as traders. The deals are mini-games within the show that take several formats.
In the simplest format, a trader is given a prize or cash amount of medium value (on the order of a few hundred dollars), and the host offers them the opportunity to trade for an unknown prize. This latter item may be concealed on the stage behind one of three curtains, within a large "box" onstage (large panels painted to look like a box), inside a smaller box carried on a tray, or occasionally in other formats. On occasion, the initial prize may itself be hidden behind a curtain, or in a box or some other container.
Technically, traders are supposed to bring something to trade in, but this rule has seldom been enforced. On several occasions, a trader is actually asked to trade in an item such as their shoes or purse, only to receive the item back at the end of the deal as a "prize". On at least one occasion, the purse was taken backstage and a high-valued prize such as the ignition key to a new car was placed inside of it.
Prizes generally consist of either cash or merchandise with genuine value, such as a trip, electronics, furniture, appliances, or a car. At times, a small prize (typewriter, pocket tape recorder, etc.) may contain a cash bonus or a written/recorded message awarding cash or a larger prize to a trader who has chosen it. Traders who choose boxes or curtains are at risk of receiving booby prizes called "zonks," which can be outlandish items (live animals, junked cars, giant articles of clothing, etc.) or legitimate prizes with very little value (wheelbarrows, giant teddy bears, piles of food, etc.). On rare occasions, a trader receives a zonk that proves to be a cover-up for a valuable prize, such as a fur coat hidden inside a garbage can.
Though usually considered joke prizes, traders legally win the zonks. However, after the taping of the show, any trader who had been zonked is offered a consolation prize (currently $100) instead of having to take home the actual zonk. This is partly because some of the zonks are impractical or physically impossible to receive or deliver to the traders (such as live animals or a stagehand wearing an animal costume), or the props are owned by the studio. A disclaimer at the end of the credits of later 1970s episodes read "Some traders accept reasonable duplicates of zonk prizes." Starting in the 2012–13 season, CBS invited viewers to provide zonk ideas to producers. At the end of the season, the zonk declared the most creative was worth $2,500 to the winner, and other viewers' zonk ideas were also used. For every viewer-developed zonk, the host announced the viewer who provided the zonk. The contest has been continued throughout the past several seasons after its 2012 introduction.
Quickie Deals
As the end credits of the show roll, it is typical for the host to ask random members of the studio audience to participate in fast deals. In the current Wayne Brady version, these are often referred to as "quickie deals", and are conducted by the host, announcer, and model each. CBS will post information on the show's Twitter address (@LetsMakeADeal) days before taping to encourage audience members to carry certain items in their pockets in order to win an additional $100-$500 when the host, announcer, or model approaches them at the end of the show and asks to see such items. The deals are usually in the form of the following:
Offering cash to a person for possessing a certain item.
Paying a small cash amount for each instance of a certain item (coins, paperclips, etc.) that a person can produce.
Offering cash for each instance of a particular digit in the serial number on a dollar bill, driver's license, etc.
Offering to pay the last check in the person's checkbook, if they had one, up to a certain limit (usually $500 or $1,000).
Offering cash to one person if they can correctly state the exact value of the Big Deal of the Day, or the name of the contestant who played for it.
Offering cash to one person if they can correctly choose which one of two photos appeared on the show's Instagram account.
Offering cash to one person if they can correctly answer a question relating to their costume.
Offering cash to one person if they can correctly guess how much money ($100, $200, or $300) was in the announcer's hand.
Other deal formats
Deals are often more complicated than the basic format described above. Additionally, some deals take the form of games of chance, and others are played as pricing games.
Trading deals
Types of trading deals employed on the show include:
Choosing one of several envelopes/wallets/purses that contain various amounts of money. One of them conceals a pre-announced value (usually $1 or $5), which awards a car or trip. The other envelopes contain a larger amount of money as a consolation prize. The trader must decide whether to keep their choice or trade. In some playings it is possible for more than one trader to win the grand prize.
Making decisions for another person, such as a spouse or a series of unrelated traders, or every member of a team receiving the same item based on majority vote. Sometimes after several offers, a team is broken up and each individual trader can make one final deal on his/her own.
Two or more traders guessing the weight of a studio audience member chosen by the host, with cash awarded to the trader whose guess is closer.
Being told the weight or number of items in a prize behind a box or curtain, and then choosing to keep it or sell it back to the host for a certain price per pound/item.
Being offered a quantity of some foreign currency, and then choosing to receive its equivalent in United States dollars or trade it for a box/curtain.
Being presented with an item having an unknown cash value, such as a claim check or gift certificate, and deciding whether to keep or trade it. Variations have included a cash box, to which the host adds packets of money at intervals; a shopping bag, to which he adds grocery items containing money; or a package of some grocery item such as candy or gum that may or may not contain money. Over the course of the episode, the trader holding the item is given several opportunities to exchange it for a box, curtain, or chance to win a large prize; in each case, the option he/she declines is given to another trader. Typically, but not always, the last trader holding the item is given the first chance to return it and play for the Big Deal. The total cash value of the item (if any) is revealed only after the trader has made his/her decision or, on occasion, during the closing credits.
Games of chance
A wide variety of chance-based games have been used on the show. Examples:
Collecting a certain amount of money hidden inside wallets, envelopes, etc., or by pressing unlabeled buttons on a cash register, in order to reach a pre-stated "selling price" for a larger prize, such as a car, trip or larger amount of cash. Typically, there may also be one or more zonk items hidden which end the game immediately and forfeit all winnings if found. The trader may choose to stop at any time and keep all the money found. The cash register game used 15 buttons, two of which would ring up "No Sale" as the zonk. If a trader found one of these, he/she was offered a chance to press one more button and receive the amount rung up (sometimes doubled by the host), or win either a larger amount or the grand prize for finding the other "No Sale." In the current CBS version, the game is played using a board with 13 cash amounts and two zonks.
Choosing one of several items in the hope that it will lead to cash or a prize (e.g., a key that unlocks a safe, or an egg that is raw instead of hard-boiled). Before the host tests the chosen item to see if it is a winner, the trader is offered a chance to exchange it for a box/curtain. This game is often played with multiple traders, and more than one of the offered items may win the prize.
Games involving a deck of cards in which a trader must find matching cards, draw cards that reach a cumulative total within a certain number of draws, draw a certain number of cards from a certain suit to win a designated prize (with one suit always designated as going toward a "zonk," which ends the game with nothing won), etc. to win a prize or additional money.
Receiving clues about an unknown prize (such as a partial spelling of the prize or clues in the form or rap, rhyme, etc.) and deciding whether to take the unknown prize or a cash prize.
Choosing face-down number cards from a board in the hope of winning prizes by out-scoring a rival trader or the host.
Receiving money in the form of a long strip of bills dispensed one at a time from a machine. The trader can end the game at any time and keep the accumulated money, but he/she forfeits it if a blank sheet or a card marked "curtains" appears. Updated versions of the game involve an ATM; the trader inserts a card and begins to withdraw cash, but an "overdrawn" message on the screen at any time ends the game and forfeits the money.
Choosing between a known cash prize and a chance to spin a carnival wheel, which can award a car, larger/smaller cash amounts, or a zonk.
Rolling dice to receive cash based upon the roll or achieving a cumulative score within a certain number of rolls to win a larger prize.
Depending on the game, the trader is given the opportunity to stop playing at various points, keeping any cash/prizes already won or accepting an offer of a guaranteed prize, or continue to play and risk losing everything.
Pricing games
Other deals related to pricing merchandise are featured in order to win a larger prize or cash amount. Sometimes traders are required to price individual items (either grocery products or smaller prizes generally valued less than $100) within a certain range to win successively larger prizes or a car. Other times traders must choose an item that a pre-announced price, order grocery items or small prizes from least to most expensive, or two items with prices that total a certain amount to win a larger prize. These games are not used on the CBS version because of their similarities to The Price is Right.
Quiz games
On the CBS version, due to the similarities of the pricing game concept with The Price Is Right, quiz games are used instead. These deals involve products in the form of when they were introduced to the market, general knowledge quizzes, currency exchange rates (at the time of taping), or knowledge of geography of trips to certain locales used as prizes.
Big Deal
The Big Deal serves as the final segment of the show and offers a chance at a significantly larger prize for a lucky trader. Before the round, the value of the day's Big Deal is announced to the audience.
The process for choosing traders (two up to 2003, one since 2009) has remained the same. Starting with the highest winner, the host asks traders if they wanted to trade in everything they had won to that point for a chance to choose one of three numbered doors on the stage. The process continued until a trader agreed to play; up to 2003, the procedure continued until a second trader was chosen. In two-player games until 2003, the trader who was the bigger winner earned first choice of the doors, and the other trader then chose from the remaining two.
Each of the doors conceals either a prize package of some sort, or a cash award hidden inside a prop such as a bank vault, piggy bank, or blank check. On occasion, a door containing an all-cash prize is opened before the traders make their choices, but the amount of the prize is not revealed. Most often, the value of the "Low" Door (the lowest-valued door) is less than the value of the player's original winnings, while the "Medium" Door's value is at least $1,000 more than the player's traded winnings.
When the Big Deal is not behind the selected door, one of the non-Big Deal doors is opened first, then the chosen door, with the Big Deal revealed last, although second on rare occasions. If that occurs, the contestant is told they’ll still get something great. If the Big Deal door is selected, the other two doors are usually revealed first, although on rare occasions, the Big Deal door has been revealed second, after one of the other two doors (usually the "Medium" door) is revealed.
The Big Deal prize is usually the most extravagant on each episode, and is often a car, a vacation with first-class accommodations, or a collection of high-value furniture/appliances. On occasion, the Big Deal consists of one of the all-cash prizes mentioned above; at other times, a cash bonus is added to the prizes in the Big Deal to bring the total up to the announced value. On other occasions, the prize consists of "Everything in the Big Deal," which awards the cash/merchandise behind all three doors to the trader who chooses it.
Traders who have won zonks become eligible for the Big Deal only if not enough winners of actual cash/prizes volunteer to play. The Big Deal is the only time during the show in which participants are guaranteed to receive a genuine prize. (There was a deliberately placed Zonk in a door during the pilot episode, which was not chosen, but it has never been allowed in a legal episode for broadcast.)
Super Deal
During the 1975–76 syndicated season, winners of the Big Deal were offered a chance to win the "Super Deal". At this point, Big Deals were limited to a range of $8,000 to $10,000. The trader could risk their Big Deal winnings on a shot at adding a $20,000 cash prize, which was hidden behind only one of three mini-doors onstage. The other two doors contained cash amounts of $1,000 or $2,000; however, the $1,000 value was later replaced with a "mystery" amount between $1,000 and $9,000. A trader who decided to play risked their Big Deal winnings and selected one of the mini-doors. If the $20,000 prize was behind the door, the trader kept the Big Deal and added the $20,000 prize, for a potential maximum total of $30,000. However, if a trader selected one of the other two doors, he or she forfeited the Big Deal prizes but kept the cash amount behind the door. The Super Deal was discontinued when the show permanently moved to Las Vegas for the final season (1976–77), and Big Deal values returned to the previous range of $10,000 to $15,000.
From 2012 to 2016 of the Brady version, the Super Deal was offered as a limited event (usually for a week of shows promoted as "Super Deal Week") and was not played regularly. The show designated one or two weeks of episodes, typically airing during a special event (e.g., the 500th episode, 50th anniversary of franchise, etc.). In this version, the top cash prize was $50,000 while the other two cash prizes were $1,000 and $2,000. In addition, instead of using mini-doors, the cash amounts were hidden in three large colored envelopes of red, green, and blue, respectively referred by Brady as ruby, emerald, and sapphire.
Trip-Tastic
In the 2019 premiere week, a variant called “Trip-Tastic” was played. At three random points in the game, Tiffany will show the dealer a golden ticket. This ticket allows them to play Trip-Tastic. The round is played as follows: the three envelopes, ruby, emerald, and sapphire, are now attached to a map of the Earth. The first ticket holder makes a choice. Then, the second chooses between the remaining 2, leaving one envelope for the last ticket holder. After that, Wayne will reveal the envelope holding $500. Then he opens another envelope. The one that has the ticket, wins not one, not two but three trips. The others leave with $500 and $1,000, respectively.
Mega-Deal week
For season premiere weeks in 2015 and 2016 of the Brady version, Big Deal of the Day winners had an opportunity to win every non-zonk, non-cash prize from that day's episode as a "Mega-Deal". Prior to the start of the Big Deal, the contestant picked both a Big Deal curtain and one of seven Mega Deal cards (reduced by one for each day that the Mega Deal was not won that week). Unlike the Super Deal, the contestant does not risk their winnings in the Mega Deal. Only if the contestant won the Big Deal would the contestant's card be revealed. If the card was the Mega Deal, they won every non-zonk, non-cash prize on the show that day. Regardless, at the end of the Big Deal, whichever door was chosen was the contestant's to keep.
Mash-Up Week
The week of May 9, 2016 was designated Mash-Up Week. During each of the five broadcast days, Deal and The Price Is Right each featured one game from the other's lineup. The games were slightly modified to reflect the nature of the shows on which they were played; those on TPIR required contestants to price items, while those on Deal used random draws and the offer of cash/prize deals to stop a game early. Mash-Up Week returned to both shows the week of March 23, 2020.
Reception
Upon the original Let's Make a Deals debut, journalist Charles Witbeck was skeptical of the show's chances of success, noting that the previous four NBC programs to compete with CBS's Password had failed. Some critics described the show as "mindless" and "demeaning to traders and audiences alike".
By 1974, however, the show had spent more than a decade at or near the top of daytime ratings, and became the highest-rated syndicated primetime program. It was so popular that, when Hall moved the Let's Make a Deal to ABC because of a contract dispute, doing so greatly damaged NBC's daytime ratings and greatly improved ABC's. The show held the world's record for the longest waiting list for tickets in show-business history; there were 350 seats available for each show, and a wait time of two to three years after requesting a ticket.
In 2001, Let's Make a Deal was ranked as #18 on TV Guides list of "The 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time". In 2006, GSN aired a series of specials counting down its own list of the "50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time", on which Let's Make a Deal was #7.
In 2014, the American series won a Daytime Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Song for "30,000 Reasons to Love Me", composed by Cat Gray and sung by Wayne Brady.
Episode status
ABC Daytime: A clip from the ABC daytime premiere was used on the Biography episode profiling Hall, which aired during the series' "Game Show Week" in December 1999. Another episode from 1969 was found, which features a gaffe that Hall himself rated as his most embarrassing moment on Let's Make a Deal – at the end of the show, he attempted to make a deal with a woman carrying a baby's bottle. Noting that it had a removable rubber nipple, he offered the woman $100 if she could show him another nipple (she did not do so). Episodes substitute-hosted by Dennis James exist in his personal library; a portion of one such episode is widely circulated as part of a pitch film for James's version of The Price Is Right.
ABC Nighttime/1971–77 Syndicated: Episodes have been seen on GSN in the past. The CBN Cable Network reran the syndicated series in the 1980s and its successor, The Family Channel, from June 7, 1993 to March 29, 1996. Buzzr also aired the series in 2015 and 2016.
The 1980-81 version continued to air in reruns on Canada's Global Television Network through the late 1980s.
The 1984–86 syndicated version has been seen on GSN in the past. Reruns previously aired on the USA Network from December 29, 1986 to December 30, 1988 and The Family Channel from August 30, 1993 to March 29, 1996. Buzzr began airing episodes from 1985 on June 1, 2016; this version returned to Buzzr's schedule on September 30, 2019, then aired until March 20, 2021. GameTV in Canada aired 40 episodes of this version starting in July 2018, as part of their Game Show Retro block, until it was dropped in October 2018.
The 1990s NBC version has not been seen since its cancellation.
The 2003 NBC prime time version only aired three of the five episodes produced, with no rebroadcasts since.
International versions
RTL Group holds international (and as of February 2009, American) rights to the show, and has licensed the show to 22 countries.
Notes
Merchandise
In 1964, Milton Bradley released a home version of Let's Make a Deal featuring gameplay somewhat different from the television show. In 1974, Ideal Toys released an updated version of the game featuring Hall on the box cover, which was also given to all traders on the syndicated version in the 1974–75 season. An electronic tabletop version by Tiger Electronics was released in 1998. In the late summer of 2006, an interactive DVD version of Let's Make a Deal was released by Imagination Games, which also features classic clips from the Monty Hall years of the show. In 2010, Pressman Toy Corporation released an updated version of the box game, with gameplay more similar to the 1974 version, featuring Brady on the box cover.
Various U.S. lotteries have included instant lottery tickets based on Let's Make a Deal.
In 1999, the website BuyBidWin.com licensed the rights to Let's Make a Deal as it launched a website featuring Monty Hall.
In 1999, Shuffle Master teamed up with Bally's to do a video slot machine game based on the show with the voice and likeness of Monty Hall.
In 2004, IGT (International Gaming Technology) did a new video slot game based on the show still featuring Monty Hall.
In 2004, the now defunct website GameShow24.com was going to release a beta game based on Let's Make a Deal.
In 2012, a Facebook game based on the Wayne Brady version was released by RealNetwork's GameHouse.
In 2013, Aristocrat Technology did an all-new video slot machine game based on the Wayne Brady version.
The Monty Hall Problem
The Monty Hall Problem, also called the Monty Hall paradox, is a veridical paradox because the result appears impossible but is demonstrably true. The Monty Hall problem, in its usual interpretation, is mathematically equivalent to the earlier Three Prisoners problem, and both bear some similarity to the much older Bertrand's box paradox. The problem examines the counterintuitive effect of switching one's choice of doors, one of which hides a "prize".
The problem has been analyzed many times, in books, articles and online. In an interview with The New York Times reporter John Tierney in 1991, Hall gave an explanation of the solution to that problem, stating that he played on the psychology of the trader, and why the solution did not apply to the case of the actual show.
References
External links
Official website
CBS's website for the show
CBC Television Archives profile of Monty Hall with behind-the-scenes footage of Let's Make a Deal (1970)
"Geh Aufs Ganze!" the 1992–2003 (German version) of "Let's Make A Deal" courtesy of Grundy Light Entertainment
description of "Geh Aufs Ganze!" (Original website)
Official site of Super Deal 2 Milyar (2010) via internet archive
Article about the 2004 Spain version
Monty Hall interview on TVParty.com
Let's Make a Deal
1980s Canadian game shows
CBS original programming
NBC original programming
American Broadcasting Company original programming
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
1963 American television series debuts
1977 American television series endings
1980 American television series debuts
1981 American television series endings
1984 American television series debuts
1986 American television series endings
1990 American television series debuts
1991 American television series endings
2003 American television series debuts
2003 American television series endings
2009 American television series debuts
1960s American game shows
1970s American game shows
1980s American game shows
1990s American game shows
2000s American game shows
2010s American game shows
2020s American game shows
American game shows
Television productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic
Television series by Stefan Hatos-Monty Hall Productions
Television series by CBS Studios
Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television series by Dick Clark Productions
Television shows filmed in Los Angeles
American television series revived after cancellation
English-language television shows
Television series by Telepictures
1960s Australian game shows
1970s Australian game shows
1990s Australian game shows |
356929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1920%20in%20science | 1920 in science | The year 1920 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.
Astronomy and space science
January 13 – The New York Times ridicules rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard, stating that spaceflight is impossible. In 1969, with Apollo 11 on its way to the Moon, the newspaper will publicly retract this position.
December 13 – The red giant star Betelgeuse is the first to have its diameter determined by an optical astronomical interferometer, the Michelson stellar interferometer on Mount Wilson Observatory's reflector telescope.
Biology
Andrew Douglass proposes dendrochronology dating.
Approximate date – The HIV pandemic almost certainly originates in Léopoldville, modern-day Kinshasa, the capital of the Belgian Congo.
History of science and technology
Newcomen Society founded in the United Kingdom for the study of the history of engineering and technology.
Medicine
Frederick Banting and Charles Best co-discover insulin.
Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt first describes some of the symptoms of what will become known as Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.
Hydrocodone, a narcotic analgesic closely related to codeine, is first synthesized in Germany by Carl Mannich and Helene Löwenheim.
Black Cross Nurses founded in the United States.
Meteorology
Milutin Milanković proposes that long term climatic cycles may be due to changes in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and changes in the Earth's obliquity ("Milankovitch cycles").
Physics
Megh Nad Saha states his ionization equation.
Albert Einstein delivers his Leiden Lecture.
Ernest Rutherford predicts the existence of the neutron.
James Jeans discovers that the dynamical constants of motion determine the distribution function for a system of particles.
Publication of Alan A. Griffith's analysis of the process of brittle fracture.
Psychology
John B. Watson conducts the Little Albert experiment in classical conditioning.
Technology
July 25 – The first transatlantic two-way radio broadcast is made.
September 29 – First domestic radio sets come to stores in the United States – a Westinghouse radio costs $10.
October – Young Russian physicist Lev Sergeyevich Termen first develops the electronic musical instrument which will become the Theremin.
Events
April 26 – Emil Racoviță establishes the world's first institute for the academic study of speleology at the Upper Dacia University in Cluj (Romania).
Publication in Prague of Karel Čapek's drama R.U.R: Rossum's Universal Robots, introducing the word Robot to the world.
Births
January 20 – John Maynard Smith, British theoretical evolutionary biologist and geneticist (died 2004).
February 7 – An Wang, Chinese-born computer engineer (died 1990).
February 3 – Henry Heimlich, American thoracic surgeon (died 2016).
March 11 – Nicolaas Bloembergen, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 2017).
March 15 – E. Donnall Thomas, American physician, Nobel Prize laureate.
March 22 – Katsuko Saruhashi Japanese geochemist (died 2007).
March 23 – Barbara Low, English-born biochemist (died 2019).
April 6 – Edmond H. Fischer, Swiss American biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate.
April 9 – Alex Moulton, English mechanical engineer and inventor (died 2012).
May 12 – Tang Dingyuan, Chinese physicist (died 2019).
June 17 – François Jacob, French biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 2013).
July 10 – Owen Chamberlain, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 2006).
July 11 – David Challinor, American biologist, naturalist and scientific administrator at the Smithsonian Institution (died 2008).
July 25 – Rosalind Franklin, English crystallographer (died 1958).
July 30 – Marie Tharp, American geologist (died 2006).
August 15 – Eleonore Trefftz, German molecular and nuclear physicist (died 2017).
August 22 – Denton Cooley, American cardiac surgeon (died 2016).
September 29 – Peter D. Mitchell, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1992).
October 29 – Baruj Benacerraf, Venezuelan immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 2011).
November 13 – Abraham Lilienfeld, American epidemiologist (died 1984).
December 6 – George Porter, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 2002).
Deaths
January 3 – Zygmunt Janiszewski, Polish mathematician (born 1888).
January 6 – Hieronymus Georg Zeuthen, Danish mathematician (born 1839).
March 13 – Charles Lapworth, English geologist (born 1842).
March 26 – William Chester Minor, American surgeon (born 1834).
March 31 – Paul Bachmann, German mathematician (born 1837).
April 3 – Mary Katharine Brandegee, American botanist (born 1844).
April 8 – John Brashear, American astronomer (born 1840).
April 9 – Moritz Cantor, German historian of mathematics (born 1829).
April 26 – Srinivasa Ramanujan, Indian mathematician (born 1887).
June 20
Marie Adolphe Carnot, French chemist and mining engineer (born 1839).
John Grigg, New Zealand astronomer (born 1838).
August 10 – Ádám Politzer (born 1835), Hungarian otologist.
August 12 – Hermann Struve, Russian-born astronomer (born 1854).
August 16 – Norman Lockyer, English astronomer (born 1836).
August 31 – Wilhelm Wundt, German physiologist and psychologist (born 1832).
October 17 – Reginald Farrer, English botanist (born 1880).
November 4 – Ludwig Struve, Russian astronomer (born 1858).
December 3 – William de Wiveleslie Abney, English astronomer and photographer (born 1843).
References
20th century in science
1920s in science |
356930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone%20Lake | Yellowstone Lake | Yellowstone Lake is the largest body of water in Yellowstone National Park. The lake is above sea level and covers with of shoreline. While the average depth of the lake is , its greatest depth is at least . Yellowstone Lake is the largest freshwater lake above in North America.
In winter, ice nearly thick covers much of the lake except where shallow water covers hot springs. The lake freezes over by early December and can remain frozen until late May or early June.
History
The forest and valleys surrounding Yellowstone Lake had been populated with Native Americans since pre-historic times. Archeologists have found evidence of human presence in the park long before 1872. They found that Native Americans hunted bison and bighorn sheep, fished for Cutthroat Fish, and gathered bitterroot and camas bulbs for at least 11,000 years. Also 26 tribes claim cultural association with Yellowstone today. The first human of European descent to see the lake was trapper John Colter in the early 19th century. During the fur trading era of 1820–1840, the lake was probably visited by many trapping parties moving through the park region. In trapper Osborne Russell's diary, he describes a visit to the lake in 1836 as follows:
16th [August] -Mr. Bridger came up with the remainder of the party. 18th-The whole camp moved down the east shore of the lake through thick pines and fallen timber about eighteen miles and encamped in a small prairie. 19th-continued down the shore to the outlet about twenty miles, and encamped in a beautiful plain { Hayden Valley } which extended along the northern extremity of the lake. This valley was interspersed with scattering groves of tall pines, forming shady retreats for the numerous elk and deer during the heat of the day. The lake is about 100 miles in circumference, bordered on the east by high ranges of mountains whose spurs terminate at the shore and on the west by a low bed of piney mountains. Its greatest width is about fifteen miles, lying in an oblong from south to north, or rather in the shape of a crescent. Near where we encamped were several hot springs which boiled perpetually. Near these was an opening in the ground about eight inches in diameter from which hot steam issued continually with a noise similar to that made by the steam issuing from the safety valve of an engine, and could be heard five or six miles distant.
Name
The lake has been known by various names as depicted on early maps and in journals. Both fur trader David Thompson and explorer William Clark referred to the lake as Yellow Stone. Osborne Russell referred to the lake as Yellow Stone Lake in his 1834 journal. On some William Clark maps, the lake has the name Eustis Lake and the name Sublette's Lake was also used to name the lake in the early 19th century. The name Yellowstone Lake appears formally first in the 1839 maps of the Oregon Territory by U.S. Army topographical engineer, Captain Washington Hood and has remained so since that time.
Pre-park era exploration
Although many prospecting parties traversed the Yellowstone region throughout the 1850–60s, the first detailed descriptions of the lake came in 1869, 1870 and 1871 as a result of the Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition, the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition and the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871.
Cook, Folsom and Peterson first encountered the lake near Pelican Creek as they moved south along the Yellowstone River on September 24, 1869. They eventually followed the western shoreline to West Thumb before moving west to the geyser basins. Cook described the lake at Pelican Creek as follows:
The main body is ten miles long from east to west and sixteen miles long from north to south, but at the south end it puts out two arms, one to the southeast and the other to the southwest, making the entire length about 30 miles ... There are three small islands which are also heavily timbered ... The shallow water in some of the coves affords feeding ground for thousands of water fowl and we can take our choice of ducks, geese, trout, pelican or swan.
The Washburn party was the first to describe the remote eastern and southern shorelines of the lake. From September 3, 1870, to September 17, 1870, the Washburn party traveled from the outlet of the lake around the northern, eastern, and southern shorelines to West Thumb . The September 4, 1870 journal entry of Lieutenant Gustavus C. Doane, the leader of the U.S. Army escort during the expedition, describes the lake as follows:
On the south side, these promontories project far into the lake in great numbers, dividing it into bays and channels. On the west side is a low bluff of the timbered ridges, with a sand beach in front along the margins of the waters. The greatest width of open water in any direction is about eighteen miles. Several islands are seen, one of which is opposite the channel of the river and five miles from the east shore; another is ten miles farther south, and two miles from the shore a mountain isle with a bold bluff all around to the water's edge. These islands doubtless have never been trodden by human footsteps, and still belong to the regions of the unexplored. We built a raft for the purpose of attempting to visit them, but the strong waves of the lake dashed it to pieces in an hour. Numerous steam jets pour out from the bluffs on the shore at different points. The waters of the lake reflect a deep blue color, are clear as crystal, and doubtless of great depth near the center. The extreme elevation of this great body of water, 7,714 3/5 feet, is difficult to realize. Place Mount Washington, the pride of New England, with its base at the sea level, at the bottom of the lake, and the clear waters of the latter would roll 2,214 feet above its summit. With the single exception of Lake Titticaeca, Peru, it is the highest great body of water on the globe. No shells of any description are found on the lake shore, nor is there any evidence of the waters ever having stood at a much higher level than the present. Twenty-five feet will cover the whole range of the water-marks. Its annual rise and falls are about two feet. Its waters abound with trout to such an extent that the fish at this season are in poor condition, for want of food. No other fish are seen; no minnows, and no small trout. There are also no clams, crabs, nor turtles -- nothing but full-grown trout. These could be caught in mule loads by wading out a few feet in the open waters at any point with a grasshopper bait. Two men could catch them faster than half a dozen could clean and get them ready for the frying pan. Caught in the open lake, their flesh was yellow; but in bays, where the water was strongly impregnated with chemicals, it was blood-red. Many of them were full of long white worms, woven across the interior of the body, and through to the skin on either side. These did not appear to materially affect the condition of the fish, which were apparently as active as the others.
The Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 provided the most detailed and scientific descriptions of the lake in the pre-park era. The Hayden party, 34 men in all, encountered the lake at the outlet on July 28, 1871, spending two days there and returned to the lake at West Thumb on August 7, 1871. From West Thumb, the survey party took 15 days to explore the southern and eastern flanks of the lake. On July 28, 1871, they launched Annie, the first European boat ever to sail on the lake and began exploring the islands and shoreline. Additionally, the first ever photographs of the lake were taken during this expedition by William Henry Jackson.
In correspondence that was Hayden's Report No. 7 to Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. Spencer Baird, a bit of which is excerpted below, Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden described some of the explorations being conducted on the lake as follows:
Yellowstone Lake, WY August 8th, 1871 - Dear Professor Baird, Your letters of June 6th and July 3rd were brought us from Fort Ellis by Lt. Doane who has just arrived to take command of our escort and accompany my party the remainder of the season ... We arrived at the banks of the Yellow Stone Lake July 26th [actually July 28] and pitched our camp near the point where the river leaves the Lake. Hence we brought the first pair of wheels that ever came to the Lake with our Odometer. We launched the first Boat on the Lake, 4.5 feet wide and 11 feet long, with sails and oars ... A chart of this soundings will be made. Points have been located with a prismatic compass all around the Lake. A man stands on the shore with a compass and takes a bearing to the man in the Boat as he drops the lead, giving a signal at the time. Then a man in the Boat takes a bearing to the fixed point on the shore where the first man is located and thus the soundings will be located on the chart. Henry Elliot and Mr. Carrington have just left in our little boat, the Annie. [They] will make a systematic sketch of the shore with all its indentations, with the banks down, indeed, making a complete topographical as well as a pictorial sketch of the shores as seen from the water, for a circuit--of at least 130 miles ... One of the islands has been explored. We have called it Stevenson's Island as he was undoubtedly the first human that ever set foot upon it ... Write at once. Yours Truly, F. V. Hayden, I will send you some Photographs soon.
Proposals to dam the lake
Between 1920 and 1937, multiple proposals were made to Congress and the Department of the Interior to construct dams of various sizes at the Yellowstone Lake outlet or a few miles downstream. Montana and Wyoming politicians, the Army Corps of Engineers and lobbying groups in both states all had a variety of reasons to support the dams—flood control in the Yellowstone Valley, reclamation, or diversion of water over the continental divide to the Snake River. All the proposals and legislation were eventually defeated.
Geology
In the southwest area of the lake, the West Thumb Geyser Basin is easily accessible to visitors. Geysers, fumaroles, and hot springs are found both alongside and in the lake.
As of 2004, the ground under the lake has started to rise significantly, indicating increased geological activity, and limited areas of the national park have been closed to the public. As of 2005, no areas are currently off limits aside from those normally allowing limited access such as around the West Thumb Geyser Basin. There is a "bulge" about long and high under a section of Yellowstone Lake, where there are a variety of faults, hot springs and small craters. Seismic imaging has recently shown that sediment layers are tilted, but how old this feature is has not yet been established.
After the magma chamber under the Yellowstone area collapsed 640,000 years ago in its previous great eruption, it formed a large caldera that was later partially filled by subsequent lava flows (see Yellowstone Caldera). Part of this caldera is the basin of Yellowstone Lake. The original lake was higher than the present-day lake, extending northward across Hayden Valley to the base of Mount Washburn.
It is thought that Yellowstone Lake originally drained south into the Pacific Ocean via the Snake River. The lake currently drains north from its only outlet, the Yellowstone River, at Fishing Bridge. The elevation of the lake's north end does not drop substantially until LeHardy Rapids. Therefore, this spot is considered the actual northern boundary of Yellowstone Lake. Within a short distance downstream the Yellowstone River plunges first over the upper and then the lower falls and races north through the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone.
In the 1990s, geological research determined that the two volcanic vents, now known as "resurgent domes", are rising again. From year to year, they either rise or fall, with an average net uplift of about one inch per year. During the period between 1923 and 1985, the Sour Creek Dome was rising. In the years since 1986, it has either declined or remained the same. The resurgence of the Sour Creek dome, just north of Fishing Bridge is causing Yellowstone Lake to "tilt" southward. Larger sandy beaches can now be found on the north shore of the lake, and flooded areas can be found in the southern arms.
The Hayden Valley was once filled by an arm of Yellowstone Lake. As a result, it contains fine-grained lake sediments that are now covered with glacial till left from the most recent glacial retreat 13,000 years ago. Because the glacial till contains many different grain sizes, including clay and a thin layer of lake sediments, water cannot percolate readily into the ground. This is why the Hayden Valley is marshy and has little encroachment of trees.
Ecology
Fish
Non-native Lake trout were discovered in Yellowstone Lake in 1994, and were believed to have been either accidentally or intentionally introduced as early as 1989 with fish taken from Lewis Lake. The introduction of Lake trout has caused a serious decline in the Cutthroat trout population and the National Park Service has an aggressive Lake trout eradication program on the lake. All Lake trout caught by anglers must be killed. If the Cutthroat Trout isn’t protected from this invasive fish then ecologist predict that they could see a decline in surrounding birds and mammals that are natural predators to the Cutthroat Trout. The Longnose sucker is an invasive fish that was believed to be introduced into the Yellowstone Lake in the late 1980s or early 1990s. With this foreign species in the Lake researchers have noticed a shift in the food chain. They have seen a rapid decline in the population of the Cutthroat Trout which in turn could cause other animal’s populations to start declining. From studies done they have found that the Longnose sucker is predator to the Cutthroat Trout.
The declining population of Cutthroat fish in the Yellowstone Lake can negatively impact fish predators. One in particular is the North American river otter which relies on the Cutthroat fish as a prey. With a declining number of Cutthroat fish in the spawning streams researchers saw a shift in the relationship between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that are linked together.
Other Animals
Yellowstone is home to a large concentration of mammals. Whether that be large mammals such as bison, elk, or bighorn sheep there is a variety of different animals that are native to the Yellowstone area. On the other hand Yellowstone is also home to many smaller animals, and a few that are constantly around the lake are beavers, short tailed weasels, and river otters which have previously been mentioned.
Angling and boating
Angling for Yellowstone cutthroat trout in Yellowstone Lake has been a popular pastime for both subsistence and recreation since the first explorers, surveyors and tourists visited the park. During the early days of fish stocking in Yellowstone (1890–1910), Atlantic Salmon, Mountain whitefish, and Rainbow trout were stocked in the lake; none of these introduced species survived. Today only native cutthroat and non-native Lake trout exist in the lake. Today, Yellowstone Lake is open for angling from June 15 to the first Sunday in November. All Cutthroat trout caught must be released.
Recreational boating has been permitted on the lake in various forms since 1890 when the first permits for the Yellowstone Boat Company were issued to operate a ferry across the lake between road junctions. Today, powerboats, sailboats, canoes and kayaks are allowed on the lake with a Yellowstone Boating Permit. A Marina is operated at Bridge Bay and there is a boat ramp at Grant Village on the West Thumb. Areas in the southern arms of the lake are speed-restricted and/or no-motor zones to protect sensitive wildlife areas. Access to some of the lake's islands is also restricted. Xanterra Parks and Resorts at Bridge Bay Marina on Yellowstone Lake provides boat rentals and other boating services. Numerous outfitters operating outside the park are licensed to provide boating services in the park. Several dozen backcountry campsites line the southern shoreline that is accessible only by boat. Two major hiking trails provide access to the lake shore away from the major road. The Nine Mile Post trail hugs the eastern shoreline into the Thorofare region and intersects with the Trail Creek and Heart Lake trails that touch the ends of both the south and southeast arms of the lake.
See also
Angling in Yellowstone National Park
Fishes of Yellowstone National Park
References
External links
USGS answers questions about the 'bulge' under Yellowstone Lake.
Bathymetry and Geology of the Floor of Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana - United States Geological Survey
Lakes of Yellowstone National Park
Lakes of Wyoming
Hot springs of Wyoming
Volcanic crater lakes
Hot springs of Teton County, Wyoming
Lakes of Teton County, Wyoming
Tourist attractions in Teton County, Wyoming
Yellowstone Caldera
Lake |
356933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mignon | Mignon | Mignon is an 1866 opéra comique (or opera in its second version) in three acts by Ambroise Thomas. The original French libretto was by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré, based on Goethe's 1795-96 novel Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre. The Italian version was translated by Giuseppe Zaffira. The opera is mentioned in James Joyce's "The Dead" (Dubliners) and Willa Cather's The Professor's House. Thomas's goddaughter Mignon Nevada was named after the main character.
Performance history
The first performance was at the Opéra-Comique in Paris on 17 November 1866. The piece proved popular: more than 100 performances took place by the following July, the 1,000th was given there on 13 May 1894, and the 1,500th on 25 May 1919.
The opera was also adapted and translated into German for performance in Berlin with Madame Lucca as Mignon. Lucca was well received, but the German critics were unhappy with the opera's alterations to the Goethe original, so Thomas composed a shorter finale with a tragic ending, in which Mignon falls dead in the arms of Wilhelm. This ending was an attempt to make the story of the opera somewhat more similar in tone to the tragic outcome of Goethe's. (The original version of Mignon for the Opéra-Comique had to have a happy ending, since at that time in Paris tragic operas in French were exclusively reserved for the Opéra.) Unsurprisingly, this "Version allemande" still failed to satisfy the German critics and proved to be a futile endeavour. As Henry Edward Krehbiel describes it, the "Mignon of Carré and Barbier bears little more than an external resemblance to the Mignon of Goethe, and to kill her is wanton cruelty."
Despite his success in Paris with the French version, Thomas was asked to revise the work for the first performance at the Drury Lane Theatre in London on 5 July 1870. This version was given in Italian with recitatives (instead of spoken dialogue). The role of Mignon, originally for mezzo-soprano, was sung by a soprano (Christina Nilsson), and the role of Frédéric, originally a tenor, was sung by a contralto (Zelia Trebelli-Bettini). A second verse was added to Lothario's aria in the first act ("Fugitif et tremblant" in the French version), and in the second act, a rondo-gavotte for Frédéric ("Me voici dans son boudoir") was devised using the music of the entr'acte preceding that act, to satisfy Mme Trebelli-Bettini, who was discomfited by having to take on a role originally written for buffo tenor. Apparently, the coloratura soprano Elisa Volpini, who was to sing Philine, felt that her aria at the end of the second act ("Je suis Titania") was insufficient, and another florid aria ("Alerte, alerte, Philine!") was inserted after the second act entr'acte and before Laerte's 6/8 Allegretto ("Rien ne vaut"). The finale was also much shortened. Philine's extra aria appears to have either never been orchestrated, or the orchestration was lost or destroyed. (Most sources say that the aria was performed and not cut from the Drury Lane production, implying that Thomas must have orchestrated it.) The aria is known from several piano-vocal scores and is included as an appendix, sung by Ruth Welting with flute and harpsichord accompaniment, as part of the 1978 recording with Marilyn Horne as Mignon. The recording also includes a second appendix with the original, longer version of the finale.
The United States premiere was given on 9 May 1871 at the French Opera House in New Orleans. This was followed by a Maurice Strakosch production in Italian at the New York Academy of Music on 22 November 1871 with Christine Nilsson as Mignon, Mlle. Léon Duval as Philine, Victor Capoul as Wilhelm, and Mlle. Ronconi as Frédéric. The substantial success of the opera in London and New York has been attributed to the presence of Christine Nilsson in both productions. Nilsson also performed the role at the Metropolitan Opera in New York in 1883.
The versions of the opera performed outside France, in particular, those in the United States and Italy, have been in Italian (later also in French), with Mignon as a soprano or mezzo-soprano, and Frédéric as a mezzo-soprano or contralto, and with the sung recitatives and the shortened finale. More recently, in 1986, the original opéra comique version with soprano Cynthia Clarey as Mignon was revived for a production at the Wexford Festival Opera.
Noted soprano interpreters of Mignon have included Emma Albani (Covent Garden's first Mignon in 1874), Lucrezia Bori, and Geraldine Farrar; mezzo-sopranos have included Marilyn Horne, Giulietta Simionato, Frederica von Stade, Risë Stevens, and Ebe Stignani. Lily Pons was famous for singing Philine.
Roles
Synopsis
Time: End of the 18th century.
Place: Germany and Italy.
Act 1
In the courtyard of an inn in a small German town, the wandering minstrel Lothario sings and the Gypsies dance while the townspeople watch and drink. Jarno threatens Mignon with a stick when she refuses to dance, but Lothario and Wilhelm Meister come to her aid. She thanks them and divides her bouquet of wildflowers between them. Wilhelm and Laerte have a drink together. Philine and Laerte leave, after he gives her his flowers from Mignon. Mignon tells Wilhelm she was captured by Gypsies as a child. Wilhelm decides to purchase Mignon’s freedom. Lothario comes to say goodbye to Mignon. Lothario wants Mignon to travel with him, but she stays with Wilhelm. Frédéric lovingly follows Philine in, but she also wants Wilhelm. The acting troupe is about to set off for a baron's castle after receiving an invitation to perform there. Mignon is deeply in love with Wilhelm, but upset to see the flowers that she gave him in the hands of Philine.
Act 2
In Philine’s room in the baron's castle, Philine is elated, living in the luxury and charming the baron. Laerte is heard outside, praising Philine. Wilhelm and Mignon enter. She pretends to sleep while Wilhelm and Philine sing. When the couple leave, Mignon tries on Philine’s costumes and make-up. She is jealous and exits. Frédéric enters. When Wilhelm returns for Mignon he is confronted by Frédéric. Mignon rushes in to break up their impending fight. Wilhelm decides that he cannot stay with Mignon and says goodbye to her. He leaves arm-in-arm with a jubilant Philine. Later, in the courtyard of the castle, Mignon is consumed by a jealous rage, when she hears Lothario playing the harp. He comforts the girl. Philine's portrayal of Titania in A Midsummer Night's Dream is applauded in the conservatory. Mignon, in jealousy, shouts that she wishes the building would catch fire and runs out. Lothario hears her and moves toward the conservatory. After Mignon returns, Wilhelm receives her so warmly that Philine, now jealous, sends her to fetch the wildflowers in the conservatory. Wilhelm rushes to save Mignon from the fire that Lothario had set to please her, carrying her unconscious body out of the conservatory with the singed flowers still in her hand.
Act 3
Wilhelm has brought Mignon and Lothario to a castle in Italy which he considers buying. There an old man watches over Mignon and prays for her recovery. Antonio relates how the castle’s previous owner had gone mad after his wife had died of grief over the loss of their young daughter. Wilhelm decides to buy the castle for Mignon because it has so speeded her recovery. Mignon awakens and confesses to Wilhelm of her love for this strangely familiar place. He finally realizes that he loves her deeply and resists Philine’s attempts to win him back. Lothario re-enters and informs the couple that he is the owner of the castle and that returning here has restored his sanity. After reading a prayer found in a book in the house, Mignon realizes that she is his daughter Sperata. The three embrace happily.
Noted arias
"Oui, je veux par le monde (Yes, I want the world)" (Wilhelm, a tenor)
"Connais-tu le pays (Do you know the country)" (Mignon, a mezzo-soprano or a soprano)
"Adieu, Mignon! (Farewell, Mignon!)" (Wilhelm, a tenor)
"Je suis Titania (I am Titania)" (Philine, a coloratura soprano)
"Elle ne croyait pas (She did not believe)" (Wilhelm, a tenor)
"Me voici dans son boudoir (Here I am in her boudoir)" (Frédéric, a tenor or a contralto)
Recordings
1945 - Risë Stevens (Mignon), Mimi Benzell (Philine), James Melton (Wilhelm Meister), Ezio Pinza (Lothario), Donald Dame (Laerte), Lucielle Browning (Frédéric) - Metropolitan Opera Chorus and Orchestra, Wilfred Pelletier - Broadcast January 27, 1945 - (Sony)
1953 - Geneviève Moizan (Mignon), Janine Micheau (Philine), Libero de Luca (Wilhelm Meister), René Bianco (Lothario), Robert Destaing (Laerte), François Louis Deschamps (Frédéric), Noël Pierotte (Jarno) - Choeur et Orchestre du Théâtre National de Belgique, Georges Sébastian - (Preiser)
1977 - Huguette Tourangeau (Mignon), Noelle Rogers (Philine), Henri Wilden (Wilhelm Meister), Pierre Charbonneau (Lothario), Antonio de Almeida Santos (Laerte), Michael Philip Davis (Frédéric), Edgar Hanson (Jarno) - Vancouver Opera Chorus and Orchestra, Richard Bonynge - CBC Broadcast January 29, 1977 - (BJR Enterprises Inc. - Bella Voce Records)
1977 - Marilyn Horne (Mignon), Ruth Welting (Philine), Alain Vanzo (Wilhelm Meister), Nicola Zaccaria (Lothario), André Battedou (Laerte), Frederica von Stade (Frédéric), Claude Méloni (Jarno) - Ambrosian Opera Chorus, Philharmonia Orchestra, Antonio de Almeida - (CBS) For details, see here
References
Notes
Sources
, accessed 24 August 2008.
, accessed 27 November 2008.
The Athenaeum (9 July 1870). "Mignon" (review of the 1870 Drury Lane premiere), pp. 57–58. View at Google Books.
The Athenaeum (6 August 1870). "Music" (review of the season at Drury Lane), pp. 185–186. View at Google Books.
The Athenaeum (27 July 1874). "Royal Italian Opera" (review of the season), p. 869. View at Google Books.
Blyth, Alan (1978). Review of the 1978 recording with Marilyn Horne. Gramophone, October 1978, pp. 741–742.
Crichton, Ronald (2001). "Ambroise Thomas" in Holden, Amanda, editor. The New Penguin Opera Guide, pp. 951–952. London: Penguin Books. .
Dwight's Journal of Music (2 December 1871). "Nilsson in 'Mignon' [from the New York Tribune]", p. 141. View at Google Books.
Kobbé, Gustav (1976). The New Kobbé's Complete Opera Book, edited and revised by the Earl of Harewood. New York: Putnam. .
The Musical World (19 March 1870). "Italian Opera, Theatre Royal, Drury Lane" (cast announcement for Mignon), p. 206. View at Google Books.
Osborne, Charles (1969). The Complete Operas of Verdi. New York: Da Capo. .
Rosenthal, Harold (1958). Two Centuries of Opera at Covent Garden. London: Putnam. .
Santley, Charles (1892). Student and Singer: The Reminiscences of Charles Santley, p. 310. London: Macmillan. . Reprint: Read Books, 2009. . Preview at Google Books.
Scherer, Barrymore Laurence (1978). "De Profundis: Ambroise Thomas", original liner notes accompanying Columbia LP M4-34590 . Reproduced in the booklet accompanying Sony CD SM3K 34590 .
Thomas, Ambroise (1901). Mignon, piano vocal score; libretto in French and English; English translation by Theodore Baker; prefatory essay by H. E. Krehbiel. New York: G. Schirmer. . Kalmus reprint (K 06810): .
Weinstock, Herbert (1968). Rossini: A Biography. New York: Knopf. . (Reprint: New York: Limelight, 1987. .)
Operas based on works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Opéras comiques
Operas by Ambroise Thomas
French-language operas
1866 operas
Operas
Opera world premieres at the Opéra-Comique
Libretti by Jules Barbier
Libretti by Michel Carré
Operas based on novels
Operas set in Germany
Operas set in Italy
Works based on Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship |
356938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambroise%20Thomas | Ambroise Thomas | Charles Louis Ambroise Thomas (; 5 August 1811 – 12 February 1896) was a French composer and teacher, best known for his operas Mignon (1866) and Hamlet (1868).
Born into a musical family, Thomas was a student at the Conservatoire de Paris, winning France's top music prize, the Prix de Rome. He pursued a career as a composer of operas, completing his first opera, La double échelle, in 1837. He wrote twenty further operas over the next decades, mostly comic, but he also treated more serious subjects, finding considerable success with audiences in France and abroad.
Thomas was appointed as a professor at the Conservatoire in 1856, and in 1871 he succeeded Daniel Auber as director. Between then and his death at his home in Paris twenty-five years later, he modernised the Conservatoire's organisation while imposing a rigidly conservative curriculum, hostile to modern music, and attempting to prevent composers such as César Franck and Gabriel Fauré from influencing the students of the Conservatoire.
Thomas' operas were generally neglected during most of the 20th century, but in more recent decades they have experienced something of a revival both in Europe and the US.
Life and career
Early years
Thomas was born in Metz, the youngest of four children of Martin Thomas (1770–1823) and his wife, Jeanne, née Willaume (1780–1866), both music teachers. By the age of ten he was already an experienced pianist and violinist. When he was twelve his father died, and Ambroise's elder brother Charles moved to Paris, where he played the cello in the Opéra orchestra. In 1828, aged 17, Ambroise joined him in Paris, where he was admitted as a student by the Conservatoire de Paris. He studied the piano with Pierre Zimmerman and harmony and counterpoint with Victor Dourlen. He won premiers prix in these subjects in 1829 and 1830. He went on to study the piano with Friedrich Kalkbrenner, and composition with Jean-François Lesueur and Auguste Barbereau.
In 1832, at his second attempt, Thomas won France's premier music prize, the Grand Prix de Rome, with his cantata Hermann et Ketty. The prize brought him three years' study at the Villa Medici, the French Academy in Rome. During his time there he became friendly with the painter Ingres, the head of the academy, with whom he shared an admiration for both Mozart and Beethoven; he also met Berlioz, who encouraged him and wrote about him favourably. During his Italian sojourn he wrote chamber music – a piano trio, a string quintet and a string quartet – and a set of six songs, Souvenirs d'Italie. After leaving Rome, Thomas stayed briefly in Germany, before returning to Paris in 1835, when he began writing for the stage.
Composing career
The first opera Thomas composed was La double échelle (The Double Ladder, 1837), a one-act comedy, praised by Berlioz for its "extreme vivacity and wit". It was produced at the Opéra-Comique, received 247 performances, and in the next few years was given in Brussels, New Orleans, Berlin, Vienna and London.
His first full-length opera, Le perruquier de la Régence (The Regency Wigmaker, 1838) was followed in the next decade by six more, none of which made any permanent impression. During this period he also composed a ballet (La Gipsy, 1839). His first completely successful three-act opera was Le caïd (The Qaid, 1849), described by the musicologist Elizabeth Forbes as "a mixture of Il barbiere di Siviglia and L'italiana in Algeri"; it remained in the French operatic repertoire throughout the nineteenth century, and achieved more than four hundred performances over the next fifty years.
Thomas' next work for the Opéra-Comique, Le songe d'une nuit d'été (The Summer Night's Dream, 1850), was also a popular success. The text, by Joseph-Bernard Rosier and Adolphe de Leuven, owes nothing to A Midsummer Night's Dream: Shakespeare appears as one of the characters, along with Queen Elizabeth I and Shakespeare's Falstaff, the governor of "Richemont", where the action takes place. The premiere in Paris was followed by productions in many European and American theatres. The work, described by The Musical Times as "a little masterpiece", was frequently revived, but fell out of the repertory after the composer's death. Later in 1850 Thomas' next opera, Raymond, was premiered. It has not survived in the operatic repertoire, but the overture became a popular orchestral showpiece. In 1851, following the death of the composer Gaspare Spontini, Thomas was elected to succeed him as a member of the Académie des Beaux Arts.
Professor
In 1856 Thomas was appointed professor of composition at the Conservatoire, under the directorship of Daniel Auber. He remained on the staff, as professor and subsequently director, until his death forty years later. Over these years his students included the composers Jules Massenet, Gaston Serpette, and, late in Thomas' career, George Enescu; future academics included Théodore Dubois and Charles Lenepveu; and conductors who were Thomas' students included Edouard Colonne and Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht.
During the 1850s Thomas continued to compose, writing five operas, none of which made much impression. After a fallow spell in the early 1860s he wrote Mignon, the work by which his name became most widely known. The libretto was by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré, based on Goethe's novel Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre. Forbes writes that, unusually, Thomas had the advantage of a well-judged and theatrically effective libretto, and that although in the novel Mignon dies, the happy ending works well in the opera. (A happy ending was then compulsory at the Opéra-Comique: it was another nine years before Carmen defied the convention there, ending with the death of the main character.) The strong original cast featured, in the title role, Célestine Galli-Marié, a celebrated singer who later created the part of Carmen in Bizet's opera.
Thomas was similarly fortunate in his cast for his next success, Hamlet (1868), which starred Jean-Baptiste Faure as Hamlet and Christine Nilsson as Ophelia. The opera was distantly based on Shakespeare by way of a French adaptation by Alexandre Dumas, père, and Paul Meurice, further adapted as a libretto by Carré and Barbier. Although the adaptation was seen as a travesty of the play, with a ballet-divertissement (obligatory at the Opéra) and a happy ending, with Hamlet acclaimed as king, the work was successful not only in Paris but in London. Despite disparaging reviews of the libretto from English-speaking critics at the time and subsequently, the work has remained an occasional part of the operatic repertoire; later singers of Ophelia included Emma Calvé, Emma Albani, Nellie Melba and Mary Garden, and among the Hamlets have been Victor Maurel, Titta Ruffo, Mattia Battistini and more recently Sherrill Milnes, Thomas Allen and Thomas Hampson. Although Thomas had by now a reputation for musical conservatism, the score of Hamlet was innovative in one respect: its incorporation of saxophones into the instrumentation.
Later in Thomas' life his academic career largely overtook his activities as a composer, and after Hamlet, he composed only one more opera: Françoise de Rimini (1882), which was well received but did not enter the regular operatic repertoire.
Later years
On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 Thomas, though aged nearly sixty, volunteered to serve in the Garde Nationale. The following year Auber resigned as director of the Conservatoire, shortly before his death, and Thomas was appointed his successor. He was so widely seen as Auber's heir apparent that the minister of education, Jules Simon, said in his letter offering Thomas the post, "You are so obviously fitted for the office that if I did not nominate you I should seem to be signing your dismissal from a post already yours." As director Thomas ran an intransigently conservative regime. The music of Auber, Halévy and especially Meyerbeer was regarded as the correct model for students, and early French music such as that of Rameau and modern music, including that of Wagner were kept rigorously out of the curriculum. Thomas strove to keep progressive musicians from being appointed to the faculty of the Conservatoire – unsuccessfully in the case of César Franck, who was appointed against Thomas' wishes in 1872, but successfully as regards Gabriel Fauré whose appointment to the Conservatoire was delayed until after Thomas' death.
Thomas was, on the other hand, innovative in the running of the Conservatoire: he increased the number of classes, improved the conditions of the faculty, and expanded the curriculum to include solfège, sight-reading and compulsory orchestral practice. The faculty under Thomas included, at various times the composers Franck, Théodore Dubois, Jules Massenet and Ernest Guiraud, and the singers Pauline Viardot and Romain Bussine.
In 1889 the Opéra staged Thomas' ballet La tempête (another treatment of a Shakespeare play – The Tempest), but it made little impression. In 1894, after the 1,000th performance of Mignon at the Opéra-Comique, the octogenarian composer was embraced on the stage by Verdi, his junior by two years, before President Carnot decorated Thomas with the ribbon of the Grand-Croix de la Légion d'honneur.
Thomas died in his flat in the Conservatoire in 1896, aged 84, of congestion of the lungs. He was survived by his widow, Elvire, née Remaury (1827–1910), whom he married in 1878. He was succeeded as director of the Conservatoire by Dubois.
Music
Emmanuel Chabrier's jibe, "There is good music, there is bad music, and then there is Ambroise Thomas" is often quoted, but, as the musicologist Richard Langham Smith observes, it is not clear whether Chabrier meant that Thomas' music was worse than bad, somewhere between good and bad, or something else. A contemporary assessment was given in the first edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1889), where Gustave Chouquet wrote of Thomas:
In the 2001 edition of Grove, Langham Smith writes, "In the context of French opera of the late 19th century Thomas was a figure of considerable importance, an imaginative innovator and a master of musical characterization." Langham Smith concludes that after years of neglect, Thomas' work saw a considerable revival, beginning in the late 20th century, with major productions of Mignon and Hamlet in France, Britain and the US.
Forbes writes that Thomas was an eclectic composer able to write in a wide variety of styles. She identifies Hérold and Auber as influences on his early works, and considers Le caïd the first of his works to show true originality, though nonetheless clearly showing the influence of Rossini. In later works, Thomas' music could still be derivative: Forbes cites Psyché (1857) as "an inferior copy of Gounod's Sapho" and his Le carnaval de Venise (also 1857) as imitating Victor Massé. She concludes that at his best – which he was not always – Thomas wrote delightful and individual music, was capable of orchestration that is "often quite ravishing", and musically conveyed the character of the important roles strongly and clearly. "If Thomas had written no stage works except Mignon and Hamlet he would probably be more widely recognized as one of the most influential and important of French 19th-century operatic composers."
List of compositions
Operas
See: List of operas by Ambroise Thomas.
Non-operatic vocal: secular
"Hermann et Ketty", cantata, 1832
"Silvio Pellico", 1831, lost
"Nel iginia d'Asti", scena e aria, 1834
"Nel Foscarini", 2 voices, orchestra, 1834
"Duos Italiens-Téresa", 2 voices, orchestra, 1834
"Storia di Colombo", scena e duetto, voices, orchestra, 1834
"Maria e Leicester", 2 voices, piano, 1834
"Della Pia", scena e romanza, 1834
"La charité du couvent", cantata, 1843
"Hommage à Lesueur", cantata, 1852
"Hommage à Boieldieu", cantata, 1875
"Via", via!", canzone veneziano, 4 voices, piano, undated
"Scènes chorales" for mixed voices, 1853
"L'harmonie des peuples", c. 1855
"Choeur des gardes-chasses, c. 1857
"Le chant des amis", 1858
"Salut aux chanteurs de la France" 1859
"France", 1860
"Le forgeron", 1861
"Le Tyrol", 1862
"Les archers de Bouvines", 1863
"Les traîneaux", 1864
"Le carnaval de Rome", 1864
"Le temple de la paix", 1867
"Paris!", Vaudin", 1867
"La nuit du sabbat", 1869
"L'Atlantique", undated
"Chant patriotique
Non-operatic vocal: sacred
"Messe de Requiem", chorus, orchestra, 1833
"Ave verum", after Mozart, arr. Thomas, c. 1835
"O salutaris", motet, SAA, organ, 1836
"Sub tuum praesidium", motet, SSA, organ, 1836
"Veni sponsa Christi", motet, TTBB, organ, 1836
"Messe solennelle", solo voices, chorus, orchestra, 1852
"Pie Jesu", tenor, organ, 1864, 1896
"Beati mortui", voice, organ
"Agnus Dei", 3 voices, organ, c. 1895
"Messe de l'Orphéon", TTBB, undated, Credo only; collaboration with Adolphe Adam and Fromental Halévy
"Ave Maria", SAT, organ, undated
"Agnus Dei", 3 voices, org
Songs
solo voice and piano, except where otherwise stated
"Souvenirs d'Italie": 6 romances italiennes et venitiennes, 1835
"Adieu les beaux jours", c. 1835
"Doux abri", c. 1835
"La Patrie", c. 1835
"Romance sur les paroles anglaises", c. 1835
"Romance sur les paroles allemandes", c. 1835
"C'est vous", 1840
"La vierge Marie", c. 1840
"Viens", c. 1840
"Ah sur ma parole", 1842
"La charité du couvent", 1843
"Belle folle espagnole", 1844
"Ange et mortel", c. 1855
"Sérénade", c. 1861
"Le petit chou", c. 1861
"Ah sur ma parole", c. 1862
"Le soir", 1869
"Le berger de la Reuss", c. 1870
"Fleur de neige", 1880
"Croyance", 2 voices", 1885
"Passiflore", 1887
"Chanson de Margyane", 1896
"Baissez les yeux", 1897
"Souvenir", 1900
"L'amiable printemps", 1900
"Ainsi va le monde", 1903
"Belle, ayez pitie", undated
"C'est le bonheur", undated
"La folle d'Yarmouth", undated
"L'aimable printemps", undated
Orchestral
"Overture, 1832, lost
"Fantaisie brillante, piano, orchestra/string quartet, undated, arranged for piano, c. 1836
"Marche religieuse", 1865
"Chant du psaume laudate, violin, orch, 1883
"arr. of "La marseillaise" for military band, 1887
Ballets
"La gipsy – 2nd act of 3-act ballet, 1839
"Betty – 2 acts, 1846
"La tempête, ballet fantastique, 3 acts, 1889
Chamber
String Quartet, op.1, 1833
Piano Trio, op.3, c. 1835
String Quintet, op.7, c. 1839
Romance, violin, piano, c. 1835
"Morceau" [de concours], trombone, piano, 1848
"Morceau" [de concours], violin, cello, 1850
"Souvenir", piano, violin/viola, undated
"Barcarolle", flute/violin, piano
Piano solo
"6 caprices en forme de valses caractéristiques", op.4, 1835
"L'absence", nocturne", op.8, c. 1835
"Andantino", c. 1835
"Mazurka valaque", c. 1835
"Fantaisie sur un air favori écossais", op.5, 1836
"Valse de salon", 1851
"Cantabile", 1865
"La dérobée", fantaisie sur un air breton, 1888
"Rêverie", undated
"Printemps", undated
Organ solo
"Absoute", 1857
"Offertoire", 1858
"Prière", 1859
3 préludes, 1860
"Elevazione", undated
"Dirge", undated
"10 pastorales", undated
Source: Grove.
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Georges Masson, 1996. Ambroise Thomas (Metz: Editions Serpentoise)
External links
1811 births
1896 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century French composers
19th-century French male musicians
Conservatoire de Paris faculty
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
Directors of the Conservatoire de Paris
French ballet composers
French male classical composers
French opera composers
French Romantic composers
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Male opera composers
People from Metz
Prix de Rome for composition
Pupils of Jean-François Le Sueur |
356941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursemaid | Nursemaid | A nursemaid (or nursery maid) is a mostly historical term for a female domestic worker who cares for children within a large household. The term implies that she is an assistant to an older and more experienced employee, a role usually known as nurse or nanny. A family wealthy enough to have multiple servants looking after the children would have a large domestic staff, traditionally within a strict hierarchy, and a large house (or possibly several, such as the townhouse and country house) with nursery quarters.
History
The term 'nursemaid' has wide historical use, mostly related to servants charged with the actual care of children. In ancient usage the terms 'nursemaid' and 'nurse' (as, for example, the character in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet) are largely interchangeable. Everything that a parent ordinarily might do, especially the more onerous tasks, could be turned over to a nursemaid. Feeding very young children and supervising somewhat older children at meal times, seeing that the children are dressed properly, watching over the children as they play outside, and other such tasks could be left to a nursemaid.
Victorian nursery maid
The title 'Nursery Maid' refers to a specific role within the hierarchy of a great house. In the 21st century, the position is largely defunct, owing to the relatively small number of households who maintain large staffs with the traditional hierarchy. In the Victorian household, the children's quarters were referred to as the 'nursery', but the name of the responsible servant had largely evolved from 'nurse' to 'nanny'. The Nursery Maid was a general servant within the nursery, and although regularly in the presence of the children, would often have a less direct role in their care. The nursery maid reported to the nanny (or nurse) and assisted her in taking care of the children of the employer's family, her duties including tidying and maintaining the nursery, lighting the nursery fires, and carrying meals, laundry, and hot water between the nursery, kitchen, and scullery. It was a junior role for young girls, working under the supervision of the experienced and usually older nanny. Nursery Maids wore a uniform, similar to the other maids in the household. In 1845 the satirical magazine Punch published a guide to domestic servants in which it suggested that any girl could undertake the duties of a Nursery Maid, as every girl had the requisite training of "snubbing and slapping" either her own siblings, or the siblings of other people. Domestic service agencies supplied nursery maids and sometimes gave basic training, for which popular manuals were also published.
Relationships
By reason of their close involvement in most if not all of the daily affairs of the children, including maintaining proper standards of behaviour, nannies and nursemaids might easily establish the close kind of relationship with the children that a mother would herself ordinarily form. In many cases this could lead to nannies being retained on the staff even after the children had grown up, or to nursemaids continuing to hold a responsible role for the adult child as a type of chaperone, as in the example of Juliet's nurse.
See also
Amah or ayah, a woman who cares for babies and children; sometimes used for a general domestic worker
Babysitting, informal childcare
Governess, a woman hired to teach children within their home
Wet nurse, a woman hired to breastfeed and care for a baby
References
Obsolete occupations
Domestic work
Child care occupations
Gendered occupations |
356946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20Bland | Hubert Bland | Hubert Bland (3 January 1855 – 14 April 1914) was an English author and the husband of Edith Nesbit. He was known for being an infamous libertine, a journalist, an early English socialist, and one of the founders of the Fabian Society.
Early life and early careers
Bland was born in Woolwich, south-east London, the youngest of the four children of Henry Bland, a successful commercial clerk, and his wife Mary Ann. He received his formal education in local schools.
He was baptised on 14 March 1855 at St Mary Magdalene, Woolwich.
As a young man, Bland, showed his "passion was for politics" by his "strong interest in the political ideas raised at social protest meetings."
Bland wanted to attend the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and become an army officer, but there was not enough money after his father's death, so he went to work as a bank clerk. Later, he went into a brush-making business that failed. After that, he worked as secretary to the General Hydraulic Power Company, parent company of the London Hydraulic Power Company.
Marriage and mistresses
In 1877, he met 19-year-old Edith Nesbit (1858–1924). They married on 22 April 1880 with Nesbit already seven months pregnant. They did not immediately live together as Bland initially continued to live with his mother. According to biographer, Julia Briggs,Bland continued to spend half of each week with his widowed mother and her paid companion, Maggie Doran,who also had a son by him, though Nesbit did not realize this until later that summer when Bland fell ill with smallpox. When, in 1880, Nesbit learned of her husband's affair with Maggie, she made friends with her.
Bland met Alice Hoatson, a friend of Nesbit, in 1886: she became his mistress for the rest of his life. Bland had two children by Hoatson: Rosamund (b. 1886), his favourite, and John (b. 1899). They were raised by Nesbit as her own.
With Nesbit, Bland produced three children: Paul (1880–1940), Iris (b. 1881) and Fabian (1885–1900), who died aged 15 from a tonsil operation performed at home. Fabian had been given food before the anaesthetic for the operation.
"The marriage between Nesbit and Bland was unconventional and would today be characterized as an open marriage." Given Bland's affairs and out of wedlock children, his "marriage to Edith was inevitably stormy at times."
Bland's licentiousness
Bland, "a poseur by nature, was something more than a philanderer by habit."
He had "a voracious sexual appetite." When Edith met Bland, he "already had a mistress with child." After Alice Hoatson joined the Bland household, "he proceeded to father children on both her and Edith regularly." George Bernard Shaw described Bland as maintaining "simultaneously three wives, all of whom bore him children," and two of the "wives" lived in the same house. To top it off, Bland "was not averse to seeking to seduce" the girlfriends of his daughter Rosamund.
Bland wrote that he "hated the Pharisees, the Prigs, the Puritans." He smoked, and claimed to be "adventurous" with drugs, having taken "opium in all its forms" as well as other drugs.
Fabian Society
In 1883, the Blands joined a socialist debating group which evolved to become the (middle-class, socialist) Fabian Society in January 1884. On 4 January 1884, Bland chaired the first meeting and was subsequently elected to be the Society's honorary treasurer, a position he held until his sight failed in 1911. With Edward Pease. Bland served as co-editor of the Fabian News, a monthly journal.
Nevertheless, "he sometimes disagreed with others in the group, and over the years he had been repeatedly outmanoeuvred and overruled by Shaw, Sidney Webb, and their supporters. Fellow members included Edward Pease, Havelock Ellis, and Frank Podmore.
George Bernard Shaw described how Bland intimidated other Fabian Society members, describing him asa man of fierce Norman exterior and huge physical strength... never seen without an irreproachable frock coat, tall hat, and a single eyeglass which infuriated everybody. He was pugnacious, powerful, a skilled pugilist, and had a shrill, thin voice reportedly like the scream of an eagle. Nobody dared be uncivil to him.
Biographer, Julia Briggs, describes Bland as "an atypical Fabian":Bland was an atypical Fabian, since he combined socialism with strongly conservative opinions that reflected his social background and his military sympathies... He was also strongly opposed to women's suffrage. At the same time he advocated collectivist socialism, wrote Fabian tracts, and lectured extensively on socialism. Bland was unconvinced by democracy and described it as 'bumptious, unidealistic, disloyal… anti-national and vulgar'.
Bland was (unlike most socialists) also an opponent of women's rights. He wrote:Woman's metier in the world—I mean, of course, civilized woman, the woman in the world as it is—is to inspire romantic passion... Romantic passion is inspired by women who wear corsets. In other words, by the women who pretend to be what they not quite are.
By 1900, Bland was part of the inner circle who controlled the Fabian Society. In December 1906, he and other members of the inner circle defeated H. G. Wells's "attempt to take over and change the Fabian Society". Bland was the Fabian delegate at the Labour Party conferences in 1908 and 1910.
"The Blands' socialist principles and sympathy for the oppressed never prevented them from enjoying a thoroughly bourgeois affluence, reflected in their increasingly grand houses [and] growing numbers of servants." Their affluence began in the late 1880s when both of them were selling more of their writings.
Other political activity
In 1885, Bland was briefly a member of the Social Democratic Federation, but he "found its programme too inflammatory."
In the 1890s, Bland supported the liberal Independent Labour Party. However, he took a what some socialists saw as a reactionary position by supporting the South African Second Boer War. He wrote in December 1899 that defeat in Africa would mean "starvation in every city of Great Britain", while war would "overcome national flabbiness and restore the manhood of the British people." Bland's support of Britain's imperial interests began to make him unpopular with his fellow socialists.
Bland served for a while on the Board of Governors of the London School of Economics and Political Science.
Journalist
Before his journalism career, Bland had shown that he was "ill-equipped for business." It was Nesbit who kept the household going financially by having her poems and stories published. With Nesbit's support, Bland became a journalist in 1889, at first as a freelancer. In 1892, he became a regular columnist for the radical newspaper, Manchester Sunday Chronicle. His column contained "amusing, sharp-eyed, and pithy" comments. Critics praise Bland as having been "the most forceful and influential columnist of his day" who reached "almost the high-water mark of English journalism."
Yet, Bland's "writings are now forgotten, except by a few historians."
By 1899, the couple were financially secure. Bland's job as a columnist gave him "a secure income for the rest of his life" and Nesbit had become a successful writer. The couple lived in Well Hall House, Eltham from 1899 until Bland's death and Nesbit until 1920. Well Hall was their finest home and it served "a salon for figures in the literary political world."
Death and legacy
After years of suffering from heart trouble, in November 1910 Bland had "a massive heart attack." The following year, his sight failed him. He had to give up lecturing and resign as treasurer of the Fabian Society. However, he continued writing his weekly column, with Alice Hoatson as his stenographer. He was dictating to her at Well Hall 14 April 1914, when he suddenly felt giddy, lowered himself to the floor, and died of a heart attack in her arms. He was buried with Catholic rites on 18 April in the family plot at Woolwich cemetery.
Regarding Bland's legacy, Claire Tomalin has written thatBland is one of the minor enigmas of literary history in that everything reported of him makes him sound repellent, yet he was admired, even adored, by many intelligent men and women... He did not aspire to be consistent. He allowed his wife to support him with her pen for some years, but was always opposed to feminism... In mid-life, he joined the Catholic Church, a further cosmetic touch to his old-world image, but without modifying his behaviour or even bothering to attend more than the statutory minimum of masses.
Works
"The Outlook" in Fabian Essays on Socialism (Fabian Society, 1889))
The Prophet's Mantle (1895/1898) by Fabian Bland, a pseudonym of Edith Nesbit and Hubert Bland.
With the Eyes of a Man (T. Werner Laurie, 1905)
After Bread, Education: A Plan for the State Feeding of School Children (Fabian Society, 1905)
Letters to a Daughter (M. Kennerley, 1907)
The Happy Moralist (T. Werner Laurie, 1907)
Socialism and Orthodoxy (Garden City Press, Printers, 1911)
Essays: "Hubert" of the Sunday Chronicle, chosen by Edith Nesbit Bland (Goschen, 1914)
References
1855 births
1914 deaths
British socialists
Social Democratic Federation members
Members of the Fabian Society
Treasurers of the Fabian Society |
356950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Be-In | Human Be-In | The Human Be-In was an event held in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park Polo Fields on January 14, 1967. It was a prelude to San Francisco's Summer of Love, which made the Haight-Ashbury district a symbol of American counterculture and introduced the word "psychedelic" to suburbia.
Origins
Counterculture
The Human Be-In focused the key ideas of the 1960s counterculture: personal empowerment, cultural and political decentralization, communal living, ecological awareness, higher consciousness (with the aid of psychedelic drugs), acceptance of illicit psychedelics use, and radical New Left political consciousness. The hippie movement developed out of disaffected student communities around San Francisco State University, City College and Berkeley and in San Francisco's beat generation poets and jazz hipsters, who also combined a search for intuitive spontaneity with a rejection of "middle-class morality". Allen Ginsberg personified the transition between the beat and hippie generations.
Protests
The Human Be-In took its name from a chance remark by the artist Michael Bowen made at the Love Pageant Rally. The playful name combined humanist values with the scores of sit-ins that had been reforming college and university practices and eroding the vestiges of entrenched segregation, starting with the lunch counter sit-ins of 1960 in Greensboro, North Carolina, and Nashville, Tennessee. The first major teach-in had been organized by Students for a Democratic Society at the University of Michigan, 24–25 March 1965.
Event
The Human Be-In was announced on the cover of the fifth issue of the San Francisco Oracle as "A Gathering of the Tribes for a Human Be-In". The occasion was a new California law banning the use of the psychedelic drug LSD that had come into effect on October 6, 1966. The speakers at the rally were all invited by Bowen, the main organizer. They included Timothy Leary in his first San Francisco appearance, who set the tone that afternoon with his famous phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out" and Richard Alpert (soon to be known as "Ram Dass"), and poets like Allen Ginsberg, who chanted mantras, Gary Snyder and Michael McClure. Other counterculture gurus included comedian Dick Gregory, Lenore Kandel, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Jerry Rubin, and Alan Watts. Music was provided by a host of local rock bands including Jefferson Airplane, The Grateful Dead, Big Brother and the Holding Company, Quicksilver Messenger Service, and Blue Cheer, most of whom had been staples of the Fillmore and the Avalon Ballroom. "Underground chemist" Owsley Stanley provided massive amounts of his "White Lightning" LSD, specially produced for the event, as well as 75 turkeys, for free distribution by the Diggers.
The national media were stunned, publicity about this event leading to the mass movement of young people from all over America to descend on the Haight-Ashbury area. Reports were unable to agree whether 20,000 or 30,000 people showed up at the Be-In. Soon every gathering was an "-In" of some kind: Just four weeks later was Bob Fass's Human Fly-In, then the Emmett Grogan inspired Sweep-In, Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In comedy television show began airing over NBC just a year later on January 22, 1968. This was followed by the first "Yip-In" (March 21, 1968, at Grand Central Terminal), "Love-In" (April 14, 1968, at Malibu Canyon) and, John Lennon and Yoko Ono's "Bed-In" (March 25, 1969, in Amsterdam).
The Human Be-In was later recalled by poet Allen Cohen (who assisted the artist Bowen in the organizational work,) as a meld that brought together philosophically opposed factions of the San Francisco-based counterculture at the time: on one side, the Berkeley radicals, who were tending toward increased militancy in response to the U.S. government's Vietnam war policies, and, on the other side, the rather non-political Haight-Ashbury hippies, who urged peaceful protest. Their means were drastically different, but they held many of the same goals.
According to Cohen's own account, his friend Bowen provided much of the "organizing energy" for the event, and Bowen's personal connections also strongly influenced its character.
Legacy
The counterculture that surfaced at the "Human Be-In" encouraged people to "question authority" with regard to civil rights, women's rights, and consumer rights. Underground newspapers and radio stations served as its alternative media.
A Human Be-In was put on in Denver, Colorado in July 1967 by Chet Helms and Barry Fey to harness the energy of the famed San Francisco event that occurred in January and promote their new Family Dog Productions venue, The Family Dog Denver. The event attracted 5,000 people and featured performances by the Grateful Dead, Odetta and Captain Beefheart. Timothy Leary and Ken Kesey were said to have also been in attendance.
The Be-In later spawned a series of Digital Be-Ins.
A UK theatre company, Theatre 14167, (also 14167 films) takes its name from the date of the Be-In; the company subsequently produced work by Michael McClure, who read at the event.
See also
Bed-In
Central Park be-in
Counterculture of the 1960s
Teach-in
Timeline of 1960s counterculture
References
Notes
Further reading
External links
Human Be-In 50th Anniversary
Allen Cohen's website, with history from an insider.
Haight-Ashbury in the 1960s 'Rockument' commentary and sound bites.
1967 Berkeley Poster for 'Pow-Wow: A Gathering of the Tribes for a Human Be-In'
Loren Sears' Human Be-In film at 'The Diggers Archive'
Counterculture festivals
Festivals in California
Golden Gate Park
Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco
Hippie movement
History of San Francisco
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
1967 in California
January 1967 events in the United States
1967 in the United States
1960s in San Francisco |
356955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20%26%20Ruby | Max & Ruby | Max & Ruby is a Canadian children's animated television series produced by Nelvana Limited based on the book series by Rosemary Wells. The series debuted on Treehouse TV on May 3, 2002, in Canada and on Nick Jr. on January 7, 2003, in the United States.
Premise
Max & Ruby is about two bunnies: Max, a rambunctious and determined three-year-old and his sister Ruby, a patient, goal-oriented and sometimes restrictive seven-year-old. The series takes place in a fictional town called Eastbunny Hop, in a universe populated by mostly bunnies and other creatures in the 1940s and 1950s. According to Wells, the series shows the relationship between Ruby, Max and the universal nature of sibling relationships.
Episodes
Characters
Main
Max (voiced by Billy Rosemberg in seasons 1–3, Tyler Stevenson in seasons 4–5, Gavin MacIver-Wright in seasons 6–7)-A -year-old bunny. He has white fur, some clothes including some long overalls and is Ruby's younger brother. Prior to seasons 3–5, for the first few episodes of seasons 1 and 2, Max says one word (with the exception of a few episodes like Max's Bedtime and Ruby's Candy Store and his voiceover saying the episode's title card with the episodes that has "Ruby" in it). He does this again in season 5 (voiceover on the episode's title card; but only the ones that have Ruby). In seasons 6 and 7, Max (along with Morris) says words in full sentences.
Ruby (voiced by Katie Griffin in season 1, Samantha Morton in season 2, Rebecca Peters in seasons 3–5, Lana Carillo in season 6–7) -A 7-year-old white bunny. She has white fur and is Max's older sister. She's the more level-headed of the siblings. She is also a member of the bunny scouts, which appear to function like the Girl Scouts.
Recurring
Grace (voiced by Julie Lemieux)-One of Max and Ruby's new baby siblings and Oliver's younger twin sister. Like Max, Grace loves to get dirty.
Oliver (voiced by Julie Lemieux)-One of Max and Ruby's new baby siblings and Grace's older twin brother. Like Ruby, Oliver loves to keep clean.
Mom (a.k.a. Mrs. Bunny) (voiced by Caroly Larson) -Max and Ruby's mother. She and Ruby are close and she trusts Ruby's ability to help out with Max. She is Grandma's daughter-in-law and Grandpa's daughter.
Dad (a.k.a. Mr. Bunny) (voiced by Paul Bates)-Max and Ruby's father. He is Grandma's son and Grandpa's son-in-law.
Grandma (voiced by Kay Hawtrey) has grey fur and is the paternal grandmother to Max and Ruby. Max and Ruby sometimes compete as to whose ideas are better in order to impress her, but in the end she likes both of their ideas equally. She is Dad's mother and Mum's mother-in-law.
Grandpa (voiced by Tony Jay) has grey fur and is the maternal grandfather to Max and Ruby. Max and Ruby sometimes compete as to whose ideas are better in order to impress him, but in the end he likes both of their ideas equally. He is Mum's father and Dad's father-in-law.
Louise (voiced by Julie Lemieux)-Ruby's best friend who has tan/auburn fur. She is also 7 years old.
Baby Huffington "Baby H" (voiced by Joshua Savage)-Mr. and Mrs. Huffington's baby son. His real name is Gabriel.
Mrs. Huffington (originally voiced by Emily Scott, then Catherine Disher in seasons 6–7)-The wife of Mr. Huffington and mother of Baby Huffington.
Mr. Huffington (voiced by John Torres)-The husband to Mrs. Huffington and father of Baby Huffington.
Valerie (voiced by Loretta Jafelice)-A friend of Ruby; she has brown fur.
Martha (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain)-A friend of Ruby; she has gold fur.
Morris (voiced by Cameron Ansell seasons 1–5, Nicholas Fry in seasons 6–7)-Louise's two-year-old cousin and a friend of Max.
Roger Piazza (voiced by Robert Hall (season 2-early season 3) Joanne Vannicola (late season 3-)-The son of Mr. Piazza. He is older than Ruby and Louise; he is years old.
Aunt Claire and Uncle Nate-Max and Ruby's great aunt and great uncle.
Bunny Scout Leader (voiced by Sarah Adams)-The leader of the Bunny Scouts.
Mr. Piazza (voiced by Jamie Watson)-Mr. Piazza runs the local market in East Bunnyhop and is the father of Roger.
Super Bunny-Max's favourite super hero.
Bunny Drew-Ruby's favourite fictional detective.
Candi (voiced by Carolyn Hennesy)-The owner of the candy shop in East Bunnyhop.
Rosalinda (voiced by Anne Hill)-The owner of a gift shop that sells jewellery and collectibles and a friend of Max and Ruby's grandmother, Mary.
Katie (voiced by Yvonne Craig)-Waitress at the diner in East Bunnyhop.
Miss Bunty (voiced by Maliaka Bryce)-Max's preschool teacher.
Winston (voiced by Ethan Tavares)-One of Max's classmates. He is confined to a wheelchair.
Lily (voiced by Isabella Leo)-One of Max's classmates. She is Max's best friend.
Priya (voiced by Laabiah Alvi)-One of Max's classmates.
Mr. Estevez (voiced by Carlos Diaz)-Ruby, Louise and Valerie's teacher in school.
Antonio (voiced by Emilio Virguez)-One of Ruby's classmates.
Production
Max & Ruby is produced by Nelvana Limited, in conjunction with Silver Lining Productions for its first five seasons, which was acquired by Chorion in 2005. 9 Story Media Group overtook producing the animation from Nelvana in season 3 and would continue animating the series for seasons 4 and 5, with Chorion co-producing the series for seasons 4 and 5. After Chorion and its division Silver Lining Productions both close their doors after season 5, Atomic Cartoons, a Canadian animation studio, overtook co-producing the series, season 6 of which premiered on September 18, 2016, with a new main voice cast and theme song, along with each episode now having 2 10-minute segments per half-hour, rather than having 3 7-minute segments as in previous seasons. Season 7 of the series premiered on August 12, 2018.
In an interview with Nick Jr., Wells has said about Max and Ruby's unseen parents that "we don't see Max and Ruby's parents, because [she] believe[s] that kids resolve their issues and conflicts differently when they are on their own. The television series gives kids a sense about how these two siblings resolve their conflicts in a humorous and entertaining way." However, in season 6, the series finally introduced Max and Ruby's parents.
Telecast and home media
Max & Ruby was first premiered on Treehouse TV in Canada on May 3, 2002. In the United States, the series aired on Nick Jr. on January 7, 2003. A British English dub started broadcasting on Nick Jr. in the UK and Ireland in February 2003.
DVDs
United States
Paramount Home Media Distribution is the DVD distributor for the series in the United States. As of March 29, 2012, 2.9 million DVD units of the series from Nickelodeon have been sold in the U.S.
Main series
Episodes on Nick Jr. compilation DVDs
Currently, the show is now streaming on Paramount+.
References
External links
on Treehouse TV
on Nick Jr.
2000s Canadian animated television series
2010s Canadian animated television series
2000s preschool education television series
2010s preschool education television series
2002 Canadian television series debuts
2019 Canadian television series endings
Canadian flash animated television series
Animated television series about Leporidae
Animated television series about siblings
Animated television series about children
Canadian children's animated comedy television series
Canadian children's animated fantasy television series
Canadian preschool education television series
Canadian television shows based on children's books
Fictional duos
Animated preschool education television series
Nick Jr. original programming
Treehouse TV original programming
NHK original programming
Television series by Nelvana
Television series by Corus Entertainment
Television series by 9 Story Media Group |
356956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Wellington%20%28Tasmania%29 | Mount Wellington (Tasmania) | Mount Wellington, officially Kunanyi / Mount Wellington (), is a mountain in the southeast of Tasmania, Australia. It is the summit of the Wellington Range and is within Wellington Park reserve. Hobart, Tasmania's capital city, is located at the foot of the mountain.
The mountain rises to above sea level and is frequently covered by snow, sometimes even in summer, and the lower slopes are thickly forested, but crisscrossed by many walking tracks and a few fire trails. There is also a sealed narrow road to the summit, about from Hobart central business district. An enclosed lookout near the summit has views of the city below and to the east, the Derwent estuary, and also glimpses of the World Heritage Area nearly west. From Hobart, the most distinctive feature of Mount Wellington is the cliff of dolerite columns known as the Organ Pipes.
Geology
The low-lying areas and foothills of Mount Wellington were formed by slow geological upsurge when the whole Hobart area was a low-lying cold shallow seabed. The upper reaches of the mountain were formed more violently, as a Sill with a tabular mass of igneous rock that has been intruded laterally between layers of older rock pushing upwards by upsurges of molten rock as the Australian continental shelf tore away from Antarctica, and separated from Gondwana over 40 million years ago.
Indigenous history
The aboriginal nations people of the area referred to Mount Wellington as kunanyi (or ungyhaletta), poorawetter (or pooranetere, also pooranetteri).
The indigenous people of Tasmania referred to it as kunanyi. The Palawa, the surviving descendants of the original indigenous Tasmanians, tend to prefer the latter name. In 2013, the Tasmanian government announced a dual naming policy and "kunanyi / Mount Wellington" was named as one of the inaugural dual named geographic features.
European history
The first recorded European in the area Abel Tasman probably did not see the mountain in 1642, as his ship was quite a distance out to sea as he sailed up the South East coast of the island – coming closer in near present-day North and Marion Bays.
No other Europeans visited Tasmania until the late eighteenth century, when several visited southern Tasmania (then referred to as Van Diemens Land) including Frenchman Marion du Fresne (1772), Englishmen Tobias Furneaux (1773), James Cook (1777) and William Bligh (1788 and 1792), and Frenchman Bruni d'Entrecasteaux (1792–93). In 1793 Commodore John Hayes arrived at the Derwent River, naming the mountain Skiddaw, after the mountain in the Lake District, although this name never gained popularity.
In 1798 Matthew Flinders and George Bass circumnavigated the island. Whilst they were resting in the area Flinders named the river the Derwent River (the name John Hayes had given only to the upper part of the river), Flinders referred to the mountain as 'Table Mountain' (the name given to it by Bond and Bligh – young Matthew Flinders was with them in 1791) for its similarity in appearance to Table Mountain in South Africa. Bruni d'Entrecasteaux's men were the first European to sail up the river and chart it. Later Nicholas Baudin led another French expedition in 1802, and whilst sheltering in the Derwent River (which they referred to as 'River du Nord' – the name d'Entrecasteaux had given to it) Baudin also referred to the mountain as 'Montagne du Plateau' (also named by d'Entrecasteaux). However, the British first settled in the Hobart area in 1804, resulting in Flinders' name of 'Table Mountain' becoming more popular. Table Mountain remained its common name until in 1832 it was decided to rename the mountain in honour of the Duke of Wellington who, with Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher finally defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in present-day Belgium on 18 June 1815.
In February 1836, Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town and climbed Mount Wellington. In his book The Voyage of the Beagle, Darwin described the mountain thus;
"... In many parts the Eucalypti grew to a great size, and composed a noble forest. In some of the dampest ravines, tree-ferns flourished in an extraordinary manner; I saw one which must have been at least twenty feet high to the base of the fronds, and was in girth exactly six feet. The fronds forming the most elegant parasols, produced a gloomy shade, like that of the first hour of the night. The summit of the mountain is broad and flat, and is composed of huge angular masses of naked greenstone. Its elevation is above the level of the sea. The day was splendidly clear, and we enjoyed a most extensive view; to the north, the country appeared a mass of wooded mountains, of about the same height with that on which we were standing, and with an equally tame outline: to the south the broken land and water, forming many intricate bays, was mapped with clearness before us. ..."
The first weather station was set up on Mount Wellington in 1895 by Clement Lindley Wragge.
Mount Wellington has played host to some notorious characters over time, especially the bushranger 'Rocky' Whelan, who murdered several travelers in the middle of the 19th century. The cave where he lived is known appropriately as 'Rocky Whelan's Cave', and is an easy walk from the Springs.
Development
Throughout the 19th and into the 20th centuries, the mountain was a popular day-resort for residents of Hobart. To that end, many excursion huts were built over the lower slopes of the mountain. However, none of these early huts survive as they were all destroyed during the disastrous bushfires of 1967, though modern huts are open to the public at the Springs, the Pinnacle, the Chalet – a picnic spot about halfway between the Springs and the Pinnacle – and elsewhere. Sadly, many of the more remote huts have suffered from vandalism, and some are virtually derelict.
The road to the summit was constructed in the early 1930s as a relief scheme for the unemployed, an idea initiated by Albert Ogilvie, the premier of Tasmania of the day. While the road is officially known as the Pinnacle Drive, it was, for some time, also widely known among residents of Hobart as 'Ogilvie's Scar' because at the time it was constructed 'the Mountain' was heavily logged and almost bare, and the road was an all-too-obvious scar across the already denuded mountain. Today the trees have grown again, but the 'scar' most people see today is not actually the road but a line of large rocks with no trees 50–100 m above the road, provided as an easement for power lines. The road itself was opened on 23 January 1937, after two years of work, by Governor Sir Ernest Clark.
The road carries tourist traffic during the day, and sections may be closed at any time of the year due to snowfalls or icy conditions. Halfway up this road (at 720 metres) is a picnic area called "The Springs", near the site of a chalet/health spa that was destroyed by bushfire in 1967.
Mount Wellington was selected by many broadcasters as the site of radio and television transmitters as it provides line-of-sight transmission to a large area of Hobart and surrounding districts. The first television stations to transmit from the mountain were TVT-6 (now WIN Television) and ABT-2 (the ABC) in 1960. Two main transmission towers located at its pinnacle; the concrete and steel BAI Communications tower (sometimes referred to as the NTA tower) and the other owned by WIN Television, of steel construction. The NTA tower broadcasts all of Hobart's high-power FM radio stations, plus the digital TV services for ABC and SBS. It also has a small accommodation area at its base, with a kitchen and workshop area. The WIN tower broadcasts the digital TV services for Southern Cross, WIN Television, and Tasmanian Digital Television. The site also contains a small kitchen area and contains some data links from local Hobart businesses. An amateur radio repeater is also installed on the mountain.
Cable car proposals
See Mount Wellington cable car proposals
An aerial cableway (cable car) has been proposed for the mountain on four occasions.
Climate
Mount Wellington has a Tundra Climate (Köppen: ET). The mountain significantly influences Hobart's weather, and intending visitors to the summit are advised to dress warmly against the often icy winds at the summit, which have been recorded at sustained speeds of over , with rare gusts of up to . In the winter it frequently snows and the mountain is often snowcapped. Lighter snowfalls in spring, summer and autumn are also common. A day on the summit can consist of clear sunny skies, then rain, snow, icy winds and clear again.
See also
List of highest mountains of Tasmania
References
Further reading
208 Network. (1994) Mt. Wellington – Mountain Park resource management plan and master plan for the Corporation of the City of Hobart : final draft for public comment : Hobart : 208 Network. "The 208 Network is John Hepper, Jerry de Gryse, with assistance from Chris Sharples, Fred and Diana Duncan, Robert Taylor, Hilary du Cros, Lindy Scripps, Greg Hodge".
Curtis, Winifred M. (Winifred Mary) (n.d.) Forests and flowers of Mount Wellington, Tasmania illustrated by D. Colbron Pearse. [Hobart]: Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery.
de Quincey, Elizabeth and Cannon, John (2005) The Companion to Tasmanian History p. 245 – entry "Mount Wellington"
Barnes, Angus (1992) , 'Mount Wellington and the sense of place', Honours thesis, University of Tasmania. https://eprints.utas.edu.au/31711/
External links
Wellington Park official website
Wellington, Mount
Wellington, Mount
Mount Wellington
Mount Wellington
Mount Wellington
Jurassic Oceania |
356964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1942%20in%20sports | 1942 in sports | Note — many sporting events did not take place because of World War II
1942 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
American football
NFL Championship: the Washington Redskins won 14–6 over the Chicago Bears at Griffith Stadium
1 January – The Rose Bowl not being available for war-related reasons, the Oregon State Beavers play the Duke Blue Devils for that championship at the latter's venue of Durham, North Carolina, beating the Blue Devils, 20–16.
Ohio State Buckeyes – college football national championship (coached by Paul Brown)
Association football
FIFA World Cup – not held due to World War II.
La Liga is won by Valencia CF.
German football championship won by Schalke 04
Serie A won by A.S. Roma
Primeira Liga won by S.L. Benfica
Japan defeat Republic Of China, Manchukuo, Mongolia, by 6–1, 3–0, 12–0 during 8–20 August 1942 to win Manchuria 10th Anniversary Tournament.
There is no major football competition in England, Scotland or France due to World War II. In England, several regional leagues are played but statistics from these are not counted in players’ figures.
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League – Essendon wins the 46th VFL Premiership, beating Richmond 19.18 (132) to 11.13 (79) in the 1942 VFL Grand Final.
Baseball
January 4 – Hall of Fame election: Rogers Hornsby is elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame, getting 78 percent of the vote. Further selections of 19th-century players are delayed.
January 15 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt gives baseball the go-ahead to play despite World War II. FDR encourages more night baseball so that war workers may attend. The Cubs, who had signed contracts to install lights at Wrigley Field, drop their plans because of the military need for the material. There will be no lights at Wrigley for 46 more years.
World Series – St. Louis Cardinals (NL) defeat New York Yankees (AL), 4 games to 1.
Negro League World Series – Kansas City Monarchs (NAL) defeat Homestead Grays (NNL), 4 games to none.
The Winnipeg Maroons win the Northern League championship. It would also be their last.
Leones Caracas, as most successful professional baseball club in Venezuela, officially founded on May 7.
Basketball
NBL Championship
Oshkosh All-Stars win two games to one over the Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons
Events
The tenth South American Basketball Championship in Santiago is won by Argentina.
Cricket
Events
There is no first-class cricket in England or Australia due to World War II. A few first-class matches are played in the West Indies, South Africa and New Zealand but are not part of any official competition.
Former England international Andy Ducat dies of a heart attack on 23 July during a game at Lord's Cricket Ground whilst playing for his unit of the Home Guard from Surrey against another from Sussex.
India
Ranji Trophy – Bombay beat Mysore by an innings and 281 runs.
Bombay Pentangular – not contested
West Indies
Trinidad are dismissed for just 16 against Barbados during a game at the Bridgetown Oval – still the lowest team innings total in West Indian first-class cricket history.
Cycling
Tour de France
not contested due to World War II
Giro d'Italia
not contested due to World War II
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
not contested due to World War II
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Byron Nelson
U.S. Open – not played due to World War II
British Open – not played due to World War II
PGA Championship – Sam Snead
Men's amateur
British Amateur – not played due to World War II
U.S. Amateur – not played due to World War II
Women's professional
Women's Western Open – Betty Jameson
Titleholders Championship – Dorothy Kirby
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Medoc II
Grand National – not held due to World War II
Hurdle races
Champion Hurdle – Forestation
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Colonus
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Ten To Ace
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Djebel
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Windsor Slipper
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Big Game
The Derby – Watling Street
St. Leger Stakes – Sun Chariot
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Shut Out
Preakness Stakes – Alsab
Belmont Stakes – Shut Out
Ice hockey
National Hockey League
Stanley Cup – Toronto Maple Leafs won 4 games to 3 over the Detroit Red Wings
The Leafs won the series after losing the first three games, a feat that has only happened twice since then in North American professional sports.
NHL scoring leader – Bryan Hextall, New York Rangers
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player – Tom Anderson, Brooklyn Americans
Motor racing
Events
No major races are held anywhere worldwide due to World War II
Rowing
The Boat Race
Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race is not contested due to World War II
Rugby league
1942 New Zealand rugby league season
1942 NSWRFL season
1941–42 Northern Rugby Football League Wartime Emergency League season / 1942–43 Northern Rugby Football League Wartime Emergency League season
Rugby union
Five Nations Championship series is not contested due to World War II
Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
not contested due to World War II
Tennis
Australia
Australian Men's Singles Championship – not contested
Australian Women's Singles Championship – not contested
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – not contested
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – not contested
France
French Men's Singles Championship – Bernard Destremau (France) defeats Marcel Bernard (France) — score to be ascertained
French Women's Singles Championship – Alice Weiwers (Luxembourg) † details to be ascertained
USA
American Men's Singles Championship – Ted Schroeder (USA) defeats Frank Parker (USA) 8–6, 7–5, 3–6, 4–6, 6–2
American Women's Singles Championship – Pauline Betz Addie (USA) defeats Louise Brough Clapp (USA) 4–6, 6–1, 6–4
Davis Cup
1942 International Lawn Tennis Challenge – not contested
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year: Frank Sinkwich, College football
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year: Gloria Callen, Swimming
Notes
Owing to government bans on weekday sport, the Melbourne Cup was run on a Saturday from 1942 to 1944.
References
Sports by year |
356969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey%20Palmer%20%28politician%29 | Geoffrey Palmer (politician) | Sir Geoffrey Winston Russell Palmer (born 21 April 1942) is a New Zealand lawyer, legal academic, and past politician, who was a member of Parliament from 1979 to 1990. He served as the 33rd prime minister of New Zealand for a little over a year, from August 1989 until September 1990, leading the Fourth Labour Government. As Minister of Justice from 1984 to 1989, Palmer was responsible for considerable reforms of the country's legal and constitutional framework, such as the creation of the Constitution Act 1986, New Zealand Bill of Rights, Imperial Laws Application Act, and the State Sector Act. He served as president of the New Zealand Law Commission, from 2005 to 2010.
Early life and education
Palmer was born in Nelson and attended Nelson Central School, Nelson Intermediate School and Nelson College. At Victoria University of Wellington, he studied both political science and law. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1964 and a Bachelor of Laws in 1965. After working for a time in Wellington, he attended the University of Chicago Law School, gaining a Juris Doctor in 1967. He moved from New Zealand to Iowa in August 1969 to become a professor at the University of Iowa College of Law. In his first year, he taught the newly adapted small-section courses of American Property law, Conflict Resolution, and International law. He also developed the curriculum for a Torts course to be taught during the second year of law school. This was the first course of its kind in the United States and he was granted tenure in his second year of teaching at the college. In 1972, he left to be a visiting professor at the University of Virginia College of Law. Eventually, in 1974, he was appointed to a professorship of law at Victoria University of Wellington, bringing him back to New Zealand. At the 1975 general election, Palmer took part in the "Citizens for Rowling" campaign.
Political career
Member of Parliament
In a 1979 by-election, Palmer was elected to Parliament as the member for Christchurch Central, having stood as the Labour Party candidate. In March 1981 he was elevated to the shadow cabinet as spokesperson for constitutional affairs and associate spokesperson for justice. Following Labour's unexpected loss at the 1981 general election Palmer gained the social welfare and accident compensation portfolios.
In 1983 Palmer stood for the deputy leadership of the party. In a three-way contest, in which all candidates were from Christchurch to reflect geographical proportionality, Palmer trailed on the first ballot to Papanui MP Mike Moore. Lyttelton MP Ann Hercus was eliminated and on the second ballot almost all of her supporters voted for Palmer, who beat Moore by one vote. He became deputy Leader of the Opposition.
When, in 1984, the Labour Party won the general elections, Palmer became Deputy Prime Minister of the Fourth Labour Government. He also became Attorney-General and Minister of Justice. The new justice minister, who had promoted proportional representation as a law professor in his book Unbridled Power?, also published in 1984, set up a Royal Commission to investigate the electoral system and propose modifications or alternatives. His Royal Commission reported in December 1986, recommending the mixed-member proportional representation system. After the 1987 elections, when Labour was re-elected, he also became Minister of the Environment, an area in which he took personal interest.
Leadership
The most notable feature of New Zealand politics at the time was the economic change promoted by the Finance Minister, Roger Douglas. Douglas was advancing monetarist policies involving extensive privatisation of state assets and the removal of tariffs and subsidies—these reforms were dubbed "Rogernomics". These policies, which contravened Labour's basic policy platform and campaign promises, were deeply unpopular with Labour's traditional support base, and resulted in a confrontation between Prime Minister David Lange and Roger Douglas. Lange also reneged from his promise to hold a binding referendum on the MMP system. Palmer conceded defeat on MMP at an April 1989 Labour regional conference, saying that the issue was "effectively dead for the immediate future." Eventually, Douglas was removed from Cabinet, but the dispute had weakened Lange enough that he resigned a month later. Palmer, being deputy leader, took over as Prime Minister. Electoral reformers in the Labour Party kept up the pressure, and in September 1989, after Palmer had become prime minister, the full annual conference of the Labour Party passed a remit endorsing a referendum on the principle of proportional representation.
Palmer, however, was perceived by the public as being too closely involved with Douglas's reforms. Of particular concern to many people was his work on the legal aspects of state sector rearrangement, such as his preparation of the State Owned Enterprises Act. The presence of David Caygill (a Douglas ally) as Minister of Finance further compounded perception that Palmer was doing nothing to address public concerns. The only area in which Palmer won praise from traditional left-wing supporters was in his handling of the Environment portfolio, which he kept when he became Prime Minister – it was his work here in initiating the resource management law reform process that eventually led to the creation of the Resource Management Act 1991.
Palmer later reflected on his brief premiership:
Two months before the 1990 elections, it was clear that Labour would not win. The perceived damage done by Roger Douglas's reforms, as well as Palmer's lack of general charisma, caused too many Labour supporters to abandon the party. In addition, Palmer was perceived as being too academic and aloof, reminding people of the paternalistic attitude that Douglas was accused of. Palmer was replaced by Mike Moore, who Labour believed would give it a better chance of winning. Palmer stated he had been prepared to lead the party to a likely defeat but was just as happy to step aside: "I was actually pretty pleased to get out at the end of 1990. I was quite happy to run through as PM and take the defeat, but if other people wanted to do it — be my guest"!
Palmer also chose to retire from parliament at the election, and was replaced as the Labour candidate in his seat by Lianne Dalziel. The leadership change failed, however, and the opposition National Party under Jim Bolger won a landslide victory.
Palmer became the second Labour leader to leave the party leadership without ever leading the party into an election after Alfred Hindmarsh. Of the Labour Prime Ministers and notwithstanding Hugh Watt's tenure as interim prime minister following the death of Norman Kirk, Palmer is the only one who had not also served as Leader of the Opposition before and/or after his tenure as Prime Minister.
After Parliament
Palmer later went on to serve as Professor of Law at Victoria University again. He also held a position as Professor of Law at the University of Iowa, and worked for a time as a law consultant. While at the University of Iowa he taught courses on International law and global environment issues as well as a two-week mini course about the International Court of Justice. The MMP system which he had helped promote was adopted in a 1993 referendum. In 1994, he established Chen Palmer & Partners, a specialist public law firm he began with Wellington lawyer Mai Chen. In September 2001 Palmer became a founding trustee of Motu Economic and Public Policy Research and in December 2002 was appointed to be New Zealand's representative to the International Whaling Commission (IWC). Palmer continued his involvement with, and teaching at Victoria University of Wellington and was regularly engaged as an expert consultant on public and constitutional law issues. , Palmer is an honorary fellow in the Faculty of Law at Victoria University of Wellington, and coordinates and lectures a course on public law and constitutional values in relation to public inquiries. His son Matthew Palmer was also a prominent legal academic and public servant, and was appointed a High Court judge in 2015.
Law Commissioner
On 1 December 2005 Palmer was appointed to the presidency of the New Zealand Law Commission (the government agency that reviews, reforms and seeks to improve the country's laws) by the Governor-General for a term of five years. During his tenure, he persuaded the Government to engage in a programme of reviewing the old Law Commission reports with a view to actioning them. This resulted in a number of existing reports being actioned. Palmer stepped down from the Law Commission at the end of his tenure on 1 December 2010.
UN Inquiry
In August 2010 Palmer was chosen to chair a UN Inquiry panel into the fatal Israeli raid on the Mavi Marmara, a Turkish ship participating in a Gaza-bound protest flotilla in May of that year. The panel included the outgoing Colombian President Álvaro Uribe as the Vice-chair, and representatives from Turkey and Israel. The report, released on 2 September 2011, found that Israel's "naval blockade was imposed as a legitimate security measure in order to prevent weapons from entering Gaza by sea and its implementation complied with the requirements of international law," and that Israeli soldiers enforcing the blockade faced "organized and violent resistance from a group of passengers" when they boarded the ship. However, the report also found that the Israeli soldiers responded with "excessive and unreasonable" force and recommended that Israel make "an appropriate statement of regret" and pay compensation.
Constitutional reform campaign
In September 2016, Palmer and legal academic Andrew Butler published A Constitution for Aotearoa New Zealand. In this book the pair outlined their arguments for New Zealand to adopt a written Constitution, and also drafted out what this would look like. They then invited public submissions on the subject online and spent a year promoting the book and their campaign. The pair released a second book in 2018, Towards Democratic Renewal, that amends some of their proposal in the previous text and further argues their cause for a written Constitution, taking on board the response of the public. This campaign is ongoing.
Honours and awards
Palmer was appointed a member of Her Majesty's Privy Council in 1985. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in the 1991 New Year Honours, and made an Honorary Companion of the Order of Australia in the same year. In 1991 he was listed on the United Nations Global 500 Roll of Honour for his work on environmental issues. These included reforming resource management law. Palmer also sat as a Judge ad hoc on the International Court of Justice in 1995. He holds honorary doctorates from three universities. In 2008 Palmer was one of the first people appointed as Senior Counsel during the temporary change from Queen's Counsel in the Helen Clark Government.
Lectures
Lecture entitled Perspectives on International Dispute Settlement from a Participant in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
Constitutional change and democratic renewal on 9 October 2017 at TEDxVUW conference, Victoria University of Wellington.
Notes
References
External links
Profile, NZ History
Prime Minister's Office biography (archived)
Law Commission biography
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Attorneys-General of New Zealand
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New Zealand Labour Party leaders
New Zealand legal scholars
New Zealand MPs for Christchurch electorates
New Zealand republicans
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356970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20the%20Builder | Bob the Builder | Bob the Builder is a British animated children's television series created by Keith Chapman for HIT Entertainment and Hot Animation. The series follows the adventures of Bob, a building contractor, specialising in masonry, along with his colleague Wendy, various neighbours, and friends, and their gang of anthropomorphised work-vehicles and equipment. The show is broadcast in many countries but originated from the United Kingdom where Bob was voiced by English actor Neil Morrissey. The series originally used stop-motion from 1999 to 2009, but later used CGI animation starting with the spin-off series Ready, Steady, Build!. British proprietors of Bob the Builder and Thomas the Tank Engine sold the enterprise in 2011 to US toy-maker Mattel for $680 million.
In each episode, Bob and his group help with renovations, construction, and repairs and with other projects as needed. The show emphasises conflict resolution, co-operation, socialisation, and various learning skills. Bob's catchphrase is "Can we fix it?", to which the other characters respond with "Yes we can!" This phrase is also the title of the show's theme song, which was a million-selling number one hit in the UK.
In October 2014, Bob the Builder was revamped by Mattel for a new series to be aired on Channel 5's Milkshake! in 2015. Amongst the changes were a complete overhaul of the cast, with Harry Potter actor Lee Ingleby replacing Neil Morrissey as the voice of Bob, and Joanne Froggatt and Blake Harrison also confirmed as the voices of Wendy and Scoop respectively. The setting and appearance of the characters also changed, with Bob and his team moving to the bustling metropolis of Spring City. An American localisation of the new series debuted on PBS Kids in November 2015. The changes have been criticised by fans of the original version.
The original series returned to TV in the United States on Qubo from 7 October 2020 through 28 February 2021 due to the channel's closure, but with the original British English dub instead of the dubbed American English one.
Episodes
Characters and voice actors
Voice actors who have contributed to the original British version include Neil Morrissey, Rob Rackstraw, Kate Harbour, Rupert Degas, Colin McFarlane, Maria Darling, Emma Tate, Richard Briers, and June Whitfield.
Celebrities who have provided voices for the series (usually for one-off specials) include John Motson, Sue Barker, Kerry Fox, Ulrika Jonsson, Alison Steadman, Stephen Tompkinson, Elton John, Noddy Holder, and Chris Evans (Bobsville's resident rock star Lennie Lazenby).
International broadcasts
Bob the Builder is shown in more than thirty countries, and versions are available in English, French, Spanish, Serbian, Swedish, Slovenian, German, Italian, Dutch, Hebrew, Hindi and Croatian, among other languages. It was shown on CBeebies on BBC television in the UK. It has also aired on Nick Jr. in the UK.
The North American version of the show uses the original British footage and script, but dubs the voices in American accents and slang; for example, the word "soccer" is used instead of "football" to avoid confusion with the gridiron forms of the game. The original North American voice of Bob (and Farmer Pickles/Mr. Beasley/Mr. Sabatini) was William Dufris, however, he was replaced with comedian Greg Proops. More recently, Bob's US voice has been provided by Marc Silk, an English voice actor from Birmingham. In the United States, the series first aired during the Nick Jr. block (from 2001 to 2004) before moving to PBS Kids for a long run, from 2005 until November 2018. Qubo also started airing the show from 7 October 2020 through 28 February 2021 due to the channel's closure, but with the original British English dub.
When being exported to Japan, it was reported that characters of Bob the Builder would be doctored to have five fingers instead of the original four. This was because of a practice among the Yakuza, the famed Japanese mafia, where members would "cut off their little fingers as a sign they can be trusted and have strength of character, and will stay through." In fact, Bob the Builder aired in Japan without such edits, as did other series including Postman Pat and The Simpsons.
Videos
Discography
Studio albums
Singles
Impact
Bob the Builder was nominated in the BAFTA "Pre-school animation" category from 1999 to 2009, and won the "Children's Animation" category in 2003 for the special episode "A Christmas to Remember". Of the show's success, Sarah Ball said:
Bob the Builder has been parodied by Robot Chicken in the episode "More Blood, More Chocolate", and by Comedy Inc. as Bodgy Builder.
Bob has also been parodied on Cartoon Network's MAD on several occasions. In the episode "S'UP / Mouse M.D.", Bob is seen with a smashed thumb and asks "Can we fix it?" In another episode, Bob encounters the title character of Handy Manny, whom he tells to "Stop copying my show!"
A New Yorker cartoon shows a parent in a toy store asking for toys depicting Alex the Architect, supposedly a white-collar equivalent to Bob the Builder.
Some have complained about technical errors and lack of proper safety practices in the programme, especially the absence of protective eyewear. However, in later episodes, Bob is seen using safety glasses.
Project: Build It
In May 2005, a sort of spin-off series was released titled Bob the Builder: Project: Build It. Bob hears of a contest to build a new community in a remote area called Sunflower Valley, outside of Bobsville. He moves from Bobsville (supposedly temporarily) with Wendy and the machines and builds a new Yard there. Bob convinces his father, Robert, to come out of retirement and take over the Bobsville building business. It is unknown whether Bob returned to Bobsville in the stop-motion series or not after this spin-off series was finished.
For the US version of the Project: Build It series, different actors were found to do the voices for many of the human characters, including casting Greg Proops as the new voice of Bob, and Rob Rackstraw, who played the original voices of Scoop, Muck and Travis, to be the voices of Spud the Scarecrow and Mr. Bentley for both the UK and the US. The show also added recycling and being environmentally friendly to its lessons, emphasising the phrase "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle."
This series premiered on 2 May 2005 in the United Kingdom and 3 September of the same year in the United States, and was the first series made in HD 1080p.
Ready, Steady, Build!
The third spin-off was titled Bob the Builder: Ready, Steady, Build! It was created by Keith Chapman and Mallory Lewis. The group, now joined by newcomer Scratch are now residing in the town of Fixham Harbour (which is very similar to Bobsville, and is even implied to be Bobsville in several episodes), deal with construction and other building tasks around the area. Unlike previous series, Ready, Steady, Build! is animated in full CGI animation, which allows for larger and more elaborate construction projects that would be too large or expensive for the model sets of the stop-motion series, though it still retains the theme song.
Merchandise
Various companies manufacture licensed Bob the Builder merchandise (e.g.: Brio, Lego Duplo, Hasbro, Learning Curve, etc.) since about 1999 to present. Sometimes some fans make fan-made merchandise for the television show, such as racing games that are not related to the show.
Lego Duplo/Explore
Lego began manufacturing licensed Duplo Bob the Builder sets in 2001. Lego Explorer also made the sets using the same bricks that Duplo used (e.g. Naughty Spud, Wallpaper Wendy, etc.). The sets were aimed at younger children, two and up. Duplo manufactured the sets (e.g. Scoop at Bobland Bay, Muck Can Do It, etc.) until 2009 when Lego's contract expired.
Hasbro
Hasbro created licensed Bob the Builder characters. They included talking characters and others to go with the Bob the Builder line. The Hasbro line was discontinued in 2005 when Learning Curve took over.
Learning Curve
Learning Curve among countless others held a license to make the toys, but discontinued them. They first merchandised their Bob the Builder products in 2005 after the Hasbro range was discontinued. Learning Curve also created the Thomas & Friends characters, while the company still makes the sets (e.g. Scoop, Muck, Lofty, Dizzy, Andy's trailer etc.) and then sold them to stores. They discontinued them in 2010 and it is unknown if they could ever return to making them. The toys are currently available in the United Kingdom by Character Options.
Character World
In 2012, Character World announced that they had signed a license to manufacture official Bob the Builder bedding and bedroom textiles. A duvet cover is said to be available in the UK in late 2012.
Video games
Various companies released Bob the Builder games.
Fix it Fun! (Game Boy Color, NTSC/PAL) - 2000
Can We Fix It? (PC, PS1, NTSC/PAL) - 2001
Bob Builds a Park (PC, NTSC/PAL) - 2002
Bob's Castle Adventure (PC, NTSC/PAL) - 2003
Project: Build It (PS2, PAL only) - 2005
Festival of Fun! (PS2, Wii, Nintendo DS, PAL only) - 2007
Bob the Builder: Can-Do-Zoo (PC, NTSC/PAL) - 2008
In the United States, Bob the Builder: Can We Fix It?s computer version sold 350,000 copies and earned $6.1 million by August 2006, after its release in August 2001. It was the country's 50th best-selling computer game between January 2000 and August 2006. Combined sales of all Bob the Builder computer games released between January 2000 and August 2006 had reached 520,000 units in the United States by the latter date.
Kiddie rides
Jolly Roger (Amusement Rides) Ltd. released two kiddie rides based on the series, a Scoop in January 2000, and a Roley in March 2003. In March 2003, Scoop was re-released with a new dashboard and a Stamar soundboard. Then, in 2004, versions of both rides were released with video screens.
References
External links
Channels
Bob the Builder on ABC 4 Kids
Bob the Builder on CBeebies
Bob the Builder on Česká Televize
Bob the Builder on Nick Jr. UK
Bob the Builder on Sprout
Bob the Builder on Télé-Québec
Bob the Builder on TOGOLINGO
Bob the Builder on Treehouse TV
Official website on pbskids.org
Others
Official website
BBC children's television shows
Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming
Clay animation television series
British stop-motion animated television series
British computer-animated television series
1990s preschool education television series
2000s preschool education television series
2010s preschool education television series
British children's animated comedy television series
British children's animated fantasy television series
Television series by Mattel Creations
Television series by Cosgrove Hall Films
Television series by DHX Media
1999 British television series debuts
2011 British television series endings
PBS original programming
PBS Kids shows
Nick Jr. original programming
1990s British children's television series
2000s British children's television series
2010s British children's television series
1990s British animated television series
2000s British animated television series
2010s British animated television series
Television shows adapted into video games
British preschool education television series
Animated preschool education television series
CBeebies
Qubo
HIT Entertainment |
356973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald%20Alison%20%28author%29 | Archibald Alison (author) | Archibald Alison FRS FRSE (13 November 175717 May 1839) was a Scottish episcopalian priest and essayist.
Early life
He was born in Edinburgh, to Patrick Alison a Edinburgh magistrate, himself a younger son of an Alison of Newhall, near Coupar Angus.
After studying at the University of Glasgow, where he established his lifelong friendship with Dugald Stewart, and at Balliol College, Oxford, he took orders in the Church of England, and was appointed in 1778 to the curacy of Brancepeth, near Durham. In 1784 he married Dorothea Gregory, youngest daughter of Professor Gregory of Edinburgh.
Career
The next 20 years of his life were spent in Shropshire, where he held in succession the livings of High Ercall, Rodington and Kenley. In 1800 he moved back to Edinburgh, having been appointed senior incumbent of St Paul's Chapel in the Cowgate. For 34 years he filled this position with much ability; his sermons were characterised by quiet beauty of thought and grace of composition. His preaching attracted so many hearers that a new and larger church was built for him. The new St Paul's Chapel on York Place in the Edinburgh's New Town was completed in 1818, and Alison, along with Rev Robert Morehead served as clergy there.
From 1791 until death he held the title of Prebendary to Salisbury Cathedral.
In 1832 he was living at 44 Heriot Row in Edinburgh's city centre. His last years were spent at Colinton near Edinburgh, where he died on 17 May 1839. He was interred at St John's Episcopal Churchyard in Edinburgh.
Family
He married Dorothea Gregory, the sister of James Gregory in 1784. She died in 1830. Their sons included Sir Archibald Alison, 1st Baronet and William Pulteney Alison.
Works
Alison published, besides a Life of Lord Woodhouselee, a volume of sermons, which passed through several editions, and a work entitled Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790), based on the principle of "association".
References
19th-century British philosophers
1757 births
1839 deaths
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Writers from Edinburgh
18th-century Church of England clergy
19th-century Church of England clergy
Scottish biographers
Scottish Episcopalian priests
Scottish educators
Scottish philosophers
18th-century Anglican priests
19th-century Anglican priests
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
People of the Scottish Enlightenment
Enlightenment philosophers
18th-century Scottish educators
19th-century Scottish educators
Burials at St John's, Edinburgh |
356978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20sports | List of sports | The following is a list of sports/games, divided by category.
According to the World Sports Encyclopedia (2003), there are 8,000 indigenous sports and sporting games.
Physical sports
Acrobatic sports
Breakdancing
Cheerleading
Competitive dancing
Dancesport
Dragon dance and Lion dance
Figure skating
Freerunning
Gymnastics
High kick
Parkour
Pole sports
Stunt
Trampolining
Winter guard
Air sports
Aerobatics
Air racing
Cluster ballooning
Hopper ballooning
Gliding
Hang gliding
Powered hang glider
Human powered aircraft
Model aircraft
Parachuting
Banzai skydiving
BASE jumping
Skysurfing
Wingsuit flying
Paragliding
Powered paragliding
Paramotoring
Ultralight aviation
Archery
Field archery
Flight archery
Gungdo
Indoor archery
Kyūdō
Mounted archery
Popinjay
Run archery
Target archery
Ball-over-net games
Basketball family
Basketball
3x3 basketball
Beach basketball
Deaf basketball
Streetball
Unicycle basketball
Water basketball
Wheelchair basketball
Cestoball
Flickerball
Korfball
Netball
Fastnet
Indoor netball
Ringball
Slamball
Bat-and-ball
Board sports
Sports that are played with some sort of board as the primary equipment.
Catching games
Dodgeball
Frisbee
Gaga
Keep away
Kin-Ball
Newcomb ball
Quidditch
Yukigassen
Climbing
Abseiling
Aid climbing
Ice climbing
Mixed climbing
Mountaineering
Rock climbing
Bouldering
Deep-water soloing
Sport climbing
Traditional climbing
Speed climbing
Sawanobori
Other
Canyoning (Canyoneering)
Coasteering
Hiking
Rope climbing
Pole climbing
Cycling
Sports using bicycles or unicycles.
Bicycle
Artistic cycling
BMX
Cyclo-cross
Cycle polo
Cycle speedway
Downhill mountain biking
Dirt jumping
Freestyle BMX
Hardcourt Bike Polo
Mountain biking
Road bicycle racing
Track cycling
Underwater cycling
Skibob
Skibobbing
Unicycle
Mountain unicycling
Street unicycling
Unicycling
Unicycle basketball
Unicycle hockey
Unicycle trials
Combat sports: wrestling and martial arts
A combat sport is a competitive contact sport where two combatants fight against each other using certain rules of engagement.
Grappling
Striking
Mixed or hybrid
Weapons
Other
Cue sports
Dog sports
Sports in which dogs participate.
Equestrian sports
Sports using a horse.
Fishing
Angling
Big-game fishing
Casting
Noodling
Spearfishing
Sport fishing
Surf fishing
Rock fishing
Fly fishing
Ice fishing
Bass fishing
Flying disc sports
Disc dog
Disc golf
Disc golf (urban)
Dodge disc
Double disc court
Freestyle
Fricket
Frisbee
Goaltimate
KanJam
Guts
Flutterguts
Hot box
Ultimate
Football
Golf
Beach golf
Clock golf
Codeball
Dart golf
Disc golf
Footgolf
GolfCross
Hickory golf
Indoor golf
Long drive
Match play
Miniature golf
Park golf
Pitch and putt
Sholf
Shotgun start
Skins game
Snow golf
Speed golf
Stroke play
Swingolf
Topgolf
Urban Golf
Wiffle golf
Gymnastics
Competitive yoga
Handball family
Balle à la main
Ballon au poing
Beach handball
Czech handball
Field handball
Goalball
Tchoukball
Torball
Water polo
Hunting
Sometimes considered blood sports.
Beagling
Big game hunting
Boar hunting
Deer hunting
Fox hunting
Wolf hunting
Ice sports
Bandy
Rink bandy
Barrel jumping
Broomball
Moscow broomball
Curling
Figure skating
Single skating
Pair skating
Ice dancing
Synchronized skating
Four skating
Ice theatre
Ice cross downhill
Ice football
Ice hockey
Ice yachting
Ringette
Sledge hockey
Speed skating
Short track speed skating
Long track speed skating
Ice stock sport
Kite sports
Hang gliding
Kite buggy
Kite fighting
Kite landboarding
Kitesurfing
Parasailing
Snow kiting
Sport kite (Stunt kite)
Mixed discipline
Decathlon, heptathlon, and the pentathlons consist of ten, seven, and five-component contests that are scored together using one points system.
Adventure racing
Aquathlon
Biathlon
Duathlon
Decathlon
Heptathlon
Icosathlon
Modern pentathlon
Pentathlon
Tetrathlon
Triathlon
Orienteering family
Amateur radio direction finding (Radio Orienteering)
Geocaching
Geohashing
Letterboxing
Orienteering
Rogaining
Waymarking
Pilota family
American handball
Australian handball
Basque pelota
Jai alai
Fives
Eton Fives
Rugby Fives
Frisian handball
Four square
Gaelic handball
Jeu de paume
Longue paume
Palla
Pallone
Patball
Roundnet
Valencian pilota
Llargues
Parkour/Freerunning
Sport Parkour and Freerunning are empirically measured competitions of skill, speed or style on an obstacle based course. Self expression, demonstration of control and power are measured.
Freerunning
Martial Arts Tricking
Ninja Warrior
Obstacle racing (OCR)
Parkour
Trampolining
World Chase Tag
Racket (or racquet) sports
Remote control
Drone racing
Model aerobatics
RC racing
Robot combat
Robot football
Slot car racing
Rodeo-originated
Sports that have originated from rodeos in the old Western Americas.
Bullriding
Miniature Bull Riding
Barrel Racing
Bronc Riding
Saddle Bronc Riding
Bareback Bronc Riding
Pole bending
Roping
Breakaway Roping
Tie-down Roping
Team Roping
Steer Roping
Steer riding
Steer Wrestling
Goat Tying
Running
Endurance
5K run
10K run
Cross-country running
Half marathon
Marathon
Road running
Ekiden
Tower running
Ultramarathon
Snowshoe running
Fell running
Trail running
Mountain running
Skyrunning
Sprint
Hurdles
Sailing
Dinghy sailing
Ice yachting
Kiteboarding
Land sailing
Land windsurfing
Sailing
Windsurfing
Yacht racing
Snow sports
Skiing
Alpine skiing
Downhill
Super-G
Giant slalom
Slalom
Alpine skiing combined
Freestyle skiing
Aerials
Moguls
Halfpipe
Slopestyle
Ski cross
Ski ballet
Speed skiing
Nordic skiing
Cross-country skiing
Ski jumping
Nordic combined
Telemark skiing
Ski mountaineering
Ski touring
Skijoring
Sled sports
Bobsleigh
Luge
Shovel racing
Skibobbing
Skeleton
Toboggan
Shooting sports
Sports using guns (firearms, air guns, etc.).
Individual
Clay pigeon shooting
Skeet shooting
Trap shooting
Sporting clays
Slingshotting
Bullseye shooting
Rifle
ISSF rifle events
Fullbore target rifle
High power rifle
Benchrest shooting
Paralympic rifle events
Handgun
ISSF pistol events
Paralympic pistol events
Field shooting
Precision rifle competition
Precision Rifle Series
Field target
Metallic silhouette shooting
ICFRA Palma and F-Class
Plinking
Practical shooting
International Practical Shooting Confederation (IPSC)
International Defensive Pistol Association (IDPA)
Multigun
Cowboy action shooting
Olympic dueling
Match crossbow
Athletic hybrid
Modern pentathlon
Biathlon
Summer biathlon
Ski field shooting
Field running
Moose biathon
Target sprint
Pistol skiing
Orienteering shooting
Military patrol
Underwater target shooting
Skirmish
Airsoft
Laser tag
Paintball
Stacking
Card stacking
Cup stacking
Dice stacking
Sport stacking
Stick and ball games
Hornussen
Hockey
Hurling and shinty
Cammag
Hurling
Camogie
Shinty
Composite rules shinty-hurling
Lacrosse
Lacrosse
Box lacrosse
Field lacrosse
Intercrosse
Polocrosse
Women's lacrosse
Polo
Polo
Bicycle polo
Canoe polo
Cowboy polo
Elephant polo
Hobby horse polo
Segway polo
Yak polo
Street sports
Free running
Freestyle footbag
Freestyle football
Powerbocking
Parkour
Scootering
Street workout
Strength sports
Strongman
Tag games
Bo-taoshi
British bulldogs (American Eagle)
Capture the flag
Hana Ichi Monme
Hide and seek
Jugger
Kabaddi
Kho kho
Kick the can
Marco Polo
Oztag
Red rover
Tag
World Chase Tag
Walking
Backpacking (hiking)
Bushwhacking
Hiking
Racewalking
Walking
Wall-and-ball
Games involving opponents hitting a ball against a wall/walls using a racket, or other piece of equipment, or merely gloved/barehanded.
Aquatic and paddle sports
These sports use water (a river, pool, etc.).
Canoeing
Canoeing
Outrigger canoeing
Kayaking
Creeking
Flyak
Freeboating
Sea kayaking
Squirt boating
Surf kayaking
Whitewater kayaking
Rafting
Rafting
White water rafting
Rowing
Rowing (sport)
Gig racing
Coastal and ocean rowing
Surfboat
Single scull
Other paddling sports
Dragon boat racing
Stand up paddle boarding
Aquatic ball sports
Surface
Water polo
Canoe polo
Stone skipping
Waboba
Underwater
Underwater football
Underwater rugby
Underwater hockey
Competitive swimming
Backstroke
Breaststroke
Butterfly stroke
Freestyle swimming
Individual medley
Synchronized swimming
Medley relay
Kindred activities
Bifins (finswimming)
Surface finswimming
Subsurface and recreational
Apnoea finswimming
Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
Freediving
Immersion finswimming
Scuba diving
Spearfishing
Snorkelling
Sport diving (sport)
Underwater orienteering
Underwater photography (sport)
Underwater target shooting
Diving
Cliff diving
Diving
Weightlifting
Basque traditional weightlifting
CrossFit
Highland games
Kettlebell lifting
Olympic weightlifting
Powerlifting
Strength athletics (strongman)
Steinstossen
Motorized sports
Auto racing
Motorboat racing
Drag boat racing
F1 powerboat racing
Hydroplane racing
Jet sprint boat racing
Offshore powerboat racing
Personal water craft
Motorcycle racing
ATV racing
All-terrain vehicle competition
Marker sports
Airsoft
Archery
Paintball
Darts
Overlapping sports
Sports falling into two or more categories.
Tennis
Polocrosse
Badminton
Polo
Chess Boxing
Mind sports
Requiring little or no physical exertion or agility, mind sports are often not considered true sports. Some mind sports are recognised by sporting federations.
The following list is intended to represent anything that is likely to be referred to as a mind sport, not to argue their validity as sports.
Card games
Contract bridge
Hanafuda
Poker
Classic poker
Omaha
Online poker
Texas hold'em
Skat
Truco
Whist
Esports
Battle royale game
Combat flight simulation game
Digital collectible card game
Fighting game
First-person shooter
Multiplayer online battle arena
Real-time strategy
Sim racing
Sports video game
Third-person shooter
Virtual reality game
Other
Competitive Programming
Debating
Fantasy sport
Quizzing
Speedcubing
Speedcubing
2x2x2
3x3x3
3x3x3 One-Handed
4x4x4
5x5x5
6x6x6
7x7x7
Megaminx
Pyraminx
Rubik's Clock
Skewb
Square-1
Strategy board games
Competitive model sports
Mini 4WD
Model aircraft racing
Model yacht racing
Neppis
Slot car racing
Different classification
Potentially other sports are listed here.
Air sports
Banzai skydiving
Bungee jumping
Hot air ballooning
Athletics (track and field)
Athletics
Track and field
Steeplechase
Cross country
Jumping
Triple jump
Long jump
High jump
Pole vault
Throwing
Discus
Hammer throw
Javelin
Shot put
Racewalking
Electronic sports
Sports played using electronic devices.
Combat robot
Contesting
Radio-control vehicles
Video gaming
Endurance sports
Chariot racing
Cross-country skiing
Cycling
Iditarod
Long-distance running
Rowing
Swimming
Wheelchair racing
Wood chopping
Goal sports
Sports in which the method of scoring is through goals.
Basketball family
Football family
Handball family
Hockey family
Lacrosse
Polo
Waterpolo
Quidditch
Skating sports
Aggressive inline skating
Artistic roller skating
Figure skating
Freestyle slalom skating
Ice dancing
Ice skating
Inline speed skating
Rinkball
Roller derby
Roller hockey
Inline hockey
Inline skater hockey
Rink hockey
Roller skating
Short track speed skating
Speed skating
Synchronized skating
Snowsports
Boardercross
Freestyle snowboarding
Snowboarding
Ski flying
Skibob
Snowshoe running
Skiboarding
See #Skiing
Strength sports
Sports mainly based on sheer power.
Arm wrestling
Bodybuilding
CrossFit
Highland games
Olympic weightlifting
Powerlifting
Rock climbing
Strongman
Thumb wrestling
Toe wrestling
Tug-o-war
Wood chopping
Wood splitting
Zourkhaneh
Calisthenics
Table sports
Air hockey
Backgammon
Beer Pong
Connect Four
Cue sports (a.k.a Billiards)
Draughts (a.k.a. checkers)
Dominoes
Headis
Janggi
Mahjong (a.k.a. Taipei)
Reversi (a.k.a. Othello)
Scrabble
Subbuteo
Table football
Table hockey
Table tennis (a.k.a. ping pong)
Teqball
Xiangqi
Target sports
Sports where the main objective is to hit a certain target.
Team sports
Sports that involve teams.
Windsports
Sports which use the wind (apart from sailing):
Kite flying
Parachuting
Hot air balloon racing
Fictional sports
Fictional sports that are played in real life:
43-Man Squamish
Calvinball
Quidditch (Harry Potter)
Swiss Guyball
BASEketball
Brockian Ultra-Cricket
Hunger Games
Whack-bat
Blitzball
Miscellaneous sports
See also
Flying disc games
Individual sport
List of ball games
List of sports video games
List of types of games
Team sport
References
List of sports |
356981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Allston | Washington Allston | Washington Allston (November 5, 1779 – July 9, 1843) was an American painter and poet, born in Waccamaw Parish, South Carolina. Allston pioneered America's Romantic movement of landscape painting. He was well known during his lifetime for his experiments with dramatic subject matter and his bold use of light and atmospheric color. While his early artworks concentrate on grandiose and spectacular aspects of nature, his later pieces represent a more subjective and visionary approach.
Biography
Allston was born on a rice plantation on the Waccamaw River near Georgetown, South Carolina. His mother Rachel Moore had married Captain William Allston in 1775, though her husband died in 1781, shortly after the Battle of Cowpens. Moore remarried to Dr. Henry C. Flagg, the son of a wealthy shipping merchant from Newport, Rhode Island.
Named in honor of the leading American general of the Revolution, Washington Allston graduated from Harvard College in 1800 and moved to Charleston, South Carolina for a short time before sailing to England in May 1801. He was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in London in September, when painter Benjamin West was then the president.
From 1803 to 1808, he visited the great museums of Paris and then, for several years, those of Italy, where he met Washington Irving in Rome and Coleridge, his lifelong friend. In 1809, Allston married Ann Channing, sister of William Ellery Channing. Samuel F. B. Morse was one of Allston's art pupils and accompanied Allston to Europe in 1811. After traveling throughout western Europe, Allston finally settled in London, where he won fame and prizes for his pictures.
Allston was also a published writer. In London in 1813, he published The Sylphs of the Seasons, with Other Poems, republished in Boston, Massachusetts, later that year. His wife died in February 1815, leaving him saddened, lonely, and homesick for America.
In 1818, he returned to the United States and lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts, for twenty-five years. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1826. He was the uncle of the artists George Whiting Flagg and Jared Bradley Flagg, both of whom studied painting under him.
The first American exhibition of Allston's work was in 1827 when twelve of his paintings were shown at the Boston Athenæum.
In 1830 Allston married Martha Remington Dana (daughter of Chief Justice Francis Dana), the sister of the novelist Richard Henry Dana Sr.; Dana was a cousin of Allston's first wife.
In 1841, he published Monaldi, a romance illustrating Italian life, and in 1850, a volume of his Lectures on Art, and Poems.
Allston died on July 9, 1843, at age 63. Allston is buried in Harvard Square, in "the Old Burying Ground" between the First Parish Church and Christ Church.
Recognition
Allston was sometimes called the "American Titian" because his style resembled the great Venetian Renaissance artists in their display of dramatic color contrasts. His work greatly influenced the development of U.S. landscape painting. Also, the themes of many of his paintings were drawn from literature, especially Biblical stories.
His artistic genius was much admired by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Ralph Waldo Emerson was strongly influenced by his paintings and poems, but so were both Margaret Fuller and Sophia Peabody, wife of Nathaniel Hawthorne. The influential critic and editor Rufus Wilmot Griswold dedicated his famous anthology The Poets and Poetry of America to Allston in 1842. Poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 17 years after Allston's death, wrote that: "One man may sweeten a whole time. I never pass through Cambridge Port without thinking of Allston. His memory is the quince in the drawer and perfumes the atmosphere."
Boston painter William Morris Hunt was an admirer of Allston's work, and in 1866 founded the Allston Club in Boston, and in his arts classes passed on to his students his knowledge of Allston's techniques.
The Oxford English Dictionary cites Allston as the first to use the term Objective Correlative in 1850. The term, subsequently made famous by T.S Eliot in essay on Hamlet (1919), denotes a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of a particular emotion; such that when the external facts, which must terminate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked.
The west Boston, Massachusetts neighborhood of Allston is named after him, as is Allston Way, in the "Poets Corner" neighborhood of Berkeley, California.
Gallery
Additional works
A Landscape after Sunset, c. 1819, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
References
Sources
Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC
Further reading
Allston, Washington, Lectures on Art and Poems, 1850 (facsimile ed., with Monaldi, 1841, 1967, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ).
External links
Washington Allston in the New Students Reference Work.
Google Art Project, Washington Allston
Guide to Washington Allston's papers at Houghton Library, Harvard University
Washington Allston at American Art Gallery
Washington Allston letter fragment, 1818 Mar. 2 from the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
1779 births
1843 deaths
Poets from South Carolina
18th-century American painters
American male painters
19th-century American painters
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
People from Georgetown County, South Carolina
Painters from South Carolina
Harvard College alumni
Poets from Massachusetts
Writers from Boston
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American expatriates in France
American expatriates in Italy
Associates of the Royal Academy
Alumni of the Royal Academy Schools |
356985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julianna%20Margulies | Julianna Margulies | Julianna Margulies (; born June 8, 1966) is an American actress and author. After several small television roles, Margulies achieved wide recognition for her starring role as Carol Hathaway on NBC's long-running medical drama series ER (1994–2009), for which she received a Primetime Emmy Award. She also voiced Neera in the adventure film Dinosaur (2000) and appeared in the miniseries The Mists of Avalon (2001).
In 2009, she took on the lead role of Alicia Florrick in the CBS legal drama The Good Wife (2009–2016). Her performance garnered acclaim, winning two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, a Golden Globe Award, and a Television Critics Association Award.
Her films include Evelyn (2002), Ghost Ship (2002), Snakes on a Plane (2006), City Island (2009), Stand Up Guys (2012), and The Upside (2017). Margulies also had starring roles in the AMC dark comedy series Dietland (2018) and the National Geographic miniseries The Hot Zone (2019). In 2021, she had a main role on the second season of the Apple TV+ drama series The Morning Show.
Margulies has won eight Screen Actor Guild Awards, making her the second most awarded woman ever within SAG after Julia Louis-Dreyfus, one Golden Globe Award, and three Primetime Emmy Awards. In 2015, Time magazine named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world. Margulies is also a recipient of a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Early life
Julianna Margulies was born in Spring Valley, New York, the youngest of three daughters. Her mother, Francesca (née Goldberg, later Gardner), was a ballet dancer and eurythmy teacher. Her father, Paul Margulies, was a writer, philosopher, and Madison Avenue advertising executive. Her parents were both Jewish, descendants of Jewish immigrants from Romania, Austria, Hungary, and Russia. They divorced when she was a year old.
In her memoir, Sunshine Girl, Margulies wrote that her parents both adhered to the teachings of anthroposophy. Margulies, herself, has said that she does not hold religious beliefs, although she is ethnically Jewish and teaches the traditions to her son. In a 2013 interview, she said, “I would say if I had a religion, it would be gratitude…I love the tradition of Judaism that on Friday nights, Shabbat means 'Goodbye to the workweek; hello to family and the weekend.'”
In her memoir, Margulies also wrote about her nomadic childhood. While she is from New York, she moved with her mother to many different countries and states throughout her youth, including Sussex, England and Paris, France. As a result, French was Margulies’ first language. She has since lost the ability to speak it fluently.
Margulies attended many different schools as a child, including Green Meadow Waldorf School and High Mowing School. She graduated with a degree in art history and English from Sarah Lawrence College, where she appeared in several campus plays. She originally enrolled in college with the goal of becoming a lawyer, like her grandmother, or a psychologist, but fell in love with the craft of acting.
Career
1994–2000: Breakthrough and recognition with ER
Margulies made her feature film debut in Steven Seagal's action film Out for Justice (1991), playing a prostitute. In 1994, Margulies was cast in the pilot episode of the NBC medical drama ER as Carol Hathaway, an emergency care nurse who attempted suicide. Her character was originally intended to die; however, test audiences overwhelmingly wanted her to survive, so the producers changed the plot and made Carol Hathaway a main cast member.
At the time she was offered ER, Margulies had also been offered an extended role on NBC's Homicide: Life on the Streets, after a two-episode appearance earlier in the year. Then-unknown actor George Clooney, who had filmed the pilot episode with Margulies, called her to let her know that he had overheard producers saying that her character might survive the suicide attempt after all and become a series regular. He encouraged her to consider waiting for ER producers to call her and not take another job. Clooney was right and Margulies accepted the role on ER in 1994.
She remained on the show as a series regular for six seasons until 2000 and returned to the show for one episode during its final season in 2009. She won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 1994, and continued to be nominated for an Emmy Award every year during her tenure on ER. She was the only series regular cast member to win a Primetime Emmy Award.
Margulies had signed a 5-year contract to work on ER. She extended the contract for a sixth year, but made the “very difficult, painful decision” to opt out of another renewal. In 2021, she explained during interviews for Sunshine Girl and wrote in her memoir that she had been feeling homesick for New York after spending six years filming the show in Los Angeles. She wanted to return to theatre and take on a leading role in The Mists of Avalon, a miniseries based on a favorite childhood book.
In 2021, Margulies said during an interview with Michael Imperioli and Steve Schirripa, “I thought, didn’t I work six years on a show I loved — I loved being on ER, I was so grateful, and it was a great experience — but didn’t I work this hard to be able to do theatre for $235 a week without worrying about my rent?” She explained that, before NBC offered her a shocking $27 million to sign on for another two years, she had already helped plan out the conclusion of her character’s story arc on the show and mapped out a year’s worth of work for herself.
In a New York Times interview with Bill Carter, Margulies shared that another factor in her decision was a desire to protect her ER character, Carol Hathaway, from certain story changes that were happening as the show continued on into later years. She explained that she didn’t like how her character became the focus of too much romance whenever she wasn’t with George Clooney’s character, and that all of the research she had previously done in order to play the character was then undone by certain storylines.
Margulies recalled, “I’ll never forget, there was a line [in the script] where [my character] says, ‘I had to share a bathroom with seven sisters.’ I was like, guys, I’ve been playing her as an only child for six years…I had actually done research on what it’s like to be an only child. I was starting to feel very sad about a character I loved so much. It started to become very clear to me that without George, my character was just going to be the liaison to flashy sort of bits of things instead of one fluent, cognizant thought and I felt sad about it.”
If Margulies had accepted the $27 million contract for a seventh and eighth year of ER, it would have made her one of the highest paid women on television. The actress received intense, hurtful backlash for her decision to ultimately leave ER, but was “doing what fed me, as an actor,” she said in 2021. “And keeping my promises to playwrights and directors who I’d already made a commitment to.”
Margulies had previously broken her silence on her decision in 2012. She revealed that although everyone said it would be "career suicide" not to return to the medical drama, she was never concerned about the consequences:
In an interview with TV Guide, she further explained, "I felt like I had a great character and I did as much as I could do with her, but I was feeling bored. I wasn't excited about the work and I certainly didn't want to go out with a bomb, but as an inspiration."
2000–2009: Film, television, and stage roles
In February 2000, Margulies hosted an episode of the NBC late-night sketch series Saturday Night Live. She brought on ER co-star Noah Wyle for one of the show’s sketches.
After leaving ER as a series regular, Margulies worked on stage and screen. On stage, she appeared in a MCC Theater production of Kate Robin's Intrigue With Faye, a Lincoln Center production of Jon Robin Baitz's Ten Unknowns, and The Vagina Monologues.
Her work after ER included the 2002 films Evelyn, with Pierce Brosnan, and Ghost Ship, with Gabriel Byrne and Ron Eldard. She starred as Morgaine, the protagonist and narrator of the TNT miniseries The Mists of Avalon (2001) and participated in the documentary film Searching for Debra Winger (2002).
In 2004, she guest-starred in a two-episode arc in season four of the hit NBC comedy series Scrubs as Neena Broderick, an unscrupulous lawyer who sues Turk and has a brief sexual relationship with J.D. That same year, she starred in another miniseries on TNT, The Grid. In April 2006, she appeared in four episodes of the sixth season of the HBO crime drama series The Sopranos, portraying realtor Julianna Skiff. In August 2006, she appeared alongside Samuel L. Jackson in the action film Snakes on a Plane, as flight attendant Claire Miller. In December 2006, she played Jennifer Bloom in the Syfy Channel miniseries The Lost Room.
In an August 2006 interview with tvguide.com, Margulies said she was close to accepting an offer to return to ER for a four-episode arc, with Noah Wyle, that filmed in Hawaii during the 2005/06 season. However, she decided against it at the last minute. "I left on very good terms with [ER exec producer] John Wells, and every year they ask me back and I love that they do," she told TV Guide in 2006. "So, at the last minute, I went, 'John, thank you and keep asking, because you never know, but no.'"
Margulies was invited to return during ER'''s final season. The actress hesitated, saying she felt like she left Carol Hathaway in the perfect place and could not imagine bettering her departure episode, but Margulies did return to ER for one more episode during its 15th and final season.
In a 2013 interview, she said of her appearance, “I called George up and said, ‘If you do it, I’ll do it.’ We were both very aware we had careers because of that show, and we also loved those characters. I remember walking on to the Warner Brothers lot, and they asked for my ID. I used to have my picture on the wall there. It was a little surreal, but a lovely way to come full circle.”
Margulies had a minor role in the film The Darwin Awards (2007). In 2008, Margulies starred in the legal series Canterbury's Law, a Fox mid-season replacement show. She played the title character, Elizabeth Canterbury, a lawyer. She was also credited as a producer of the show. The series was severely affected by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike; it was cancelled by the network after only six episodes.
2009–present: The Good Wife and further acclaim
In 2009, after returning to ER for one episode during its 15th and final season, Margulies began starring in the CBS legal drama series The Good Wife. She played Alicia Florrick, an attorney returning to legal practice after her husband Peter Florrick (played by Chris Noth) resigned as Illinois State's Attorney amid a sex and corruption scandal. She won two Primetime Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award for the series. Beginning in 2011, starting with the third season, Margulies was credited as a producer of The Good Wife. The series ended in May 2016.
Reflecting on her roles as Alicia on The Good Wife and as Carol on ER, Margulies told Entertainment Weekly in 2021, “I have gotten to play two of the richest, I think, female characters on television.” In a 2019 interview for the Series Mania Festival, Margulies said that "it's tied between Carol Hathaway and Alicia Florrick" when it comes to the role she is most proud of having played.
Since 2013, the actress has done voiceovers for a Chase credit card commercial. In 2014, Margulies narrated "Women in Business", an episode of season 2 of the documentary series Makers: Women Who Make America. In 2015, TIME featured Margulies as one of the "100 Most Influential People in the World". It noted her work to get Erin's Law, concerned with child sexual abuse, passed in every US state.
In 2018, Margulies co-starred in the dark comedy series Dietland on AMC as Kitty Montgomery—a nasty, razor-thin fashionista who employs an overweight woman for menial tasks and enjoys torturing her constantly (especially about her weight). Despite positive reviews, the series was cancelled after one season.
In 2019, Margulies starred in the National Geographic series The Hot Zone, as Dr. Nancy Jaax—a U.S Army scientist Nancy Jaax, DVM, ACVP, trying to stop a deadly outbreak of Ebola. The limited series put up large rating numbers for the Disney-owned cable network, becoming the highest-rated scripted series in National Geographic's history and ranking second among all series.
In 2019, Margulies was slated to reprise the role of Alicia Florrick for three episodes of The Good Fight, a spin-off of The Good Wife. However, negotiations broke down over the question of Margulies' salary, with CBS offering to pay her at the guest star rate instead of the same rate she had been paid on The Good Wife. She stated that: "I watch the show, I love the show. But I'm not a guest star. You don't pay me a guest-star salary. I would get a guest-star salary if I went and did SVU—it's not my show. I wouldn't ask for what I got paid as Alicia Florrick. I also know for a fact that any male star who got asked to go on a spinoff of his show would have been offered at least $500,000. I know that for a fact."
In November 2019, Margulies guest starred in the Showtime drama series Billions. She played Catherine Brant, who is described as an Ivy League sociology professor and bestselling author.
In December 2020, Margulies joined the second season of the AppleTV+ drama series The Morning Show as Laura Peterson, an anchor at UBA News. She joined returning series stars Jennifer Aniston and Reese Witherspoon.
In 2021, Margulies appeared with many of her former ER cast members in a virtual cast reunion show that benefited the Waterkeeper Alliance charity.
Writing
Margulies published a picture book with Random House Children's Books in May 2016. Titled Three Magic Balloons, the story is based on one that the actress's father, Paul Margulies, wrote for her and her sisters.
In October 2020, Margulies announced on her Instagram that she was writing an autobiography, Sunshine Girl: An Unexpected Life'', published by Ballantine Books. She had originally intended to write an acting handbook about set etiquette, but ended up writing a memoir, instead. The book chronicles her nomadic childhood and journey to becoming an actress. Her book was released on May 4, 2021. Margulies also recored the audiobook. A paperback version with additional chapters is set to be released in May 2022.
Personal life
From 1991 to 2003, Margulies was in a relationship with actor Ron Eldard, whom she met in an acting class.
On November 10, 2007, Margulies married attorney Keith Lieberthal, the son of academic Kenneth Lieberthal, in Lenox, Massachusetts. They have a son, Kieran Lindsay Lieberthal. They reside in Manhattan. The couple also owns a country house in Upstate New York.
Margulies is on the board of the MCC Theater Company in New York City. She is also a supporter of ALS research through Project ALS, as well as Erin’s Law.
Filmography
Film
Television
Theatre
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Julianna Margulies at rottentomatoes.com
Julianna Margulies at Emmys.com
1966 births
Actresses from New York City
American film actresses
American people of Austrian descent
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (television) winners
Jewish American actresses
Living people
People from Spring Valley, New York
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners
People from Manhattan
Sarah Lawrence College alumni
Waldorf school alumni
Television producers from New York City
American women television producers
American voice actresses |
356988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleural%20effusion | Pleural effusion | A pleural effusion is accumulation of excessive fluid in the pleural space, the potential space that surrounds each lung.
Under normal conditions, pleural fluid is secreted by the parietal pleural capillaries at a rate of 0.01 millilitre per kilogram weight per hour, and is cleared by lymphatic absorption leaving behind only 5–15 millilitres of fluid, which helps to maintain a functional vacuum between the parietal and visceral pleurae. Excess fluid within the pleural space can impair inspiration by upsetting the functional vacuum and hydrostatically increasing the resistance against lung expansion, resulting in a fully or partially collapsed lung.
Various kinds of fluid can accumulate in the pleural space, such as serous fluid (hydrothorax), blood (hemothorax), pus (pyothorax, more commonly known as pleural empyema), chyle (chylothorax), or very rarely urine (urinothorax). When unspecified, the term "pleural effusion" normally refers to hydrothorax. A pleural effusion can also be compounded by a pneumothorax (accumulation of air in the pleural space), leading to a hydropneumothorax.
Types
Various methods can be used to classify pleural fluid.
By the origin of the fluid:
Serous fluid (hydrothorax)
Blood (haemothorax)
Chyle (chylothorax)
Pus (pyothorax or empyema)
Urine (urinothorax)
By pathophysiology:
Transudative pleural effusion
Exudative pleural effusion
By the underlying cause (see next section).
Causes
Transudative
The most common causes of transudative pleural effusion in the United States are heart failure and cirrhosis. Nephrotic syndrome, leading to the loss of large amounts of albumin in urine and resultant low albumin levels in the blood and reduced colloid osmotic pressure, is another less common cause of pleural effusion. Pulmonary emboli were once thought to cause transudative effusions, but have been recently shown to be exudative.
The mechanism for the exudative pleural effusion in pulmonary thromboembolism is probably related to increased permeability of the capillaries in the lung, which results from the release of cytokines or inflammatory mediators (e.g. vascular endothelial growth factor) from the platelet-rich blood clots. The excessive interstitial lung fluid traverses the visceral pleura and accumulates in the pleural space.
Conditions associated with transudative pleural effusions include:
Congestive heart failure
Liver cirrhosis
Severe hypoalbuminemia
Nephrotic syndrome
Acute atelectasis
Myxedema
Peritoneal dialysis
Meigs's syndrome
Obstructive uropathy
End-stage kidney disease
Exudative
When a pleural effusion has been determined to be exudative, additional evaluation is needed to determine its cause, and amylase, glucose, pH and cell counts should be measured.
Red blood cell counts are elevated in cases of bloody effusions (for example after heart surgery or hemothorax from incomplete evacuation of blood).
Amylase levels are elevated in cases of esophageal rupture, pancreatic pleural effusion, or cancer.
Glucose is decreased with cancer, bacterial infections, or rheumatoid pleuritis.
pH is low in empyema (<7.2) and maybe low in cancer.
If cancer is suspected, the pleural fluid is sent for cytology. If cytology is negative, and cancer is still suspected, either a thoracoscopy, or needle biopsy of the pleura may be performed.
Gram staining and culture should also be done.
If tuberculosis is possible, examination for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (either a Ziehl–Neelsen or Kinyoun stain, and mycobacterial cultures) should be done. A polymerase chain reaction for tuberculous DNA may be done, or adenosine deaminase or interferon gamma levels may also be checked.
The most common causes of exudative pleural effusions are bacterial pneumonia, cancer (with lung cancer, breast cancer, and lymphoma causing approximately 75% of all malignant pleural effusions), viral infection, and pulmonary embolism.
Another common cause is after heart surgery when incompletely drained blood can lead to an inflammatory response that causes exudative pleural fluid.
Conditions associated with exudative pleural effusions:
Parapneumonic effusion due to pneumonia
Malignancy (either lung cancer or metastases to the pleura from elsewhere)
Infection (empyema due to bacterial pneumonia)
Trauma
Pulmonary infarction
Pulmonary embolism
Autoimmune disorders
Pancreatitis
Ruptured esophagus (Boerhaave's syndrome)
Rheumatoid pleurisy
Drug-induced lupus
Other/ungrouped
Other causes of pleural effusion include tuberculosis (though stains of pleural fluid are only rarely positive for acid-fast bacilli, this is the most common cause of pleural effusions in some developing countries), autoimmune disease such as systemic lupus erythematosus, bleeding (often due to chest trauma), chylothorax (most commonly caused by trauma), and accidental infusion of fluids. Less common causes include esophageal rupture or pancreatic disease, intra-abdominal abscesses, rheumatoid arthritis, asbestos pleural effusion, mesothelioma, Meigs's syndrome (ascites and pleural effusion due to a benign ovarian tumor), and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome.
Pleural effusions may also occur through medical or surgical interventions, including the use of medications (pleural fluid is usually eosinophilic), coronary artery bypass surgery, abdominal surgery, endoscopic variceal sclerotherapy, radiation therapy, liver or lung transplantation, insertion of ventricular shunt as a treatment method of hydrocephalus, and intra- or extravascular insertion of central lines.
Pathophysiology
Pleural fluid is secreted by the parietal layer of the pleura and reabsorbed by the lymphatics in the most dependent parts of the parietal pleura, primarily the diaphragmatic and mediastinal regions. Exudative pleural effusions occur when the pleura is damaged, e.g., by trauma, infection, or malignancy, and transudative pleural effusions develop when there is either excessive production of pleural fluid or the resorption capacity is reduced. Light's criteria can be used to differentiate between exudative and transudative pleural effusions.
Diagnosis
A pleural effusion is usually diagnosed on the basis of medical history and physical exam, and confirmed by a chest X-ray. Once accumulated fluid is more than 300 mL, there are usually detectable clinical signs, such as decreased movement of the chest on the affected side, dullness to percussion over the fluid, diminished breath sounds on the affected side, decreased vocal resonance and fremitus (though this is an inconsistent and unreliable sign), and pleural friction rub. Above the effusion, where the lung is compressed, there may be bronchial breathing sounds and egophony. A large effusion there may cause tracheal deviation away from the effusion. A systematic review (2009) published as part of the Rational Clinical Examination Series in the Journal of the American Medical Association showed that dullness to conventional percussion was most accurate for diagnosing pleural effusion (summary positive likelihood ratio, 8.7; 95% confidence interval, 2.2–33.8), while the absence of reduced tactile vocal fremitus made pleural effusion less likely (negative likelihood ratio, 0.21; 95% confidence interval, 0.12–0.37).
Imaging
A pleural effusion appears as an area of whiteness on a standard posteroanterior chest X-ray. Normally, the space between the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura cannot be seen. A pleural effusion infiltrates the space between these layers. Because the pleural effusion has a density similar to water, it can be seen on radiographs. Since the effusion has greater density than the rest of the lung, it gravitates towards the lower portions of the pleural cavity. The pleural effusion behaves according to basic fluid dynamics, conforming to the shape of pleural space, which is determined by the lung and chest wall. If the pleural space contains both air and fluid, then an air-fluid level that is horizontal will be present, instead of conforming to the lung space. Chest radiographs in the lateral decubitus position (with the patient lying on the side of the pleural effusion) are more sensitive and can detect as little as 50 mL of fluid. Between 250 to 600mL of fluid must be present before upright chest X-rays can detect a pleural effusion (e.g., blunted costophrenic angles).
Chest computed tomography is more accurate for diagnosis and may be obtained to better characterize the presence, size, and characteristics of a pleural effusion. Lung ultrasound, nearly as accurate as CT and more accurate than chest X-ray, is increasingly being used at the point of care to diagnose pleural effusions, with the advantage that it is a safe, dynamic, and repeatable imaging modality. To increase diagnostic accuracy of detection of pleural effusion sonographically, markers such as boomerang and VIP signs can be utilized.
Thoracentesis
Once a pleural effusion is diagnosed, its cause must be determined. Pleural fluid is drawn out of the pleural space in a process called thoracentesis, and it should be done in almost all patients who have pleural fluid that is at least 10 mm in thickness on CT, ultrasonography, or lateral decubitus X-ray and that is new or of uncertain etiology. In general, the only patients who do not require thoracentesis are those who have heart failure with symmetric pleural effusions and no chest pain or fever; in these patients, diuresis can be tried, and thoracentesis is avoided unless effusions persist for more than 3 days. In a thoracentesis, a needle is inserted through the back of the chest wall in the sixth, seventh, or eighth intercostal space on the midaxillary line, into the pleural space. The use of ultrasound to guide the procedure is now standard of care as it increases accuracy and decreases complications. After removal, the fluid may then be evaluated for:
Chemical composition including protein, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), albumin, amylase, pH, and glucose
Gram stain and culture to identify possible bacterial infections
White and red blood cell counts and differential white blood cell counts
Cytopathology to identify cancer cells, but may also identify some infective organisms
Other tests as suggested by the clinical situation – lipids, fungal culture, viral culture, tuberculosis cultures, lupus cell prep, specific immunoglobulins
Light's criteria
Definitions of the terms "transudate" and "exudate" are the source of much confusion. Briefly, transudate is produced through pressure filtration without capillary injury while exudate is "inflammatory fluid" leaking between cells.
Transudative pleural effusions are defined as effusions that are caused by systemic factors that alter the pleural equilibrium, or Starling forces. The components of the Starling forces – hydrostatic pressure, permeability, and oncotic pressure (effective pressure due to the composition of the pleural fluid and blood) – are altered in many diseases, e.g., left ventricular failure, kidney failure, liver failure, and cirrhosis. Exudative pleural effusions, by contrast, are caused by alterations in local factors that influence the formation and absorption of pleural fluid (e.g., bacterial pneumonia, cancer, pulmonary embolism, and viral infection).
An accurate diagnosis of the cause of the effusion, transudate versus exudate, relies on a comparison of the chemistries in the pleural fluid to those in the blood, using Light's criteria. According to Light's criteria (Light, et al. 1972), a pleural effusion is likely exudative if at least one of the following exists:
The ratio of pleural fluid protein to serum protein is greater than 0.5
The ratio of pleural fluid LDH and serum LDH is greater than 0.6
Pleural fluid LDH is greater than 0.6 or times the normal upper limit for serum. Different laboratories have different values for the upper limit of serum LDH, but examples include 200 and 300 IU/l.
The sensitivity and specificity of Light's criteria for detection of exudates have been measured in many studies and are usually reported to be around 98% and 80%, respectively. This means that although Light's criteria are relatively accurate, twenty percent of patients that are identified by Light's criteria as having exudative pleural effusions actually have transudative pleural effusions. Therefore, if a patient identified by Light's criteria as having an exudative pleural effusion appears clinically to have a condition that usually produces transudative effusions, additional testing is needed. In such cases, albumin levels in blood and pleural fluid are measured. If the difference between the albumin level in the blood and the pleural fluid is greater than 1.2 g/dL (12 g/L), this suggests that the patient has a transudative pleural effusion. However, pleural fluid testing is not perfect, and the final decision about whether a fluid is a transudate or an exudate is based not on chemical analysis of the fluid, but an accurate diagnosis of the disease that produces the fluid..
The traditional definitions of transudate as a pleural effusion due to systemic factors and an exudate as a pleural effusion due to local factors have been used since 1940 or earlier (Light et al., 1972). Previous to Light's landmark study, which was based on work by Chandrasekhar, investigators unsuccessfully attempted to use other criteria, such as specific gravity, pH, and protein content of the fluid, to differentiate between transudates and exudates. Light's criteria are highly statistically sensitive for exudates (although not very statistically specific). More recent studies have examined other characteristics of pleural fluid that may help to determine whether the process producing the effusion is local (exudate) or systemic (transudate). The table above illustrates some of the results of these more recent studies. However, it should be borne in mind that Light's criteria are still the most widely used criteria.
The Rational Clinical Examination Series review found that bilateral effusions, symmetric and asymmetric, are the most common distribution in heart failure (60% of effusions in heart failure will be bilateral). When there is asymmetry in heart failure-associated pleural effusions (either unilateral or one side larger than the other), the right side is usually more involved than the left.
The instruments pictured are accurately shaped, however, most hospitals now use safer disposable trocars. Because these are single use, they are always sharp and have a much smaller risk of cross patient contamination.
Treatment
Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the pleural effusion.
Therapeutic aspiration may be sufficient; larger effusions may require insertion of an intercostal drain (either pigtail or surgical). When managing these chest tubes, it is important to make sure the chest tubes do not become occluded or clogged. A clogged chest tube in the setting of continued production of fluid will result in residual fluid left behind when the chest tube is removed. This fluid can lead to complications such as hypoxia due to lung collapse from the fluid, or fibrothorax if scarring occurs. Repeated effusions may require chemical (talc, bleomycin, tetracycline/doxycycline), or surgical pleurodesis, in which the two pleural surfaces are scarred to each other so that no fluid can accumulate between them. This is a surgical procedure that involves inserting a chest tube, then either mechanically abrading the pleura or inserting the chemicals to induce a scar. This requires the chest tube to stay in until the fluid drainage stops. This can take days to weeks and can require prolonged hospitalizations. If the chest tube becomes clogged, fluid will be left behind and the pleurodesis will fail.
Pleurodesis fails in as many as 30% of cases. An alternative is to place a PleurX Pleural Catheter or Aspira Drainage Catheter. This is a 15Fr chest tube with a one-way valve. Each day the patient or caregivers connect it to a simple vacuum tube and remove from 600 to 1000 mL of fluid, and can be repeated daily. When not in use, the tube is capped. This allows patients to be outside the hospital. For patients with malignant pleural effusions, it allows them to continue chemotherapy if indicated. Generally, the tube is in for about 30 days, and then it is removed when space undergoes spontaneous pleurodesis.
Tubercular pleural effusion is one of the common extrapulmonary forms of tuberculosis. Treatment consists of antituberculosis treatment (ATT). The currently recommended ATT regime is two months of isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol and pyrazinamide followed by four months of isoniazid, rifampicin and ethambutol.
See also
Pleural disease
Empyema
Heart failure
Pulmonary embolism
Subpulmonic effusion
Thoracentesis
References
External links
Pleural Effusion Images from MedPix
Disorders of fascia
Diseases of pleura
Articles containing video clips |
356996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love%20Pageant%20Rally | Love Pageant Rally | The Love Pageant Rally took place on October 6, 1966—the day LSD became illegal—in the 'panhandle' of Golden Gate Park, a narrower section that projects into San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district. The 'Haight' was a neighborhood of run-down turn-of-the-20th-century housing that was the center of San Francisco's counterculture in the 1960s.
The major instigators of the rally were Allen Cohen and artist Michael Bowen, the creators of the San Francisco Oracle, which first hit the streets in September 1966. The occasion was the banning of LSD, by the California legislature in Sacramento, an enactment which virtually created a neighborhood of outlaws in the Haight, where 'acid' was a staple of community culture. Since the new law was to go into effect on October 6, 1966, Cohen and others related the event to the number of the Beast of Revelation. On a more serious level, busts for drugs were ramping up locally and on the national level, and confrontations between the hippie communes and the local police were getting more intense and led to street protests and rioting, followed by neighborhood curfews. A better form of protest, more suited to hippie culture was needed.
"Without confrontation," said Allen Cohen, "we wanted to create a celebration of innocence. We were not guilty of using illegal substances. We were celebrating transcendental consciousness. The beauty of the universe. The beauty of being."
Posters advertising the event invited participants to "Bring the color gold... Bring photos of personal saints and gurus and heroes of the underground... Bring children... Flowers... Flutes... Drums... Feathers... Bands... Beads... Banners, flags, incense, chimes, gongs, cymbals, symbols, costumes, joy."
Thousands showed up for the event, read a "prophecy of a declaration of independence" written by Cohen, after which many placed a tab of acid on their tongues and swallowed in unison. Music was provided by the Grateful Dead and Janis Joplin, both invited to play by Michael Bowen for free. Ken Kesey was on hand with the Merry Pranksters in the legendary bus.
The Love Pageant Rally drew several thousand people. It was a warm-up for the Human Be-In the following January, which brought 30,000 together and established media attention to hippie culture that then led to The Summer of Love.
References
Perry, Charles, The Haight-Ashbury: A history.
Notes
External links
Allen Cohen's website, with history from an insider
Haight-Ashbury in the 1960s 'Rockument' commentary and sound bites
Footage of the Rally, with earliest known film footage of Janis Joplin in performance and footage of Furthur
Counterculture festivals
Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco
History of San Francisco
1966 in San Francisco |
356997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almad%C3%A9n | Almadén | Almadén () is a town and municipality in the Spanish province of Ciudad Real, within the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha. The town is located at 4° 49' W and 38° 46' N and is 589 meters above sea level. Almadén is approximately 300 km south of Madrid in the Sierra Morena. The name Almadén is from the Arabic word al-maʻdin, meaning "the metal".
Originally a Roman (then Moorish) settlement, the town was captured in 1151 by Alfonso VII and given to the Knights of the Order of Calatrava.
The mercury deposits of Almadén account for the largest quantity of liquid mercury metal produced in the world. Approximately 250,000 metric tons of mercury have been produced there in the past 2,000 years.
Due to the human toxicity of mercury and its byproducts, the mine has variously employed penal labour, slave labour, and prisoners of war over its long history. Almadén mine stopped working in 2002, due to the prohibition of mercury mining in Europe. In 2006, the mine opened to the public, who can visit the first level, 50 meters underground.
In 2012, Almadén and Idrija (Slovenia) were declared World Heritage Sites, with the nomination "Heritage of Mercury".
Mining
The geology of the area is characterised by volcanism.
Almadén is home to the world's greatest reserves of cinnabar, a mineral associated with recent volcanic activity, from which mercury is extracted. Cinnabar was first used for pigment by the Romans. Later, the mineral was used mostly in medicine and alchemy during Al-Andalus.
The Fuggers of Augsburg, two German bankers, administered the mines during the 16th and 17th centuries in return for loans to the Spanish government. Mercury became very valuable in the Americas in the mid 16th century due to the introduction of amalgamation, a process that uses mercury to extract metals from gold and silver ore. The demand for mercury grew, and so did the town's importance as a center of mining and industry. Most of the mercury produced at this time was sent to Seville, then to the Americas.
The dangerous working conditions of the mines made it difficult for the Fuggers to find willing laborers. As the demand for mercury grew, the idea of convict labor was introduced.
Introduction of convict labor in mine
After the Fuggers failed to meet production quotas in 1566, the King of Spain agreed to send 30 prisoners to serve their sentences as laborers at Almadén. The number was increased to 40 in 1583. The prisoners, known as forzados, were selected out of criminals waiting for transport to the galleys in the jail of Toledo. Those selected usually had limited sentences and good physical abilities. Murderers and capital criminals were rarely selected, as the galleys were considered a far harsher punishment than the mines of Almadén.
The first group of forzados arrived at Almadén at the end of February 1566.
Daily life at Almadén
A steady run of complaints to the king in the 1580s led to an investigation of convict living conditions at Almadén in 1593. The investigation was conducted by royal commissioner and famous author Mateo Alemán, and was based largely on convict interviews.
The mine at Almadén provided forzados with acceptable living conditions. Each convict received daily rations of meat, bread, wine. Each year, a forzado was issued a doublet, one pair of breeches, stockings, two shirts, one pair of shoes, and a hood. Medical care was available at the infirmary, and the mine even housed its own apothecary.
Despite these good offerings, the danger of death or sickness from mercury poisoning was always present. 24% of convicts at Almadén between 1566 and 1593 died before their release dates, most often because of mercury poisoning. Nearly all prisoners experienced discomfort due to mercury exposure. Common symptoms included severe pains in any part of the body, trembling limbs, and loss of sanity. Most of the men at the furnaces died from poisoning.
Forzados were also forced to bail water out of the mines. These men escaped the dangers of mercury exposure but suffered exhaustion on a daily basis. A group of four men had to bail out 300 buckets of water without rest. Those that could not meet this quota were whipped. Sick prisoners were not exempt from this practice.
Death was common, and the convicts wished to provide a proper burial for each of the men that died at the mine. A religious confraternity was formed, conducted by a prior who was administrator of the mine for the Fuggers. The prior also chose devout convicts to serve as officials. Mass was held on Sundays and feast days, and non-attendance was punishable by fine.
Slave labor
North African slaves were purchased directly from slaveholders to work alongside the convicts. These slaves were often much cheaper than others on the market at the time, and by 1613, slaves outnumbered forzados by a two-to-one ratio.
1645 to present
In 1645, the Fugger concession was cancelled and the mines were taken over by the state, to be managed by the royal government. All capital criminals were to be sent to Almadén by court order in 1749, but the mine simply could not accommodate all of them. The act was cancelled in 1751.
Two disastrous fires occurred in 1775 that were blamed on the forzados.
Safer mining technology was introduced in the last quarter of the 18th century, and free laborers began to take interest in the mine again. By the end of the century, free workers had replaced most of the slave labor. The penal establishment at Almadén was closed in 1801.
In 1835, during the First Carlist War, the mine was leased indefinitely to the Rothschild Bank. The price paid was high, but one of the Rothschild family firms had previously purchased the quicksilver mine in Idrija (now in Slovenia) from Austria; thus the firm had a monopoly on quicksilver (until the discovery of New Almaden in California). Volume was expanded and the metal sold at a substantial markup returning a substantial profit to both Spain and the firm. Spain reclaimed the mine in 1863.
In 1916, a special council was created to operate the mines, introducing new technology and safety improvements. A record production of 82,000 mercury flasks was reached in 1941, just after the Spanish Civil War, using prisoners of war as forced labor. This amount is comparable to the 3,000,000 kg that were produced by China in 2018. The price for mercury decreased from a peak of US$571 in 1965 to US$121 in 1976 making economic planning difficult. In 1981, the Spanish government created the company Minas de Almadén y Arrayanes to operate the mine. In 2000, the mines closed due to the fall of the price of mercury on the international market, caused by falling demand. However, Almadén still has one of the world's largest mercury resources.
Almadén is now a World Heritage Site, Heritage of Mercury. Almadén and Idrija.
A museum has been built, including a visit to the mines (areas from 16th to 20th century).
See also
Huancavelica, the other major source of mercury in the Spanish Empire
The New Almaden Quicksilver Mine in Santa Clara County, California
External links
Chapter on convict labor at mines
“Parque Minero de Almadén”, official website of the mines
References
Mercury mines in Spain
Municipalities in the Province of Ciudad Real
Economic history of Spain
Mining communities in Spain
World Heritage Sites in Spain |
356999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-deception | Self-deception | Self-deception is a process of denying or rationalizing away the relevance, significance, or importance of opposing evidence and logical argument. Self-deception involves convincing oneself of a truth (or lack of truth) so that one does not reveal any self-knowledge of the deception.
Brief history
While Freudian analysis of the conscious and the unconscious minds dominated the field, more and more psychological scientists became curious about how those two seemingly separate worlds could work together in the 70s. However, due to the lack of mechanistic models available to this line of research, the debate was put on pause. Later, the focus has been shifted to vision-related research in social psychology.
Theorization
Analysis
The traditional paradigm of self-deception is modeled after interpersonal deception, where A intentionally gets B to believe some proposition p, all the while knowing or believing truly ¬p (not p). Such deception is intentional and requires the deceiver to know or believe ¬p and the deceived to believe p. On this traditional mode, self-deceivers must (1) hold contradictory beliefs and (2) intentionally get themselves to hold a belief they know or believe truly to be false.
The process of rationalization, however, can obscure the intent of self-deception. Brian McLaughlin illustrates that such rationalizations in certain circumstances permit the phenomenon. When a person, who disbelieves p, intentionally tries to make himself believe or continue believing p by engaging in such activities, and, as a result unintentionally misleads himself into believing or continuing to believe p via biased thinking, he deceives himself in a way appropriate for self-deception. No deceitful intention is required for this.
Psychology
Self-deception calls into question the nature of the individual, specifically in a psychological context and the nature of "self". Irrationality is the foundation upon which the argued paradoxes of self-deception stem, and it is argued that not everyone has the "special talents" and capacities for self-deception. However, rationalization is influenced by a myriad of factors, including socialization, personal biases, fear, and cognitive repression. Such rationalization can be manipulated in both positive and negative fashions; convincing one to perceive a negative situation optimistically and vice versa. In contrast, rationalization alone cannot effectively clarify the dynamics of self-deception, as reason is just one adaptive form mental processes can take.
Paradoxes
The works of philosopher Alfred R. Mele have provided insight into some of the more prominent paradoxes regarding self-deception. Two of these paradoxes include the self-deceiver's state of mind and the dynamics of self-deception, coined the "static" paradox and the "dynamic/strategic" paradox, respectively.
Mele formulates an example of the "static" paradox as the following:
If ever a person A deceives a person B into believing that something, p, is true, A knows or truly believes that p is false while causing B to believe that p is true. So when A deceives A (i.e., himself) into believing that p is true, he knows or truly believes that p is false while causing himself to believe that p is true. Thus, A must simultaneously believe that p is false and believe that p is true. But how is this possible?
Mele then describes the "dynamic/strategy" paradox:
<blockquote>In general, A cannot successfully employ a deceptive strategy against B if B knows A'''s intention and plan. This seems plausible as well when A and B are the same person. A potential self-deceiver's knowledge of his intention and strategy would seem typically to render them ineffective. On the other hand, the suggestion that self-deceivers typically successfully execute their self-deceptive strategies without knowing what they are up to may seem absurd; for an agent's effective execution of his plans seems generally to depend on his cognizance of them and their goals. So how, in general, can an agent deceive himself by employing a self-deceptive strategy?</blockquote>
These models call into question how one can simultaneously hold contradictory beliefs ("static" paradox) and deceive oneself without rendering one's intentions ineffective ("dynamic/strategic" paradox). Attempts at a resolution to these have created two schools of thought: one that maintains that paradigmatic cases of self-deception are intentional and one that denies the notion—intentionalists and non-intentionalists, respectively.
Intentionalists tend to agree that self-deception is intentional, but divide over whether it requires the holding of contradictory beliefs. This school of thought incorporates elements of temporal partitioning (extended over time to benefit the self-deceiver, increasing the chance of forgetting the deception altogether) and psychological partitioning (incorporating various aspects of the "self").
Non-intentionalists, in contrast, tend to believe that cases of self-deception are not necessarily accidental, but motivated by desire, anxiety, or some other emotion regarding p or related to p. This notion distinguishes self-deception from misunderstanding. Furthermore, "wishful thinking" is distinguished from self-deception in that the self-deceivers recognize evidence against their self-deceptive belief or possess, without recognizing, greater counterevidence than wishful thinkers.
Numerous questions and debates remain in play with respect to the paradoxes of self-deception, and a consensual paradigm has yet to appear.
Trivers' theory
It has been theorized that humans are susceptible to self-deception because most people have emotional attachments to beliefs, which in some cases may be irrational. Some evolutionary biologists, such as Robert Trivers, have suggested that deception plays a significant role in human behavior, and more generally speaking in animal behavior. One deceives oneself to trust something that is not true as to better convince others of that truth. When a person convinces himself of this untrue thing, they better mask the signs of deception. Trivers, along with two colleagues (Daniel Kriegman and Malcolm Slavin), applied his theory of "self-deception in the service of deception" in order to explain how in his view Donald Trump was able to employ the "big lie" with such great success.
This notion is based on the following logic: deception is a fundamental aspect of communication in nature, both between and within species. It has evolved so that one can have an advantage over another. From alarm calls to mimicry, animals use deception to further their survival. Those who are better able to perceive deception are more likely to survive. As a result, self-deception behavior evolved to better mask deception from those who perceive it well or, as Trivers puts it "hiding the truth from yourself to hide it more deeply from others." In humans, awareness of the fact that one is acting deceptively often leads to tell-tale signs of deception, such as nostrils flaring, clammy skin, quality and tone of voice, eye movement, or excessive blinking. Therefore, if self-deception enables an individual to believe its own distortions, it will not present such signs of deception, and will therefore appear to be telling the truth.
Self-deception can be used both to act greater or lesser than one actually is. For example, one can act overconfident to attract a mate or act under-confident to avoid a threat such as a predator. If an individual is capable of concealing their true feelings and intentions well, then it is more likely to successfully deceive others.
It may also be argued that the ability to deceive, or self-deceive, is not the selected trait but rather a by-product of a more primary trait called abstract thinking. Abstract thinking allows many evolutionary advantages such as more flexible, adaptive behaviors, leading to innovation. Since a lie is an abstraction, the mental process of creating it can only occur in animals with enough brain complexity to permit abstract thinking. Moreover, self-deception lowers cognitive cost; that is to say, if one has convinced oneself that that very thing is indeed true, it is less complicated for one to behave or think as that thing was untrue; the mind not thinking constantly of the true thing and then the false thing, but simply being convinced that the false thing is true.
Evolutionary implications
Because there is deceit, there exists a strong selection to recognize when deception occurs. As a result, self-deception behavior evolves so as to better hide the signs of deception from others. The presence of deception explains the existence of an innate ability to commit self-deception to hide the indications of deceptions. Humans deceive themselves in order to better deceive others and thus have an advantage over them. In the three decades since Trivers introduced his adaptive theory of self-deception, there has been an ongoing debate over the genetic basis of such a behavior.
The explanation of deception and self-deception as innate characteristics is perhaps true, but there are many other explanations for this pattern of behavior. It is possible that the ability to self-deceive is not innate, but a learned trait, acquired through experience. For example, a person could have been caught being deceitful by revealing their knowledge of information they were trying to hide. Their nostrils flared, indicating that they were lying to the other person, and thus did not get what they wanted. Next time, to better achieve success, the person will more actively deceive himself of having knowledge to better hide the signs of deception. Therefore, people could have the capacity to learn self-deception. However, simply because something is learned does not mean that it is not innate; what is learned and what is innate work in conjunction. This is outlined in many introductory textbooks in evolutionary psychology. For example, preparedness occurs in learning to explain why some behaviours are more easily learned than others. Evolutionary psychologists argue that there are learning mechanisms that allow learning to occur.
Medicine
Self-deception has a prominent role in several medical conditions, such as borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, and histrionic personality disorder.
Examples
Simple instances of self-deception include common occurrences such as: the alcoholic who is self-deceived in believing that his drinking is under control, the husband who is self-deceived in believing that his wife is not having an affair, the jealous colleague who is self-deceived in believing that her colleague's greater professional success is due to ruthless ambition.
An example of self-deception is provided by Robert Trivers and Huey P. Newton published in the form of an analysis of the role of flight crew self-deception in the crash of Air Florida Flight 90.
Criticisms
The claim that not being conscious about deception would decrease the body language signs of lying is criticized for being incompatible with the unconscious nature of body language as in body language giving away non-conscious processes, as well as for not being able to account for why evolutionary selection for lying would allow a body language that gives away lying to exist instead of simply selecting for lack of such signals.Dylan Evans, Pierre Cruse - 2004 - Emotion, Evolution, and Rationality
The notion that non-conscious deception would be less costly than conscious deception is subject to criticism, citing that a non-conscious lie followed by a process of creating a conscious confabulation would amount to more, not fewer, brain processes than simply making up a conscious lie.
The concept of self-deception is criticized for being able to classify any criticism of the notion of self-deception as being self-deception in itself, removing its falsifiability and therefore making it unscientific, and also for being an obstacle to science in general by being able to classify anything as self-deception in a way that confirms itself in a way that is not self-correcting.2005 - The Skeptical Inquirer
The assumption that individuals who derive pleasure from hurting others would self-deceive into believing that their victims were not hurt is criticized for contradicting its own premise, since if the individual did enjoy knowing that the victim was hurt such self-deception would reduce and not increase the pleasure.
See also
Anosognosia
Bad faith
Bad faith (existentialism)
Cognitive dissonance
Confabulation
Delusion
Denial
Distancing language
Doublethink
Hypocrisy
Pollyanna principle
Positive illusions
References
Further reading
Books
Hållén, Elinor (2011). A Different Kind of Ignorance: Self-Deception as Flight from Self-Knowledge. Diss. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet. .
Leadership and Self Deception, by Arbinger Institute.
Anatomy of Peace: Resolving the Heart of Conflict, by Arbinger Institute.
McLaughlin, Brian P. & Amélie Oksenberg Rorty (eds.) (1988). Perspectives on Self-Deception. California UP: Berkeley etc. PhilPapers: MCLPOS
Trivers, R. (2011). The Folly of Fools: The Logic of Deceit and Self-Deception in Human Life. Basic Books.
Journals
Teorema, Vol. XXVI/3, Monographic on Self-Deception: Conceptual Issues, Autumn 2007
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Vol. 20 (1), 1997.
Gadsby, Stephen, (2021), "Imposter Syndrome and Self-Deception", Australasian Journal of Philosophy''.
Reference sources
External links
Skeptic's Dictionary entry on self-deception
Arbinger Institute - a consulting organisation based on Terry Warner's work on self-deception
The pattern behind self-deception
Cognitive biases
Existentialist concepts
Deception
Error |
357002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Devils | Blue Devils | This disambiguation page is about the plural form. For the singular, see Blue Devil (disambiguation).
Blue Devils may refer to:
Military history
Blue Devils (aerobatic team), the nickname of the 410 (F) Squadron Aerobatic Team, a Canadian military aerobatic team from 1949 to 1950
The Fighting Blue Devils, the nickname of the 88th Infantry Division of the United States Army in World War II
Blue Devils (), the nickname of the Chasseurs Alpins, the elite mountain infantry of the French Army
Blue Devils, a reference to the United States Army by the Confederate Army during the Civil War; see List of nicknames of United States Army divisions
Music
"Blue Devils", a military march by Charles Williams, originally known as "The Kensington March"
Blue Devils Drum and Bugle Corps, a drum and bugle corps from Concord, California
Oklahoma City Blue Devils, a territory jazz band based in Oklahoma
The Last of the Blue Devils, a 1979 documentary of Kansas City jazz
Sports
College and professional
Belconnen Blue Devils, a football (soccer) team that formerly played in the New South Wales Premier League (Australia)
Blue Devils FC, a Canadian semi-professional soccer team
Central Connecticut Blue Devils, athletic teams from Central Connecticut State University
Duke Blue Devils, athletic teams from Duke University in Durham, North Carolina
Hamburg Blue Devils, an American football team that plays in the German Football League
Fredonia State Blue Devils, athletic teams from the State University of New York at Fredonia
Lawrence Tech Blue Devils, athletic teams from Lawrence Technological University
UW–Stout Blue Devils, athletic teams from the University of Wisconsin–Stout
High school athletic teams in the United States
Brunswick High School (Ohio), Brunswick (Cleveland), Ohio
Celeste High School, Celeste, Texas
Central High School (Davenport, Iowa)
Davis Senior High School (California), Davis, California
Grosse Pointe South High School, Grosse Pointe, Michigan
Jackson County High School, Gainesboro, Tennessee
Kenmore West High School, Kenmore, New York
Lake Fenton High School, Linden, Michigan
Mortimer Jordan High School, Kimberly, Alabama
Old Forge Junior-Senior High School , Pennsylvania
Plainville High School, Plainville, Connecticut
Quincy Senior High School, Quincy, Illinois
Reading High School (Ohio), Reading, Ohio
Riverland Community College, Austin, Minnesota
Victor Senior High School, Victor, New York
Other uses
Blue devils, demons causing depression, according to some the etymology of the blues music genre
See also
Blue Devil (disambiguation)
Blue Demons, athletic teams from DePaul University |
357005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Gallery%20of%20Art | National Gallery of Art | The National Gallery of Art, and its attached Sculpture Garden, is a national art museum in Washington, D.C., United States, located on the National Mall, between 3rd and 9th Streets, at Constitution Avenue NW. Open to the public and free of charge, the museum was privately established in 1937 for the American people by a joint resolution of the United States Congress. Andrew W. Mellon donated a substantial art collection and funds for construction. The core collection includes major works of art donated by Paul Mellon, Ailsa Mellon Bruce, Lessing J. Rosenwald, Samuel Henry Kress, Rush Harrison Kress, Peter Arrell Browne Widener, Joseph E. Widener, and Chester Dale. The Gallery's collection of paintings, drawings, prints, photographs, sculpture, medals, and decorative arts traces the development of Western Art from the Middle Ages to the present, including the only painting by Leonardo da Vinci in the Americas and the largest mobile created by Alexander Calder.
The Gallery's campus includes the original neoclassical West Building designed by John Russell Pope, which is linked underground to the modern East Building, designed by I. M. Pei, and the Sculpture Garden. The Gallery often presents temporary special exhibitions spanning the world and the history of art. It is one of the largest museums in North America.
For the breadth, scope, and magnitude of its collections, the National Gallery is widely considered to be one of the greatest museums in the United States of America, often ranking alongside the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the Art Institute of Chicago in Chicago, Illinois, and the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts. Of the top three art museums in the United States by annual visitors, it is the only one that has no admission fee. It attracted 730,408 visitors in 2020, a drop of eighty-two percent from 2019, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020 it ranked twenty-first on the list of most visited art museums in the world.
History
Origins
Andrew W. Mellon, Pittsburgh banker and Treasury Secretary from 1921 until 1932, began gathering a private collection of old master paintings and sculptures during World War I. During the late 1920s, Mellon decided to direct his collecting efforts towards the establishment of a new national gallery for the United States.
In 1930, partly for tax reasons, Mellon formed the A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust, which was to be the legal owner of works intended for the gallery. In 1930–1931, the Trust made its first major acquisition, 21 paintings from the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg as part of the Soviet sale of Hermitage paintings, including such masterpieces as Raphael's Alba Madonna, Titian's Venus with a Mirror, and Jan van Eyck's Annunciation.
In 1929 Mellon had initiated contact with the recently appointed Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles Greeley Abbot. Mellon was appointed in 1931 as a Commissioner of the Institution's National Gallery of Art. When the director of the Gallery retired, Mellon asked Abbot not to appoint a successor, as he proposed to endow a new building with funds for expansion of the collections.
However, Mellon's trial for tax evasion, centering on the Trust and the Hermitage paintings, caused the plan to be modified. In 1935, Mellon announced in The Washington Star his intention to establish a new gallery for old masters, separate from the Smithsonian. When asked by Abbot, he explained that the project was in the hands of the Trust and that its decisions were partly dependent on "the attitude of the Government towards the gift".
In January 1937, Mellon formally offered to create the new Gallery. On his birthday, 24 March 1937, an Act of Congress accepted the collection and building funds (provided through the Trust), and approved the construction of a museum on the National Mall.
The new gallery was to be effectively self-governing, not controlled by the Smithsonian, but took the old name "National Gallery of Art" while the Smithsonian's gallery would be renamed the "National Collection of Fine Arts" (now the Smithsonian American Art Museum).
Construction and later history
The museum stands on the former site of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station, where in 1881 a disgruntled office seeker, Charles Guiteau, shot President James Garfield (see James A. Garfield assassination). The station was demolished in 1908 because it did not conform to the McMillan Plan for the Mall. In 1918, temporary war buildings were constructed on the site; these were demolished by 1921 to construct the foundation of the George Washington Memorial Building, which was never completed. The site was then reassigned to the new National Gallery of Art.
Designed by architect John Russell Pope, the new structure was completed and accepted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on behalf of the American people on March 17, 1941. At the time of its inception it was the largest marble structure in the world. Neither Mellon nor Pope lived to see the museum completed; both died in late August 1937, only two months after excavation had begun.
As anticipated by Mellon, the creation of the National Gallery encouraged the donation of other substantial art collections by a number of private donors. Founding benefactors included such individuals as Paul Mellon, Samuel H. Kress, Rush H. Kress, Ailsa Mellon Bruce, Chester Dale, Joseph Widener, Lessing J. Rosenwald and Edgar William and Bernice Chrysler Garbisch.
The Gallery's East Building was constructed in the 1970s on much of the remaining land left over from the original congressional action. Andrew Mellon's children, Paul Mellon and Ailsa Mellon Bruce, funded the building. Designed by architect I. M. Pei, the contemporary structure was completed in 1978 and was opened on June 1 of that year by President Jimmy Carter. The new building was built to house the Museum's collection of modern paintings, drawings, sculptures, and prints, as well as study and research centers and offices. The design received a National Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects in 1981.
The final addition to the complex is the National Gallery of Art Sculpture Garden. Completed and opened to the public on May 23, 1999, the location provides an outdoor setting for exhibiting a number of large pieces from the Museum's contemporary sculpture collection.
In 2011, an extensive refurbishment and renovation of the French galleries were undertaken. As part of the celebration of the reopening of this wing, organist Alexander Frey performed 4 sold-out recitals of music of France in one weekend in the French Gallery.
Operations
The National Gallery of Art is supported through a private-public partnership. The United States federal government provides funds, through annual appropriations, to support the museum's operations and maintenance. All artwork, as well as special programs, are provided through private donations and funds. The museum is not part of the Smithsonian Institution.
Noted directors of the National Gallery have included David E. Finley, Jr. (1938-1956), John Walker (1956–1968), and J. Carter Brown (1968–1993). Earl A. "Rusty" Powell III was named director in 1993. In March 2019 he was be succeeded by Kaywin Feldman, past director and president of the Minneapolis Institute of Art. The museum hired Evelyn Carmen Ramos, the first woman and the first person of color to be the chief curatorial and conservation officer, in 2021.
The president of the museum is billionaire businessman Mitchell Rales and its chairperson is Sharon Rockefeller.
Entry to both buildings of the National Gallery of Art is free of charge. The museum is open daily from 10 a.m. – 5 p.m. It is closed on December 25 and January 1.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the National Gallery was largely closed to the public. However, visitors were able to schedule appointments to access the west building in small numbers.
Architecture
The museum comprises two buildings: the West Building (1941) and the East Building (1978) linked by an underground passage. The West Building, composed of pink Tennessee marble, was designed in 1937 by architect John Russell Pope in a neoclassical style (as is Pope's other notable building in Washington, D.C., the Jefferson Memorial). Designed in the form of an elongated H, the building is centered on a domed rotunda modeled on the interior of the Pantheon in Rome. Extending east and west from the rotunda, a pair of skylit sculpture halls provide its main circulation spine. Bright garden courts provide a counterpoint to the long main axis of the building.
The West Building has an extensive collection of paintings and sculptures by European masters from the medieval period through the late 19th century, as well as pre-20th century works by American artists. Highlights of the collection include many paintings by Jan Vermeer, Rembrandt van Rijn, Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, and Leonardo da Vinci.
In contrast, the design of the East Building by architect I. M. Pei is geometrical, dividing the trapezoidal shape of the site into two triangles: one isosceles and the other a smaller right triangle. The space defined by the isosceles triangle came to house the museum's public functions. The portion outlined by the right triangle became the study center. The triangles in turn became the building's organized motif, echoed and repeated in every dimension.
The building's central feature is a high atrium designed as an open interior court that is enclosed by a sculptural space spanning . The atrium is centered on the same axis that forms the circulation spine for the West Building and is constructed in the same Tennessee marble.
However, in 2005 the joints attaching the marble panels to the walls began to show signs of strain, creating a risk that panels might fall onto visitors below. In 2008, NGA officials decided that it had become necessary to remove and reinstall all of the panels. The renovation was completed in 2016.
The East Building focuses on modern and contemporary art, with a collection including works by Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Jackson Pollock, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Alexander Calder, a 1977 mural by Robert Motherwell and works by many other artists. The East Building also contains the main offices of the NGA and a large research facility, Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts (CASVA). Among the highlights of the East Building in 2012 was an exhibition of Barnett Newman's The Stations of the Cross series of 14 black and white paintings (1958–66). Newman painted them after he had recovered from a heart attack; they are usually regarded as the peak of his achievement. The series has also been seen as a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust.
The two buildings are connected by a walkway beneath 4th street, called "the Concourse" on the museum's map. In 2008, the National Gallery of Art commissioned American artist Leo Villareal to transform the Concourse into an artistic installation. Today, Multiverse is the largest and most complex light sculpture by Villareal featuring approximately 41,000 computer-programmed LED nodes that run through channels along the entire -long space. The concourse also includes the food court and a gift shop.
The final element of the National Gallery of Art complex, the Sculpture Garden was completed in 1999 after more than 30 years of planning. To the west of the West Building, on the opposite side of Seventh Street, the Sculpture Garden was designed by landscape architect Laurie Olin as an outdoor gallery for monumental modern sculpture.
The Sculpture Garden contains plantings of Native American species of canopy and flowering trees, shrubs, ground covers, and perennials. A circular reflecting pool and fountain form the center of its design, which arching pathways of granite and crushed stone complement. (The pool becomes an ice-skating rink during the winter.) The sculptures exhibited in the surrounding landscaped area include pieces by Marc Chagall, David Smith, Mark Di Suvero, Roy Lichtenstein, Sol LeWitt, Tony Smith, Roxy Paine, Joan Miró, Louise Bourgeois, and Hector Guimard.
Renovations
The NGA's West Building was renovated from 2007 to 2009. Although some galleries closed for periods of time, others remained open.
After congressional testimony that the East Building suffered from "systematic structural failures", NGA adopted a Master Renovations Plan in 1999. This plan established the timeline for closing the building, and planned for the renovation of the electronic security systems, elevators, and HVAC. Space between the ceilings of existing galleries and the building's skylights (which was never completed when the building was constructed in 1978) would be renovated into two, high, hexagonal Tower Galleries. The galleries would have a combined of space and will be lit by skylights. A rooftop sculpture garden would also be added. NGA officials said that the Tower Galleries would probably house modern art, and the creation of a distinct "Rothko Room" was possible.
Beginning in 2011, NGA undertook an $85 million restoration of the East Building's façade. The East Building is clad in thick pink marble panels. The panels are held about away from the wall by stainless steel anchors. Gravity holds the panel in the bottom anchors (which are placed at each corner), while "button head" anchors (stainless steel posts with large, flat heads) at the top corners keep the panel upright. Mortar was used on the gravity anchors to level the stones. Joints of flexible colored neoprene were placed between the panels. This system was designed to allow each panel to hang independent of its neighbors, and NGA officials say they are not aware of any other panel system like it.
However, many panels were accidentally mortared together. Seasonal heating and cooling of the façade, infiltration of moisture, and shrinkage of the building's structural concrete by over time caused extensive damage to the façade. In 2005, regular maintenance showed that some panels were cracked or significantly damaged, while others leaned by more than out from the building (threatening to fall).
The NGA hired the structural engineering firm Robert Silman Associates to determine the cause of the problem. Although the Gallery began raising private funds to fix the issue, eventually federal funding was used to repair the building. In 2012, the NGA chose a joint venture, Balfour Beatty/Smoot, to complete the repairs. Anodized aluminum anchors replaced the stainless steel ones, and the top corner anchors were moved to the center of the top edge of each stone. The neoprene joints were removed and new colored silicone gaskets installed, and leveling screws rather than mortar used to keep the panels square. Work began in November 2011, and originally was scheduled to end in 2014. By February 2012, however, the contractor said work on the façade would end in late 2013, and site restoration would take place in 2014. The East Building remained open throughout the project.
In March 2013, the National Gallery of Art announced a $68.4 million renovation to the East Building. This included $38.4 million to refurbish the interior mechanical plant of the structure, and $30 million to create new exhibition space. Because the angular interior space of the East Building made it impossible to close off galleries, the renovation required all but the atrium and offices to close by December 2013. The structure remained closed for three years. The architectural firm of Hartman-Cox oversaw both aspects of the renovation.
A group of benefactors — which included Victoria and Roger Sant, Mitchell and Emily Rales, and David Rubenstein — privately financed the renovation. The Washington Post reported that the donation was one of the largest the NGA had received in a decade. NGA staff said that they would use the closure to conserve artwork, plan purchases, and develop exhibitions. Plans for renovating conservation, construction, exhibition prep, groundskeeping, office, storage, and other internal facilities were also ready, but would not be implemented for many years.
Buildings
Collection
The NGA's collection galleries and Sculpture Garden display European and American paintings, sculpture, works on paper, photographs, and decorative arts. Paintings in the permanent collection date from the Middle Ages to the present. The Italian Renaissance collection includes two panels from Duccio's Maesta, the tondo of the Adoration of the Magi by Fra Angelico and Filippo Lippi, a Botticelli work on the same subject, Giorgione's Allendale Nativity, Giovanni Bellini's The Feast of the Gods, Ginevra de' Benci (the only painting by Leonardo da Vinci in the Americas) and groups of works by Titian and Raphael.
The collections include paintings by many European masters, including a version of Saint Martin and the Beggar, by El Greco, and works by Matthias Grünewald, Cranach the Elder, Rogier van der Weyden, Albrecht Dürer, Frans Hals, Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer, Francisco Goya, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, and Eugène Delacroix, among others. The collection of sculpture and decorative arts includes such works as the Chalice of Abbot Suger of St-Denis and a collection of work by Auguste Rodin and Edgar Degas. Other highlights of the permanent collection include the second of the two original sets of Thomas Cole's series of paintings titled The Voyage of Life, (the first set is at the Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute in Utica, New York) and the original version of Watson and the Shark by John Singleton Copley (two other versions are in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the Detroit Institute of Arts).
The National Gallery's print collection comprises 75,000 prints, in addition to rare illustrated books. It includes collections of works by Albrecht Dürer, Rembrandt, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, William Blake, Mary Cassatt, Edvard Munch, Jasper Johns, and Robert Rauschenberg. The collection began with 400 prints donated by five collectors in 1941. In 1942, Joseph E. Widener donated his entire collection of nearly 2,000 works. In 1943, Lessing Rosenwald donated his collection of 8,000 old master and modern prints; between 1943 and 1979, he donated almost 14,000 more works. In 2008, Dave and Reba White Williams donated their collection of more than 5,200 American prints.
In 2013, the NGA purchased from a private French collection Gerard van Honthorst's 1623 painting, The Concert, which had not been publicly viewed since 1795. After initially displaying the The Concert in a special installation in the West Building, the NGA moved the painting to a permanent display in the museum's Dutch and Flemish galleries. Art experts estimated the sale price of The Concert at $20 million, though the NGA did not reveal the amount that it had paid.
Highlights of the collection
Selected highlights from the American collection
See also
Collections of the National Gallery of Art
List of original Hermitage paintings in the National Gallery of Art
References
Further reading
David Cannadine, Mellon: An American Life, Knopf, 2006,
Neil Harris, Capital Culture: J. Carter Brown, the National Gallery of Art, and the Reinvention of the Museum Experience, University of Chicago Press, 2013,
Andrew Kelly, Kentucky by Design: The Decorative Arts, American Culture, and the Index of American Design, University Press of Kentucky, 2015.
"The National Gallery of Art, Washington", special number of Connaissance des Arts, Société Français de Promotion Artistique (2000)
External links
NGA Collection
Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library
Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts
Art museums established in 1937
National Mall
Collections of the National Gallery of Art
I. M. Pei buildings
John Russell Pope buildings
Domes
Neoclassical architecture in Washington, D.C.
Art museums and galleries in Washington, D.C.
Modern art museums in the United States
Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums
1937 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Museums of American art
Art galleries established in 1937
Articles containing video clips
National museums of the United States
Federally funded national museums of the United States |
357012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor%20of%20Los%20Angeles | Mayor of Los Angeles | The mayor of the City of Los Angeles is the official head and chief executive officer of Los Angeles, California, United States. The officeholder is elected for a four-year term and limited to serving no more than two terms. Under the Constitution of California, all judicial, school, county and city offices, including those of chartered cities, are nonpartisan.
There are 42 people who have served as mayor in Los Angeles since 1850, when California became a state following the American Conquest of California. Prior to the conquest, Californios served as Mayor of Los Angeles during the Spanish and Mexican eras since 1781. Eric Garcetti has been the city's current mayor since 2013.
Duties and powers
Los Angeles has a strong mayor–council form of government, giving the mayor the position of chief executive of the city. The mayor is given the authority to appoint general managers and commissioners, remove officials from city posts, and is required to propose a budget each year. Most of the mayor's appointments and proposals are subject to approval by the Los Angeles City Council, but the mayor has the power of veto or approval of City Council legislation.
The organization of the mayor's office changes with administration, but is almost always governed by a chief of staff, deputy chief of staff, director of communications, and several deputy mayors. Each mayor also organizes his office into different offices, usually containing the Los Angeles Housing Team, Los Angeles Business Team, International Trade Office, Mayor's Volunteer Corps, and Office of Immigrant Affairs, among other divisions.
The mayor has an office in the Los Angeles City Hall and resides at the Mayor's Mansion, Getty House, located in Windsor Square. As of 2017, the mayor received a salary of $248,141.
Election
The mayor is elected in citywide election. Elections follow a two-round system. The first round of the election is called the primary election. The candidate receiving a majority of the vote in the primary is elected outright. If no candidate receives a majority, the top two candidates advance to a runoff election, called the general election. The city charter allows for write-in candidates for the primary election, but not for the runoff in the general election. The mayor is elected to a four-year term, with a limit of two consecutive terms. The office of mayor is officially nonpartisan by state law, although most mayoral candidates identify a party preference.
Elections for mayor were held in odd-numbered years from 1909 until 2013. In October 2014, the Los Angeles City Council recommended consolidating city elections with gubernatorial and presidential elections in even-numbered years in an effort to increase turnout. On March 3, 2015, voters passed a charter amendment to extend the term of the mayor elected in 2017 to five-and-a-half years. From 2022 and onward, mayoral elections will be consolidated with the statewide gubernatorial elections held every four years.
The most recent election was held in March 2017. Incumbent mayor Eric Garcetti was re-elected for a second term.
Succession
In the case of an office vacancy, the city council has a choice to appoint a new mayor or to hold a special election. The replacement, if appointed, will serve until the next regularly scheduled primary for a city general election. If any portion remains on the term, a special election will be held to elect a candidate to serve the remainder of the term.
The mayor is subject to recall by registered voters if at least 15 percent of eligible voters sign a recall petition within 120 days of the first day of circulation. If the petition is successful, a special election is held asking whether the incumbent should be removed and who among a list of candidates should replace the incumbent. If the recall is successful, the replacement candidate with the majority of votes succeeds the ousted incumbent. If no replacement candidate receives a majority of the votes, a special runoff election is held between the top two candidates.
List of mayors of Los Angeles
As of , 42 individuals have served as mayor of Los Angeles since its incorporation as a city in the state of California. Six individuals served non-consecutive terms, the first of which began in 1854 and the last of which ended in 1921. Those who served non-consecutive terms are only counted once in the official count of mayoralties. Stephen Clark Foster was also appointed as Mayor of Los Angeles in 1848 prior to California statehood and official incorporation of the city.
The longest term was that of Tom Bradley, who served for 20 years over five terms prior to the establishment of successive term limits. The shortest term, not counting city council presidents serving as acting mayor, was that of William Stephens, who was appointed to serve for less than two weeks after Arthur Cyprian Harper resigned from office. Two mayors died in office: Henry Mellus and Frederick A. MacDougall. Three Hispanics have served as mayor since incorporation: Antonio F. Coronel, Cristóbal Aguilar, and Antonio Villaraigosa. Many other Hispanics served as mayor prior to California joining the United States including Manuel Requena, who also briefly served as acting mayor post-statehood in his role as city council president. Tom Bradley is the only African American to have served as mayor, but was the city's longest-serving mayor. Two French Canadians have served as mayor, including Damien Marchesseault, who served for three distinct periods, and Prudent Beaudry.
This list includes three Presidents of the City Council who served as Acting Mayor due to a vacancy in the office of the mayor but who were not officially appointed as mayor. The Council Presidents are not included in the count of mayors.
† Council presidents who temporarily served as acting mayor in case of a vacancy but were not officially appointed to the position are not included in the count of mayors.
Living former mayors
As of , three former mayors of Los Angeles were alive, the oldest being Richard J. Riordan (1993–2001, born 1930). The most recent mayor to die was Thomas Bradley (1973–1993), on September 29, 1998.
See also
History of Los Angeles
Timeline of Los Angeles
Notes
Stephen Clark Foster previously served as mayor of Los Angeles under United States military rule prior to official incorporation.
On January 13, 1855, Stephen Clark Foster resigned as mayor to lead a lynch mob. After the lynching, Foster was reelected as mayor in a special election and returned to office for the remainder of his term.
In cases where the same person served non-consecutive terms as mayor, the city only counts one mayoralty.
On September 22, 1856, Stephen Clark Foster resigned as mayor to attend to the executorship of the estate of his brother-in-law. City Council president Manuel Requena served as acting mayor until a special election could be held. Requena's term as acting mayor is not counted as an official mayoralty.
Manuel Requena previously served two terms as Alcalde of Los Angeles under Independent Mexican rule prior to California statehood in the United States.
On December 26, 1860, Henry Mellus died in office. City Council president Wallace Woodworth served as acting mayor until a special election could be held. Woodworth's term as acting mayor is not counted as an official mayoralty.
On May 8, 1867, Damien Marchesseault assumed the office of mayor, interrupting the term of Cristóbal Aguilar. After three months, Marchesseault was deposed and Aguilar was restored as mayor.
On November 16, 1878, Frederick A. MacDougal died in office. Bernard Cohn was appointed as mayor until a special election could be held.
John Bryson's term lasted a little over two months before he was legislated out of service with the adoption of a new city charter.
City Council president William Hartshorn Bonsall served as acting mayor for a week during the vacancy between the terms of Henry T. Hazard and Thomas E. Rowan. Bonsall's term as acting mayor is not counted as an official mayoralty.
On March 11, 1909 Arthur Harper was forced to resign in the wake of a recall drive. William Stephens was appointed mayor for less than two weeks until a new election could be held.
On September 2, 1916, Charles Sebastian resigned as mayor amid personal scandal. Frederick Woodman was appointed to finish the balance of Sebastian's term and later was elected to a full term in his own right.
On September 16, 1938 Frank Shaw was successfully recalled from office amid allegations of corruption. Fletcher Bowron was elected to take Shaw's place.
References
External links
Official City of Los Angeles : Office of Mayor website
City of Los Angeles Officials Database
Government of Los Angeles
Mayors
Los Angeles
Los Angeles-related lists
Politicians from Greater Los Angeles
1850 establishments in California |
357013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Forrest | John Forrest | Sir John Forrest (22 August 18472 September 1918) was an Australian explorer and politician. He was the first premier of Western Australia (1890–1901) and a long-serving cabinet minister in federal politics.
Forrest was born in Bunbury, Western Australia, to Scottish immigrant parents. He was the colony's first locally born surveyor, coming to public notice in 1869 when he led an expedition into the interior in search of Ludwig Leichhardt. The following year, Forrest accomplished the first land crossing from Perth to Adelaide across the Nullarbor Plain. His third expedition in 1874 travelled from Geraldton to Adelaide through the centre of Australia. Forrest's expeditions were characterised by a cautious, well-planned approach and diligent record-keeping. He received the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society in 1876.
Forrest became involved in politics through his promotion to surveyor-general, a powerful position that entitled him to a seat on the colony's executive council. He was appointed as Western Australia's first premier in 1890, following the granting of responsible government. The gold rushes of the early 1890s saw a large increase in the colony's population and allowed for a program of public works, including the construction of Fremantle Harbour and the Goldfields Water Supply Scheme. Forrest's government also passed a number of social reforms, maintaining power through several elections in an era before formal political parties. His support for Federation was crucial in Western Australia's decision to join as an original member.
In 1901, Forrest was invited to join Prime Minister Edmund Barton's inaugural federal cabinet. He was a member of all but one non-Labor government over the following two decades, serving as Postmaster-General (1901), Minister for Defence (1901–1903), Minister for Home Affairs (1903–1904), and Treasurer (1905–1907, 1909–1910, 1913–1914, 1917–1918). He helped shape Australia's early defence and financial policies, also lobbying for the construction of the Trans-Australian Railway, a pet project. Forrest served briefly as acting prime minister in 1907 and in 1913 was defeated for the leadership of the Liberal Party by a single vote. He was nominated to the peerage in 1918 by Prime Minister Billy Hughes, but died on his way to England before the appointment could be confirmed.
Early life
Birth and family background
Forrest was born on 22 August 1847 on his father's property outside of Bunbury, Western Australia. He was the fourth of ten children and third of nine sons born to Margaret (née Hill) and William Forrest. The couple's first child and only daughter, Mary, died as an infant. John's younger brothers included Alexander and David Forrest, who became public figures in their own right.
Forrest's parents had arrived from Scotland in December 1842, accompanying Dr John Ferguson to work as domestic servants on his farm in the newly settled district of Australind. Margaret was from Dundee and William from Kincardineshire; the Forrest paternal line originated from the village of Glenbervie. They were released from Ferguson's service in 1846, and William took up a property at the mouth of the Preston River on the eastern side of the Leschenault Estuary. He built a windmill and a small house, where John was born.
Childhood and education
A few years after Forrest's birth, the family moved down the Preston River to Picton, where William built a homestead and watermill. The family's youngest son, Augustus, drowned in the mill race as a toddler. The mill was primarily used as a flour mill, at a time when flour was a scarce commodity, but was also used as a sawmill. Its success allowed William to expand his land holdings to and gave the family a high social status in the small district around Bunbury. The property remains in the ownership of his descendants and is now heritage-listed.
Forrest and his brothers began their education at the one-room school in Bunbury, walking or riding in each direction. His parents prized education, and in 1860 he was sent to Perth to board at Bishop Hale's School, the only secondary school in the colony. He attended the school for four years, winning several prizes for arithmetic. Although three of William Forrest's sons became members of parliament, he had no involvement in public life beyond a local level and was not known to hold strong political opinions. According to John Forrest's biographer Frank Crowley, "William Forrest's greatest gift to his sons was not a precise political creed but the practical approach to life that he had acquired as a tradesman, farmer and jack-of-all-trades".
Early career
In November 1863, aged 16, Forrest took up an apprenticeship with Thomas Campbell Carey, the government surveyor at Bunbury. He had already been taught celestial navigation by his father, and under Carey learned the basic techniques of surveying, becoming proficient in traversing and the use of surveyors' tools, including Gunter's chains, prismatic compasses, sextants, and transit theodolites. He was also a skilled horseman and able to endure long periods in the bush without access to fresh meat and vegetables.
After two years as an apprentice to Carey, Forrest was appointed as a government surveyor on a provisional basis. He was the first person born in Western Australia to qualify as a surveyor. His term of employment began on 28 December 1865, at the age of 18, and he was assigned three assistants – a chainer, a camp-keeper, and a convict on probation. Although he was headquartered in Bunbury, Forrest spent most of his time in the field, surveying the Nelson, Sussex, and Wellington land districts. His position was made permanent in July 1866, and he spent most of the next two years in the Avon Valley.
Marriage
On 2 September 1876 in Perth, Forrest married Margaret Elvire Hamersley. The Hamersleys were a very wealthy family, and Forrest gained substantially in wealth and social standing from the marriage. However, to their disappointment the marriage was childless.
Explorer
Between 1869 and 1874, Forrest led three expeditions into the uncharted land surrounding the colony of Western Australia. In 1869, he led a fruitless search for the explorer Ludwig Leichhardt in the desert west of the site of the present town of Leonora. The following year, he surveyed Edward John Eyre's land route, from Perth to Adelaide. In 1874, he led a party to the watershed of the Murchison River and then east through the unknown desert centre of Western Australia. Forrest published an account of his expeditions, Explorations in Australia, in 1875. In 1882, he was made a Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) by Queen Victoria for his services in exploring the interior.
Search for Ludwig Leichhardt
In March 1869, Forrest was asked to lead an expedition in search of Leichhardt, who had been missing since April 1848. A few years earlier, a party of Aborigines had told the explorer Charles Hunt that a group of white men had been killed by Aborigines a long time ago, and some time afterwards, an Aboriginal tracker named Jemmy Mungaro had corroborated their story and claimed to have personally been to the location. Since it was thought that these stories might refer to Leichhardt's party, Forrest was asked to lead a party to the site, with Mungaro as their guide and there to search for evidence of Leichhardt's fate.
Forrest assembled a party of six, including the Aboriginal trackers Mungaro and Tommy Windich, and they left Perth on 15 April 1869. They headed in a north-easterly direction, passing through the colony's furthermost sheep station on 26 April. On 6 May, they encountered a group of Aborigines who offered to guide the party to a place where there were many skeletons of horses. Forrest's team accompanied this group in a more northerly direction, but after a week of travelling it became clear that their destination was Poison Rock, where the explorer Robert Austin was known to have left eleven of his horses for dead in 1854. They then turned once more towards the location indicated by their guide.
The team arrived in the location to be searched on 28 May. They then spent almost three weeks surveying and searching an area of about 15,000 km2 in the desert west of the site of the present-day town of Leonora. Having found no evidence of Leichhardt's fate, and Mungaro having changed his story and admitted that he had not personally visited the site, they decided to push as far eastwards as they could on their remaining supplies. The expedition reached its furthest point east on 2 July, near the present-day site of the town of Laverton. They then turned for home, returning by a more northerly route and arriving back in Perth on 6 August.
They had been absent for 113 days, and had travelled, by Forrest's reckoning, over , most of it through uncharted desert. They had found no sign of Leichhardt, and the country over which they travelled was useless for farming. However, Forrest did report that his compass had been affected by the presence of minerals in the ground, and he suggested that the government send geologists to examine the area. Ultimately, the expedition achieved very little, but it was of great personal advantage to Forrest whose reputation with his superiors and in the community at large was greatly enhanced.
Bight crossing
Later that year, Forrest was selected to lead an expedition that would survey a land route along the Great Australian Bight between the colonies of South Australia and Western Australia. Eyre had achieved such a crossing 30 years earlier, but his expedition had been poorly planned and equipped, and Eyre had nearly perished from lack of water. Forrest's expedition would follow Eyre's route, but it would be thoroughly planned and properly resourced. Also, the recent discovery of safe anchorages at Israelite Bay and Eucla would permit Forrest's team to be reprovisioned along the way by a chartered schooner Adur. Forrest's brief was to provide a proper survey of the route, which might be used in future to establish a telegraph link between the colonies and also to assess the suitability of the land for pasture.
Forrest's team consisted of six men his brother Alexander was second in charge, Police constable Hector Neil McLarty, farrier William Osborn, trackers Tommy Windich and Billy Noongale (Kickett); 15 horses. The party left Perth on 30 March 1870, and arrived at Esperance on 24 April. Heavy rain fell for much of this time.
After resting and reprovisioning, the party left Esperance on 9 May and arrived at Israelite Bay nine days later. They had encountered very little feed for their horses and no permanent water, but they managed to obtain sufficient rain water from rock water-holes. After reprovisioning, the team left for Eucla on 30 May. Again, they encountered very little feed and no permanent water, and this time the water they obtained from rock water-holes was not sufficient. They were compelled to dash more than to a spot that Eyre had found water in 1841. Having secured a water source, they rested and explored the area before moving on, eventually reaching Eucla on 2 July. At Eucla, they rested and reprovisioned and explored inland, where they found good pasture land. On 14 July, the team started the final leg of their expedition through unsettled country: from Eucla to the nearest South Australian station. During the last leg, almost no water could be found, and the team were compelled to travel day and night for nearly five days. They saw their first signs of civilisation on 18 July and eventually reached Adelaide on 27 August.
A week later, they boarded ship for Western Australia, arriving in Perth on 27 September. They were honoured at two receptions: one by the Perth City Council and a citizens' banquet at the Horse and Groom Tavern. Speaking at the receptions, Forrest was modest about his own contributions, but praised the efforts of the members of the expedition and divided a government gratuity between them.
Forrest's bight crossing was one of the most organised and best managed expeditions of his time. As a result, his party successfully completed in five months a journey that had taken Eyre twelve and arrived in good health and without the loss of a single horse. From that point of view, the expedition must be considered a success.
However, the tangible results were not great. They had not travelled far from Eyre's track, and although a large area was surveyed, only one small area of land suitable for pasture was found. A second expedition by the same team returned to the area between August and November 1871 and found further good pastures, north-north-east of Esperance.
Across interior
In August 1872, Forrest was invited to lead a third expedition, from Geraldton to the source of the Murchison River and then east through the uncharted centre of Western Australia to the overland telegraph line from Darwin to Adelaide. The purpose was to discover the nature of the unknown centre of Western Australia, and to find new pastoral land.
Forrest's team again consisted of six men, including his brother Alexander and Windich. They also had 20 horses and food for eight months. The team left Geraldton on 1 April 1874, and a fortnight later, it passed through the colony's outermost station. On 3 May the team passed into unknown land. It found plenty of good pastoral land around the headwaters of the Murchison River, but by late May, it was travelling over arid land. On 2 June, while dangerously short of water, it discovered Weld Springs, "one of the best springs in the colony" according to Forrest. This later became Well 9 of the Canning Stock Route, but it proved unreliable as a water source.
At Weld Springs, the party came into conflict with a group of Martu people. In his diary, Forrest recorded that 40 to 60 men had appeared on the hill overlooking the springs, "all plumed up and armed with spears and shields". They then rushed towards the camp brandishing spears, to which Forrest and his party responded by firing their weapons. The group retreated up the hill before charging again, and more shots were fired. On the following day, Forrest found blood near the camp, speculating that two men had been shot and at least one had suffered a severe wound. Fearing another attack, Forrest and his men constructed a stone hut (or "fort") with a thatched roof, approximately high and by in area. There were no further confrontations between the groups. According to Martu oral history, the initial conflict occurred after one of the white men approached Martu singing around a fire and was threatened with a spear. The second incident occurred after the fort was built and resulted in some of their men being killed. It has been suggested that the expedition may have intruded upon a ceremonial gathering.
Beyond Weld Springs water was extremely hard to obtain, and by 4 July the team relied on occasional thunderstorms for water. By 2 August, the team was critically short of water; a number of horses had been abandoned, and Forrest's journal indicates that the team had little confidence of survival. A few days later, it was rescued by a shower of rain. On 23 August, it was again critically short of water and half of their horses were near death, when they were saved by the discovery of Elder Springs.
Then, the land became somewhat less arid, and the risk of dying from thirst started to abate. Other difficulties continued, however: the team had to abandon more of their horses, and one member of the team suffered from scurvy and could barely walk. The team finally sighted the telegraph line near Mount Alexander on 27 September and reached Peake Telegraph Station three days later. The remainder of the journey was a succession of triumphant public receptions by passing through each country town en route to Adelaide. The team reached Adelaide on 3 November 1874, more than six months after they started from Geraldton.
From an exploration point of view, Forrest's third expedition was of great importance. A large area of previously unknown land was explored, and the popular notion of an inland sea was shown to be unlikely. However, the practical results were not great. Plenty of good pastoral land was found up to the head of the Murchison, but beyond that, the land was useless for pastoral enterprise, and Forrest was convinced that it would never be settled. Forrest also made botanical collections during the expedition that were given to Ferdinand von Mueller, who, in turn, named Eremophila forrestii in his honour.
In 1875, Forrest published Explorations in Australia, an account of his three expeditions. In July 1876, he was awarded the Founder's Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. He was made a CMG by Queen Victoria in 1882 for his services in exploring the interior.
Premier
He was an outstanding surveyor, and his successful expeditions had made him a popular public figure as well. Consequently, he was promoted rapidly through the ranks of the Lands and Surveys Department, and in January 1883 he succeeded Malcolm Fraser in the positions of surveyor-general and commissioner of crown lands. This was one of the most powerful and responsible positions in the colony, and it accorded him a seat on the colony's Executive Council. At the same time, Forrest was nominated to the colony's Legislative Council. After Britain ceded to Western Australia the right to self-rule in 1890, Forrest was elected unopposed to the seat of Bunbury in the Legislative Assembly. On 22 December 1890, Governor William Robinson appointed Forrest the first Premier of Western Australia. In May of the following year, he was knighted KCMG for his services to the colony.
The Forrest Ministry immediately embarked on a programme of large-scale public works funded by loans raised in London. Public works were greatly in demand at the time, because of the British government's reluctance to approve public spending in the colony. Under the direction of the brilliant engineer C. Y. O'Connor, many thousands of miles of railway were laid, and many bridges, jetties, lighthouses and town halls were constructed. The two most ambitious projects were the Fremantle Harbour Works, one of the few public works of the 1890s which is still in use today; and the Goldfields Water Supply Scheme, one of the greatest engineering feats of its time, in which the Helena River was dammed and the water piped over to Kalgoorlie. Forrest's public works programme was generally well received, although on the Eastern Goldfields where the rate of population growth and geographical expansion far outstripped the government's ability to provide works, Forrest was criticised for not doing enough. He invited further criticism in 1893 with his infamous "spoils to the victors" speech, in which he appeared to assert that members who opposed the government were putting at risk their constituents' access to their fair share of public works.
Forrest's government also implemented a number of social reforms, including measures to improve the status of women, young girls and wage-earners. However, although Forrest did not always oppose proposals for social reform, he never instigated or championed them. Critics have therefore argued that Forrest deserves little credit for the social reforms achieved under his premiership. On political reform, however, Forrest's influence was unquestionable. In 1893, Forrest guided through parliament a number of significant amendments to the Constitution of Western Australia, including an extension of the franchise to all men regardless of property ownership. He also had a significant role in repealing section 70 of that constitution, which had provided that 1% of public revenue should be paid to a Board (not under local political control) for the welfare of Indigenous people, and was "widely hated" by the colonists.
The major political question of the time, though, was federation. Forrest was in favour of federation, and felt that it was inevitable, but he also felt that Western Australia should not join until it obtained fair terms. He was heavily involved in the framing of the Australian Constitution, representing Western Australia at a number of meetings on federation, including the National Australasian Conventions in Sydney in 1891 and in Adelaide in 1897, and the Australasian Federal Conventions in Sydney in 1897 and in Melbourne in 1898. He fought hard to protect the rights of the less populous states, arguing for a strong upper house organised along state lines. He also argued for a number of concessions to Western Australia, and for the building of a trans-Australian railway. Although he was largely unsuccessful in his endeavours, by 1900 he was convinced that better terms were not to be obtained, so called the referendum in which Western Australians voted to join the federation, and Western Australia became a part of Australia in 1901.
Federal politics
On 30 December 1900, Forrest accepted the position of Postmaster-General in Edmund Barton's federal caretaker government. Two days later, he received news that he had been made a GCMG "in recognition of services in connection with the Federation of Australian Colonies and the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia". Forrest was postmaster-general for only 17 days: he resigned to take up the defence portfolio, which had been made vacant by the death of Sir James Robert Dickson. On 13 February 1901, he resigned as premier of Western Australia and as member for Bunbury.
In the March 1901 federal election, the first one ever, Forrest was elected, unopposed, on a moderate Protectionist platform to the federal House of Representatives seat of Swan. He held the defence portfolio for over two years. After a cabinet reshuffle on 7 August 1903, he became Minister for Home Affairs.
The December 1903 federal election greatly weakened the governing party. Shortly afterwards, it was defeated and replaced by a Labour government under Chris Watson. Forrest moved to the crossbenches, where he was a scathing critic of the Labour government's policies and legislation. After George Reid's Free Trade Party took office in August 1904, he remained on the crossbenches but largely supported the government.
Throughout the process to select Australia's national capital site, Forrest was a firm supporter of Dalgety.
In June 1905, Alfred Deakin's Protectionist Party formed an alliance with Labour to end Reid's government. They formed a new government on 7 July, with Forrest appointed Treasurer, as fifth in seniority. After a ministerial reshuffle in October 1906, Forrest became third in cabinet precedence. He served as acting prime minister from 18 to 26 June 1907, as both Deakin and Lyne were in London attending imperial conferences.
The alliance with Labour had put Forrest in a difficult position, as he had repeatedly opposed it. Before the December 1906 federal election, he continued to attack the Labour Party despite sharing government with it and depending on its support. In the following months, Forrest was himself heavily criticised in the press for his willingness to work with the Labour Party when Cabinet was in session and for his attacks on the party during election campaigns.
He began to feel that his reputation in Western Australia and his personal standing in cabinet were being undermined. In response, he resigned as treasurer on 30 July 1907 and joined the crossbenches, where he was a mild critic of the government.
A few months later, Labour withdrew its support for Deakin's government, forcing it to resign. Labour then formed government under Andrew Fisher. In the following months, Forrest and a number of other members worked to arrange a fusion of the Free Trade and Protectionist parties into a single party. Eventually, the Commonwealth Liberal Party was formed, with Deakin as leader. Fisher was then forced to resign, and the new Liberal Party took office on 2 June 1909, with Forrest as treasurer. Labour reclaimed office at the April 1910 federal election.
Early in 1913, Deakin resigned as Leader of the Opposition. Forrest and Joseph Cook contested the leadership, with Cook winning by a single vote. Forrest was very disappointed, especially since Deakin, whom he considered a friend, had voted against him. Five months later, in the May 1913 federal election, the Liberal Party returned to power, with Cook as Prime Minister. Forrest was appointed treasurer for the third time. However, the government's majority of just one seat in the House of Representatives, along with Labor's large majority in the Senate, made it difficult to get anything done. In June 1914, Cook asked the Governor-General for a double dissolution, and Australia was sent back to the polls. Forrest retained his seat, but the Liberal Party was soundly defeated and Forrest was again relegated to the crossbenches.
In December 1916, a split in the Labor Party over conscription left Prime Minister Billy Hughes with a minority government. Hughes and his colleagues formed the National Labor Party, and the Liberal Party joined with it in the formation of a new government. For the fourth time, Forrest was appointed treasurer. The National Labor and Liberal parties easily won a combined majority at the May 1917 election, and the two parties soon merged to form the Nationalist Party of Australia.
On 20 December, a referendum on conscription was defeated, and Hughes kept his promise to resign as prime minister if the referendum was lost. Forrest immediately declared himself a candidate for the position, but the Governor-General found that Forrest did not have the numbers and so asked Hughes to form government again. Hughes accepted, and the previous government was again sworn in.
Illness, peerage and death
Forrest had a rodent ulcer removed from his left temple in January 1915, which was initially thought to be non-malignant. Another operation followed in Perth in March 1917, but the cancer returned. He had a third operation in January 1918, after which he was hospitalised for nearly two weeks. The surgeons buried radium in the wound in that hopes that it would help prevent a recurrence. Forrest spent a month recuperating in Healesville; on a visit to the Melbourne Club during this time he was found to weigh . He resigned from the ministry on 21 March 1918, on the advice of his doctors. William Watt had been acting as treasurer in his absence and was appointed as his replacement.
On 7 February 1918, Forrest was informed by the Governor-General that he would be raised to the Peerage of the United Kingdom as a baron. The honour was granted on the advice of Hughes, who was aware that it would signal the end of Forrest's political career. It had been suggested to Hughes two years earlier by John Langdon Bonython. Forrest would have been the first Australian peer, and the announcement was received critically from those opposed to the granting of hereditary honours, including many of Hughes' former ALP colleagues. However, Forrest's peerage was never formalised, as no letters patent were issued before his death. His barony is not listed in The Complete Peerage.
Faced with declining health, Forrest decided to travel to London to seek assistance from specialists in London, accompanied by his wife and a nurse. Before he left he revised his will and made arrangements for his burial. He also hoped to take his seat in the House of Lords if his health permitted. Forrest left Albany aboard the troopship Marathon on 30 July 1918. He spent two nights in a private hospital when the ship stopped in Durban, South Africa, but returned to the ship and celebrated his 71st birthday on 22 August "in considerable pain". He died at sea on 2 September 1918, three hours away from Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Forrest was initially interred at the military cemetery in Freetown. His body was brought back to Western Australia and buried at Karrakatta Cemetery on 7 May 1919. His death occasioned the 1918 Swan by-election, which saw the 22-year-old ALP candidate Edwin Corboy become Australia's youngest member of parliament, a record not broken until 2010.
Character
He was a tall, heavily built man; in his later years, he tended towards stoutness, and he had a mass of about when he died. He was fond of pomp and ceremony and insisted on being treated with respect at all times. Highly sensitive to criticism, he hated having his authority challenged and tended to browbeat his political opponents. He had very little sense of humour and was greatly offended when a journalist playfully referred to him as the "Commissioner for Crown Sands".
His upbringing and education were said by his biographer, F. K. Crowley, to have compounded in him "social snobbery, laissez-faire capitalism, sentimental royalism, patriotic Anglicanism, benevolent imperialism and racial superiority." He was, however, a very popular figure who treated everyone he met with politeness and dignity. He was renowned for his memory for names and faces and for his prolific letter-writing.
However, as reported in The Ballarat Star on 12 July 1907, Forrest defended the use of neckchains to restrain enslaved indigenous captives, saying "Chaining aborigines by the neck is the only effective way of preventing their escape."
Racial view
A Forrest took a paternalistic and patronising attitude toward Indigenous Australians. He supported assimilation policies and his views were considered liberal by contemporary Western Australian standards. In 1883, in one of his first speeches to parliament, he referred to Aboriginal people being "hunted like dogs" and said they were owed "something more than repression". In the same speech he stated that they should not be punished too severely as they were "to a great extent like children". He further described Aboriginal people in an 1892 address to the National History Society as "in the same category as Marsupialia in having a very low degree of intelligence", but was impressed with their complex traditions and hoped they would be recorded before the race "died out". In 1890, he submitted an anthropological paper on marriage in north-west Australia to the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, along with "a brief appeal to preserve the Aboriginal race and its culture from extinction".
A study by Elizabeth Goddard and Tom Stannage of Forrest's public statements on Aboriginal people concluded that he was "locked into and promoted an ideology of development which had racism at its heart". In 1886, as surveyor-general, he introduced the Aborigines Protection Act 1886 into the Legislative Council, which provided for an Aborigines Protection Board. He was appointed to the board in 1890, by which time it had been given a fixed percentage of the colony's annual revenue in the newly granted constitution. Forrest was strongly opposed to the financial provisions and after becoming premier sought to amend the constitution to remove them. He spent several years lobbying the British government for approval, which was eventually granted in 1897 and saw Aboriginal affairs return to the control of the colonial government. According to Martyn Webb, he was capable of compassion towards Aboriginal people, but "it would be wrong to imagine that Forrest was some sort of unrequited idealist as far as Aborigines were concerned" and "his views about Aboriginal people as a whole were not entirely different from those of his time".
As premier, Forrest faced pressure from pastoralists in the north-west – including family members and parliamentary colleagues – to intervene on their behalf in frontier conflicts, simultaneously facing pressure to intervene in cases of cruelty and mistreatment toward Aboriginal people. In 1893, on the topic of massacres, he stated that "I must not, in the position I am in, do anything or sanction anything that will lead to the impression that an indiscriminate slaughter of blackfellows will be tolerated or allowed by the government of the colony". In 1889 he had persuaded the Executive Council to commute a death sentence imposed on an Aboriginal man in Roebourne, who had been convicted of murder for a killing under customary law. Forrest's government nevertheless introduced harsher penalties for Aboriginal people caught stealing or killing livestock, including flogging and imprisonment. It also continued the use of Rottnest Island as a prison for Aboriginal offenders, despite his earlier criticism of the practice of taking them away from their home country. In 1905 he defended the use of neck chains for Aboriginal prisoners, stating that were necessary to prevent escape.
Legacy
Forrest's legacy can be found in the Western Australian landscape, with many places named by or after him:
the small settlement of Forrest on the Trans-Australian Railway;
Glen Forrest;
Forrestdale;
John Forrest National Park;
Forrest River;
Forrest Chase;
Forrestfield and
John Forrest Secondary College in Morley.
In addition, the electoral Division of Forrest was created in 1922; the suburb of Forrest, Australian Capital Territory is named after Forrest, as one of the many suburbs of Canberra named after Australia's first federal politicians.
The Forrest Highway, opened in September 2009, was named after him. The Eyre Highway was first known as the Forrest Highway, when it was first established as an unsealed road in 1942.
He is one of many railroad builders featured as a possible computer-controlled competitor in the simulation game Railroad Tycoon 3.
On 28 November 1949, the Australian post office issued a commemorative stamp that featured Forrest.
The Lord Forrest Hotel opened in Bunbury in 1986 even though he was never correctly known by that name. It is still running today and proudly displays his pictures on the walls. It is the largest hotel in Bunbury.
References
Further reading
External links
Forrest, John (Sir) (1847–1918) National Library of Australia, Trove, People and Organisation record for John Forrest
1847 births
1918 deaths
Australian explorers
Burials at Karrakatta Cemetery
Deaths from cancer
Colonial Secretaries of Western Australia
Commonwealth Liberal Party politicians
Explorers of Western Australia
People educated at Hale School
Australian Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Australian politicians awarded knighthoods
Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Swan
Members of the Australian House of Representatives
Members of the Cabinet of Australia
Australian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Council
People from Bunbury, Western Australia
Premiers of Western Australia
Protectionist Party members of the Parliament of Australia
Surveyors General of Western Australia
Treasurers of Australia
Australian federationists
People who died at sea
Treasurers of Western Australia
Independent members of the Parliament of Australia
Commonwealth Liberal Party members of the Parliament of Australia
Nationalist Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia
Defence ministers of Australia
Goldfields Water Supply Scheme
20th-century Australian politicians |
357017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape%20from%20Monkey%20Island | Escape from Monkey Island | Escape from Monkey Island is an adventure game developed and released by LucasArts in 2000. It is the fourth game in the Monkey Island series and the first to use 3D graphics.
The game centers on the pirate Guybrush Threepwood, who returns home with his wife Elaine Marley after their honeymoon, to find her erroneously declared dead, and her office of governor up for election. Guybrush must find a way to restore Elaine to office, while uncovering a plot to turn the Caribbean into a tourist trap, headed by his nemesis LeChuck and an Australian conspirator Ozzie Mandrill. Escape from Monkey Island was the second game to use the GrimE engine, which was upgraded from its first use in Grim Fandango.
Escape from Monkey Island won positive reviews and was a moderate commercial success. It was ultimately the last LucasArts adventure game to be released, as the company's later projects Full Throttle: Hell on Wheels and Sam & Max: Freelance Police were canceled in 2003 and 2004, respectively. A follow-up to Escape, entitled Tales of Monkey Island, was released by Telltale Games in 2009.
Gameplay
Escape from Monkey Island is an adventure game that consists of dialogue with characters and solving puzzles. The game is controlled entirely with the keyboard or alternatively with a joystick, making it the only non-point-and-click game in the Monkey Island series.
A feature of the game are action-lines: Guybrush will glance at any items that can be interacted with; the player can use 'Page Up' or 'Page Down' to select the item that he wants Guybrush to look at.
One of the hallmark aspects of the Monkey Island games, the insult swordfighting — the sword duels which were won by knowing the appropriate insults and responses — is briefly touched upon in the game as "insult armwrestling", and in an unwinnable insult duel against Ozzie Mandrill. In the second part of the game, the insult games are replaced by "Monkey Kombat", the name being a parody of Mortal Kombat with a symbol to match. Monkey Kombat is a sub-game akin to rock-paper-scissors, where the player needs to memorize lines of "monkey insults and retorts" which consist of per-game randomized compositions of "monkey words" like "oop", "chee", "ack" and "eek".
Story
Guybrush Threepwood and Elaine Marley return to Mêlée Island from their honeymoon. They find that Elaine has been declared officially dead, her position as governor has been revoked and her mansion is scheduled to be demolished. The governorship is up for election, and suddenly a person known as Charles L. Charles presents himself as the lead candidate. As Elaine begins her campaign to recover her position, Guybrush hires navigator Ingacius Cheese in a game of insult arm-wrestling, meets again with two of his old "friends", Carla and Otis, and heads out to Lucre Island to recover the Marley family heirlooms and obtain the legal documents to save her mansion. During his trip, Guybrush learns of the Marley family's greatest secret: a voodoo talisman known as the Ultimate Insult, which allows the user to spread insults so heinous, it destroys the spirit and will of those who hear it. He is framed for bank robbery by crook Peg-Nosed Pete at the hiring of the Australian land developer Ozzie Mandrill, but proves his innocence.
After acquiring the legal deeds and returning to the manor, Guybrush and Elaine discover that Charles L. Charles is really the shape-shifting Demon Pirate LeChuck, having been freed from his ice prison and seeking the Ultimate Insult. As Elaine continues her campaign, Guybrush searches the Jambalaya and Knuttin Atoll islands and recovers the pieces of the Ultimate Insult. Upon returning home, he is ambushed by the newly elected governor LeChuck and Ozzie Mandrill, who steal the pieces from him. The two villains are revealed to be working together, with Ozzie to rid of all pirates and turn the Caribbean into a resort and LeChuck out of debt to Ozzie for freeing him from his icy tomb and to use the Ultimate Insult to break Elaine and marry her. Feeling they might need Guybrush as a hostage, the two dump him on Monkey Island.
Despite temporary discouragement, Guybrush sets about making his escape. He learns the art of Monkey Kombat from the "monkey prince of Monkey Island" and, upon restoring the hermit Herman Toothrot's memory, discovers that the old man is actually Elaine's missing grandfather, having contracted amnesia twenty years prior due to being pushed into a whirlpool off the coast of Australia by Ozzie. After constructing an even bigger Ultimate Insult, Guybrush discovers that the colossal monkey head statue of the island hides a giant pilot-able monkey robot. He reactivates the Mecha and powers it and Herman and the island's monkeys join him in piloting it. With the robot, Guybrush manages to disable an Ultimate Insult amplifier made by Ozzie before returning to Mêlée. During this time, Ozzie has managed to capture Elaine and assemble the Ultimate Insult. When it appears to fail due to the lack of the amplifier, LeChuck takes matters into his own hands and possesses a statue of himself he had built shortly after his gubernatorial victory. Ozzie uses the Ultimate Insult to take control of LeChuck's statue form and engages Guybrush's monkey robot in Monkey Kombat. During the duel, Guybrush performs repeated ties, allowing Elaine to escape and causing LeChuck to smack his head in exasperation, crushing Ozzie and destroying the Ultimate Insult. LeChuck explodes. Guybrush and Elaine are reunited and Grandpa Marley resumes being the governor of Mêlée Island, so that the couple can go back to being pirates.
Development
The game was made with Sean Clark and Michael Stemmle as lead designers, both of whom worked on LucasArts' previous adventure titles Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis and Sam & Max Hit the Road. Sean Clark also worked on Loom and The Dig. Escape uses a slightly improved version of the GrimE engine introduced by Grim Fandango. Compared to the rest of the series, the SCUMM scripting language was replaced by the Lua programming language. This is referenced in-game; the pirate-themed SCUMM Bar, which first appeared in The Secret of Monkey Island, is replaced during the game with the tropical-themed Lua Bar.
A new version of the iMUSE interactive music system incorporating MP3 compression, among other changes, was built and used for the game. Interactive programming of the music and ambiance streams in the iMUSE system was done by lead sound designer Larry the O. Escape's introductory music is identical to that of the third game, unlike the earlier sequels which featured newly composed remixes of the well-known Monkey Island theme. Clint Bajakian, who had previously been an additional composer on Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge, acted as the game's main composer, with additional tracks by Michael Land (who had been the lead composer on the previous three Monkey Island games), Peter McConnell, Anna Karney, and Michael Lande (not to be confused with Michael Land).
The voice cast saw the return of Dominic Armato as Guybrush, Earl Boen as LeChuck, Leilani Jones Wilmore as the Voodoo Lady and Denny Delk as Murray. The only major voice not to return was Alexandra Boyd who voiced Elaine in the previous game. She was replaced by Charity James. Stan is also voiced by a different actor, Pat Fraley. Additionally, characters who had previously appeared in The Secret of Monkey Island such as Carla, Otis and Herman Toothrot, are heard with voice actors for the first time.
The game was also released on PlayStation 2 in 2001. Apart from obvious control differences, the PS2 version only varies by a slightly higher polygon count and use of less pre-rendered material. Escape is the third LucasArts adventure game to have a console release, following The Secret of Monkey Island for the Sega CD and Maniac Mansion for the NES.
According to Heinrich Lenhardt of PC Gamer US, "[I]f it wasn't for the sales figures in Germany, LucasArts probably wouldn't have bothered doing another Monkey Island" after The Curse of Monkey Island. In response to questions about the success of Grim Fandango and the viability of adventure games in the United States market, Tom Sarris of LucasArts defended the company's decision to make Escape from Monkey Island in 2000. He told GameSpot, "We look at the sales figures from a worldwide standpoint and ask ourselves if it still makes sense to make adventure games. Grim Fandango made a profit, so the answer is yes, it's still viable from a financial point of view."
Reception
Sales
Discussing Escape from Monkey Islands performance in December 2000, Simon Jeffery of LucasArts said that the company was "really happy with the [game's] success". He noted that it was "selling well" in the United States and "incredibly well in Europe", which he called proof that a market still existed for adventure games, despite a widespread belief that the genre had died. The game's computer version sold 55,275 copies and earned $2 million in the United States by the end of 2000, according to the market research firm PC Data. In the German market, Escape debuted at #4 on Media Control's computer game sales chart for November 2000. It placed ninth and 16th in its following two months, respectively. PC Data estimated its sales in the United States at 32,576 units for 2001, and 9,168 for the first six months of 2002. Its jewel case SKU sold 11,061 copies in North America during 2003.
In March 2003, LucasArts' Bill Tiller remarked, "I am not sure what EMI sold, but I think it had decent numbers on the PC." However, he reported that he "heard rumor of ... abysmal" sales for its PlayStation 2 release. In retrospect, Rob Smith wrote in Rogue Leaders: The Story of LucasArts that "the stateside reception [for Escape of Monkey Island] was disappointing, but retail response was buoyed by overseas interest and sales—particularly in Europe, where the demand for adventure games hadn't fallen as flat".
Critical response
The game was met with a generally favorable reception. The gameplay received criticism for its interface and the difficulty of keyboard or joystick control as compared to mouse controls. The "Monkey Kombat" was also criticized, with the GameSpot review stating that "unfortunately Monkey Kombat may be the single biggest problem with Escape from Monkey Island". Another reviewer speculated that "Perhaps the designers figured that combining insult fighting, cute monkeys, and a Mortal Kombat spoof would work well, but it didn't."
PC Zone gave it 82% and called it "an enjoyable, professionally created and amiably funny game. It doesn't do anything startlingly new, but is still an essential title for the hordes of people who grew up playing adventures." Adventure Gamers gave it four stars out of five and called it "a quality adventure game even though the restyling of the old locations on Mêlée Island and Monkey Island is a bit of a mixed bag. The ending is long, satisfying and almost as disturbingly weird as the ending of LeChuck's Revenge (but without being such an anti-climax)." Jeff Lundrigan in Next Generation, rated it three stars out of five, and stated that "If the puzzles are a good example of why adventure games have been self-destructing for years, the story, characters, and production values show just how entertaining they can be at their best."
Playboy gave the PS2 version a score of 85% and said that it "captures aging Marx Brothers appeal, but does so with modern-day flair. From battles against undead cutthroats to talking skulls, voodoo women and Monkey Kombat mini-games, you'll never know what to expect next. Then again, provided it's good times that come to mind, you won't be far off the mark. So set a course for the local retailer ASAP, matey - your ship's just come in." Maxim, however, gave the same version six out of ten and said, "If you’re keen on tasteless, tongue-in-cheek jokes, smooth sailing lies ahead." Jeff Lundrigan reviewed the PlayStation 2 version of the game for Next Generation, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "The puzzles are as inscrutable as ever, but if you have the patience, this is one terrifically entertaining game."
Awards
Escape from Monkey Island was a runner-up for GameSpot's, The Electric Playgrounds, IGN's and Computer Gaming Worlds awards for the best computer adventure title of 2000, all of which went to The Longest Journey. Computer Gaming Worlds editors remarked that Escape from Monkey Island is "a lot of fun and is strongly recommended to fans, but it's a few jokes and puzzles short of being a classic like the other games in the series." However, CNET Gamecenter named it the year's best adventure game over The Longest Journey, and its editors wrote that they could not "imagine a better graphic adventure" than LucasArts' title. It was also a finalist for their overall game of the year award, which went to The Sims.
The editors of Computer Games Magazine similarly nominated Escape from Monkey Island for their 2000 "Adventure Game of the Year" award.
E3 2000 Game Critics Awards: Best Action/Adventure Game
See also
Runaway: A Road Adventure
References
External links
Official Escape from Monkey Island website at LucasArts (currently down)
2000 video games
Adventure games
Lua (programming language)-scripted video games
LucasArts games
Classic Mac OS games
Monkey Island
PlayStation 2 games
Windows games
Video game sequels
Video games about pirates
Video games scored by Michael Land
Video games scored by Peter McConnell
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games developed in the United States |
357020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LucasArts%20adventure%20games | LucasArts adventure games | From the late 1980s to the early 2000s, LucasArts was well known for their point-and-click graphic adventure games, nearly all of which received high scoring reviews at the time of their release. Their style tended towards the humorous, often irreverent or slapstick humor, with the exceptions of Loom and The Dig. Their game design philosophy was that the player should never die or reach a complete dead-end, although there were exceptions.
Many of the games shared similar game interfaces and technology, powered by SCUMM (Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion). After 1997, these games transitioned into 3D graphics with the GrimE game engine. Common features between the games include in-joke references to both other LucasArts games and Lucasfilm productions, as well as other running gags, such as Chuck the Plant and Sam & Max cameo appearances, that spanned numerous games. Most of the games were designed by the people with experience from creating preceding adventure games for LucasArts, and the same composers were involved in the majority of productions.
In 2004, after a string of titles that never reached release, LucasArts ceased development on graphic adventure games. Many of the development staff involved in the making of these games moved on to form new companies, continuing to produce similar games at studios such as Telltale Games, Double Fine Productions, and Autumn Moon Entertainment. In 2009, however, LucasArts announced a collaboration with Telltale to revive the Monkey Island series, one of the old LucasArts adventure franchises, as well as stating its intent to revisit its past portfolio. This collaboration brought the LucasArts developed special editions of the first two Monkey Island games and the Telltale helmed adventure game Tales of Monkey Island.
Games
Initial titles (1986–90)
LucasArts' first adventure game was the 1986 title Labyrinth. The game's development was led by David Fox, with contributions from Douglas Adams, Christopher Cerf, Noah Falstein and Brenda Laurel. Based on the film of the same name, it is LucasArts' first video game adaptation of a film. It is the only adventure game not published by LucasArts, as Labyrinth was published and distributed by Activision.
Labyrinth was followed in 1987 by Maniac Mansion. Maniac Mansion was the creation of Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick, and marked the debut of SCUMM, the game engine that powered all but two of LucasArts later adventure games. The game was also the first LucasArts adventure game to be released for DOS. Maniac Mansion was LucasArts' first full graphic adventure game, using a point-and-click interface rather than the text-based gameplay seen in Labyrinth. A menu of verbs allows the player to choose how to interact with the game's environment. Maniac Mansion aims to parody the horror genre. The game was subject to several enhancements and re-releases, and was included as a game within a game in its sequel, Day of the Tentacle.
The third LucasArts adventure game was Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders, designed by David Fox, Matthew Kane, David Spangler and Ron Gilbert. Set within a science fiction setting, the game was released in 1988. It used a slightly upgraded version of the SCUMM engine, but adopted the same control and gameplay methods of the earlier games. Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders introduced digital music to LucasArts adventure games in the form of MIDI.
In 1989, LucasArts released their first adaptation of one of Lucasfilm's major franchises: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, based on the film of the same name. The game again upgraded the SCUMM engine's capabilities, but kept similar gameplay. The project was led by Ron Gilbert, David Fox and Noah Falstein; it was Fox's last adventure game for the company. A quotient point system, referred to as "Indy Quotient", allowed the player to overcome puzzles in several different ways, such as fighting a guard, sneaking past the guard, or convincing the guard to allow the player to pass.
Loom was the fourth game to utilize the SCUMM engine and was released in 1990. Designed by Brian Moriarty, the game was set in a fantasy setting. As well as updating the engine's graphics through the use of dithering, Loom marked a major deviation in interacting with the game's world. Instead of using the standard point-and-click interface of previous games, Loom requires players to use four-note musical tunes to create spells on objects or other characters. Loom also introduced the game design philosophy that the player character cannot reach a dead-end or die; this design decision was applied to all later adventure games, with the exception of Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis. A later added Red Book CD-DA music featuring the compositions of Pyotr Tchaikovsky and a full voice soundtrack (although, as a consequence of using Red Book CD-DA for the speech, the dialogue script had to be shortened considerably to fit on the CD-ROM).
The early Nineties (1990–93)
The Secret of Monkey Island is the first game in the Monkey Island series and was released in 1990. The game, noted for its greater use of witty humor over previous titles, was designed by Ron Gilbert, Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer. The concept itself was pioneered by Gilbert. Following the deviation in gameplay in Loom, The Secret of Monkey Island returned to similar point-and click gameplay featured in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. The SCUMM engine was again upgraded for the title. Set in the Caribbean in the Golden Age of Piracy, the game introduced Guybrush Threepwood, a hapless amateur pirate. The game's MIDI music soundtrack was the first to feature work by Michael Land. The added a new CD-audio music soundtrack, and updated the game's graphical user interface.
A sequel to The Secret of Monkey Island, Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge, followed in 1991. As with its predecessor, it was designed by Ron Gilbert, Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer, though it would be Gilbert's last work for LucasArts. The game once again placed the player in the position of Guybrush Threepwood, searching for a fabled treasure in the Caribbean. Gameplay remained mostly unchanged from The Secret of Monkey Island, though the game's user interface was simplified to be more user-friendly. LeChuck's Revenge again featured music by Michael Land, although Land was joined by Clint Bajakian and Peter McConnell. In addition, the game marked the debut of iMUSE (Interactive Music Streaming Engine), a system developed by Land and McConnell that allowed for the game's MIDI music to transition dynamically with the visuals.
The 1992 title Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis was the second LucasArts adventure game based on the Indiana Jones franchise. Unlike its predecessor, The Fate of Atlantis featured an entirely original storyline. The development was led by Hal Barwood and Noah Falstein, the latter of whom was one of the co-designers of The Last Crusade. The Fate of Atlantis was Falstein's last LucasArts project. The game incorporated the "Indy Quotient" system from The Last Crusade to allow the game to be completed in several ways. A 1993 added a full voice soundtrack.
Day of the Tentacle is the sequel to the 1987 title Maniac Mansion. Released in 1993, it was designed by Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman and focused on saving humanity from a megalomanic mutant tentacle by using time travel. It was Grossman's last project for LucasArts before leaving in 1994. The game featured a further upgrade in the SCUMM engine to enhance the graphics capabilities. Day of the Tentacles music was composed by Michael Land, Clint Bajakian and Peter McConnell, who composed the themes for the future, past and present settings of the game respectively. Day of the Tentacle was the first game to drop support for older, less successful platforms, instead initially releasing only for DOS and Mac OS. The game was one of the first video games to feature a full voice soundtrack upon its release.
Following the focus on the Maniac Mansion, Monkey Island and Indiana Jones franchises, LucasArts developed a game based on a different existing franchise in 1993 with Sam & Max Hit the Road. Designed by Sean Clark, Michael Stemmle, Steve Purcell and Collette Michaud, the game was based on comic book characters Sam and Max, which were created by Purcell. As with Day of the Tentacle, the game featured a full voice soundtrack upon release. The players' interaction with the game's environment was redesigned. Command functions were compressed into a number of cursor modes instead of having a list of verb actions to choose from on screen, and the inventory system was moved to an off-screen menu. The more streamlined interface allowed for more of the screen to be dedicated to gameplay. Land, Bajakian and McConnell returned to score the game's music. While Bajakian did not compose any further LucasArts adventure games, he was still involved with sound production in later titles (note: he is credited as both a music supervisor and one of 4 composers on Escape From Monkey Island).
Later SCUMM games (1995–97)
In 1995, after a year-long hiatus from adventure games, LucasArts released Full Throttle. Full Throttle was designed by Tim Schafer, and follows the story of Ben, a biker in a dystopian future who has been framed for murder. It was the first LucasArts adventure game to be released for Windows, although support for DOS was still retained. The game was the tenth to use the SCUMM engine, which had undergone further enhancements. The game kept a modified version of the streamlined interface used in Sam & Max Hit the Road, but introduced a contextual pie menu that dictated how players interacted with the game. Full Throttle featured technology called INSANE (Interactive Streaming Animation Engine) to assist with cut scene animation and the game's action sequences. The game's musical score was produced by Peter McConnell, and incorporated a title theme by The Gone Jackals. Full Throttle was the first LucasArts adventure game to be distributed only on CD-ROM.
Later in 1995, The Dig was published. Production had started in 1989, however The Dig was plagued with development problems. The final version of the game was overseen by Sean Clark, although two previous versions had involved Noah Falstein, Brian Moriarty and Dave Grossman. The game's story itself was envisioned by Steven Spielberg, who had concluded that a film version would be prohibitively expensive. Spielberg's story focused on a group of astronauts becoming stranded on an alien world while on a mission to stop an asteroid hitting Earth. The Dig used the SCUMM engine and the INSANE technology. In addition, fellow Lucasfilm company Industrial Light & Magic was involved in the game's special effects. Michael Land composed the game's music, which included excerpts, many as short as one or two chords, from Richard Wagner's work.
The twelfth and final game to utilize SCUMM technology was the 1997 title The Curse of Monkey Island. The game was the third entry in the Monkey Island series, and the first not to involve series creator Ron Gilbert. Development was instead led by Jonathan Ackley and Larry Ahern. For its final outing, the SCUMM engine was completely overhauled to produce significantly more advanced graphics than any previous LucasArts adventure game. The resulting distinct cartoon style was created by artist Bill Tiller. The Curse of Monkey Island featured slightly refined gameplay based on the pie menu interface used in Full Throttle. The character of Guybrush Threepwood returns, with a voice actor for the first time in the series, in an effort to save his girlfriend from a voodoo curse. Michael Land once again composed the game's score. The Curse of Monkey Island would mark the end of support for DOS; the game was released on CD-ROM solely for Windows.
3D graphics and GrimE (1998–2000)
For the 1998 title Grim Fandango, LucasArts retired the SCUMM engine in favor of a new 3D engine. The GrimE (Grim Engine) technology was created, using the Sith engine as a base and coded using Lua. The new engine resulted in a redesign in control and gameplay: instead of using point-and-click mechanics, the player uses the keyboard or a gamepad to interact with the game. Full-motion video cut scenes are used to advance the plot, stylized to be nearly indistinguishable from the in-game backgrounds. GrimE was also a true 3D engine: characters are collections of 3D-rendered polygons.
Grim Fandango was created by Tim Schafer, his final work for LucasArts. The game follows the tale of Manny Calavera, a travel agent in the Land of the Dead, as he becomes embroiled in a web of crime and corruption. As well as drawing inspiration from Aztec concepts of the afterlife, Grim Fandango is strongly rooted in film noir tradition. Peter McConnell composed the musical score; as with Schafer, this was McConnell's last LucasArts project. As with The Curse of Monkey Island, the game was only released for Windows.
The second title to use GrimE and the final original LucasArts adventure game to be released was Escape from Monkey Island. Released in 2000, the game is the fourth installment in the Monkey Island series. The game's development was led by Sean Clark and Michael Stemmle. The GrimE technology was slightly modified for the game, although Escape from Monkey Island was in most respects similar to Grim Fandango in both graphics and gameplay. Escape from Monkey again follows Guybrush Threepwood, this time attempting to deal with an Australian land developer attempting to eradicate piracy through a voodoo talisman. The game's music was created by five different composers: Michael Land, a different composer coincidentally named Michael Land, Bajakian, McConnell, and Anna Karney. In addition to the Windows version, support was added for Mac OS 9 and a PlayStation 2 version was released in 2001.
Special editions and remakes (2009–present)
In June 2009, LucasArts announced an enhanced remake of the 1990 title The Secret of Monkey Island, with the intent of bringing the old game to a new audience. According to LucasArts, this announcement was "just the start of LucasArts’ new mission to revitalize its deep portfolio of beloved gaming franchises". Described by British journalist John Walker as a "cautious toe in the water" for LucasArts, the move was prompted by LucasArts president Darrell Rodriguez, who had assumed the post only two months prior. According to Walker, many LucasArts employees had grown up playing the games from the 1990s, suggesting that should the renewed endeavour be successful, the developers would be keen to continue with further adventure titles.
The Secret of Monkey Island: Special Edition ran in an engine updated for high definition graphics that utilized the original game's resources, including the original SCUMM scripts. The special edition featured new high definition art and music played by a live orchestra. The original DOS CD version of the game was playable at any time with the press of a button.
Following the success of the first special edition, LucasArts released the sequel, Monkey Island 2 Special Edition, in the summer of 2010. Like the original special edition, the second special edition used an updated engine that supported high resolution graphics, and utilized the original game's resource files. This time, since the game used the iMuse system, the engine had to be modified to run the new live orchestra music in various arrangements that simulated the shift in tone and pitch from scene to scene that iMuse performed on the original MIDI music. The second special edition featured a change in control scheme as well as a change in art direction due to criticism of the first special edition.
Double Fine Productions released remasters of Grim Fandango in 2015, Day of the Tentacle in 2016, and Full Throttle in 2017.
Canceled projects
Following the release of Escape from Monkey Island in 2000, LucasArts put three further adventure games into development. However, all three were later canceled. The first of these was Full Throttle: Payback, a sequel to Full Throttle that began production in early 2000. Tim Schafer, the original creator of Full Throttle, was not involved in the project. Instead, development was led by Larry Ahern and Bill Tiller, who had both worked on The Curse of Monkey Island. In the early stages, the project received positive feedback from other LucasArts employees. According to Tiller, however, Payback eventually fell apart because of disagreements over the game's style between the development team and "a particularly influential person" within the management division. Production ceased in November 2000, when a quarter of the levels and about 40 percent of the preproduction art were complete. Ahern and Tiller both left LucasArts in 2001.
Another Full Throttle sequel began production in 2002. Entitled Full Throttle: Hell on Wheels, the game was to be for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles. In contrast to the original Full Throttle, Hell on Wheels was to be an action-adventure game. Development was headed by Sean Clark, his last work for the company. Hell on Wheels was showcased at the 2003 Electronic Entertainment Expo, where a playable demonstration and a teaser trailer were displayed. Despite this, LucasArts halted production in late 2003. Commentators cited poor graphics compared to other action-adventures of the time and Schafer's lack of involvement in the project as possible reasons for the decision. Additionally, Roy Conrad, the voice actor for the series' protagonist, had died in 2002.
The final attempt by LucasArts to develop an original adventure game was Sam & Max: Freelance Police, a sequel to the 1993 title Sam & Max Hit the Road. The game was announced for Windows in 2002 as a counterpart to Hell on Wheels. Michael Stemmle, one of the co-designers for Sam & Max Hit the Road, was the lead designer for the project. Series creator Steve Purcell, who had left LucasArts in 1997, worked as an advisor for the development team. Freelance Police was displayed alongside Hell on Wheels at the 2003 E3 convention, where the game's trailer was revealed. Although development appeared to be proceeding smoothly, Freelance Police was abruptly canceled in early 2004, just a few weeks before the game's marketing campaign was about to begin. LucasArts cited "current market place realities and underlying economic considerations" as the reasons for their decision. Commentators, however, felt that the move was representative of a perceived decline in the adventure game genre, and that LucasArts was moving to maintain its position with low business risk Star Wars-themed titles instead of the high risk graphic adventure games that had brought success in earlier years. LucasArts subsequently dismissed many of the designers involved with developing their adventure games, and in 2006 LucasArts president Jim Ward stated that the company may return to developing adventure games in 2015, effectively ending their adventure game era.
Design philosophy
According to LucasArts' game design philosophy, the player should be entertained, focusing on story and exploration, instead of being excessively punished for mistakes or frustrated by trial and error. Their adventure games would not contain dead ends nor player death, unlike the majority of early adventure games such as those of Sierra.
In 1989, while designing the first Monkey Island game, Ron Gilbert wrote an article titled Why Adventure Games Suck outlining what he perceived to be design flaws in adventure games of the time. In writing the Maniac Mansion script, Gilbert purposely made some of the puzzle solutions irrelevant and humorous as an anti-thesis to early adventure games, which would become a trademark of Lucasarts' adventure games. Gilbert stated an example of a game taking place in Los Angeles where one needed a pencil but that pencil was located in New York; "It's kind of silly to think that there are no pencils in L.A., but in many adventure games,
that is how the world seems to be. Using humor lets you turn a weakness into an advantage. You can use crazy ideas to solve puzzles, and when the situation makes no sense, people don't grumble about it."
The first game to adopt the design philosophy was Loom. After designer Brian Moriarty learned that players tended to list as their favourite Infocom games those they had completed, he designed Loom so that it would be impossible to lose. After Loom the sole exception was Fate of Atlantis, as the designers felt that player death was necessary to create tension, which was required for an Indiana Jones story.
Games related to LucasArts adventures by descendant companies
As various designers left LucasArts, new companies were created to produce adventure games in similar styles to those created by LucasArts. Monkey Island creator Ron Gilbert, who left LucasArts after the completion of LeChuck's Revenge, went on to found Humongous Entertainment, in 1992. The company was primarily a children's game developer, but they also developed titles aimed at more mature audiences under the Cavedog Entertainment label. Humongous created several series of point-and-click adventure games aimed at children, some of which used SCUMM.
In the aftermath of Freelance Polices cancellation in 2004, LucasArts dismissed many of their designers who worked on adventure games. Most of the Freelance Police development team, including Brendan Q. Ferguson, Dave Grossman and Chuck Jordan, formed Telltale Games in 2005, to continue the development of graphic adventures. Michael Stemmle, the lead designer of Freelance Police, joined the company in 2008. In 2005, LucasArts' license with Steve Purcell concerning the Sam & Max franchise expired. Purcell, who had left LucasArts in 1997, moved the franchise to Telltale Games. The company subsequently released Sam & Max Save the World in episodic fashion from late 2006 to early 2007. A second run of Sam & Max games, Sam & Max Beyond Time and Space, was released across late 2007 and early 2008. The third Sam & Max season The Devil's Playhouse was released in 2010. At the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 2009, LucasArts announced a collaboration with Telltale Games to create a new series of episodic adventure games, Tales of Monkey Island. Development of this project was led by Dave Grossman, with Michael Stemmle assisting with design and story production. The development team also included members with past experience from both The Curse of Monkey Island and Escape from Monkey Island. In addition, series creator Ron Gilbert was involved in the early design of the project. Sam and Max were also included in the casual poker games developed by Telltale Games, Poker Night at the Inventory, released in 2010, and its sequel, Poker Night 2, released in 2013. The company has gone on to develop other episodic adventure games from licensed properties, reaching critical success with their series of The Walking Dead games.
Tim Schafer, the creator of Full Throttle and Grim Fandango, left LucasArts at the beginning of 2000 to found Double Fine Productions. Among their games include The Cave, a game designed by Gilbert and developed by Double Fine, inspired by the multiple-character approach of Maniac Mansion, and Broken Age, a point-and-click adventure game financed by crowdfunding through Kickstarter, one of the first games demonstrating this as a viable mechanism for game development. Double Fine has been able to engage in acquiring the rights to the LucasArts games for making remasters. To date, they have released Grim Fandango Remastered (2015), Day of the Tentacle Remastered (2016), and Full Throttle Remastered (2017).
Gilbert worked with Winnick, Fox and Ferrari to develop Thimbleweed Park, which released at the end of March 2017. The game, also funded through Kickstarter, was designed as an homage to the early LucasArts adventures mimicking the original 8-bit style interface.
Legacy
Aric Wilmunder, one of the co-creators of the SCUMM engine, had taken some of the original design documents for the LucasArts games when he left the company. Sometime later, he decided to return these back to LucasArts, but the company suggested that since Wilmunder had kept his copies safe for years, that Wilmunder keep the whole set of documents together. Wilmunder has subsequently been working with an archivist at Stanford to preserve all the documents and potential donation to a museum, while scanning all of the documents and providing these on the Internet, along with transcribing the source code for SCUMM to GitHub.
ScummVM is an open source emulator originally designed to play SCUMM-based games but has since expanded to play numerous other adventure games based on other commercial game engines. ScummVM was originally created in 2001 through cleanroom reverse engineering of the SCUMM engine, and since then has been expanded to include most of the additional side engines like iMuse as well as support for the three-dimensionally rendered games, originally part of ResidualVM but now merged into the main ScummVM branch.
See also
List of graphic adventure games
Sierra Entertainment
Telltale Games
References
External links
LucasArts Entertainment Company official website
ScummVM official website
Aric Wilmunder's archive of LucasArts adventure game design documents
LucasArts Museum
Graphic Adventures, a book about the history of LucasArts and Sierra games
The International House of Mojo
1UP Specials: LucasArts Reunion
Adventure games
LucasArts games
Point-and-click adventure games |
357023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Kent%20Road | Old Kent Road | Old Kent Road is a major thoroughfare in South East London, England, passing through the London Borough of Southwark. It was originally part of an ancient trackway that was paved by the Romans and used by the Anglo-Saxons who named it Wæcelinga Stræt (Watling Street). It is now part of the A2, a major road from London to Dover. The road was important in Roman times linking London to the coast at Richborough and Dover via Canterbury. It was a route for pilgrims in the Middle Ages as portrayed in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, when Old Kent Road was known as Kent Street. The route was used by soldiers returning from the Battle of Agincourt.
In the 16th century, St Thomas-a-Watering on Old Kent Road was a place where religious dissenters and those found guilty of treason were publicly hanged. The road was rural in nature and several coaching inns were built alongside it. In the 19th century it acquired the name Old Kent Road and several industrial premises were set up to close to the Surrey Canal and a major business, the Metropolitan Gas Works was developed. In the 20th century, older property was demolished for redevelopment and Burgess Park was created. The Old Kent Road Baths opened around 1905 had Turkish and Russian bath facilities. In the 21st century, several retail parks and premises typical of out-of-town development have been built beside it while public houses have been redeveloped for other purposes.
The road is celebrated in the music hall song "Knocked 'em in the Old Kent Road", describing working-class London life. It is the first property, and one of the two cheapest, on the London Monopoly board and the only one south of the River Thames.
Geography
The road begins at the Bricklayers Arms roundabout, where it meets the New Kent Road, Tower Bridge Road, and Great Dover Street. It runs southeast past Burgess Park, Christ Church, Peckham and the railway line from Peckham Rye to South Bermondsey.
Just east of the railway bridge, the road crosses the boundary between the London boroughs of Southwark and Lewisham, where the road ahead becomes New Cross Road. The road appears on a map to form a boundary between Walworth, and Peckham to the south and Bermondsey to the north although the Bermondsey boundary runs along Rolls Road.
History
Old Kent Road, one of the oldest roads in England, was part of a Celtic ancient trackway that was paved by the Romans and recorded as Inter III on the Antonine Itinerary. The Anglo-Saxons named it "Wæcelinga Stræt" (Watling Street). It joined Stane Street, another ancient and Roman road, at Southwark before crossing the Thames at London Bridge. The Inter III was one of the most important Roman roads in Britain, linking London with Canterbury and the Channel ports at Richborough (Rutupiae); Dover (Dubris) and Lympne (Lemanis). Pilgrims, as documented in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, travelled along the road from London and Southwark on their way to Canterbury. In 1415, the road was a scene of celebrations for soldiers returning from the Battle of Agincourt heading towards London. The Kentish Drovers public house opened in 1840 and was so named because the road was a thoroughfare for market traffic. The road was mainly rural in nature, surrounded by fields and windmills and the occasional tavern until the 19th century. John Rocque's Map of London, published in 1746, shows hedgerows along its course. The name Old Kent Road came into use at this time; up to then the road from Borough High Street to the Bricklayers Arms junction was known as Kent Street, this section was renamed Tabard Street in the 1890s.
St Thomas-a-Watering
The bridge at St Thomas-a-Watering over the River Neckinger was at the junction with what is now Old Kent Road and Shorncliffe Road (previously Thomas Street), and marked the boundary of the Archbishop of Canterbury's authority over the manors of Southwark and Walworth. It was the limit of the City of London's authority in 1550, having been ratified in several charters and marked by a boundary stone set into the wall of the old fire station that marked the first resting place for pilgrims while travelling to Canterbury. A nearby public house, the Thomas a Becket, at the corner of Albany Road was named after this. Henry V met soldiers returning from Agincourt at this location in 1415. Charles II's journey along the road on his way to reclaim the throne in May 1660 was described by contemporary writer and diarist John Evelyn as "a triumph of about 20,000 horse and foote, brandishing their swords and shouting with inexpressible joy".
St Thomas-a-Watering became a place of execution for criminals whose bodies were left hanging from the gibbets on the principal route from the southeast to London. On 8 July 1539, Griffith Clerke, Vicar of Wandsworth was hanged and quartered here along with his chaplain and two others, for not acknowledging the royal supremacy of Henry VIII. The Welsh Protestant martyr John Penry was also executed here on 6 April 1593; a small side street nearby is named after him. The Catholic martyrs John Jones and John Rigby were executed in 1598 and 1600 respectively.
Rolls family
In the early-18th century, the Rolls family of The Grange in nearby Bermondsey acquired a significant amount of land around Old Kent Road. It included residential development that is now Surrey Square and the Paragon, which were designed by Michael Searles in 1788. The main road route gave rise to ribbon development because of the increasing urbanisation of the expanding metropolitan area. In the early-20th century, social housing was built on land previously held by the family who gave away their interests for public benefit including the library at Wells Way in Burgess Park, the girls grammar school at Bricklayers Arms (St Saviour's and St Olave's School) and the Peabody Estate (Dover Flats and Waleran Flats). The last significant remnant of their involvement is the detached White House between the Peabody Estate buildings, built by Searles in the 1790s. The original railings and ironwork survive in the current development at No. 155. The house was later occupied by Searles and became the management office of the Rolls family trust estates. The last of the male Rolls's was the Hon Charles Stewart Rolls who was the pioneer motorist and aviator who formed the Rolls-Royce partnership with Henry Royce.
Industrial development
The opening of the Surrey Canal in 1811 changed the character of the road from rural to industrial. Tanneries were established along it and a soap processing plant was built. Older properties occupied by the upper and middle classes were converted into flats for the emerging working class population. By the time Bricklayers Arms goods station opened in 1845, the road was entirely built up and Old Kent Road had one of the highest population densities in Europe, with an average of 280 residents per acre. Sections along the road were commercial with various market stalls and sellers until the construction of the tramway in 1871. Camberwell Public Library No. 1, which later became the Livesey Museum for Children was designed by Sir George Livesey in 1890. The road's southern section remained residential throughout the 19th century. Nos. 864, 866 and 880–884 were constructed by John Lamb in 1815, and feature Ammonite capitals, ornamental features resembling fossils, a feature also used in contemporary architecture in Brighton.
The Licensed Victuallers' National Asylum (now Caroline Gardens), an extensive almshouse estate off Old Kent Road at Asylum Road, opened in 1827. Its first patron was Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex who was followed by Prince Albert and Prince Edward.
The Metropolitan Gas Works, identifiable by its large gasometers, was founded in 1833. It serviced an area of more than , including parts of Southwark, Croydon, Newington, Lambeth and Streatham. Expansion of the gas works in 1868 required the demolition of Christ Church, Camberwell which was built in 1838 and rebuilt on the opposite side of the road by Livesey. The gas works was managed by Livesey from 1840 until his death in 1908. A statue of him was sited in the rear courtyard of Livesey Museum, opposite the works.
During the 19th and 20th century, the industrial and working class makeup of Old Kent Road made it a haven for organised crime and violence. The notorious Richardson Gang operated in the area, and boxing clubs became popular. Lennox Lewis' manager Frank Maloney grew up in the area and recalled, "If you weren't into crime, people thought you were a pansy". Henry Cooper trained in the boxing club above the Thomas a Becket pub from 1954 to 1968; he unveiled a local blue plaque there in 2007. Draining the Surrey Canal in 1971 uncovered a number of cracked and blown safes that had been thrown in the water.
Public services
Old Kent Road railway station at the southern end of the road opened in 1866 and closed in 1917. The London City Fire Brigade opened a fire station on the road around 1868. It was subsumed into the London Fire Brigade from its formation and in 1904 was replaced by a new station which was in turn replaced by another on the corner of Coopers Road. The station was demolished for redevelopment in 2014 and reopened the following year.
The Old Kent Road Baths were built in 1906. According to Modern Sanitation, they were the only public baths in London with Turkish bath facilities at the time. The baths were designed to include two swimming pools, each measuring by . In 1913–4, the baths were used by 188,336 private bathers, 14,687 of which used its Russian, Turkish, or special electric baths. The 1923 Municipal Year Book noted the "great success" of Turkish and Russian baths.
Urban Redevelopment
Unlike many places in London, the Old Kent Road area did not suffer significant bomb damage during World War II. In 1968, a flyover opened at the northern end allowing access to New Kent Road which catered for the main flow of traffic. During the 1970s, run-down Victorian properties on and around Old Kent Road were demolished to make way for new housing estates. Burgess Park was created as part of the County of London Plan in 1943, which recommended new parkland in the area. Several tower blocks were built along the road, although some earlier 19th-century buildings, such as Nos. 360–386, survived.
Public houses on Old Kent Road have been closing since the 1980s. At one point, there were 39 pubs. The Dun Cow at No. 279 opened in 1856 and was well known as a gin palace, and later became a champagne bar and featured DJs such as Steve Walsh and Robbie Vincent. The premises closed in 2004 to become a surgery. The World Turned Upside Down had been on the Old Kent Road since the 17th century, and may have been named after the discovery of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, or Tierra del Fuego in South America. The pub became a music venue in the 20th century and is where Long John Baldrey gave his first live performance in 1958. It closed in 2009 and is now a branch of Domino's Pizza. The Duke of Kent was converted into a mosque in 1999; in 2021 the building was demolished for a purpose built mosque. The Livesey Museum for Children closed in 2008 owing to council budget cuts and is now used for short term accommodation.
Southwark Borough Council do not consider Old Kent Road to fit the characteristics of an urban town centre, and consequently large retail parks more in character with out-of-town schemes have been developed including a large Asda superstore, B&Q store, Halfords, Magnet and PC World. Southwark Council have begun consultations on plans to redevelop much of the area, known as the Old Kent Road Area Action Plan. This master plan would mimic similar regeneration projects in other London neighbourhoods such as Elephant & Castle, Nine Elms and Canada Water. The consultations centre on a vision to open four new Bakerloo line London Underground stations along the road route, beginning at Bricklayers Arms, as well as 20,000 new homes, a further education college, a health centre and a number of primary and secondary schools. Officials have also suggested the development of a "green spine" of parks and green spaces along the mostly disused Surrey Canal.
Cultural references
A segment of a British Monopoly board, showing Old Kent Road and Whitechapel Road
Old Kent Road is the first property square on the British Monopoly board, priced at £60 and forming the brown set along with the similarly working-class Whitechapel Road. It is the only square on the board in South London and south of the Thames.
The road makes several appearances in literature. In Charles Dickens' David Copperfield, the titular character runs down the road trying to escape from London to Dover, though in the narrative the street is still partly rural in nature. A public garden on the New Kent Road is named David Copperfield's Garden to mark a spot where the character stopped on his journey and a quote from his aunt is inlaid on the path through the park. In 1985, the BBC arts series Arena included a documentary about the road.
The road is mentioned in the title of the music hall song "Knocked 'em in the Old Kent Road". It was written in 1891 by Albert Chevalier, who was the lyricist and original performer; the music was written by his brother Charles Ingle. The song was popularised by Shirley Temple's performance in the 1939 film A Little Princess The street is mentioned multiple times in the Madness song "Calling Cards", a song about running an illegitimate business "in a sorting office in the Old Kent Road". It is featured in the chorus of the Levellers' song "Cardboard Box City", which criticises the slow action on helping the homeless in London, specifically Old Kent Road being infrequently visited by the wealthy due to its being south of the Thames. British girl group Girls Aloud refer to running down the road in the lyrics to their 2005 single "Long Hot Summer". It is featured in the TV series The Crown (2016–…) Season 2, Episode 5 about the queen's first garden party for the public: [Queen Mother] "I believe...that is "Harry 'The Hammer' Jones. A boxer from the Old Kent Road."
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Streets in the London Borough of Southwark
Roads in London |
357026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grove%20Street%20Cemetery | Grove Street Cemetery | Grove Street Cemetery or Grove Street Burial Ground is a cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut, that is surrounded by the Yale University campus. It was organized in 1796 as the New Haven Burying Ground and incorporated in October 1797 to replace the crowded burial ground on the New Haven Green. The first private, nonprofit cemetery in the world, it was one of the earliest burial grounds to have a planned layout, with plots permanently owned by individual families, a structured arrangement of ornamental plantings, and paved and named streets and avenues. By introducing ideas like permanent memorials and the sanctity of the deceased body, the cemetery became "a real turning point... a whole redefinition of how people viewed death and dying", according to historian Peter Dobkin Hall. Many notable Yale and New Haven luminaries are buried in the Grove Street Cemetery, including 14 Yale presidents; nevertheless, it was not restricted to members of the upper class, and was open to all.
In 2000, Grove Street Cemetery was designated a National Historic Landmark.
Today, it is managed by Camco Cemetery Management.
History
Establishment (1796)
For the first 160 years of permanent settlement, New Haven residents buried their dead on the New Haven Green, the town's central open space and churchyard. In 1794–95, a yellow fever plague swept the town. The increased demand for burial space prompted James Hillhouse, a businessman and U.S. Senator, to invite other prominent families in the town to establish a dedicated burial ground on farmland bordering the town. In 1796, thirty-two families purchased a tract just north of Grove Street, the tract was enclosed by a wooden fence, which was prone to rotting and needed to be replaced frequently. At first consisting of , the cemetery was quickly subscribed and thereafter expanded to nearly .
In 1821, the monuments on the green were removed to the Grove Street Cemetery.
Gateway and fence construction (1845–49)
Completed in 1845, the entrance on Grove Street is a brownstone Egyptian Revival gateway, designed by New Haven architects Henry Austin and Hezekiah Augur, both of whom are buried at the cemetery. The style, popular in New England in that era, was chosen to reinforce the antiquity of the site. The lintel of the gateway is inscribed "The Dead Shall Be Raised." The quotation is taken from 1 Corinthians 15.52: "For the trumpet will sound, and the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we will be changed." Supposedly, Yale President Arthur Twining Hadley said of the inscription, "They certainly will be, if Yale needs the property."
In 1848–49, the perimeter of the cemetery was surrounded on three sides by an stone wall.
Historic landmark
The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997. It was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Secretary of the Interior in 2000, citing its history and the architectural significance of its gateway.
Conflict over perimeter fence
In 2008, Yale announced plans to construct two new residential colleges just north of the cemetery. In 2009, university administrators and affiliates suggested to the cemetery proprietors that an additional gate be constructed in the north section of the historic wall that surrounds the burial ground to permit pedestrians to walk through the cemetery from the main Yale campus to the planned new colleges. In addition, the proprietors considered a proposal brought forward by one proprietor that would replace portions of the stone sections of the wall bordering Prospect Street with iron fencing similar to that already running along the cemetery's southern border on Grove Street. The proposal, withdrawn following a public meeting, included architectural and landscaping designs by Yale Architecture School Dean Robert A.M. Stern.
Notable burials and memorials
James Rowland Angell (1869–1949)—President of Yale University
Kanichi Asakawa (1873–1948)—historian.
Jehudi Ashmun (1794–1828)—religious leader, and social reformer, agent of the African Colonization Society
Hezekiah Augur (1791–1858)—wood carver, sculptor and inventor.
Henry Austin (1804–1891)—architect, designed the gate of the cemetery, Yale's College Library (which became Dwight Hall), and several mansions on Hillhouse Avenue.
Alice Mabel Bacon (1858–1918)—women educator (niece of Delia Bacon)
Delia Bacon (1811–1859)—originator of the proposition that Francis Bacon wrote the plays attributed to Shakespeare
Leonard Bacon (1802–1881)—clergyman and abolitionist (father of Alice Mabel Bacon and brother of Delia Bacon)
Charles Montague Bakewell (1867–1957)—politician
Roger Sherman Baldwin (1793–1863)—Governor of Connecticut
Simeon Baldwin (1761–1851)—Mayor of New Haven
Simeon Eben Baldwin (1840–1927)—Governor of Connecticut
Ida Barney (1886-1982) noted female American astronomer
Ebenezer Bassett (1833-1908)—African-American educator and diplomat; US Ambassador to Haiti
John Bassett (1652–1714)—captain of the trainband; deputy to the General Court (legislature) of Connecticut Colony
Lyman Beecher (1775–1863)—abolitionist, father of Harriet Beecher Stowe and Henry Ward Beecher
Nathan Beers (1763–1861)—paymaster to Connecticut troops in the American Revolution
Hiram Bingham I (1789–1869)—Hawaiian missionary and clergyman.
James Bishop (d. 1691)—was Secretary, Lieutenant Governor and Deputy Governor of New Haven Jurisdiction.
Eli Whitney Blake (1795–1886)—manufacturer and inventor of the stone crusher. His brother, Philos, invented the corkscrew.
William Whiting Boardman (1794–1871)—politician.
Edward Gaylord Bourne (1860–1908)—historian and educator. Leader in the American Historical Association.
Phineas Bradley (1745–1797)—soldier. Captain, commander of the artillery defending New Haven, July 5, 1779
William H. Brewer (1828–1910)—scientist. Helped found the Yale Forestry School; co-founder, with Samuel William Johnson, also buried here, of the first U.S. Agricultural Experiment Station.
James Brewster (1788–1866)— founder of Brewster & Co.; industrialist and railroad promoter.
Kingman Brewster Jr., (1919–1988)—President of Yale University
William Bristol (1779–1836)—Mayor of New Haven, Connecticut.
Walter Camp (1859–1925)—football coach known as the "Father of American Football".
Leverett Candee (1795–1863)—Industrialist. First practical use of Goodyear's vulcanization of rubber
Arthur E. Case (1894–1946)—professor and author
Jedediah Chapman (d. 1863)—Civil War Union Army Officer killed at the Battle of Gettysburg.
Thomas Clap (1703–1767)—Rector & President of Yale College - buried in the City Burial Ground on the Green, stone later moved here.
Harry Croswell (1778–1848)—Crusading political journalist and Rector of Trinity Episcopal Church in New Haven
David Daggett (1764–1851)—United States Senator, mayor of New Haven, Connecticut.
Naphtali Daggett (1727–1780)—clergyman, President pro tempore of Yale College.
George Edward Day (1814–1905)—Bible revisor
Jeremiah Day (1773–1867)—President of Yale University.
Amos Doolittle (1754–1832)—silversmith, engraver of Revolutionary scenes. "The Revere of Connecticut."
Timothy Dwight IV (1752–1817)—President of Yale University.
Timothy Dwight V (1829–1916)—President of Yale University.
Amos Beebe Eaton (1806–1877)—Civil War Union Army Brigadier General.
Theophilus Eaton (1590–1657)—a founder of New Haven, first Governor of New Haven.
Henry W. Edwards (1779–1847)—U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator, and Governor of Connecticut.
Pierpont Edwards (1750–1826)—Delegate to the Continental Congress.
Jeremiah Evarts (1781-1831)—scholar, writer and missionary executive. Editor of the ‘’Panoplist’’ and the ‘’Missionary Herald’’.
Henry Farnham (1836–1917)—prominent New Haven merchant and philanthropist.
George Park Fisher (1827–1902)—historian and theologian
Andrew Hull Foote (1806–1863)—naval officer who ended the rum ration in the United States Navy.
A. Bartlett Giamatti (1938–1989)—baseball commissioner, President of Yale University.
Josiah Willard Gibbs Sr. (1790–1861)—professor at Yale Divinity School who first spoke with the mutineers of the Amistad.
Josiah Willard Gibbs Jr. (1839–1903)—scientist, "Father of Thermodynamics"
Chauncey Goodrich (1790–1860)—Yale professor of Homiletics and Pastoral Charge.
Elizur Goodrich (1761–1849)—mayor of New Haven, Connecticut.
Charles Goodyear (1800–1860)—inventor of vulcanized rubber.
Alfred Whitney Griswold (1906–1963)—President of Yale University.
Arthur Twining Hadley (1856–1930)—Dean of Yale Graduate School when women were first admitted. President of Yale University.
Henry Baldwin Harrison (1821–1901)—Governor of Connecticut
James Hillhouse (1754–1832)— real estate developer, politician, and treasurer of Yale. Namesake of Hillhouse Avenue in New Haven.
James Mason Hoppin (1820–1906)—professor of religion and art.
Leverett Hubbard (1725-1795)—soldier, physician and apothecary.
David Humphreys (1752–1818)—Aide de Camp to General George Washington
Charles Roberts Ingersoll (1821–1903)—Governor of Connecticut
Colin Macrae Ingersoll (1819–1903)—United States Representative from Connecticut.
Ralph Isaacs Ingersoll (1789–1872)—United States Minister to Russia, mayor of New Haven, Connecticut.
Eli Ives (1779–1861)—professor of Medicine
Chauncey Jerome (1793–1868)—mayor of New Haven, clockmaker
Nathaniel Jocelyn (1796–1881)—portrait painter and engraver.
Samuel William Johnson (1830–1909)—Yale professor, co-founder of the Agricultural Experiment Station Movement with William H. Brewer (also buried here)
James Kingsley (1778–1852)—professor of Hebrew, Greek and Ecclesiastical History at Yale.
John Gamble Kirkwood (1907–1959)—chemist.
Charlton Miner Lewis (1866–1923)—Yale professor and author.
Elias Loomis (1811–1889)—mathematician and astronomer.
Daniel Lyman (1718–1788)—Surveyor, Deputy to the General Court, Court Referee, Justice of the Peace and caretaker of the State's public records.
Samuel Mansfield (1717–1775)—first sheriff of New Haven
Othniel Charles Marsh (1831–1899)—paleontologist.
Henry Czar Merwin (1839–1863)—Civil War Union Army Officer killed at the Battle of Gettysburg
Glenn Miller (Alton G. Miller) cenotaph -- (1904–1944)—Jazz bandleader, trombonist.
Dr. Timothy Mix (1711–1779)—Colonial soldier who died on a British prison ship.
Jedidiah Morse (1761–1826)—clergy, "Father of American Geography". Father of Samuel F. B. Morse.
Theodore T. Munger (1830–1910)—clergyman.
Hubert Anson Newton (1830–1896)—meteorologist and mathematician.
George Henry Nettleton (1874–1959)—author.
Denison Olmsted (1791–1859)—Professor of Medicine and Natural Philosophy at Yale. One of the first to see Halley's Comet in 1835.
Lars Onsager (1903–1976)—Chemist. Nobel Laureate.
Samuel Peck (1813–1879), 19th-century photographer, artist, businessperson, photo case manufacturer, and gallery owner.
Jaroslav Pelikan (1923–2006)— Scholar in the history of Christianity, Christian theology and medieval intellectual history.
Timothy Pitkin (1766–1847)—politician, United States Representative from Connecticut.
Noah Porter (1811–1892)—clergyman, President of Yale College
Joel Root (1770–1847)—traveller, author.
Charles Seymour (1885–1963)—President of Yale University
George Dudley Seymour (1859–1945)—Attorney, antiquarian, historian, author, and city planner
Joseph Earl Sheffield (1793–1882)—merchant, founder of Sheffield Scientific School.
Roger Sherman (1721–1793)— important founding father, the only person to have signed all four basic documents of American sovereignty, the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution. Today his grave is the center of this colonial city's Independence Day festivities.
Benjamin Silliman (1779–1864)—pioneer in scientific education.
Benjamin Silliman Jr. (1816–1885)—Yale chemist and geologist. First suggested some practical uses for petroleum.
Aaron Skinner (1800–1858)—civic figure and supervisor of improvements to Grove Street Cemetery
Nathan Smith (1770–1835)—United States Senator from Connecticut.
Ezra Stiles (1727–1795)—President of Yale University.
Henry Randolph Storrs (1787–1837)—jurist.
Titus Street (1786–1842)—businessman and civic figure
Alfred Howe Terry (1827–1890)—Civil War Union Army Major General.
Ithiel Town (1784-June 12, 1844)—architect and civil engineer. Inventor of the lattice truss bridge.
Martha Townsend (1753–1797)—first interment in Grove Street Cemetery
William Kneeland Townsend (1849–1907)—jurist
Henry H. Townshend (1874–1953)—proprietor and historian of Grove Street Cemetery.
Timothy Trowbridge (1631–1734)—merchant, soldier and politician.
Louisa Caroline Huggins Tuthill (1799—1879), children's book author
Alexander C. Twining (1801–1884)—inventor of first practical artificial ice system.
Noah Webster (1758–1843)—lexicographer, dictionary publisher.
Nathan Whiting—soldier, Colonel in the Seven Years' War.
Eli Whitney (1765–1825)—inventor of the cotton gin.
Theodore Winthrop (1828–1861)—Major, United States Army. First New Haven victim of the Civil War.
Melancthon Taylor Woolsey (1717–1758)—colonel in the Colonial Army.
Theodore Dwight Woolsey (1812–1889)—abolitionist, President of Yale.
David Wooster (1711–1777)—Buried in Danbury, Connecticut but memorialized at Grove Street Cemetery. Major General, 7th in rank below Washington. Killed in action.
Mary Clabaugh Wright (1917–1970)—educator and historian, first woman to become a full professor at Yale.
See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places listings in New Haven, Connecticut
References
Further reading
External links
Grove Street Cemetery home site
New Haven Independent "Plot-holders Slam Cemetery Plan"
New Haven Register "Architect pushes for changes at city cemetery"
''Peter Dobkin Hall, "Setting, Landscape, Architecture, and the Creation of Civic Space in the United States, 1790-1920"
Findagrave
Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut
National Historic Landmarks in Connecticut
Egyptian Revival architecture in the United States
Buildings and structures in New Haven, Connecticut
Gothic Revival architecture in Connecticut
1796 establishments in Connecticut
Geography of New Haven, Connecticut
Cemeteries in New Haven County, Connecticut
Tourist attractions in New Haven, Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in New Haven, Connecticut |
357027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated%20analyser | Automated analyser | An automated analyser is a medical laboratory instrument designed to measure different chemicals and other characteristics in a number of biological samples quickly, with minimal human assistance. These measured properties of blood and other fluids may be useful in the diagnosis of disease.
Photometry is the most common method for testing the amount of a specific analyte in a sample. In this technique, the sample undergoes a reaction to produce a color change. Then, a photometer measures the absorbance of the sample to indirectly measure the concentration of analyte present in the sample. The use of an Ion Selective Electrode (ISE) is another common analytical method that specifically measures ion concentrations. This typically measures the concentrations of sodium, calcium or potassium present in the sample.
There are various methods of introducing samples into the analyser. Test tubes of samples are often loaded into racks. These racks can be inserted directly into some analysers or, in larger labs, moved along an automated track. More manual methods include inserting tubes directly into circular carousels that rotate to make the sample available. Some analysers require samples to be transferred to sample cups. However, the need to protect the health and safety of laboratory staff has prompted many manufacturers to develop analysers that feature closed tube sampling, preventing workers from direct exposure to samples. Samples can be processed singly, in batches, or continuously.
The automation of laboratory testing does not remove the need for human expertise (results must still be evaluated by medical technologists and other qualified clinical laboratory professionals), but it does ease concerns about error reduction, staffing concerns, and safety.
Routine biochemistry analysers
These are machines that process a large portion of the samples going into a hospital or private medical laboratory. Automation of the testing process has reduced testing time for many analytes from days to minutes. The history of discrete sample analysis for the clinical laboratory began with the introduction of the "Robot Chemist" invented by Hans Baruch and introduced commercially in 1959[1].
The AutoAnalyzer is an early example of an automated chemistry analyzer using a special flow technique named "continuous flow analysis (CFA)", invented in 1957 by Leonard Skeggs, PhD and first made by the Technicon Corporation. The first applications were for clinical (medical) analysis. The AutoAnalyzer profoundly changed the character of the chemical testing laboratory by allowing significant increases in the numbers of samples that could be processed. Samples used in the analyzers include, but are not limited to, blood, serum, plasma, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and other fluids from within the body. The design based on separating a continuously flowing stream with air bubbles largely reduced slow, clumsy, and error-prone manual methods of analysis. The types of tests include enzyme levels (such as many of the liver function tests), ion levels (e.g. sodium and potassium, and other tell-tale chemicals (such as glucose, serum albumin, or creatinine).
Simple ions are often measured with ion selective electrodes, which let one type of ion through, and measure voltage differences. Enzymes may be measured by the rate they change one coloured substance to another; in these tests, the results for enzymes are given as an activity, not as a concentration of the enzyme. Other tests use colorimetric changes to determine the concentration of the chemical in question. Turbidity may also be measured.
Immuno-based analysers
Antibodies are used by some analysers to detect many substances by immunoassay and other reactions that employ the use of antibody-antigen reactions.
When concentration of these compounds is too low to cause a measurable increase in turbidity when bound to antibody, more specialised methods must be used.
Recent developments include automation for the immunohaematology lab, also known as transfusion medicine.
Hematology analysers
These are used to perform complete blood counts, erythrocyte sedimentation rates (ESRs), or coagulation tests.
Cell counters
Automated cell counters sample the blood, and quantify, classify, and describe cell populations using both electrical and optical techniques.
Electrical analysis involves passing a dilute solution of the blood through an aperture across which an electrical current is flowing. The passage of cells through the current changes the impedance between the terminals (the Coulter principle). A lytic reagent is added to the blood solution to selectively lyse the red cells (RBCs), leaving only white cells (WBCs), and platelets intact. Then the solution is passed through a second detector. This allows the counts of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets to be obtained. The platelet count is easily separated from the WBC count by the smaller impedance spikes they produce in the detector due to their lower cell volumes.
Optical detection may be utilised to gain a differential count of the populations of white cell types. A dilute suspension of cells is passed through a flow cell, which passes cells one at a time through a capillary tube past a laser beam. The reflectance, transmission and scattering of light from each cell is analysed by sophisticated software giving a numerical representation of the likely overall distribution of cell populations.
Some of the latest hematology instruments may report Cell Population Data that consist in Leukocyte morphological information that may be used for flagging Cell abnormalities that trigger the suspect of some diseases.
Reticulocyte counts can now be performed by many analysers, giving an alternative to time-consuming manual counts. Many automated reticulocyte counts, like their manual counterparts, employ the use of a supravital dye such as new methylene blue to stain the red cells containing reticulin prior to counting. Some analysers have a modular slide maker which is able to both produce a blood film of consistent quality and stain the film, which is then reviewed by a medical laboratory professional.
Coagulometers
Automated coagulation machines or Coagulometers measure the ability of blood to clot by performing any of several types of tests including Partial thromboplastin times, Prothrombin times (and the calculated INRs commonly used for therapeutic evaluation), Lupus anticoagulant screens, D dimer assays, and factor assays.
Coagulometers require blood samples that have been drawn in tubes containing sodium citrate as an anticoagulant. These are used because the mechanism behind the anticoagulant effect of sodium citrate is reversible. Depending on the test, different substances can be added to the blood plasma to trigger a clotting reaction. The progress of clotting may be monitored optically by measuring the absorbance of a particular wavelength of light by the sample and how it changes over time.
Other hematology apparatus
Automatic erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) readers, while not strictly analysers, do preferably have to comply to the 2011-published CLSI (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute) "Procedures for the Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate Test: H02-A5 and to the ICSH (International Council for Standardization in Haematology) published "ICSH review of the measurement of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate", both indicating the only reference method, being Westergren, explicitly indicating the use of diluted blood (with sodium citrate), in 200 mm pipettes, bore 2.55 mm. After 30 or 60 minutes being in a vertical position, with no draughts and vibration or direct sunlight allowed, an optical reader determines how far the red cells have fallen by detecting the level.
Miscellaneous analysers
Some tests and test categories are unique in their mechanism or scope, and require a separate analyser for only a few tests, or even for only one test. Other tests are esoteric in nature—they are performed less frequently than other tests, and are generally more expensive and time-consuming to perform. Even so, the current shortage of qualified clinical laboratory professionals has spurred manufacturers to develop automated systems for even these rarely performed tests.
Analysers that fall into this category include instruments that perform:
DNA labeling and detection
Osmolarity and osmolality measurement
Measurement of glycated haemoglobin (haemoglobin A1C), and
Aliquotting and routing of samples throughout the laboratory
See also
Comprehensive metabolic panel
Medical technologist
Notes
1. Rosenfeld, Louis. Four Centuries of Clinical Chemistry. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1999. . Pp. 490–492
References
Laboratory equipment
Measuring instruments
Clinical pathology
Hoffmann-La Roche brands
Articles containing video clips |
357030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dora%20the%20Explorer | Dora the Explorer | Dora the Explorer is an American children's animated television series and multimedia franchise created by Chris Gifford, Valerie Walsh Valdes and Eric Weiner that premiered on Nickelodeon on August 14, 2000, and ended on August 9, 2019. The series is produced by Nickelodeon Animation Studio. It focuses on a girl named Dora accompanied by a monkey known as Boots, as they go on adventures. The show is presented as if it were an interactive CD-ROM game.
Plot
The series centers around Dora Marquez, a seven-year-old Latina girl, with a love of embarking on quests related to an activity that she wants to partake of or a place that she wants to go to, accompanied by her talking purple backpack and anthropomorphic monkey companion named Boots (named for his beloved pair of red boots). Each episode is based around a series of cyclical events that occur along the way during Dora's travels, along with obstacles that she and Boots are forced to overcome or puzzles that they have to solve (with "assistance" from the viewing audience) relating to riddles, the Spanish language, or counting. Common rituals may involve Dora's encounters with Swiper, a bipedal, anthropomorphic masked thieving fox whose theft of the possessions of others must be prevented through fourth wall-breaking interaction with the viewer. To stop Swiper, Dora must say "Swiper no swiping" three times. However, on occasions where Swiper steals the belongings of other people, the viewer is presented with the challenge of helping Boots and Dora locate the stolen items. Another obstacle involves encounters with another one of the program's antagonists; the "Grumpy Old Troll" dwelling beneath a bridge that Dora and Boots must cross, who challenges them with a riddle that needs to be solved with the viewer's help before permitting them to pass. Known for the constant breaking of the fourth-wall depicted in every episode, the audience is usually presented to two primary landmarks that must be passed before Dora can reach her destination, normally being challenged with games or puzzles along the way. The episode always ends with Dora successfully reaching the locale, singing the "We Did It!" song with Boots in triumph.
On numerous occasions, television specials have been aired for the series in which the usual events of regular episodes are altered, threatened, or replaced. Usually said specials will present Dora with a bigger, more whimsical adventure than usual or with a magical task that must be fulfilled, or perhaps even offer a series of different adventures for Boots and Dora to travel through. They might be presented with an unusual, difficult task (such as assisting Swiper in his attempts to be erased from Santa Claus's Naughty List) that normally is not featured in average episodes, or challenge Dora with a goal that must be achieved (such as the emancipation of a trapped mermaid). Sometimes, the specials have involved the debut of new characters, such as the birth of Dora's superpowered twin baby siblings and the introduction of the enchanted anthropomorphic stars that accompany Dora on many of her quests.
Episodes
Voices
Dora Márquez (aka Dora the Explorer): Kathleen Herles (2000–2007), Caitlin Sanchez (2008–2011), Fátima Ptacek (2012–2019)
Boots: Harrison Chad (2000–2007), Regan Mizrahi (2008–2012), Koda Gursoy (2012–2019)
Backpack: Sasha Toro (2000–2007), Alexandria Suarez (2008–2019)
Isa the Iguana: Ashley Fleming (2000–2007), Lenique Vincent (2008–2011), Skai Jackson (2012–2019)
Tico the Squirrel: Jose Zelaya (2002–2007), Jean Carlos Celi (2008–2019)
Benny the Bull: Jake Burbage (2000–2007), Matt Gumley (2008–2019)
Explorer Stars: Christiana Anbri, Henry Gifford, Katie Gifford, Aisha Shickler, Muhammed Cunningham, Jose Zeleya
Diego: Felipe and Andre Dieppa (2003–2006), Jake T. Austin (2005–2010), Brandon Zambrano (2011–2012), Jacob Medrano (2012–2019)
Elaine Del Valle – Val the Octopus, various
Eileen Galindo – Mrs. Marquez
Chris Gifford – Big Red Chicken, Grumpy Old Troll, various
K. J. Sanchez
Adam Sietz – Boots' Father, various
Leslie Valdes
Marc Weiner – Map, Swiper
Guest voices
John Leguizamo
Cheech Marin
Ricardo Montalbán
Esai Morales – Mr. Marquez
Amy Principe
Irwin Reese
Chita Rivera (Dora's Fairytale Adventure, 2004)
Antonia Rey
Paul Rodriguez
Frankie Grande
Guest stars
Johnny Weir, (Dora's Ice Skating Spectacular, 2013)
Hilary Duff, (Dora's Ice Skating Spectacular, 2013)
Jewel Kilcher (Dora in Wonderland, 2014)
Mel Brooks (Dora in Wonderland, 2014)
Alan Cumming (Dora in Wonderland, 2014)
Sara Ramirez (Dora in Wonderland, 2014)
Development
The show was developed out of Nickelodeon's desire to "come up with the next big hit" similar to the network's other hit preschool shows at the time Little Bear and Blue's Clues. The creators sought to combine both shows format, with the narrative focus of Little Bear combined with the interactivity of Blue's Clues. The creators further developed the concept by observing preschoolers with the creators coming to the conclusion that "they are little explorers."
Dora is a Latina. According to a Nickelodeon spokesman, "she was developed to be pan-Latina to represent the diversity of Latino cultures". Initially the character was not planned to be Latina although after an executive at Nickelodeon attended a conference about the lack of Latino representation, the creators were asked if they could include such elements. At first there was hesitancy, but eventually they realized that they had "a great opportunity" and the character was designed as such. Nickelodeon at first did not like the antagonist Swiper, at first with researchers stating that "he was bad modeling and unsettling to kids"; however, the creators felt strongly about the inclusion of a villainous character and he remained in the final show.
On March 8, 2009, Mattel and Nickelodeon announced that Dora will receive a tweenage makeover, switching from a young age to a teenage attending middle school. Initially, it was announced that the new look would not be revealed until late 2009, but after a short controversy, the tween Dora was unveiled on March 16, 2009.
In 2012, a CGI opening was created for new episodes of the series.
Dora's Explorer Girls
In 2009, Mattel and Nickelodeon introduced a preteen version of Dora, with four friends named Naiya, Kate, Emma, and Alana, who call themselves the Explorer Girls. The Explorer Girls were included in the Dora and Friends spin-off in 2014.
Foreign adaptations
Dora the Explorer has been produced in various other languages worldwide. It facilitates the learning of important foreign language words or phrases (mostly English), interspersed with a local language (e.g. Norwegian, Russian, Hindi, or German), with occasional use of Spanish (used in the Irish, Serbian, and Turkish versions) through its simplicity and use of repetition.
Arabic – The Arabic language version is broadcast on the "Nickelodeon on MBC3" block of MBC3, and is presented in Arabic-English.
Cantonese – The Cantonese language version () is broadcast in Hong Kong. It is presented in Cantonese-English.
Danish – The Danish language version is called "Dora – udforskeren" and there are commands and expressions in English. It is broadcast on the national public children's channel, DR Ramasjang, and also on Nick Jr. through various pay TV providers.
Dutch – The Dutch language version broadcasts on Nickelodeon and Nick. Jr, It is presented in Dutch-English. The voice actors are Lottie Hellingman as Dora and Dieter Jansen as Boots.
French – The French language version, Dora l'exploratrice, broadcasts on TF1 in France and Télé-Québec in Canada. It is presented in French-English, with Dora and Boots (called Babouche) speaking French and other protagonists speaking and answering in English.
Filipino – The Filipino language version broadcasts on ABS-CBN and has the same English title "Dora, the Explorer". The characters speak Filipino and some English, Dora teaches English in this version.
German – The German language version broadcasts on the German branch of Nickelodeon. The bilingualism is German-English.
Greek – The Greek language version is called "Ντόρα η μικρή εξερευνήτρια" (or Dora the Little Explorer). It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and Star Channel. The bilingualism is Greek-English. Dora and Boots (called Botas) speak Greek and other protagonists speak and answer in English.
Hebrew – The Hebrew language version broadcasts on HOP channel. The bilingualism is Hebrew-English. The series is called מגלים עם דורה (or Megalim Im Dora—English: Discovering with Dora).
Hindi – In the Hindi language version, Dora and the other characters speak Hindi. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. Dora teaches the viewers English words and numbers.
Hungarian – In the Hungarian language version, Dora and the other characters speak Hungarian with some English words or phrases. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon (Hungary). The series is called Dóra a felfedező.
Indonesian – The Indonesian language version broadcasts on Global TV. The bilingualism is Indonesian-English.
Irish – The Irish language version broadcasts on the Irish station TG4. The bilingualism is Irish-Spanish with Dora and Boots speaking in Irish and some other characters speaking Spanish as in the original American version.
Italian – The Italian language version broadcasts on Cartoonito and on Nickelodeon. The bilingualism is Italian-English. The series is called Dora l'esploratrice ("Dora the Explorer"). Most characters speak Italian, but some characters and especially Dora's parents and backpack speak English along with Italian.
Japanese – The Japanese language version broadcasts on Nick Japan. The bilingualism is Japanese-English, with Dora and Boots speaking Japanese and other protagonists speaking and answering in English. The version is called ドーラといっしょに大冒険 (Dōra to issho ni dai bōken/Adventures with Dora).
Kannada – The Kannada language version broadcasts on Chintu TV and is a very popular program on that network. Hindi is the second language in this version.
Korean – The Korean language version broadcasts on Nick Jr in Korea. The title is "Hi Dora" and is introduced by a real person whose name is Dami – she introduces key English vocabulary for each episode. The episode is primarily in Korean with some English.
Macedonian – The Macedonian language version broadcasts on MRT 1 in Macedonia. The title is "Дора истражува" (or Dora the Explorer). The bilingualism is Macedonian-English.
Malay – The Malay language version broadcasts on TV9. The bilingualism is Malay-English. Dora speaks primarily in Malay, and the secondary language is English. The original English-Spanish version, however, is also available on Nickelodeon South East Asia via the Nick Jr. programming slot to subscribers of the ASTRO satellite TV service.
Malayalam – The Malayalam language version is called Dorayude Prayanam (ഡോറയുടെ പ്രയാണം) and broadcasts on a local kids programming channel Kochu TV, which is the Malayalam dubbed version of Chutti TV.
Mandarin – In the Mandarin Chinese language version Dora the characters speak mainly Mandarin with limited English. It broadcasts on Yo-yo TV in Taiwan (Channel 25).
Maori – The Māori language version is called "Dora Mātātoa".
Norwegian – In the Norwegian language version, the bilingualism is Norwegian-English.
Polish – The Polish language version broadcasts on Nickelodeon in Poland. The bilingualism is Polish-English. The series is called Dora poznaje świat ("Dora explores the world").
Portuguese – In the Portuguese language versions, Dora a Exploradora broadcasts on RTP2 and Nickelodeon Portugal. On Nickelodeon Brazil and TV Cultura, the show is called Dora a Aventureira, and Dora and Boots (called Boots in the Portuguese version and Botas in the Brazilian version) speak Portuguese, while the other protagonists speak and answer in English. Some Portuguese episodes are available on DVD.
Russian – The Russian language version broadcasts on TNT and Nickelodeon. The bilingualism is Russian-English. The series is called Dasha-sledopyt ("Dasha the Pathfinder"). Dasha is the children's name of Daria (Darya).
Serbian – The Serbian language version broadcasts on B92. The bilingualism is Serbian-Spanish. The series is called Dora istražuje (Dora is exploring).
Spanish – There are different Spanish versions for Mexico, Latin America, and Spain. Dora la Exploradora broadcasts on Nickelodeon in Latin America (and up to September 2006 on Telemundo in the USA; from April 2008 on Univisión). Dora and Boots (called Botas) speak Spanish and the other protagonists speak and answer in English. Some Spanish episodes are available to US viewers on VHS, and some DVDs have a Spanish track (including Dora's Egg Hunt). This version is entirely the reverse of the original English version; Tico and Señor Tucan (called Mr. Toucan) only speak English. Additionally, Univision has added on-screen captions of the Spanish words spoken in English. In Spain, Dora la exploradora is aired on TVE 1, Clan TVE and Nickelodeon. It is another reverse of the original English version (the characters speak mainly Spanish but there are commands and expressions in English).
Swedish – In the Swedish language version Dora- utforskaren the characters speak mainly Swedish but there are commands and expressions in English. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and TV4.
Tamil – In the Tamil language version Doravin Payanangal (டோராவின் பயணங்கள்), the characters all speak Tamil, with some English interspersed. It broadcasts on a local kids programming channel Chutti TV.
Thai – In the Thai language version ดอร่าดิเอกซ์พลอเรอร์ or ดอร่าสาวน้อยนักผจญภัย, the characters speak Thai; however, Tico speaks English. It broadcasts on Gang Cartoon Channel, Nick Jr., Thai PBS.
Turkish – In the Turkish language version Dora the characters speak mainly Turkish, Spanish, and English but there are commands and expressions in Turkish. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and CNBC-e.
As shown in the list above, Spanish is the second language taught in the original English language version of the show (also broadcast for Malay speakers), in the Irish, Serbian, and the trilingual Turkish versions, but for other versions of the show, the language being taught is English.
Stage adaptations
Two stage versions of Dora the Explorer toured North America, the first being "City of Lost Toys", and the second being "Dora's Pirate Adventure". Produced by Nickelodeon and LiveNation, these productions featured live actors portraying the roles of Dora and her friends, including Boots, Diego, Isa, and the Fiesta Trio. Many of the characters wore elaborate foam costumes designed to resemble the Dora characters. Each production featured a structure similar to an episode of the television series. City of Lost Toys featured Christina Bianco as Dora while Dora's Pirate Adventure featured Danay Ferrer of the band Innosense in the role of Dora and Frankie Grande as Boots. Both productions featured a version of the popular Gloria Estefan song "Get On Your Feet" as the final number of the show. Both productions were conceived by Chris Gifford, creator of the television show, and directed by Gip Hoppe.
There have been three Dora touring companies. The "City of Lost Toys" company and the "Pirate Adventure" company featured actors and crew that were members of Actor's Equity and IATSE, respectively, the unions for professional actors and stagehands in the United States. The third company performs a reduced version of "Pirate Adventure" and does not employ union personnel. This production is currently touring North America, and scheduled to travel to the United Kingdom and France.
Dora the Explorer merchandise
Many action figures and playsets are available in many markets, along with DVDs, cosmetics, hygiene products, ride-ons, books, board games, plush dolls, apparel, handbags, play tents, play kitchens, and more. Licensees include Fisher-Price in the United States and Holland Publishing in the United Kingdom.
Toys
In 2004, Lego released four sets based on the TV series' characters. These include 7330 Dora's Treasure Island, 7331 Diego's Rescue Truck, 7332 Dora and Boots at Play Park, and 7333 Dora and Diego's Animal Adventure.
In 2007, lead paint used by a contract toy manufacturer in China prompted Mattel to issue recalls for nearly a million toys, many of which featured Sesame Street and Nickelodeon characters, including Dora the Explorer. Nickelodeon responded that they would introduce "third-party monitoring" of all manufacturers of products under its brands.
Books
Dora the Explorer series
Dora's Backpack ()
Little Star ()
Happy Mother's Day Mami! ()
Meet Diego! ()
Dora's Thanksgiving ()
Dora Loves Boots ()
Dora's Book of Manners ()
Dora Goes to School ()
Dora's Fairy-Tale Adventure ()
Dora's Chilly Day ()
Show Me Your Smile! ()
Dora's Pirate Adventure ()
Big Sister Dora! ()
At the Carnival ()
Dora's Costume Party! ()
Dance to the Rescue ()
Dora's Starry Christmas ()
Super babies ()
The Birthday Dance Party ()
Dora's World Adventure ()
Dora Climbs Star Mountain ()
It's Sharing Day! ()
Dora Had a Little Lamb ()
Dora Saves Mermaid Kingdom! ()
Dora and the Stuck Truck ()
Ready To Read series – Level 1
Dora's Picnic ()
Follow Those Feet! ()
Dora in the Deep Sea ()
I Love My Papi! ()
Say "Cheese!" ()
The Halloween Cat ()
Eggs for Everyone! ()
Just Like Dora! ()
I Love My Mami! ()
Puppy Takes a Bath ()
Around the World! ()
Dora's Sleepover ()
Dora Helps Diego! ()
Dora's Perfect Pumpkin ()
Dora's Mystery of the Missing Shoes ()
A Lift-the-Flap Story
Good Night, Dora!: A Lift-the-Flap Story ()
Where Is Boots?: A Lift-the-Flap Story ()
Let's Play Sports!: A Lift-the-Flap Story ()
All Dressed Up!: A Lift-the-Flap Book ()
Treasury books and collection books
Dora's Ready-to-Read Adventures ()
Contains: Dora's picnic, Follow those feet, Dora in the deep sea, I love my Papi!, Say "Cheese"
Dora's Storytime Collection ()
Contains: Dora's Backpack, Little Star, Happy Birthday, Mami!, Meet Diego!, Dora Saves the Prince, Dora's Treasure Hunt, Good Night, Dora!
Dora's Big Book of Stories ()
Contains: Dora's Book of Manners, Dora Goes to School, Dora's Fairy-Tale Adventure, Dora's Chilly Day, Show Me Your Smile!, Dora's Pirate Adventure, Big Sister Dora!
Sticker books
Dora's Magic Watering Can ()
DVDs and videos
Video games
Video games based on the 2000 television show Dora the Explorer were released. In Canada, Cheerios offered a free Dora the Explorer the Game CD-ROMs in specially marked packages. However, packages sold in Quebec would only have the French version. Dora the Explorer: Barnyard Buddies is a video game released for the PlayStation in 2003 in the US, thus making it the first Dora the Explorer video game for the home consoles. It was not released in Europe until 2005 being one of the last games released on that platform in that territory following the PlayStation's discontinuation the following year and all production on PS1 games in 2006. Dora the Explorer: Super Star Adventures is an adventure video game for the Game Boy Advance released in 2004. It was developed by Imaginengine and published by Global Star.
Dora the Explorer: Journey to the Purple Planet is an action-adventure video game, developed by Monkey Bar Games, published by Global Star Software and powered by Vicious Engine. The game was released for GameCube in North America on October 13, 2005, and later in PAL regions on December 16, 2005. The PlayStation 2 version was released on PAL regions on December 2, 2005, and later in North America on February 9, 2006. The game is about Dora and Boots who finds some lost aliens from the purple planet. However, to take them home, she and Boots are required to collect keys to open the space gate, leading to the saturn planet. The game is unique in that it uses pictures and symbols to communicate rather than words. The object of the game is to capture one of the six explorer stars. Each explorer star has a special power such as the ability to be noisy or the ability to create music. In order to capture the star, the player must complete a hide-and-seek activity. These activities include maze navigation, matching games, side-scrolling race games, a "Frogger"-type game, a complete-the-pattern activity and a song playing game.
Dora Puppy is a puppy simulator where players must help Dora take care of her puppy, Perrito, and help train him for doggie competitions. All the actions are performed by either tracing certain shapes with the stylus or calling out commands into the DS's microphone. It was developed by Take-Two Interactive for the Nintendo DS and published by 2K Play in North America and Australia in 2009, and in Europe in 2010.
Dora the Explorer: Dora's Cooking Club is a cooking video game for the Nintendo DS. It was published by 2K Play in 2010. In the game, players have to chop veggies, stir soups, top pizzas, and more using math skills. They may be sorting cookies into numbered groups or counting out different amounts of ingredients.
Dora the Explorer: Dora Saves the Snow Princess is a video game that was released for the PlayStation 2 and the Wii console in 2008.
Dora the Explorer: Dora Saves the Crystal Kingdom is a video game that was released for the PlayStation 2 and the Wii console in 2009.
Soundtrack
Video services
Seasons of Dora the Explorer are available on a variety of streaming or direct purchase video services.
Streaming
Direct purchase
Sequel
In 2013, Nickelodeon announced that it was making a sequel to Dora the Explorer titled as Dora and Friends: Into the City!. It stars Dora as a 10-year-old who goes on city adventures with the Explorer Girls, accompanied by a male pal named Pablo. The series had two seasons (20 episodes each) and aired on Nickelodeon from August 8, 2014, to February 5, 2017.
Live-action film adaptation
On October 23, 2017, it was announced that a live-action film adaptation, titled Dora and the Lost City of Gold, was in the works at Paramount Players and was slated for a summer 2019 release. It was filmed in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia at Village Roadshow Studios directed by James Bobin with the screenplay written by Nick Stoller and Kristin Burr producing. Unlike the TV series, the film was expected to follow the title character as a teenager. Dora's cousin Diego was also confirmed to be a character in the film. On May 2, 2018, Isabela Moner was announced to portray the titular character. The film was released in theaters in the U.S. and Canada on August 9, 2019.
Live-action remake
On February 24, 2021, it was announced that a live-action remake of Dora the Explorer was in development for Paramount+.
Animated reboot
On February 15, 2022, it was announced that a computer-animated reboot was also in development for Paramount+.
See also
Go, Diego, Go!
References
External links
Dora The Explorer on Nick Jr. Australia
Dora The Explorer On Nick Jr. US
Dora The Explorer On Nick Jr. UK
Dora The Explorer on Treehouse
Dora The Explorer On Nick Canada
2000 American television series debuts
2000s American animated television series
2010s American animated television series
2019 American television series endings
American children's animated adventure television series
American children's animated fantasy television series
American preschool education television series
Animated television series about children
English-language television shows
Children's television characters
Fictional Hispanic and Latino American people
Fictional explorers
Nick Jr. original programming
Telemundo original programming
Univision original programming
CBS original programming
Spanish-language education television programming
Television shows adapted into plays
Television shows adapted into video games
Television shows adapted into films
Hispanic and Latino American television |
357032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland%20Transit%20Administration | Maryland Transit Administration | The Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) is a state-operated mass transit administration in Maryland, and is part of the Maryland Department of Transportation. The MTA operates a comprehensive transit system throughout the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area. There are 80 bus lines serving Baltimore's public transportation needs, along with other services that include the Light Rail, Metro Subway, and MARC Train. With nearly half the population of Baltimore residents lacking access to a car, the MTA is an important part of the regional transit picture. The system has many connections to other transit agencies of Central Maryland, Washington, D.C., Northern Virginia, and south-central Pennsylvania (Hanover, Harrisburg, and York): WMATA, Charm City Circulator, Regional Transportation Agency of Central Maryland, Annapolis Transit, Rabbit Transit, Ride-On, and TransIT.
History
The MTA took over the operations of the old Baltimore Transit Company on April 30, 1970. It was originally known as the Baltimore Metropolitan Transit Authority, then the Mass Transit Administration before it changed to its current name in October 2001.
Many of the routes of most of the agency's current bus lines are based on the original streetcars operated by the Baltimore Transit Company and its parent companies from the 1890s to the 1960s. All these routes were ultimately converted to rubber tire bus operations, and many of them were consolidated, extended into newly developed areas, or otherwise reconfigured to keep up with the ridership demands of the times. Additional routes and extensions were added in later years to serve communities that were later developed, and to feed into Metro and Light Rail stations that were later built.
With the growth in popularity of the private automobile during the 20th century, streetcar and bus ridership declined, and the needs for public transportation changed. Mass transit in Baltimore and other cities shifted from a corporate operation to a tax-subsidized state-run service. The amount of service provided was greatly reduced, and some areas once served by streetcars are currently served by buses very minimally or not at all.
The demise of the Baltimore streetcar took place between the years of 1947 and 1963, as operators found buses to be low maintenance and more cost-efficient. As rails were demolished, Baltimore was no longer a streetcar city. As transit needs and trends changed, rail transit did return to the city, with the Metro Subway opening in 1983 and the Light Rail in 1992. The track gauge was , a unique gauge.
Bus services
Bus services operate throughout the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area and other parts of the state. These include local bus routes which serve areas of Baltimore City, Baltimore County, and Anne Arundel County. Neighborhood shuttle service operating in specific Baltimore City areas, mainly in the northwest region. QuickBus operates limited-stop service throughout the city. Commuter, express, and intercounty connector bus routes operate within other parts of the state usually via highways or Interstate.
Local bus
LocalLink bus lines are identified by crosstown routes (21–38) and feeder routes (51–95). There are currently forty-three local bus routes throughout the urban and suburban area of Baltimore City numbered 21 through 95.
Quickbus
Until June 2017, The MTA operated four limited-stop routes known as Quickbus or qb, which were designated as routes qb40, qb46, qb47, and qb48.
Neighborhood Shuttle Bug
Until June 2017, The MTA had two neighborhood shuttle routes: The Mondawmin Shuttle Bug Route 97 and the Hampden Shuttle Bug Route 98. These routes can be identified by their distinctive brand colors and logos.
Express bus
The MTA operates 9 express bus lines in the Baltimore area, which are the 103, 104, 105, 115, 120, 150, 154, 160, and 163.
Commuter bus
Independent bus companies operate 26 commuter bus routes in the Washington D.C. and Baltimore regions. There are five Baltimore-bound bus lines numbered in the 300 and 400 range; while the sixteen Washington-bound bus lines are numbered in the 600 and 900 range. These routes range from 310 through 995. Buses travelling on MD 200 are numbered in the 200 range. Five routes ranging 201 through 205.
Rail services
Heavy rail (Metro Subway)
This system operates elevated and underground from a corporate and shopping complex in Owings Mills in Baltimore County into the heart of Downtown Baltimore City's business, shopping and sightseeing districts to the world-renowned Johns Hopkins Medical Center Complex. The northwest-southeastbound route includes 14 station stops. Its route through the densest parts of the city is underground, from Hopkins Hospital to a portal west of Mondawmin station, where it immediately rises to an elevated concrete right of way parallel to Wabash Avenue practically at the city line.
Entering Baltimore County, the line goes to surface, passing through communities along the way to commuter based stops at Milford Mill Road (Pikesville) and Old Court Road (Pikesville). From Old Court, the tracks pass underneath the I-695/795 interchange, and travel the median of 795 till their end at Owings Mills (Painter's Mill Road) This station is the centerpiece of a huge project urbanizing that immediate area, with a Baltimore County Public Library branch, and classroom space for the Community College of Baltimore County. Residential and commercial development is planned to follow the completion of the education buildings.
There were efforts underway to extend the line northeast through the city with phase 1 to Morgan State University and phase 2 beyond the city limits to the White Marsh Town Center area. If they come to fruition, the line will be renamed the Green Line, coordinating with the Red Line (east-west Woodlawn/Security-Hopkins Bayview Hospital) which Maryland Governor Larry Hogan cancelled on June 25, 2017, with the creation of Baltimore Link. Unfortunately, Baltimore City plans for transit were not mapped and $900 million of federally funded money was sent back. Funding for the Green Line extension is still years from being secured but includes an option to extend it as light rail or BRT from Johns Hopkins Hospital.
Light rail
This service travels from a corporate, hotel, and shopping complex in Baltimore County’s Hunt Valley, through the suburbs north of Baltimore and northern Baltimore City and into the heart of downtown Baltimore's shopping, sightseeing, dining, and entertainment districts, past the harbor and through southern Baltimore City and finally to BWI Marshall Airport and Cromwell Station/Glen Burnie in Anne Arundel County. There is also a spur to Amtrak’s Baltimore Penn Station.
The Light Rail operates at grade for the most part, though it travels on bridges crossing several bodies of water. There are 33 station stops along the system. Although much of the line was single-tracked when it was built, the MTA completed a double-tracking project on February 26, 2006, and now only a few short single-track sections remain.
Commuter rail (MARC)
This service operates three lines that provide commuter rail service to riders out of and into Baltimore, Washington, D.C., Frederick, Perryville, and Martinsburg, WV, as well as several other locations in between.
Mobility services
Paratransit
The MTA began offering paratransit service for persons with disabilities in 1978 when it took over a mobility service in Baltimore previously operated by Lutheran Family Services. This mobility service is a "non-fixed route" service and consists of a fleet of specially converted Ford E-Series vans and Ford Crown Victorias. Some service is contracted out to MV Transportation and Transdev, but all vehicles are owned by MTA.
Taxi Access
A sub-service of the Paratransit program is MTA's Taxi Access program. The Taxi Access program ensures that any sufficiently physically disabled person that consistently requires Paratransit service can also qualify for the Taxi Access program. The Taxi Access program allows the bearer of a Taxi Access card to take a taxicab door-to-door within the limits of anywhere MTA Paratransit vans go; i.e. within 1/3 of a mile of an MTA public transit stop of any kind. Once the trip is complete, total out-of-pocket cost for the customer is $3.00, and the MTA picks up the rest of the price of the fare, "paying" it to the driver in the form of a voucher that s/he later redeems at his/her cab company headquarters.
Future service
Outside of Washington, D.C., the MTA is constructing the Purple Line between Bethesda and New Carrollton. It is expected to open in 2027.
Proposed services
The MTA is studied a number of proposed services, which included the Red Line (a proposed east–west light rail line that would have passed from Woodlawn pass near Patterson Park) to Johns Hopkins Bayview Med. Ctr. and the Green Line (a proposed north–south line that would have extended from the Johns Hopkins Hospital into northeast Baltimore, possibly as an extension of the Metro Subway). As of summer 2011, the Red Line had received federal permission to enter preliminary engineering. Both lines were cancelled by Gov. Larry Hogan in June 2015.
The Corridor Cities Transitway between Gaithersburg and Clarksburg is being evaluated for bus rapid transit or light rail service.
BaltimoreLink
BaltimoreLink is an overhaul of the core MTA bus service within and around Baltimore City. The announcement of the Baltimore Link plan came from Gov. Larry Hogan in 2015, as part of a $135 Million investment to help improve the transit system through the entire Baltimore metropolitan area. The announcement came on the heels of Gov. Hogan rejecting the initially planned Red Line and Green Line light-rail systems.
Routes
BaltimoreLink has three forms of bus service: CityLink, ExpressLink, and LocalLink. System maps are available online.Maryland Transit Administration
CityLink
CityLink Blue (BL): CMS / Westgate <-> Hopkins Bayview
CityLink Brown (BR): White Marsh / Overlea <-> University Of Maryland Medical Center
CityLink Gold (GD): Walbrook Junction <-> Berea / Canton Crossing
CityLink Green (GR): Towson <-> Inner Harbor
CityLink Lime (LM): Northwest Hospital <-> Druid Hill Park / Harbor East
CityLink Navy (NV): Watersedge / Dundalk (Center Place Loop) / Turners Station (Late night) <-> Mondawmin Metro Station
CityLink Orange (OR): Fox Ridge (Essex) <-> West Baltimore MARC Station
CityLink Pink (PK): Cedonia <-> West Baltimore MARC Station
CityLink Purple (PR): Rt. 40 & Rolling Road (Catonsville) / Paradise Loop <-> Johns Hopkins Hospital
CityLink Red (RD): Lutherville / Towson <-> University of Maryland Transit Center / Greenmount North
CityLink Yellow (YW): Patapsco Light Rail Station / UMBC <-> Mondawmin Metro Station
CityLink Silver (SV): Curtis Bay <-> Johns Hopkins University / Morgan State University
Express BusLink
Express Bus Link 103: Cromwell <-> Inner Harbor / Kirk Ave (Am & Pm Reverse Commute trips)
Express Bus Link 104: Cromwell <-> Hopkins Hospital/Harbor East
Express Bus Link 105: Cedonia <-> Lexington Market Metro
Express Bus Link 115: Perry Hall <-> Lexington Market Metro / North Ave (Am & Pm Reverse Commute trips)
Express Bus Link 120: White Marsh Park & Ride <-> Charles Ctr. and Johns Hopkins Hospital
Express Bus Link 150: Columbia <-> Harbor East
Express Bus Link 154: State Center Metro <-> Carney / Hillendale
Express Bus Link 160: Charles Ctr. and Johns Hopkins Hospital <-> Essex / Whispering Woods
Express Bus Link 163: West Baltimore Marc <-> Tradepoint Alantic
LocalLink
No. 21 Woodberry Light Rail Station <-> Canton Crossing
No. 22 Bayview <-> Mondawmin Metro Station
No. 26 South Baltimore Park & Ride <-> Mondawmin Metro Station
No. 28 Moravia <-> Rogers Ave Metro Station
No. 29 Mondawmin Metro Station <-> Brooklyn Homes
No. 30 Rogers Ave Metro Station <-> Hollander Ridge
No. 31 Sinai Hospital <-> Security Square Mall via Rogers Ave Metro
No. 33 Overlea <-> Mt. Washington Light Rail Station
No. 34 Falls Rd Light Rail Station/Greenspring Station <-> Westview Mall
No. 36 Essex (Fox Ridge) <-> Towson
No. 37 Old Court Metro <-> UMBC
No. 51 Towson <-> Downtown
No. 52 Stella Maris <-> Greenmount North
No. 53 Sheppard Pratt / Cromwell Bridge <-> State Center Metro Station
No. 54 Hillendale/ Carney Park & Ride <-> State Center Metro Station
No. 56 White Marsh Park & Ride <-> Downtown (Fayette Plaza)
No. 57 Belair-Edison Shuttle
No. 59 Whispering Woods <-> Moravia via Bayview
No. 62 CCBC Essex <-> Turner Station
No. 63 Gardenville Loop/Hopkins Bayview <-> Tradepoint Atlantic (Sparrows Point)
No. 65 Downtown (Fayette Plaza) <-> CCBC Dundalk / Dundalk Marine Terminal
No. 67 City Hall <-> Marley Neck
No. 69 Jumpers Hole <-> Patapsco Light Rail Station / UM Medical Center (Late Night)
No. 70 Annapolis <-> Patapsco Light Rail Station / UM Medical Center (Late Night)
No. 71 Patapsco Light Rail Station <-> Lexington Market Metro Station via Cherry Hill
No. 73 Patapsco Light Rail Station <-> State Center Metro Station via Greyhound
No. 75 Parkway Center / Arundel Mills <-> Patapsco Light Rail Station / UM Medical Center via Greyhound (Late Night)
No. 76 Downtown <-> UMBC & CCBC Catonsville
No. 77 Catonsville(Rt. 40 & Rolling Road) <-> West Baltimore MARC Station
No. 78 CMS <-> City Hall
No. 79 CMS <-> Mondawmin Metro Station
No. 80 Rogers Ave Metro <-> City Hall
No. 81 Deer Park Plaza <-> Milford Mill Metro Station
No. 82 Reisterstown Plaza Metro Station <-> Park Circle
No. 83 Old Court Metro Station <-> Mondawmin Metro Station
No. 85 Milford Mill Metro Station <-> Penn North Metro Station
No. 87 Glyndon <-> Owings Mills Metro Station
No. 89 Red Run Blvd / Owings Mills Metro Station <-> Rogers Ave Metro Station
No. 91 Mondawmin Metro Station <-> Sinai Hospital
No. 92 Glen & Key <-> Owings Mills Center (Various Destinations)
No. 93 Hunt Valley <-> Towson via Lutherville Light Rail Station
No. 94 Sinai Hospital <-> Fort McHenry
No. 95 Roland Park <-> Inner Harbor (AM & PM rush only)
Fares
Fare collection methods
Prior to the summer of 2005, the MTA used an older fare collection system. Day passes purchased on buses were printed out by a separate machine from the bus fareboxes. It was possible to alter these passes so that they could be used on other days and to sell them to other passengers or make duplicate passes and sell them to others for cheaper than the MTA's official fares. This was despite the fact that they were officially non-transferable.
The MTA has since installed new fareboxes on all of its buses that issue daily passes with magnetic strips; new ticket vending machines at Light Rail and Metro Subway stations issue identical passes including the weekly and monthly passes. Weekly and monthly passes are not sold on buses.
The newer day passes can be used only on the appropriate day because the machine encodes the date and expiration time in the magnetic strip, which is read when swiped through the magnetic reader. Swiping the pass also sets a time waiting period on reuse so the pass cannot be immediately handed to a different passenger and used for free boarding. This also makes it difficult for passengers to use counterfeit passes when boarding the bus, Light Rail, and Metro Subway.
The MTA continues to struggle with passengers who purchase day passes, use them, then resell them at a direct loss to the agency. State employees who possess a Maryland State Employee ID card can ride MTA local bus, Light Rail, and the Metro Subway free of charge. Any state employee with the ID card can get a continuation ticket to get through the gates on the Metro Subway. For the bus, the person shows the state employee ID card to the driver when boarding. On the Light Rail, they have to show the ID card only in the event of a fare inspection while other passengers show their tickets. MTA employees can also ride free of charge if they carry their MTA employee ID card.
The MARC Train service is preparing for the eventual integration with the regional SmarTrip smartcard-based fare system. The system will involve conductors using hand-held units to validate SmarTrip cards as well as the MTA's Maryland Transit Pass.
MTA recently introduced a new mobile ticketing service called CharmPass which allows passengers to present their fare on all MTA services using their mobile devices.
CharmCard
The MTA began selling smart cards under the name CharmCard in 2011. These are similar to, and compatible with, the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority's regional smart card system, the SmarTrip card.
When the CharmCard system is fully implemented, it will be used not only on Maryland Transit Administration transit services, but will also be able to be used in Washington D.C. on all WMATA buses, the Washington Metro and on most local bus services in Northern Virginia. Likewise, the WMATA SmarTrip card will be accepted by the fareboxes used by the MTA.
Special programs
Baltimore City Public School System
An agreement between the Baltimore City Public School System and the Maryland Transit Administration provided eligible BCPSS students (usually students who live outside a predetermined area surrounding the school) during a school year with a color-coded booklet of dated tickets each month and an identification card. The tickets allowed students to ride on MTA buses, light rail, and subway free going to and from school. The farebox was able to issue magnetic transfers to ticket holders who must use more than one bus. They were valid for 90 minutes of unlimited travel at the driver's discretion. In 2011, a new agreement was put in place for the students. Instead of the color-coded booklet, they were issued a monthly bus pass called an S-Pass. It is a bus pass that is valid for the given month from 6AM until 8PM. The S-Pass can allow students to ride and pass through an unlimited times through the Metro Subway gate, unlike the transfers from the color-coded booklet from in the past.
MTA college pass
The Maryland Transit Administration has a special program set up with 24 Baltimore area colleges and universities which allows college students who are enrolled in a minimum of 6 hours per week can receive a monthly pass for $52.90.
Participating colleges
Anne Arundel Community College
Baltimore City Community College
Baltimore International College
Catonsville Community College
Notre Dame of Maryland University
Coppin State University
Dundalk Community College
Essex Community College
Harrison Career Institute
Johns Hopkins University
Homewood Campus
School of Medicine
School of Nursing
School of Public Health
School of Radiology
Morgan State University
Stevenson University (formerly Villa Julie College)
Towson University
University of Baltimore
University of Maryland, Baltimore
University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Police force
The MTA employs its own force of 150 police officers to protect the transit system and its passengers, the Maryland Transit Administration Police.
Administrators
The following people have served as Administrators of the Maryland Transit Administration and its predecessor agencies.
Walter J. Addison: 1969–1979
L.A. Kimball: 1979–1984
Ronald J. Hartman: 1984–1993
John Agro: 1993–1997
Ronald Freeman: 1997–2001
Virginia White: 2001–2002 (acting)
Robert L. Smith: 2002–2004
Lisa Dickerson: 2004–2007
Paul J. Wiedefeld: 2007–2009
Ralign T. Wells: 2009–2013
Robert L. Smith: 2013–2015
Ronald Barnes: 2015 (acting)
Paul W. Comfort: 2015–2017
Kevin B. Quinn: 2017–2021
Holly Arnold 2021
Public transit laws
Section 7-705 of the Maryland Transportation article (Annotated Code of Maryland) enumerates a list of acts specifically prohibited on public transit vehicles, with penalties of fines up to $1,000 and possible jail terms for violations. In addition to the enumerated rules of behavior, Section 7-705 also allows the MTA to enforce local government laws on public transit vehicles. Many of the rules are conspicuously posted on transit vehicles, bus stops and rail platforms. However, they are rarely enforced, making many unpleasant trips for those who actually follow these rules.
See also
Baltimore Streetcar Museum
Baltimore-Washington Superconducting Maglev Project
References
External links
Official MTA site (Mobile)
What is the CharmCard site
Taxi Access II trip planner for Taxi Access program.
Transportation in Baltimore
Intermodal transportation authorities in Maryland
Passenger rail transportation in Maryland
Bus transportation in Maryland
Rapid transit in Maryland
5 ft 4½ in gauge railways
1970 establishments in Maryland |
357034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venial%20sin | Venial sin | According to Catholicism, a venial sin is a lesser sin that does not result in a complete separation from God and eternal damnation in Hell as an unrepented mortal sin would. A venial sin consists in acting as one should not, without the actual incompatibility with the state of grace that a mortal sin implies; they do not break one's friendship with God, but injure it.
Definition
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church:
The definition of the word "venial" is "forgivable". An act, when it is not ordered towards that which is good, is considered to be sinful – either venially or mortally. When such an act is venially sinful, it entails subject-matter that is not considered to be "grave". Such an action, even if it is committed with full knowledge and full consent, remains venial, so long as the subject-matter of the act is not serious. If the subject-matter of a given act is "grave", however, the commission of that act may be mortally sinful. Intentional ignorance and "hardness of heart" increase "the voluntary character of a sin". Thus, in discussing the distinction between venial and mortal sin in his Summa Theologica, St. Thomas Aquinas indicated that a venial sin differs from a mortal sin, in the same way that something imperfect differs from something that is perfect.
As such, one can arrive at what kind of sin, for example, was committed, by asking the following three questions:
Did the act involve a grave matter?
Was the act committed with full knowledge of the wrongdoing that had been done in the act?
Was the act done with full consent of the will?
If all three questions are answered in the affirmative, the criteria for a mortal sin have been met. If any one of the three questions is answered in the negative, only the criteria for a venial sin have been met. In cases of doubt regarding any of these three questions, it is assumed that the criteria for a mortal sin were not met.
Each venial sin that one commits adds to the penance that one must do. Penance left undone during life converts to punishment in Purgatory. A venial sin can be left unconfessed so long as there is some purpose of amendment. One receives from the sacrament of reconciliation the grace to help overcome venial, as well as mortal sins. It is recommended that confession of venial sins be made. Venial sins require some kind of penance.
According to the Magisterium, venial sins usually remain venial no matter how many one commits. They cannot "add up" to collectively constitute a mortal sin, but their accumulation does lead to being more vulnerable to committing mortal sin. There are cases where repeat offenses may become a grave matter. For instance, if one were to steal small amounts of property from a particular person, over time one would have stolen enough that it would develop into a serious theft from that person.
In all this, one ought not to take venial sin lightly, especially when committed deliberately. No one without a special grace (generally taken to apply only to the Blessed Virgin Mary)
can avoid even semi-deliberate venial sins entirely (according to the definition of Trent). But one must, to avoid mortal sins, seek (as far as possible) to overcome venial sins. The Magisterium teaches that although a number of venial sins do not themselves add up to a mortal sin, each venial sin weakens the will further, and the more willing one becomes in allowing such falls, the more one is inclined towards, and will inevitably fall into mortal sins if one continues along this path.
See also
Contrition
Perfect contrition
Original sin
References
External links
Sin in Catholic Encyclopedia
The Venial Sin by Honore de Balzac
Catechism of the Catholic Church – Mortal and Venial Sin
Catholic doctrines
Christian hamartiology
Christian terminology
Sin |
357038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy%20Dwight | Timothy Dwight | Timothy Dwight may refer to:
Timothy Dwight (Massachusetts politician) (1629–1718), progenitor of the Dwight family
Timothy Dwight IV (1752–1817), American author and president of Yale University, 1795–1817
Timothy Dwight V (1828–1916), president of Yale University, 1886–1899
Tim Dwight (born 1975), American football player
Timothy Dwight Hobart (1855–1935), businessman
See also
Timothy Dwight College, a residential college at Yale University
Timothy Dwight PS 033, a public elementary school in New York City
Dwight, Timothy |
357041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damien%20Marchesseault | Damien Marchesseault | Damien Marchesseault (or Marchesseau) (April 1, 1818 – January 20, 1868) was the seventh Mayor of Los Angeles from May 9, 1859 to May 9, 1860 and then again from January 7, 1861 to May 6, 1865. Marchesseault assumed the office one last time interrupting Cristobal Aguilar's first term in office for three months.
Biography
Born in St.-Antoine-sur-Richelieu, Quebec, Canada, Marchesseault was described as a carousing onetime New Orleans gambler. With Victor Beaudry, he started an ice vending company using ice from what is now known as Icehouse Canyon near Mount San Antonio.
During his term as Zanjero of Los Angeles (water steward), Marchesseault and a partner laid wooden water pipes that burst and turned streets into sinkholes.
Struggling with mounting debts, he slipped into an empty Los Angeles City Hall Council chamber on Jan. 20, 1868, and shot himself to death.
Marcheassault Street in Los Angeles is named for him.
Death and suicide note
The following is a news article about Damien Marchesseault's death that includes the suicide note he wrote to his wife, Mary Clark Marchesseault, taken from the January 21, 1868, issue of the Los Angeles Semi-Weekly News:
Died. ---Damien Marchesseault, for several years Mayor of this city, died at the Mayors office, about 7 o'clock AM, on the 20th INS.
Mr. Marchesseault was a native of Canada, and in early life immigrated to New Orleans, where he has a brother now living. He was in Mexico during the Mexican War, and came to this country in 1849, and settled in this city in 1853; where was for several years engaged in business. He was a man of remarkable energy, of strong convictions, and naturally had many enemies, but leaves a host of friends. The friends and acquaintances of the deceased are requested to attend the funeral at 10 o'clock this morning, from his late residence.
Suicide. -Damien Marchesseault committed suicide on yesterday morning by shooting himself, the ball entering near the nose, and passing into the brain.
The following letter was found upon the table near the late Damien Marchesseault, addressed to Mrs. Marchesseault; and was placed in our hands for publication by the friends of that lady:Office of the City Marshal, Los Angeles City, January 20, 1868.My Dear Mary: - By my drinking to excess, and gambling also, I have involved myself to the amount of about three thousand dollars which I have borrowed from time to time from friends and acquaintances. Under the promise to return the same the following day, which I have often failed to do. To such an extend have I gone in this way that I am now ashamed to meet my fellow man on the street; besides that, I have deeply wronged you as a husband, by spending my money instead of maintaining you as it becomes a husband to do. Though you have never complained of my miserable conduct, you nevertheless have suffered too much. I therefore, to save you from further disgrace and trouble, being that I cannot maintain you respectably, I shall end this state of thing this very morning. Of course, in all this, there is no blame attached contrary you have asked me to permit you to earn money honestly by teaching and I refused. You have always been true to me. If I write these few lines, it is to set you a night before this wicked world, to keep slander from blaming you in any manner whatever. Now, my dear beloved, I hope that you will pardon me, and also Mr. Sainsevain. It is time to part, God bless you, and may you be happy yet, your husband Damien Marchesseault.
References
Chronological Record of Los Angeles City Officials: 1850—1938, Compiled under Direction of Municipal Reference Library City Hall, Los Angeles March 1938 (Reprinted 1966)
Mayors of Los Angeles
Los Angeles Common Council (1850–1889) members
19th-century American politicians
1818 births
1868 deaths
American politicians who committed suicide
Suicides by firearm in California
American people of Québécois descent
Pre-Confederation Canadian emigrants to the United States
People from Montérégie |
357042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehudi%20Ashmun | Jehudi Ashmun | Jehudi Ashmun (April 21, 1794 – August 25, 1828) was an American religious leader and social reformer from New England who became involved in the American Colonization Society. It founded the colony of Liberia in West Africa as a place to resettle free people of color from the United States.
Ashmun emigrated to Monrovia, Liberia in 1822, where he served as the United States government's agent (de facto governor) for two different terms: one from August 1822 until April 1824, and another from August 1824 until March 1828. Suffering ill health, he returned to the United States and died later that year.
Early life and education
Born in Champlain, New York, in 1794, Ashmun first studied at Middlebury College in Vermont. During his senior year, he studied at the University of Vermont. After graduation, he was ordained in Maine as a minister.
Marriage and family
Ashmun married in 1818 and his wife accompanied him to Bangor, Maine, where he took his first position.
Career
Ashmun was appointed as the first principal, and one of the first two professors, of the Bangor Theological Seminary in Bangor, Maine. He retained this professorship until 1827, despite leaving the country for a few years while living and working in the new colony of Monrovia, Liberia.
Drawn by other opportunities, Ashmun returned to the United States, settling in Washington, DC, where he worked as the editor of an Episcopalian monthly. Interested in the work of the American Colonization Society (ACS), he founded the newspaper The African Intelligencer and wrote about their mission.
His articles about the ACS, which was committed to "repatriating" free blacks to a newly founded colony in West Africa, led to Ashmun's political appointment as representative of the U.S. government to the colony. While the project was privately funded, it was chartered by Congress. At the age of 26, Ashmun was the leader in 1822 of a group of settlers and missionaries to Liberia on the ship Elizabeth. His wife went with him but was among the many settlers who died of malaria and other tropical diseases in the new settlement.
As United States representative to Liberia as well as agent of the ACS, Ashmun effectively served as governor of the colony for two periods of time, from 1822 to 1828, from ages 28 to 34. He took a leadership role in what he found to be a demoralized colony. He helped build the defenses of Monrovia against attacks by indigenous tribes, as well as against slave raiders. He also worked to develop the colony's trade with the US, Great Britain, and Europe. During his tenure in Liberia, Ashmun increased agricultural production, annexed more lands from neighboring tribes, and exploited commercial opportunities in the interior.
He helped create a constitution for Liberia that enabled African Americans to hold positions in the government. African Americans and their descendants, known as Americo-Liberians, dominated the government into the late 20th century.
By contrast, in the early decades of the neighboring British colony of Sierra Leone, the government was dominated by whites. Freetown was originally founded for the resettlement of free blacks from Britain and Upper Canada (many of them were Black Loyalists and their descendants: freed African-American slaves who had joined the British for freedom during the American Revolutionary War).
Ashmun wrote numerous letters to ACS officials, family and friends in the United States. These and his book, History of the American Colony in Liberia, 1821–1823 (1826) constitute the earliest written history of the Liberia colony.
Death
Suffering ill health in Liberia, Ashmun returned to the United States in 1828. He died in New Haven, Connecticut, soon after. He was interred there in Grove Street Cemetery.
Legacy and honors
Lincoln University, a historically black college in Pennsylvania, was originally chartered in 1854 as Ashmun Institute in his honor.
Notes
Further reading
Charles I. Foster, “The Colonization of Free Negroes, in Liberia, 1816–1835”, The Journal of Negro History (1953)
Ralph Randolph Gurley, Life of Jehudi Ashmun, Late Colonial Agent in Liberia, Boston: J. C. Dunn, 1835
Frankie Hutton, “Economic Considerations in the American Colonization Society’s Early Effort to Emigrate Free Blacks to Liberia, 1816–36", The Journal of Negro History (1983), via JSTOR
P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement 1816–1865 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961)
1794 births
1828 deaths
Agents and Governors of Liberia
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Politicians from Bangor, Maine
People from Champlain, New York
Bangor Theological Seminary faculty
Middlebury College alumni
University of Vermont alumni
American social reformers
American colonization movement |
357047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Montague%20Bakewell | Charles Montague Bakewell | Charles Montague Bakewell (April 24, 1867 – September 19, 1957) was a university professor and Republican politician who served in the United States House of Representatives.
Early life
Bakewell was born in Pittsburgh on April 24, 1867. He attended the schools of Pittsburgh and the University of Pittsburgh before graduating from the University of California at Berkeley in 1889. He received a master's degree from the University of California in 1891, and his PhD from Harvard University in 1894. From 1894 to 1896, Bakewell attended the Universities of Berlin, Strasbourg, and Paris.
Academic career
Bakewell was a philosophy instructor at Harvard University from 1896 to 1897, and the University of California from 1897 to 1898. From 1898 to 1900, Bakewell was an associate professor at Bryn Mawr College, and he was an associate professor and then professor at the University of California from 1900 to 1905. From 1905 to 1933, Bakewell was a professor at Yale University 1905–1933. In 1910, he served as president of the American Philosophical Association.
World War I
During World War I, Bakewell served under the Italian Commission of the American Red Cross in Italy, holding the ranks of major and deputy commissioner while performing duties as an inspector and historian.
Political career
After the war, Bakewell was elected to the Connecticut State Senate as a Republican, and he served from 1920 to 1924. From 1921 to 1923, he served as chairman of the state commission that revised and codified Connecticut's educational laws.
In 1932, Bakewell was elected to the United States House of Representatives, and he served one term, March 4, 1933, to January 3, 1935. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1934. In 1936, he was a delegate to the Republican national Convention.
Death and burial
Bakewell died in New Haven, Connecticut on September 19, 1957, and was buried at Grove Street Cemetery in New Haven.
References
External links
Charles Montague Bakewell at The Political Graveyard
1867 births
1957 deaths
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Connecticut state senators
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Harvard University alumni
Connecticut Republicans
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
University of Pittsburgh alumni
20th-century American politicians |
357050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance%20for%20Audited%20Media | Alliance for Audited Media | The Alliance for Audited Media (AAM) is a North American non-profit industry organization founded in 1914 by the Association of National Advertisers to help ensure media transparency and trust among advertisers and media companies. Originally known as the Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC), today AAM is a source of verified media information and technology platform certifications, providing standards, audit services and data for the advertising and publishing industries. It is one of more than three dozen such organizations operating worldwide, affiliated with the International Federation of Audit Bureaux of Circulations (IFABC).
AAM independently verifies print and digital circulation, mobile apps, website analytics, social media, technology platforms and audience information for newspapers, magazines and digital media companies in the U.S. and Canada. In the digital advertising space, AAM is a provider of technology certification audits to industry standards established by the Interactive Advertising Bureau, Media Rating Council, Trustworthy Accountability Group and Mobile Marketing Association.
History
At the turn of the 20th century, the Association of National Advertisers (ANA) observed a market need for verifiable, authenticated circulation figures from print publishers. As a result, in 1914, advertisers, ad agencies and publishers in the U.S. and Canada united to form the first Audit Bureau of Circulations to bring trust and accountability to the print media market.
Nearly a century later, the need for trust and accountability remains unchanged, although the format in which media is delivered has evolved significantly. With the expansion of digital media platforms, media buyers seek a solution to a chaotic marketplace and increasingly desire credible cross-channel metrics. On November 15, 2012, ABC in North America rebranded its organization as the Alliance for Audited Media to reflect the new media environment and its members' evolving business models.
Governance
AAM is governed by a tripartite board of directors composed of leaders in publishing, marketing and advertising from the U.S. and Canada. Together with an extensive network of committees, the AAM board sets the standards by which print and digital media are measured and reported. AAM audited data is relied upon by marketers and ad agencies to plan for and buy media. This information is housed in an AAM database, disseminated via several complementary industry data providers (such as Gfk MRI and Kantar Media SRDS) and fed directly to proprietary databases of many large ad agencies and client-side marketers.
The organization is headquartered in Lisle, Illinois with an additional office in Toronto.
Membership
Membership is open to all publishers, digital media companies, advertisers and advertising agencies. Additionally, any individual, firm or corporation that requires access to media data may apply for an associate membership. AAM serves as an industry forum, connecting advertisers, ad agencies and publishers to discuss issues and trends and set standards.
See also
Audit Bureau of Circulations
Audit Bureau of Circulations (Asia)
Audit Bureau of Circulations (US)
Newspaper circulation
International Federation of Audit Bureaux of Circulations (ABC)
References
External links
Alliance for Audited Media
Audit Bureau of Circulations (UK)
International Federation of Audit Bureaux of Circulations
Non-profit organizations based in Illinois
Publishing organizations
Newspapers circulation audit |
357052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Sherman%20Baldwin | Roger Sherman Baldwin | Roger Sherman Baldwin (January 4, 1793 – February 19, 1863) was an American politician who served as the 32nd Governor of Connecticut from 1844 to 1846 and a United States Senator from 1847 to 1851. As a lawyer, his career was most notable for his participation in the 1841 Amistad case.
Early life
Baldwin was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the son of Simeon Baldwin and Rebecca Sherman. He was the maternal grandson of notable founding father Roger Sherman (the only person to sign all four great state papers of the U.S.: the Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. Through his father he was descended from Robert Treat, Samuel Appleton and Simon Willard. Through his mother he was descended from Samuel Stone and William Blaxton. He attended Hopkins School, and entered Yale College at the age of fourteen, and graduated with high honors in 1811. At Yale, Baldwin was a member of the Linonian Society. After leaving Yale he studied law in his father's office in New Haven, and also in the Litchfield Law School, and was admitted to the bar in 1814. Although repeatedly called into public office, he devoted himself through life to the profession of his choice, attaining the highest distinction, especially in the discussion of questions of law. His defense in 1841, of the rights of the Africans of the Amistad, is particularly celebrated, both for his ability and for the importance of the case.
Political career
After having been a member of the city government in New Haven, in 1826 and 1828, Baldwin was elected in 1837 and again in 1838 as a member of the Connecticut State Senate. In 1840 and 1841 he represented the town of New Haven in the General Assembly. He was elected Governor of Connecticut in 1844 by the state legislature, and was re-elected in 1845. On the death of Senator Jabez W. Huntington in 1847, Baldwin was appointed by Governor Clark Bissell to fill the vacancy in the United States Senate, and in December of that year he took his seat as a member of that body. He was elected by the Legislature in the following May to the same position, which he held until 1851. After that period he held no public office, except that he was one of the presidential electors in the canvass of 1860, and by appointment of Governor William Alfred Buckingham was a delegate to the Peace Convention which met in Washington, in 1861, by request of the State of Virginia. He was described as a devout Christian who studied the Bible every day.
Baldwin died in New Haven, February 19, 1863; at the age of 70 and was interred at Grove Street Cemetery. A biographical discourse was pronounced at his funeral by Rev. Dr. Dutton, which was printed in the New Englander for April 1863, and was also published as a pamphlet.
Family
He was grandson of Roger Sherman, son of Simeon Baldwin, nephew of Ebenezer Baldwin, husband of Emily Pitkin Perkins, father of Connecticut Governor Simeon Eben Baldwin, grandfather of New York Supreme Court Justice Edward Baldwin Whitney, and the great-grandfather of the famed Princeton University mathematics professor Hassler Whitney.
In popular culture
A simplified version of the events regarding the Amistad case were made into a movie called Amistad in 1997 in which Matthew McConaughey portrayed Roger Sherman Baldwin. In Greenwich, Connecticut, there is a town park called Roger Sherman Baldwin Park.
References
External links
Roger Sherman Baldwin Litchfield Ledger - Student
Connecticut Governor Roger Sherman Baldwin from the Connecticut State Library
US Senator Roger Sherman Baldwin US Congress
Baldwin Family Papers (MS 55). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
Roger Sherman Baldwin (1793-1863) Guide to Research Papers
Sherman Genealogy Including Families of Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, England By Thomas Townsend Sherman
Baldwin-Greene-Gager family of Connecticut at Political Graveyard
Sherman-Hoar family at Political Graveyard
History of the Federal Judiciary
Roger Sherman Baldwin Museum of Connecticut History
From Thomas Jefferson to Roger Sherman Baldwin, 9 March 1822
To Thomas Jefferson from Roger Sherman Baldwin, 24 February 1822
Roger Sherman Baldwin to Thomas Jefferson, February 24, 1822 Library of Congress
1793 births
1863 deaths
Connecticut state senators
Governors of Connecticut
Politicians from New Haven, Connecticut
United States senators from Connecticut
Yale College alumni
Litchfield Law School alumni
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Connecticut Whigs
Connecticut Republicans
Whig Party United States senators
Whig Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians
Sherman family (U.S.)
Lawyers from New Haven, Connecticut
La Amistad |
357055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad%20Peak | Broad Peak | Broad Peak () is a mountain in the Karakoram on the border of Pakistan and China, the twelfth-highest mountain in the world at above sea level. It was first ascended in June 1957 by Fritz Wintersteller, Marcus Schmuck, Kurt Diemberger, and Hermann Buhl of an Austrian expedition.
Geography
Broad Peak is part of the Gasherbrum massif in Baltistan on the border of Pakistan and China. It is located in the Karakoram mountain range about from K2. It has a summit over long and, thus, a "broad peak".
The mountain has five summits: Broad Peak (8051 m), Rocky Summit (8028 m), Broad Peak Central (8011 m), Broad Peak North (7490 m), and Kharut Kangri (6942 m).
Etymology
The literal translation of "Broad Peak" to Falchan Kangri is not used among the Balti people. The English name was introduced in 1892 by the British explorer Martin Conway, in reference to the similarly named Breithorn in the Alps.
Climbing history
The first ascent of Broad Peak was made between June 8 and 9, 1957 by Fritz Wintersteller, Marcus Schmuck, Kurt Diemberger, and Hermann Buhl of an Austrian expedition led by Marcus Schmuck. A first attempt by the team was made on May 29 where Fritz Wintersteller and Kurt Diemberger reached the forepeak (8,030 m). This was also accomplished without the aid of supplemental oxygen, high altitude porters or base camp support.
In July 2007 an Austrian mountaineering team climbed Broad Peak and retrieved the corpse of Markus Kronthaler, who had died on the mountain one year before, from over 8,000 metres.
In 2008 Frenchwoman Élisabeth Revol made solo ascents of Broad Peak, Gasherbrum I and Gasherbrum II within 16 days and without the aid of oxygen, as her climbing partner Antoine Girard had fallen ill.
In the winter and summer of 2009 there were no summits. There was one winter expedition by a Polish-Canadian team. In the summer there was one fatality, Cristina Castagna.
In summer 2012, five members of "Koroška 8000", a Slovenian team led by Gregor Lačen, summitted the mountain without supplementary oxygen or high-altitude porters. They established a route in deep snow from Camp 4 to the summit, used by seven additional climbers from other expeditions. All summitted on July 31, 2012.
On March 5, 2013 Maciej Berbeka, Adam Bielecki, Tomasz Kowalski and Artur Małek made the first winter ascent. Broad Peak was the twelfth Eight-thousander summited in wintertime and the tenth Eight-thousander first summitted in winter by Polish climbers.
During the descent, Maciej Berbeka and Tomasz Kowalski did not reach Camp 4 (at 7400 m) and were pronounced missing. On March 7, the head of the expedition Krzysztof Wielicki, said there are "no chances at all" of finding alive 58-year-old Maciej Berbeka and 27-year-old Tomasz Kowalski.
On March 8 both climbers were declared dead and the expedition was ended.
In July 2013, a group of five Iranian climbers attempted to ascend through a new route from the southwestern face. Three of them — Aidin Bozorgi, Pouya Keivan, and Mojtaba Jarahi — ascended successfully but during descent all three of them were lost and declared dead.
On July 23, 2016, Frenchman Antoine Girard's paraglider flight over Broad Peak was the first time a paraglider had flown above an 8,000-metre summit.
On July 14, 2019, 17-year-old Shehroze Kashif from Pakistan became the youngest ever to summit this peak.
Timeline
1954 First attempt by Dr. Karl Herrligkoffer of Germany on the SW side that failed due to a storm and extreme cold.
1957 First ascent by an Austrian expedition.
1983 First ascent by a woman, Krystyna Palmowska.
1984 First one-day ascent of an 8000-meter peak (solo) by Krzysztof Wielicki in 21.5 hours.
1992 On August 4, Enric Dalmau Ferré, Òscar Cadiach, Alberto Soncini and Lluís Ràfols were the first to reach the summit from the Chinese side.
1994 On July 9, Carlos Carsolio reached the summit, establishing a new solo route now known as Route Carsolio.
1997 On July 7, Anatoli Boukreev achieved a solo ascent.
2013 On March 5, first winter ascent by Polish expedition.
2013 July, Aidin Bozorgi, Pouya Keivan, and Mojtaba Jarahi of Iran ascended through a new route, named Route Iran.
2014 Hunza Expedition to Broad Peak made the summit on 23 July 2014, Karim Hayat reached to main summit and Naseer Uddin turned back from Rocky summit. Karim Hayat became the first person from his village who reached 8000 m.
2019 July 14, Shehroze Kashif at the age of 17 became the youngest ever to summit this peak. He also became the youngest Pakistani to reach this altitude
Passes
Windy Gap is a -high mountain pass at east of K2, north of Broad Peak, and south of Skyang Kangri.
See also
List of mountains in Pakistan
Highest Mountains of the World
List of Austrian mountaineers
References
Further reading
Richard Sale, Broad Peak, 2004. English published by Carreg Ltd in the UK.
Marcus Schmuck, Broad Peak 8047m Meine Bergfahrten mit Hermann Buhl, 1958. German published by Verlag "Das Bergland-buch" in Salzburg/Stuttgart.
Kurt Diemberger, Spirits of the Air, 1994. Mountaineers Books,
Hermann Buhl, Achttausand: Druber und Drunter, 1955, Munchen. Afterword by Kurt Diemberger describes the Broad Peak expedition.
Zvezdnate noči (Starry Nights) by Dušan Jelinčič,
Anna Czerwińska Broad Peak'83 tylko dwie (Broad Peak'83 only two) "Sport i Turystyka", Warszawa 1989,
Jacek Hugo-Bader, Długi film o miłości. Powrót na Broad Peak, Polish published by Znak, Cracow 2014,
External links
Broad Peak on Himalaya-Info.org (German)
Broad Peak on Summitpost
First Ascent: The official Website of the Austrian OEAV Karakoram expedition 1957 on BroadPeak.org
Virtual Aerial Video of Broad Peak
Eight-thousanders of the Karakoram
Mountains of Gilgit-Baltistan
Mountains of Xinjiang
China–Pakistan border
International mountains of Asia
Broad Peak |
357056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon%20Baldwin | Simeon Baldwin | Simeon Baldwin (December 14, 1761 – May 26, 1851) was son-in-law of Roger Sherman, father of Connecticut Governor & US Senator Roger Sherman Baldwin, grandfather of Connecticut Governor & Chief Justice Simeon Eben Baldwin and great-grandfather of New York Supreme Court Justice Edward Baldwin Whitney. He was born in Norwich in the Connecticut Colony. He completed preparatory studies (studying with Rev. Joseph Huntington and later at the Master Tisdale's School in Lebanon, Connecticut, and graduated from Yale College in 1781. He delivered the Latin oration in June 1782, it is still preserved in the Yale University Library. He was preceptor of the academy at Albany, and a Tutor at his alma mater.
He then studied law, was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice in New Haven. He was elected New Haven city clerk in 1790 was appointed clerk of the District and Circuit Courts of the United States for the District of Connecticut and served until November 1803, when he resigned, having been elected to Congress. Baldwin was elected as a Federalist to the Eighth Congress (March 4, 1803 – March 3, 1805).
He declined to be a candidate for reelection, and was again appointed to his former clerkship, but was removed by Judge Edwards in 1806. He served as associate judge of the Superior Court (1806–08) and the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (1808–18). He was president of the board of commissioners that located the Farmington Canal, and was Mayor of New Haven. He died at 89 years old and was interred at Grove Street Cemetery.
He married Rebecca, daughter of Hon. Roger Sherman, who died on September 4, 1795, and then married her sister Elizabeth Sherman Burr.
References
American National Biography, vol. 2, pp. 64–65.
External links
Simeon Baldwin Connecticut State Library
US Representative Simeon Baldwin US Congressional Biography
Sherman Genealogy Including Families of Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, England By Thomas Townsend Sherman
Life and letters if Simeon Baldwin
From Alexander Hamilton to Simeon Baldwin, 1 May 1802
Guide to Research Collections
Baldwin Family Papers (MS 55). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
Baldwin-Greene-Gager family of Connecticut at Political Graveyard
Sherman-Hoar family at Political Graveyard
1761 births
1851 deaths
Mayors of New Haven, Connecticut
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut
Connecticut state court judges
Justices of the Connecticut Supreme Court
Yale College alumni
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Connecticut Federalists
Federalist Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Sherman family (U.S.) |
Subsets and Splits