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356406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taung%20tribe | Taung tribe | Bataung is the most senior tribe of Bantu origin which descends from its ancestor Mohurutshe and which speaks the Sotho-Tswana group of languages, namely, Setswana, Sepedi, Sesotho and Lozi.
The Bataung people are found in the escarpment region of Southern Africa. Mohurutshe, Morotse, Bahurutshe, Barotse have a corresponding meaning. "Tau" is a Sotho-Tswana word meaning "Lion", and this animal is their totem. "Bataung" is a plurality of a lion meaning "people of a place of Lions or Lion's den".
Some of the Bataung based in the Free State were some among those who made up the army under King Moshoeshoe during the Free State–Basotho Wars with white settlers (thanks to the valiant Bataung, Moshoeshoe defeated white settlers in battle). The entire Free State province, parts of Kwazulu-Natal, Gauteng and the Eastern Cape actually belong to Lesotho as a matter of historical fact.
The Bataung tribe modern day are found in all South African nations. They have clans in the Sepedi, Setswana, Sesotho and Nguni nations
Further reading
Sidney Berman, Analysing the Frames of the Bible: The Case of Setswana Translation of the Book of Ruth, Chapter 3, A History and Ethnographic Description of Batswana - Stellenbosch University. List of supporting thesis: Comaroff, Setiloane, Brown and others.
See also
Barotseland
Sotho-Tswana peoples in South Africa |
356410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Robbins | Tom Robbins | Thomas Eugene Robbins (born July 22, 1932) is an American novelist. His best-selling novels are "seriocomedies" (also known as "comedy-drama"). His novel Even Cowgirls Get the Blues was made into a movie in 1993 by Gus Van Sant and stars Uma Thurman, Lorraine Bracco, and Keanu Reeves.
Early life
Robbins was born on July 22, 1932, in Blowing Rock, North Carolina, to George Thomas Robbins and Katherine Belle Robinson. Both of his grandfathers were Baptist preachers. The Robbins family resided in Blowing Rock before moving to Warsaw, Virginia, when the author was still a young boy. As an adult, Robbins has described his young self as a "hillbilly".
Robbins attended Warsaw High School (class of 1949) and Hargrave Military Academy in Chatham, Virginia, where he won the Senior Essay Medal. The following year he enrolled at Washington and Lee University to major in journalism, leaving at the end of his sophomore year after being disciplined by his fraternity for bad behavior and failing to earn a letter in basketball.
In 1953, he enlisted in the Air Force after receiving his draft notice, spending a year as a meteorologist in Korea, followed by two years in the Special Weather Intelligence unit of the Strategic Air Command in Nebraska. He was discharged in 1957 and returned to Richmond, Virginia, where his poetry readings at the Rhinoceros Coffee House led to a reputation among the local bohemian scene.
Early media work
In late 1957, Robbins enrolled at Richmond Professional Institute (RPI), a school of art, drama, and music, which later became Virginia Commonwealth University. He served as an editor and columnist for the college newspaper, Proscript, from 1958 to 1959. He also worked nights on the sports desk of the daily Richmond Times-Dispatch. After graduating with honors from RPI in 1959 and indulging in some hitchhiking, Robbins joined the staff of the Times-Dispatch as a copy editor.
In 1962, Robbins moved to Seattle to seek an M.A. at the Far East Institute of the University of Washington. During the next five years in Seattle (minus a year spent in New York city researching a book on Jackson Pollock) he worked for the Seattle Times as an art critic. In 1965, he wrote a column on the arts for Seattle Magazine as well as occasionally for Art in America and Artforum. Also during this time, he hosted a weekly alternative radio show, Notes from the Underground, at non-commercial KRAB-FM, Seattle. It was in 1967, while writing a review of the rock band The Doors, that Robbins says he found his literary voice. While working on his first novel, Robbins worked the weekend copy desk of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Robbins would remain in Seattle, on and off, for the following forty years.
Writing career
In 1966, Robbins was contacted and then met with Doubleday's West Coast Editor, Luthor Nichols, who asked Robbins about writing a book on Northwest art. Instead Robbins told Nichols he wanted to write a novel and pitched the idea of what was to become Another Roadside Attraction.
In 1967, Robbins moved to South Bend, Washington, where he wrote his first novel. In 1970, Robbins moved to La Conner, Washington, and it was at his home on Second Street that he subsequently authored nine books (although, in the late 1990s, he spent two years living on the Swinomish Indian reservation).
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Robbins regularly published articles and essays in Esquire magazine, and also contributed to Playboy, The New York Times, and GQ.
Michael Dare described Robbins' writing style in the following manner: "When he starts a novel, it works like this. First he writes a sentence. Then he rewrites it again and again, examining each word, making sure of its perfection, finely honing each phrase until it reverberates with the subtle texture of the infinite. Sometimes it takes hours. Sometimes an entire day is devoted to one sentence, which gets marked on and expanded upon in every possible direction until he is satisfied. Then, and only then, does he add a period". When Robbins was asked to explain his "gift" for storytelling in 2002, he replied:
I'm descended from a long line of preachers and policemen. Now, it's common knowledge that cops are congenital liars, and evangelists spend their lives telling fantastic tales in such a way as to convince otherwise rational people that they're factual. So, I guess I come by my narrative inclinations naturally.
Over the course of his writing career, Robbins has given readings on four continents, in addition to the performances that he has delivered at festivals in Australia and Mexico, and nightclubs in England and Germany.
Awards and praise
In 1997, Robbins won the Bumbershoot Golden Umbrella Award for Lifetime Achievement in the arts that is presented annually by the Bumbershoot arts festival in Seattle.
In 2000, Robbins was named one of the 100 Best Writers of the 20th Century by Writer's Digest magazine, while the legendary Italian critic Fernanda Pivano called Robbins "the most dangerous writer in the world".
In October 2012, Robbins received the 2012 Literary Lifetime Achievement Award from the Library of Virginia.
Other activities
During his brief stint in New York in 1965 Robbins joined the .
In the mid-sixties, as a member of the Seattle Arts scene, Robbins reviewed art for several publications in Seattle, wrote essays for museum catalogs, organized gallery exhibits, and was the self-described ringleader in a "boisterous neo-Dada gang of guerilla artists, the Shazam Society".
Robbins has defended, in print, Indian mystic Osho, although he was never a follower.
Robbins spent three weeks at ceremonial sites in Mexico and Central America with mythologist Joseph Campbell, and studied mythology in Greece and Sicily with the poet Robert Bly. Robbins also traveled to Timbuktu.
As of 2013, Robbins is a member of the Marijuana Policy Project's advisory board, alongside numerous other notable figures such as Jack Black, Ani DiFranco, Tommy Chong, and Jello Biafra; he has been honoured at the Laureate Dinner of Seattle's Rainier Club that has also recognized other local figures, such as Charles Johnson, Stephen Wadsworth, Timothy Egan and August Wilson; and he sits on the board of directors of The Greater Seattle Bureau of Fearless Ideas (formerly 826 Seattle), "a nonprofit writing and tutoring center dedicated to helping youth, ages six to 18, improve their creative and expository writing skills, and to helping teachers inspire their students to write."
Madame Zoe, a Richmond psychic and palm reader who once lived in Richmond's South Side, was fictionalized in Robbins' Even Cowgirls Get the Blues. In 2016 Richmond artists Noah Scalin and Thea Duskin recreated her bedroom as an installation in the art gallery at Chop Suey Books in Carytown in Richmond.
Personal life
Robbins was a friend of Terence McKenna, whose influence appears evident in a couple of his books. A main character (Larry Diamond) in Half Asleep in Frog Pajamas advocates a theory similar to those of McKenna, involving the history and cultural influences of psychedelic plants. Robbins also spent time with Timothy Leary and the author has said that one of the protagonists in Jitterbug Perfume (Wiggs Dannyboy) exhibited certain characteristics of Leary's personality; Robbins has acknowledged using LSD with Leary.
He is friends with Gus Van Sant, and performed the voice-over narration in Van Sant's film adaptation of Even Cowgirls Get the Blues. He has been friends with directors Robert Altman and Alan Rudolph, as well, and has had small speaking parts in five feature films.
Partial bibliography
Robbins has written eight novels since 1971. He has also written numerous short stories and essays, mostly collected in the volume Wild Ducks Flying Backward, and one novella, B Is for Beer.
Nonfiction
Guy Anderson (monograph—16 pages of biographical notes within a collection of Anderson's work) (1965)
Tibetan Peach Pie: A True Account of an Imaginative Life (autobiography) (2014)
Novels
Another Roadside Attraction (1971)
Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (1976)
Still Life with Woodpecker (1980)
Jitterbug Perfume (1984)
Skinny Legs and All (1990)
Half Asleep in Frog Pajamas (1994)
Fierce Invalids Home from Hot Climates (2000)
Villa Incognito (2003)
Collections
Wild Ducks Flying Backward (2005) — a collection of essays, reviews, and short stories.
Novellas
B Is for Beer (2009)
Notes
References
Tom Robbins Papers, Collection Number M 90, Special Collections and Archives, James Branch Cabell Library, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Va.
Further reading
Conversations with Tom Robbins, edited by Liam O. Purdon and Beef Torry, University of Mississippi Press, Jackson 2011
available online
External links
Dharma Yum - Weblog of the AFTRLife
Interviews and articles
The Syntax of Sorcery: An Interview with Tom Robbins (2012)
Oral history interview with Tom Robbins, 1984 Mar. 3, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution (1984)
From Blowing Rock to Windy Cliff: A Tentative Chronology
A biographical essay (2003)
Basking Robbins Interview (1985)
Salon.com mini-bio (2000)
Seattle Weekly interview (2000)
Tom Robbins's advice to writers
Notes From the Underground with Tom Robbins; Archives of radio station KRAB, Seattle, July 7, 1967
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American satirists
Novelists from North Carolina
Writers from Richmond, Virginia
Writers from Seattle
Living people
Virginia Commonwealth University alumni
Postmodern writers
1932 births
Journalists from Virginia
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Virginia
Novelists from Washington (state)
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
People from La Conner, Washington
Seattle Post-Intelligencer people
Hargrave Military Academy alumni |
356412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tl%C3%B4kwa%20tribe | Tlôkwa tribe | The term Batlôkwa (also Batlokoa, or Badogwa) refers to several Kgatla communities that reside in Botswana, Lesotho and South Africa. It comprises the followers of Tlôkwa kings and the members of clans identified as Tlôkwa, or individuals who identify themselves as of Tlôkwa descent. Most of the Batlôkwa clans trace their royal lineages to Kgwadi son of King Tabane, who was the father and founder of the Batlokwa nation. The Tlôkwa considers the Tlokwe-cat as their original totem which has since become extinct due to over-hunting for its fur, which was used by clan chiefs.
Classification
The Batlôkwa kingdom is part of the larger group of Bakgatla people, which is one of sub-divisions of the Bantu-speaking Tswana peoples. These different groups are often classified for convenience as 'Sotho-Tswana'. This is because, from an early stage of their history, they shared a number of linguistic and cultural characteristics that distinguished them from other Bantu-speakers of southern Africa. Most prominent was mutually intelligible dialects. Other features included totemism, preferential marriage of maternal cousins with the exception to Batlokwa who prefer marrying their paternal cousins, and an architectural style characterized by a round hut with a conical thatch roof supported by wooden pillars on the outside. Other commonalities included a style skin cloaks called mekgatlha, dense and close village settlements larger than those of 'Nguni' peoples, and a tradition of building in stone in less grassy or wooded regions.
The history of the Basotho and Batswana people is one of continual dissension and fission where disputes, sometimes over kingship ascendancy, resulted in a section of the clan breaking away from the main clan, under the leadership of a dissatisfied king's relative, and settling elsewhere. Often the name of the man who led the splinter group was taken as the new tribe's name.
The traditions of the Batswana people point to a northward origin, and indicate that their southward movement was part of the great migrations of the Bantu-speaking iron-age peoples. Usually the theory asserts that the Sotho-Tswana separated from other Bantu-speaking peoples in the vicinity of the Great Lakes of East Africa, and that they proceeded downwards along the western part of present-day Zimbabwe.
Some scholars caution against this classification of ethnic groupings since Africans are not homogeneous peoples. Paul Maylam stressed that there is a common tendency for the criteria used to label African groups "to overlap between 'different' societies so that it becomes virtually impossible to use all the major criteria at the same time to define nearly differing, self-contained entities."
History
Following the death of Masilo there was a leadership crisis that resulted in the formation of the Hurutshe and Kwena clans. The Batlôkwa claim lineage from the Hurutshe clan and traced their early ancestry to Mokgatla, the founder of the BaKgatla and Tabane.
Tabane fathered a son Matlaisane from his senior wife and five sons by his junior wife, Diale, Kgetsi, Kgwadi (Motlôkwa), Matsibolo, and Mosia. Each broke away to form Bapedi, Makgolokwe, Batlôkwa, Maphuthing and Basia respectively. Ten generations later, from Kgwadi, Montwedi, the son of Motonosi, fathered Mokotjo. Chief Mokotjo the father to Sekonyela died at an early age, so his mother, Manthatisi, was regent during his minority.
Kgosi-kgolo Tsotetsi
Kgosi-kgolo Tsotetsi (ca. 1735) was the paramount king of Batlokwa ba Mokgalong, which was a senior branch of Batlokwa. He took over the reins after his father, Kgosi Seboloka son of Mokgalo died and he also, like most of the earlier chiefs, died at an early age, however by then he had already bore 6 sons by his Kgosihadi 'Mamohlahlwe, namely Mohlahlwe (Lebaka), Tsibela, Selemane, Leloka, Sethati and Thai. At the time of his death, his successor Mohlahlwe was still a minor, and Batlokwa made a consensus that Queen Mamohlahlwe becomes regent for his son Lebaka. This, therefore, made her the first queen to act as a regent in the Batlokwa nation. Kgosihadi Mamohlahlwe was greatly assisted by her late husband's siblings, namely Kganye son of Thekiso and Motonosi son of Makoro. These chiefs assisted very well in the chieftainship of Batlokwa until Queen Mamohlahlwe gave way to his son Lebaka who then became the paramount king of Batlokwa.
Queen Manthatisi, wife of Kgosi Mokotjo
Queen Mantatisi (ca. 1781–1836) was one of the best known, and most feared, women military and political leaders of the early 19th century. In the years of the wars related to Zulu expansion and the southern African slave trade, often referred to as the Mfecane or Difaqane, the Tlôkwa people were first known in English as the Mantatees, after Manthatisi's name, in the literature of exploration, missions and empire.
Manthatisi, the daughter of Chief Mothaba of the Basia people who were a sibling nation of Batlokwa, in what later became the Harrismith district of the Free State province of South Africa, was reportedly a tall, attractive woman. She married Mokotjo, the chief of the neighboring Batlôkwa, in a typical dynastic alliance, and is said to have borne him four sons. Mokotjo died while the heir, Sekonyela, was still too young to assume the chieftaincy, so Manthatisi acted as regent for Sekonyela.
After Mokotjo's death the Batlôkwa ba Mokotleng faced military encroachments by the amaHlubi people who were fleeing their homes in neighboring Natal. Made refugees themselves, Manthatisi who was then a Regent for her son Sekonyela commanded the Tlôkwa into the Caledon valley, driving out other Sotho communities living there. Her troops seized the crops and cattle of the people they attacked, leaving a trail of destruction and devastation.
Her reign of military conquest extended as far as central modern day Botswana. At the height of her military and political power her army was estimated to contain forty thousand fighters. However, she eventually suffered a series of defeats beginning in Bechuanaland in January 1823. Peter Becker describes the developments during this period when he stated that:
"Meanwhile Mmanthatisi was approaching with forty thousand men, women and children. It was January 1823, the time of the year crops were ripening and food was usually plentiful. But the Wild Cat People were compelled to live frugally, for so great had been the chaos brought about by difaqane/difetlwane in general and the plundering of Mmanthatisi, Mpangazita and Matiwane in particular that entire tribes had vanished from their settlements even before they had tilled their fields in preparation for planting. Indeed, the Central Plateau swarmed with hunger-stricken stragglers and small, detached parties of bandits. Apart from roots, bulbs and berries, there was little food to be found in the veld, certainly not enough to feed so large a horde as that of Mmanthatisi."
Nonetheless, the most prosperous of the Botswana chiefs, Makaba of the Bangwaketsi, made a firm decision not to surrender to Mmanthatisi without a struggle. Becker, described this in detail:
"Meanwhile, the old Chief had decided not to surrender to Mmanthatisi without a fight. He called up every available warrior, garrisoned every pass leading to his capital, and with the guile for which he was famous, prepared traps into which he planned to lead his aggressors.
"Since her flight from the Harrismith district Mmanthatisi had managed to brush aside all opposition in the territories she traversed, but now in the stifling bushveld of Botswana, she was to come face to face with a foe whose fighting forces were as numerous as, and also better fed than, those of the Wild Cat People. The vanguard of Mmanthatisi's army strode into ambuscades; large groups of men topped headlong into concealed pitfalls and met their death beneath volleys of barbed javelins. A battle broke out, in the course of which hundreds of the invaders were massacred. Before the situation could develop into a rout Mmanthatisi suddenly disengaged her armies and retreated with her hordes to the east. Thus Makaba became the first "Sotho" chief to repulse the formidable BaTlokwa (Wild Cat) Army, and to this day he is spoken of as the 'Man of Conquest.'"
Because Of Manthatisi's notoriety, all Sotho-Tswana raiders became known as “boo-Mmanthatisi”, or “Mantatee Horde” by the English. Known also as the “Destroyer of Nations”, she was only stopped from entering the Cape Colony by British Forces near Aliwal North. Eventually Manthatisi settled her people on the Marabeng Mountains.
After Mmanthatisi's son Sekonyela reached maturity he took control of the baTlôkwa social structures and military.
Kgosi Sekonyela
Kgosi Sekonyela was born in 1804 near Harrismith next to the Wilge River. His mother sent him away from the Tlôkwa to protect him from political rivals. He rejoined the Tlôkwa in 1824, after his mother had led the Batlôkwa during the early Difaqane/difetlwane wars. Amidst the social and political chaos which gripped the present Free State and Lesotho regions, Sekonyela continued to build the Tlôkwa into a major military power. When the worst phase of the wars ended in the early 1830s, he settled on the naturally fortified mountains near the Caledon River.
Kgosi Sekonyela's major rival for control of northern Lesotho was Moshoeshoe, the founder of the Basotho kingdom. For twenty years the two rivals raided each other and competed for adherents from among the many refugee bands in the region. Moshoeshoe – much the better diplomatist-gradually outstripped Sekonyela in numbers of supporters. In November, 1853 Moshoeshoe attacked and defeated Batlôkwa ba Mokotleng which Sekonyela fled to Winburg for asylum. After this defeat the people under Sekonyela disintegrated, some fled to Lesotho where they were absorbed into Moshoeshoe's state, others to Eastern Cape with a substation portion fleeing north to present Tshwane region in Gauteng.
Sekonyela later obtained land in the Herschel district of the Eastern Cape where he died in 1856.
Kgosi Sekonyela's downfall is commonly attributed to his personal defects. His love of war alienated his neighbours while his rough treatment alienated his own people. On the other hand, Moshoeshoe's rise to power was attributed to his love of peace and to his benevolence.
Geography
The Batlôkwa clans reside in Botswana, Lesotho and South Africa; it is not known how many Batlôkwa there are since no census has been done.
South Africa
In South Africa, the Batlôkwa are found in significant numbers in six of the provinces, namely North West, Gauteng, Limpopo and the Free State, KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape.
In the North West the Batlôkwa settled in the region called Tlôkwe near Potchefstroom. Batlokwa are also found at Molatedi Village (Kgosi Matlapeng, Letlhakeng-Montsana Village (Kgosi Sedumedi), Tlokweng Village (Kgosi Motsatsi). They are part of the Setswana language grouping of the Sotho–Tswana. They arrived in the area in the 1820s and are not part of the Batlôkwa who had been led by Chief Sekonyela, as they had seceded at an earlier period. There is also scattering of the Batlôkwa found all over the North West Province.
In the Limpopo province, they are found in a place called boTlôkwa, north of Polokwane. Here the Batlôkwa are part of the North-Sotho language grouping. They arrived in the region after separating from the Batlôkwa who had fled to the Tshwane region after the defeat of Sekonyela by Moshoeshoe. The main Tlôkwa clan in the area is the Batlôkwa Ba Ga Machaka and Ramokgopa. The two had separated in a quarrel for chieftaincy, with Ramokgopa ultimately residing in the eastern regions called Mokomene, in Limpopo. Another grouping under Kgosi Manthata was moved to Mohodi next to Senwabarwana in 1977 also as a result of chieftaincy quarrels with Batlôkwa ba Mphakane under Kgosi Machaka.
These areas produced important people such as:
Collins Ramusi
Tumelo Mokoena
Tlou wa Raophala
Hugh Masekela
Gwen Ramokgopa
Kgosiyentsho Ramokgopa
Matome Zakea Seima, a writer, publisher and lawyer
Kgalamadi Ramusi
Babsy Selela
Mamphela Ramphele, Lehotlo Moshokoa, Caiphus Semenya
In the Sesotho language grouping, the Batlôkwa are mainly found in the Eastern Free State region which is their area of jurisdiction with five distinct Batlôkwa branches in the area, namely
Batlôkwa ba Mokgalong (Tsotetsi)
Batlôkwa ba Mota
Batlôkwa ba Morakadu
Batlôkwa ba Makalakeng
Batlôkwa ba Nasatse Patso
Batlôkwa ba Lehana
Batlôkwa ba Masene
The above-mentioned branches of Batlôkwa still share similar cultural and linguistic elements in their respective areas. Batlokwa ba Mokgalong also known as Batlokwa ba Tsotetsi trace their descendency to Modungwane who was popularly known as Molefe who is the father of all the branches of Batlokwa. Batlokwa ba Mokgalong are recognised by the Free State House of Traditional Leaders, and are still struggling to acquire back their land which was stolen by the colonialists under the then Black Administration Act, to be returned in 1991, with the recognition of Paramount Chief Lebaka David Tsotetsi. After the death of Chief Lebaka, his son Nkgahle Bert Tsotetsi took over, and mysteriously became recognised as a Senior Traditional Leader instead of his initial status of a Paramount Chief, in what seemed to be a political cover-up of the senior house of the Batlokwa nation.
In KwaZulu-Natal, Batlokwa are found in the Nqutu Municipal Area in a place called Maseseng, Mokgalong; which is named after Chief Lesesa who settled there in the late 1800s after the British requested assistance in the form of warriors from King Leteka of the Batlokwa ba Mokgalong. Leteka in response sent through his junior brother, Prince Lesesa, with his warriors, who joined the Batlokwa ba Mota who had already settled in the Nqutu area with the Hlubi, and together they succeeded in winning the battle and subsequently capturing King Cetshwayo of the Zulus. In return, the British signed a treaty with Batlokwa to reside in the area, however as it was custom for the senior house to rule, Lesesa was supposed to be the leader of Batlokwa in the area, however, he made an agreement with Mota to let him rule, as they had already been there before him and his people. Lesesa also played a pivotal role in the struggle to acquire land back from the colonialists, and in 1905 he was joined by Josiah Tshangana Gumede (ca. 1867-1946) and King Moloi of the Makgolokwe Tribe, who went to England in order to deliver a petition to the British Government, in order to try to acquire land back that was taken away from them before the Anglo-Boer War.
In the Eastern Cape, Batlôkwa are found in the Herschel and Mount Fletcher area under Chief Kakudi and Lehana respectively.
Lesotho
In Lesotho the Batlôkwa are one of the three main Sotho-Tswana clans who speak Sesotho. Their current Leader being Kgosi Ntjaqetho Sekonyela of Tlokoeng Mokhotlong District.
Botswana
Batlôkwa arrived in Botswana in 1887, settling in Moshwaneng on the Notwane River, after being led by Kgosinkwe Gaborone from the Tshwane area in South Africa following the split with another Tlôkwa clan that went to settle in Batlôkwa north of Polokwane-Pietersburg. The land they settled in was given to them by Kgosi Sechele after they acknowledged the overlordship of the Bakwena. The capital of Botswana Gaborone is named after Kgosinkwe Gaborone.
The Batlôkwa in Botswana are unique from the other Tlôkwa clans in that their totem is the thakadu (ant-bear). This totem was chosen after the Batlôkwa were in the wilderness and became thirsty and hungry. They found a catch of the daywater from the many holes dug by thakadu, which has been the totem since that time. Batlôkwa then started drinking from such holes and since then they decided that nobody should harm the ant bear and it must be protected at all costs.
During this time in the wilderness, Mmakgosi was expecting a child and after drinking water from one of the dugout holes, she gave birth to a son who was named Marakadu. She said that Marakadu was named after the thakadu - the saviour, adding that since then Batlôkwa agreed to change their totem from nkwe to thakadu and that is how they became dithakadu as they are known today. Marakadu then begot a son called Mosima, a hole dug by thakadu from which they obtained water. Mosima then begot a son called Motlhabane - who begot Mokgwa - a savanna shrub under which Mmakgosi delivered. Mokgwa then begot Taukobong. The name was chosen because there were no blankets and they opted for animal skins to keep warm. According to Kgosintwa, Taukobong had three sons from different wives named Makaba, Molefe, and Tshekiso. He said that this was the time when Batlôkwa were at Itlholanoga - the snake eye, near Rustenburg. While Makaba died without children, however he had engaged a woman called Nkae and to keep the royal lineage growing, Molefe from the second wife was called in to father children for Nkae. Molefe then bore three sons in the house of Makaba, namely Bogatsu, Phiri and Semele. Traditionally, the children were not his but his elder brothers Makaba. Molefe became the regent chief because Taukobong died while they were still young. However, when they had matured, Phiri suggested to his brother Bogatsu that they should take over the chieftainship from Molefe, this created enmity between the two with Phiri constantly plotting to kill Molefe. He said that sensing danger, Bogatsu then instructed Molefe to choose two of his favourite wards and ran away. In his determination to kill Molefe, he said, Phiri pursued and attacked Molefe but it was Phiri who was defeated and killed. Molefe did not return to Itlholanoga but continued with the journey until they arrived in Botswana where they asked for land to settle on from Kgosi Sechele of the Bakwena.
Culture
The Batlôkwa share similar customs and tradition as other Sotho-Tswana clans. Depending on the area that they live in the speak normally one three languages which are Setswana, Sesotho or Northern Sotho but mostly speak Setswana. Sesotho, Northern Sotho and Setswana are largely mutually intelligible. Like most Africans, the Batlôkwa are adapting to a rapidly urbanising population and culture. In rural areas, traditional culture remains an important force in daily life. Customary law still plays a vital role, and their unique culture of marrying their paternal cousins. In each region's urban areas, which are cosmopolitan, multi-racial and multi-cultural, western cultural norms are predominant.
Leboko la Batlokwa (Batlokwa Poem)
Ke mafifitswana a go rekwa ka kgomo
Mafeta kgomo a je motho
Ba ga Mmanakana-a-Mosima
Ba ga Mmanakana-di-ganong
Ba ga mosi mmolaya moapei
Moapeelwana a sale a lela
Ba ga Nkwenyana-a-Nkwe o apereng?
Nkwe ke apere tau
References
External links
http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=2&dir=2008/May/Wednesday14
http://newhistory.co.za/Part-2-Chapter-4-The-aftermath-of-the-Mfecane-Manthatisi-and-Sekonyela-of-the-Tlokwa/
http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=2&dir=2006/March/Sunday26
http://www.togoto.co.za/index.asp?PID=2&fu=ReadArticle&gid=15&Issue=5
https://web.archive.org/web/20110629132012/http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=81347
Bantu-speaking peoples of South Africa
Ethnic groups in Botswana
Northern Sotho
Monarchies of South Africa |
356413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submersion%20%28mathematics%29 | Submersion (mathematics) | In mathematics, a submersion is a differentiable map between differentiable manifolds whose differential is everywhere surjective. This is a basic concept in differential topology. The notion of a submersion is dual to the notion of an immersion.
Definition
Let M and N be differentiable manifolds and be a differentiable map between them. The map is a submersion at a point if its differential
is a surjective linear map. In this case is called a regular point of the map , otherwise, is a critical point. A point is a regular value of if all points in the preimage are regular points. A differentiable map that is a submersion at each point is called a submersion. Equivalently, is a submersion if its differential has constant rank equal to the dimension of .
A word of warning: some authors use the term critical point to describe a point where the rank of the Jacobian matrix of at is not maximal. Indeed, this is the more useful notion in singularity theory. If the dimension of is greater than or equal to the dimension of then these two notions of critical point coincide. But if the dimension of is less than the dimension of , all points are critical according to the definition above (the differential cannot be surjective) but the rank of the Jacobian may still be maximal (if it is equal to dim ). The definition given above is the more commonly used; e.g., in the formulation of Sard's theorem.
Submersion theorem
Given a submersion between smooth manifolds of dimensions and , for each there are surjective charts of around , and of around , such that restricts to a submersion which, when expressed in coordinates as , becomes an ordinary orthogonal projection. As an application, for each the corresponding fiber of , denoted can be equipped with the structure of a smooth submanifold of whose dimension is equal to the difference of the dimensions of and .
For example, consider given by The Jacobian matrix is
This has maximal rank at every point except for . Also, the fibers
are empty for , and equal to a point when . Hence we only have a smooth submersion and the subsets are two-dimensional smooth manifolds for .
Examples
Any projection
Local diffeomorphisms
Riemannian submersions
The projection in a smooth vector bundle or a more general smooth fibration. The surjectivity of the differential is a necessary condition for the existence of a local trivialization.
Maps between spheres
One large class of examples of submersions are submersions between spheres of higher dimension, such as
whose fibers have dimension . This is because the fibers (inverse images of elements ) are smooth manifolds of dimension . Then, if we take a path
and take the pullback
we get an example of a special kind of bordism, called a framed bordism. In fact, the framed cobordism groups are intimately related to the stable homotopy groups.
Families of algebraic varieties
Another large class of submersions are given by families of algebraic varieties whose fibers are smooth algebraic varieties. If we consider the underlying manifolds of these varieties, we get smooth manifolds. For example, the Weierstauss family of elliptic curves is a widely studied submersion because it includes many technical complexities used to demonstrate more complex theory, such as intersection homology and perverse sheaves. This family is given bywhere is the affine line and is the affine plane. Since we are considering complex varieties, these are equivalently the spaces of the complex line and the complex plane. Note that we should actually remove the points because there are singularities (since there is a double root).
Local normal form
If is a submersion at and , then there exists an open neighborhood of in , an open neighborhood of in , and local coordinates at and at such that , and the map in these local coordinates is the standard projection
It follows that the full preimage in of a regular value in under a differentiable map is either empty or is a differentiable manifold of dimension , possibly disconnected. This is the content of the regular value theorem (also known as the submersion theorem). In particular, the conclusion holds for all in if the map is a submersion.
Topological manifold submersions
Submersions are also well-defined for general topological manifolds. A topological manifold submersion is a continuous surjection such that for all in , for some continuous charts at and at , the map is equal to the projection map from to , where .
See also
Ehresmann's fibration theorem
Notes
References
Maps of manifolds
Smooth functions |
356414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed%20Rafi | Mohammed Rafi | Mohammed Rafi (24 December 1924 – 31 July 1980) was an Indian playback singer and musician. He is considered one of the greatest and most influential singers of the Indian subcontinent. Rafi was notable for his versatility and range of voice; his songs varied from fast peppy numbers to patriotic songs, sad numbers to highly romantic songs, qawwalis to ghazals and bhajans to classical songs. He was known for his ability to mould his voice to the persona and style of the actor lip-syncing the song on screen in the movie. He received six Filmfare Awards and one National Film Award. In 1967, he was honored with the Padma Shri award by the Government of India. In 2001, Rafi was honoured with the "Best Singer of the Millennium" title by Hero Honda and Stardust magazine. In 2013, Rafi was voted for the Greatest Voice in Hindi Cinema in the CNN-IBN's poll.
He recorded songs for over a thousand Hindi films and in many Indian languages as well as some foreign languages, though primarily in Urdu and Punjabi, over which he had a strong command. He recorded as many as 7,000 songs throughout his career, spanning several languages and dialects such as Konkani, Assamese, Bhojpuri, Odia, Bengali, Marathi, Sindhi, Kannada, Gujarati, Tamil, Telugu, Magahi, Maithili, etc. Apart from Indian languages, he also sang in some foreign languages, including English, Farsi, Arabic, Sinhala, Mauritian Creole, and Dutch.
Early life
Mohammed Rafi was the second eldest of six brothers born to Haji Ali Mohammad. The family originally belonged to Kotla Sultan Singh, a village near present-day Majitha in Amritsar district of Punjab, India. Rafi, whose nickname was Pheeko, began singing by imitating the chants of a fakir who roamed the streets of his native village Kotla Sultan Singh. Rafi's father moved to Lahore in 1935, where he ran a men's barbershop in Noor Mohalla in Bhati Gate.
Rafi learnt classical music from Ustad Abdul Wahid Khan, Pandit Jiwan Lal Mattoo and Firoze Nizami. His first public performance came at the age of 13, when he sang in Lahore featuring K. L. Saigal. In 1941, Rafi made his debut in Lahore as a playback singer in the duet "Soniye Nee, Heeriye Nee" with Zeenat Begum in the Punjabi film Gul Baloch (released in 1944) under music director Shyam Sunder. In that same year, Rafi was invited by All India Radio Lahore station to sing for them.
He made his Hindi film debut in Gaon Ki Gori in 1945.
Early career in Mumbai (then Bombay)
Rafi moved to Bombay (now Mumbai), Maharashtra in 1944. He and Hameed Sahab rented a ten-by-ten-feet room in the crowded downtown Bhendi Bazar area. Poet Tanvir Naqvi introduced him to film producers including Abdur Rashid Kardar, Mehboob Khan and actor-director Nazeer. Shyam Sunder was in Bombay and provided the opportunity to Rafi to sing a duet with G. M. Durrani, "Aji dil ho kaabu mein to dildar ki aisi taisi...," for Gaon Ki Gori, which became Rafi's first recorded song in a Hindi film. Other songs followed.
Rafi's first song with Naushad was "Hindustan Ke Hum Hain" with Shyam Kumar, Alauddin and others, from A. R. Kardar's Pehle Aap (1944). Around the same time, Rafi recorded another song for the 1945 film Gaon Ki Gori, "Aji Dil Ho Kaaboo Mein". He considered this song to be his first Hindi language song.
Rafi appeared in two movies. He appeared on the screen for the songs "Tera Jalwa Jis Ne Dekha" in film Laila Majnu(1945) and "Woh Apni Yaad Dilane Ko" in the Film Jugnu (1947). He sang a number of songs for Naushad as part of the chorus, including "Mere Sapnon Ki Rani, Roohi Roohi" with K. L. Saigal, from the film Shahjahan (1946). Rafi sang "Tera Khilona Toota Balak" from Mehboob Khan's Anmol Ghadi (1946) and a duet with Noor Jehan in the 1947 film Jugnu, "Yahan Badla Wafa Ka". After partition, Rafi decided to stay back in India and had the rest of his family flown to Bombay. Noor Jehan migrated to Pakistan and made a pair with playback singer Ahmed Rushdi.
In 1949, Rafi was given solo songs by music directors such as Naushad (Chandni Raat, Dillagi and Dulari), Shyam Sunder (Bazaar) and Husnalal Bhagatram (Meena Bazaar).
Besides K. L. Saigal, whom he considered his favorite, Rafi was also influenced by G. M. Durrani. In the early phase of his career, he often followed Durrani's style of singing, but later evolved his own, unique style. He sang with Durrani in some of the songs such as "Humko Hanste Dekh Zamana Jalta Hai" and "Khabar Kisi Ko Nahiin, Woh Kidhar Dekhte" (Beqasoor, 1950).
In 1948, after the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, the team of Husanlal Bhagatram-Rajendra Krishan-Rafi had overnight created the song "Suno Suno Ae Duniyawalon, Bapuji Ki Amar Kahani". He was invited by the Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, to sing at his house. In 1948, Rafi received a silver medal from Jawaharlal Nehru on Indian Independence Day.
Recording career in the 1950s and 1960s
In his early career, Rafi associated with many contemporary music directors, most notably Naushad Ali. In the late 1950s and 1960s, he worked with other composers of the era such as O. P. Nayyar, Shankar Jaikishan, S.D. Burman and Roshan.
Work with Naushad
As per Naushad, Rafi came to him with a letter of recommendation from Naushad's father.
Rafi's first song for Naushad Ali was "Hindustan Ke Hum Hain" ("We belong to Hindustan") for the film Pehle Aap in 1944. The first song for the duo was the soundtrack of the movie Anmol Ghadi (1946).
Rafi's association with Naushad helped the former establish himself as one of the most prominent playback singers in Hindi cinema. Songs from Baiju Bawra (1952) like "O duniya ke rakhwale" and "Man tarpat hari darshan ko aaj" furthered Rafi's credentials. Rafi ended up singing a total of 149 songs (81 of them solo) for Naushad. Before Rafi, Naushad's favorite singer was Talat Mahmood. Once Naushad found Talat smoking during a recording. He was annoyed and hired Rafi to sing all the songs of the movie Baiju Bawra.
Work with S. D. Burman
S. D. Burman used Rafi as a singing voice of Dev Anand and Guru Dutt. Rafi worked with Burman in 37 films, including Pyaasa (1957), Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), Kala Bazar (1960), Nau Do Gyarah (1957), Kala Pani (1958), Tere Ghar Ke Saamne (1963), Guide (1965), Aradhana (1969), Ishq Par Zor Nahin (1970) and Abhimaan (1973).
Work with Shankar–Jaikishan
Rafi's partnership with Shankar–Jaikishan was among the most famous and successful in the Hindi film industry. He worked with them from their first film, Barsaat (1949). Under Shankar–Jaikishan, Rafi produced some of his songs for actors like Shammi Kapoor and Rajendra Kumar. Out of six Filmfare awards, Rafi won three for S-J songs – "Teri Pyaari Pyaari Surat Ko", "Bahaaron Phool Barsaao" and "Dil Ke Jharokhe Mein." The song "Yahoo! Chaahe Koi Mujhe Junglee Kahe" was sung by Rafi, matched by a fast-paced orchestra and composition by Shankar Jaikishan. S-J had Rafi give playback for Kishore Kumar in the film Sharaarat ("Ajab Hai Daastaan Teri Ye Zindagi"). Rafi sang a total of 341 numbers—216 solo—for Shankar–Jaikishan. Among the films of this combination are: Awaara, Boot Polish, Basant Bahar, Professor, Junglee, Asli-Naqli, Rajkumar, Suraj, Sangam, Brahmachari, Arzoo, An Evening in Paris, Dil Tera Deewana, Yakeen, Prince, Love in Tokyo, Beti Bete, Dil Ek Mandir, Dil Apna Aur Preet Parai, Gaban and Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai.
Work with Ravi
Rafi got his first Filmfare Award for the title song of Chaudhvin Ka Chand (1960), composed by Ravi. He received the National Award for the song "Baabul Ki Duaen Leti Jaa" from the film Neel Kamal (1968), also composed by Ravi. Rafi wept during the recording of this song, which he admitted in a 1977 interview with the BBC.
Ravi and Rafi produced several other songs in the films China Town (1962), Kaajal (1965), Do Badan (1966) and Ek Phool Do Maali (1969)
Work with Madan Mohan
Madan Mohan was another composer whose favorite singer was Rafi. Rafi's first solo with Madan Mohan in Aankhen (1950) was "Hum Ishk Mein Burbaad Hein Burbaad Ruhenge". They teamed up to produce many songs including "Teree Aankhon Ke Sivaa", "Yeh Duniyaa Yeh Mehfil", "Tum Jo Mil Guye Ho", "Kur Chale Hum Fida", "Meree Aawaaz Suno" and "Aap Ke Pehlu Mein Aakur".
Work with O. P. Nayyar
Rafi and O. P. Nayyar (OP) created music in the 1950s and 1960s. O. P. Nayyar was once quoted as saying "If there had been no Mohammed Rafi, there would have been no O. P. Nayyar".
He and Rafi created many songs together including "Yeh Hai Bombay Meri Jaan". He got Rafi to sing for singer-actor Kishore Kumar – "Man Mora Baawara" for the movie Raagini. Later, Rafi sang for Kishore Kumar in movies such as Baaghi, Shehzaada and Shararat. O. P. Nayyar used Rafi and Asha Bhosle for most of his songs. The team created many songs in the early 1950s and 1960s for movies such as Naya Daur (1957), Tumsa Nahin Dekha (1957), Ek Musafir Ek Hasina (1962) and Kashmir Ki Kali (1964). Rafi sang a total of 197 numbers (56 solo) for Nayyar.
The songs "Jawaaniyan yeh mast mast" and the title song "Yun to humne lakh hansee dekhe hain, tumsa nahin dekha" of the film Tumsa Nahin Dekha were hits. They were followed by songs like "Yeh Chand Sa Roshan Chehera" from Kashmir ki Kali.
Rafi and OP had a falling-out during the recording for movie "Sawan ki Ghata". As disclosed by OP during one of his interviews; Rafi reported late to the recording stating that he was stuck in Shankar Jaikishan's recording. OP then stated that from now on he too did not have the time for Rafi and cancelled the recording. They did not work together for the next 3 years.
Work with Laxmikant-Pyarelal
The composer duo Laxmikant–Pyarelal (L-P) patronized Rafi as one of their singers, right from their very first song by him from the film Parasmani (1963). Rafi and L-P won the Filmfare Award for the song "Chaahoonga Mein Tujhe Saanjh Suvere" from Dosti (1964). Rafi rendered the highest number of songs for this music director duo Laxmikant-Pyarelal, as compared to all the music directors: 388.
Once, when composer Nisar Bazmi, who once worked with Laxmikant-Pyarelal before he had migrated to Pakistan, didn't have enough money to pay him, Rafi charged a fee of one rupee and sang for him. He also helped producers financially. As Laxmikant once observed – "He always gave without thinking of the returns".
Work with Kalyanji Anandji
Kalyanji Anandji composed around 170 songs in the voice of Rafi. Kalyanji's relationship with Rafi started with the 1958 film, Samrat Chandragupta, his debut film as a solo composer. Kalyani-Anandji and Rafi went on to work together for the music of the Shashi Kapoor-starrer Haseena Maan Jayegi (1968), which featured songs like "Bekhudi Mein Sanam" and "Chale The Saath Milke".
Work with contemporary singers
Rafi associated with several of his contemporaries, singing duets with them and sometimes for them (as in case of Kishore Kumar who was also an actor).
Rafi sang the highest number of duets with Asha Bhosle (female), Manna Dey (male) and Lata Mangeshkar (female).
In the song "Humko Tumse Ho Gaya Hai Pyaar" (Amar Akbar Anthony), Rafi sang one song with Kishore Kumar, Lata Mangeshkar, and Mukesh, the most legendary singers in Bollywood. This was probably the only time that all of them rendered their voices for one song.
Work with other music directors
Rafi sang frequently for all music directors during his lifetime, including C. Ramchandra ,Roshan, Jaidev, Khayyam, Rajesh Roshan, Ravindra Jain, Bappi Lahiri, Sapan Jagmohan etc. He had a special and major association with Usha Khanna, Sonik Omi, Chitragupta, S.N. Tripathi, N. Datta and R.D. Burman. He also sang for many small time and lesser-known music directors. Many for whom he sang for free while making their compositions immortal; he selflessly believed in financially assisting producers and helping small-time projects who could not afford much. Many in the industry received regular financial help from Rafi.
Private albums
Rafi sang several songs in Chris Perry's Konkani album Golden Hits with Lorna Cordeiro. He recorded many private albums in various genres and languages. Rafi recorded Hindi songs in English on 7" release in 1968. He also sang 2 songs in Mauritian Creole while on his visit to Mauritius in the late 1960s.
Royalty issue
In 1962–1963, the popular female playback singer Lata Mangeshkar raised the issue of playback singers' share in the royalties. Recognizing Rafi's position as the leading male playback singer, she wanted him to back her in demanding a half-share from the 5% song royalty that the film's producer conceded to select composers. Rafi refused to side with her, stating that his claim on the film producer's money ended with his being paid his agreed fee for the song. Rafi argued that the producer takes financial risk and the composer creates the song, so the singer does not have any claim over the royalty money. Lata viewed his stand as a stumbling block on the royalty issue and stated that it is because of the singer's name also that the records get sold. This difference of opinion subsequently led to differences between the two. During the recording of "Tasveer Teri Dil Mein" (Maya, 1961), Lata argued with Rafi over a certain passage of the song. Rafi felt belittled, as music director Salil Chowdhury sided with Lata. The situation worsened when Lata declared that she would no longer sing with Rafi. Rafi stated that he was only so keen to sing with Lata as she was with him. The music director Jaikishan later negotiated a reconciliation between the two. In an interview given to The Times of India on 25 September 2012, Lata claimed to have received a written apology from Rafi. However, Shahid Rafi, Mohammad Rafi's son, rebuffs the claim, calling it an act to dishonour his father's reputation.
Early 1970s
In the 1970s, Rafi suffered from a throat infection for an extended period of time. During a brief period then, he recorded relatively fewer songs. Although his musical output was relatively low during this period, he did sing some of his best numbers then.
In the early '70s, Rafi suffered a major setback, when Kishore Kumar emerged as the main Bollywood playback singer, with Aradhana.
He could recover some of the lost ground in 1977, but the main songs of the period were by Kishore Kumar.
Some of Rafi's hit songs of the early 1970s were with music directors: Laxmikant–Pyarelal, Madan Mohan, R. D. Burman and S. D. Burman. These include "Tum Mujhe Yun Bhula Naa Paoge" (a signature song of 1971), from Pagla Kahin Ka; "Yeh Duniya Yeh Mehfil" from Heer Ranjha (1970); "Kaan Mein Jhumka" from Sawan Bhadon; "Jhilmil Sitaron Ka" from Jeevan Mrityu (1970); "Gulabi Aankhen" from The Train (1970); "Yun Hi Tum Mujhse Baat" from Sachaa Jhutha; "Yeh Jo Chilmun Hei" and "Itna To Yaad Hei Mujhe" from Mehboob Ki Mehndi (1971); "Mera Man Tera Pyaasa" from Gambler; "Chadhti Jawani" and "Kitna Pyara Vada" from Caravan (1971); "Chalo Dildaar Chalo" from Pakeezah (1972); "Chura Liya Hai Tumne" from Yaadon Ki Baaraat (1973); "Na Tu Zumeen Ke Liye" from Dilip Kumar's movie Dastaan (1972); "Tum Jo Mil Gaye Ho" from Hanste Zakhm (1973); "Tere Bindiya Re", from Abhimaan (1973) and "Aaj Mausam Bada Beimaan Hai" from Loafer (1973).
Later years
Rafi made a comeback as a leading singer in mid 1970s. In 1974 he won the Film World magazine Best Singer Award for the song "Teri Galiyon Mein Na Rakhenge Kadam Aaj Ke Baad" (Hawas, 1974) composed by Usha Khanna.
In 1976, Rafi sang all the songs for Rishi Kapoor in the hit film Laila Majnu. Rafi went on to sing many more songs for Rishi Kapoor in the subsequent hit films, including Hum Kisise Kum Naheen (1977) and Amar Akbar Anthony (1977). In 1977, he won both Filmfare Award and the National Award for the song "Kya Hua Tera Wada" from the movie Hum Kisise Kum Naheen, composed by R. D. Burman. He was nominated as the best singer at the Filmfare Awards for the qawwali "Parda Hai Parda" from Amar Akbar Anthony (1977).
Rafi sang for many successful films in the late 1970s and the early 1980s many of whose hit songs were dominating the charts in the late 70s on radio programs such as Vividh Bharati, Binaca Geetmala and Radio Ceylon. Some of these include Pratiggya (1975), Bairaag (1976), Amaanat (1977), Dharam Veer (1977), Apnapan (1977), Ganga Ki Saugand (1978), Suhaag (1979), Sargam (1979), Qurbani (1980), Dostana (1980), Karz (1980), The Burning Train (1980), Abdullah (1980), Shaan (1980), Aasha (1980), Aap To Aise Na The (1980), Naseeb (1981) and Zamaane Ko Dikhana Hai (1981). In 1978, Rafi gave a performance at the Royal Albert Hall and in 1980 he performed at the Wembley conference centre. From 1970 until his death he toured around the world extensively giving concert performances to packed halls.
In December 1979, Rafi recorded six songs for the Hindi remake of Dilip Sen's Bengali superhit Sorry Madam; the film was never completed due to a personal tragedy in Dilip Sen's life. These songs, written by Kafeel Aazar and composed by Chitragupta, were released digitally in December 2009 by the label Silk Road under the title "The Last Songs". The physical album was released only in India by Universal.
Guinness World Records controversy
During his last years, Rafi was involved in a controversy over Lata Mangeshkar's entry in the Guinness Book of World Records. In a letter dated 11 June 1977 to the Guinness Book of World Records, Rafi had challenged the claim that Lata Mangeshkar has recorded the highest number of songs ("not less than 25,000" according to Guinness). Rafi, according to his fans, would have sung more songs than Lata – he being the senior of the two. They estimated the number of songs sung by Rafi to be anything from 25,000 to 26,000. This prompted Rafi to write a letter, in protest, to Guinness. After receiving a reply from Guinness, in a letter dated 20 November 1979, he wrote, "I am disappointed that my request for a reassessment vis-a-vis Ms Mangeshkar's reported world record has gone unheeded." In an interview to BBC recorded in November 1977, Rafi claimed to have sung 25,000 to 26,000 songs till then.
After Rafi's death, in its 1984 edition, the Guinness Book of World Records gave Lata Mangeshkar's name for the "Most Recordings" and stated, "Mohammad Rafi (d 1 August 1980) [sic] claimed to have recorded 28,000 songs in 11 Indian languages between 1944 and April 1980." The Guinness Book entries for both Rafi and Lata were eventually deleted in 1991. In 2011, Lata's sister Asha Bhosle was given the title.Mohammed Rafi – Golden Voice of the Silver Screen, a 2015 book by Shahid Rafi and Sujata Dev, states that according to "industry sources", Rafi sang 4,425 Hindi film songs, 310 non-Hindi film songs, and 328 non-film songs between 1945 and 1980. A 2015 Manorama Online article states that "researchers" have found 7,405 songs sung by Rafi.
Among the prominent leading actors of his time, Rafi sung 190 songs for Shammi Kapoor, 155 for Johnny Walker, 129 for Shashi Kapoor, 100 for Dev Anand and 77 for Dilip Kumar.
Death
Mohammed Rafi died at 10:25 pm on 31 July 1980, following a massive heart attack, aged 55. The last song sung by Rafi was for the movie Aas Paas, with music by Laxmikant-Pyarelal. One source says it was "Shaam Phir Kyun Udaas Hai Dost / Tu Kahin Aas Paas Hai Dost", recorded just hours before his death. Another source says that it was "Shehar mein charcha hai" from the same film.
Rafi was buried at the Juhu Muslim cemetery and his burial was one of the largest funeral processions in India as over 10,000 people attended his burial. The government of India announced a two-day public mourning in his honour.
In 2010, Rafi's tomb along with many film industry artists such as Madhubala, was demolished to make space for new burials. Fans of Mohammed Rafi, who visit his tomb twice a year to mark his birth and death anniversaries, use the coconut tree that is nearest his grave as a marker.
Legacy
Singers like Mahendra Kapoor, Mohammed Aziz, Shabbir Kumar, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Udit Narayan and Sonu Nigam were influenced by Rafi's style of singing.Mohammed Rafi lives on! Hindustan Times, 30 July 2009 Anwar also imitated Rafi's voice.
On 22 September 2007, a shrine to Rafi designed by artist Tasawar Bashir was unveiled on Fazeley Street, Birmingham, UK. Bashir is hoping that Rafi will attain sainthood as a result. The Padma Shri Mohammed Rafi Chowk in the Bandra suburb of Mumbai and Pune (extending MG Road) is named after Rafi.
In the summer of 2008, the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra released a double CD titled Rafi Resurrected comprising 16 songs by Rafi. Bollywood playback singer Sonu Nigam provided the vocals for this project and toured with the CBSO in July 2008 at venues including the English National Opera in London, Manchester's Apollo Theatre and Symphony Hall, Birmingham.
There have been appeals to the Government of India to honour the singer, posthumously, with the Bharat Ratna (India's Highest Civilian Award).
In June 2010, Rafi along with Lata Mangeshkar was voted the most popular playback singer in the Outlook Music Poll, conducted by Outlook magazine. The same poll voted "Man re, tu kahe na dheer dhare" (Chitralekha, 1964), sung by Rafi as the No. 1 song. Three songs were tied for the No. 2 place: Two were sung by Rafi. The songs were "Tere mere sapne ab ek rang hain" (Guide, 1965) and "Din dhal jaye, hai raat na jaye" (Guide, 1965). This poll was published in Outlook. The jury included people in the Indian music industry.
In 2015, the UK-based newspaper Eastern Eye placed Rafi third in their "Greatest 20 Bollywood Playback Singers" list.
An official biography was written on Rafi's life by Sujata Dev titled Mohammed Rafi – Golden Voice of the Silver Screen launched on his 91st birthday. As well as an award winning documentary titled Dastaan-E-Rafi directed by Rajni Acharya and Vinay Patel (which took 5 years to make) was released to commemorate his 92nd birthday which was later released on DVD. It featured over 60 interviews of various Bollywood personas and closely recalled his story through his songs and the personal recounts. Many biographies and documentaries continue to be written and made on him.
Lata Mangeshkar his contemporary, has said that 'Rafi bhaiya was not only India's greatest playback singer but also a wonderful person' and that 'he was one singer whose vocal range could outclass any other singer, whether it was me, Asha, Mannada or Kishore bhaiya".
When producer-director Manmohan Desai (who was a big fan of Rafi) and used him in numerous hit films, was asked to describe the voice of Rafi he remarked that "If anyone has the voice of god, it is Mohammed Rafi".
Annually his birth and death anniversaries inspire several thousand musical tributes on stage, radio and television.
Rafi's popularity today spans across the Indian sub-continent, having a reach to Indian communities in Singapore and Malaysia.
Today, Rafi's popular songs continue to be remixed or recreated.
Rafi's Baharon Phool Barsao was voted the most popular Hindi song in a BBC Asia Network poll commemorating 100 years of Hindi Cinema.
In a CNN-IBN survey in 2013, he was voted the greatest voice of Hindi Cinema.
In 2001, Rafi was named as the "best singer of the millennium" by Hero Honda and Stardust magazine.
In popular culture
Mohammed Rafi Academy was launched in Mumbai on 31 July 2010 on the 30th anniversary of the singer's death, started by his son Shahid Rafi to impart training in Indian classical and contemporary music.Rich Tributes Paid to Mohammed Rafi , Outlook, 31 July 2010
After his death, numerous Hindi movies were dedicated to Rafi, including: Allah Rakha, Mard, Coolie, Desh-Premee, Naseeb, Aas-Paas and Heeralal-Pannalal.
A song in the 1990 Hindi film Kroadh "Na Fankar Tujhsa" picturised on actor Amitabh Bachchan and sung by singer Mohammed Aziz was also dedicated to the memory of Rafi.
Rafi is one of the recording artists mentioned in the 1997 hit British alternative rock song "Brimful of Asha" by Cornershop.
Rafi's song from the film Gumnaam (1965), "Jaan Pehechan Ho", was used on the soundtrack of Ghost World (2001). The film opens with the lead character dancing around in her bedroom to a video of Gumnaam. The song has also been used for Heineken's 2011 "The Date" commercial.
Rafi was commemorated on his 93rd birth anniversary by Search Engine Google which showed a special doodle on its Indian home page for him on 24 December 2017.
His "Aaj Mausam Bada Beiman Hai" is featured in the 2001 film Monsoon Wedding. His "Kya Mil Gaya" (Sasural, 1961) has been used in The Guru (2002), where Ramu and Sharonna sing a version of the song. His song "Mera Man Tera Pyasa" (Gambler, 1970) has been used as one of the soundtracks in the Jim Carrey-Kate Winslet starrer Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004). This song is played in the background in Kate Winslet's character's home while the lead pair are having a drink (at approximately 00.11.14 runtime).
Personal life
Rafi married twice; his first marriage was to his cousin; Bashira Bibi which took place in his ancestral village. The marriage ended when his first wife refused to live in India following the killing of her parents during the riots of the Partition of India and moved to Lahore, Pakistan. His second marriage was to Bilquis Bano.
Rafi had four sons and three daughters; his first son Saeed was from his first marriage. Rafi's hobbies included playing badminton, carrom and flying kites.
According to Mohammed Rafi Voice of a Nation'', a book authorised by Rafi's son Shahid, Rafi was known to be of a very gentle calm demeanour who always remained a humble, selfless, ego-less, devoted, God-fearing and family loving gentleman throughout his life. Rafi was noted to never send anyone he met back empty-handed, He contributed to the society and helped people through his charity and notable deeds.
Awards and recognition
Bibliography
See also
List of songs recorded by Mohammed Rafi
List of Indian playback singers
References
External links
1924 births
1980 deaths
Bollywood playback singers
Indian Sunni Muslims
People from Amritsar district
Indian male playback singers
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Punjabi people
Singers from Mumbai
Konkani-language singers
Marathi-language singers
20th-century Indian singers
Indian performers of Islamic music
Best Male Playback Singer National Film Award winners
20th-century Indian male singers |
356415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided%20maintenance | Computer-aided maintenance | Computer-aided maintenance (not to be confused with CAM which usually stands for Computer Aided Manufacturing) refers to systems that utilize software to organize planning, scheduling and support of maintenance and repair. A common application of such systems is the maintenance of computers, either hardware or software, themselves. It can also apply to the maintenance of other complex systems that require periodic maintenance, such as reminding operators that preventive maintenance is due or even predicting when such maintenance should be performed based on recorded past experience.
Computer aided configuration
The first computer-aided maintenance software came from DEC in the 1980s to configure VAX computers. The software was built using the techniques of artificial intelligence expert systems, because the problem of configuring a VAX required expert knowledge. During the research, the software was called R1 and was renamed XCON when placed in service. Fundamentally, XCON was a rule-based configuration database written as an expert system using forward chaining rules. As one of the first expert systems to be pressed into commercial service it created high expectations, which did not materialize, as DEC lost commercial pre-eminence.
Help Desk software
Help desks frequently use help desk software that captures symptoms of a bug and relates them to fixes, in a fix database. One of the problems with this approach is that the understanding of the problem is embodied in a non-human way, so that solutions are not unified.
Strategies for finding fixes
The bubble-up strategy simply records pairs of symptoms and fixes. The most frequent set of pairs is then presented as a tentative solution, which is then attempted. If the fix works, that fact is further recorded, along with the configuration of the presenting system, into a solutions database.
Oddly enough, shutting down and booting up again manages to 'fix,' or at least 'mask,' a bug in many computer-based systems; thus reboot is the remedy for distressingly many symptoms in a 'fix database.' The reason a reboot often works is that it causes the RAM to be flushed. However, typically the same set of actions are likely to create the same result demonstrating a need to refine the "startup" applications (which launch into memory) or install the latest fix/patch of the offending application.
Currently, most expertise in finding fixes lies in human domain experts, who simply sit at a replica of the computer-based system, and who then 'talk through' the problem with the client to duplicate the problem, and then relate the fix.
References
Help desk
Product lifecycle management
Computer systems |
356422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Digital%2C%20Culture%2C%20Media%20and%20Sport | Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport | The secretary of state for digital, culture, media and sport, also referred to as the culture secretary, is a secretary of state in the Government of the United Kingdom, with overall responsibility for strategy and policy across the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. The incumbent is a member of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, 21st in the ministerial ranking. The office has been dubbed "Minister of Fun".
On 15 September 2021, Boris Johnson appointed Nadine Dorries to the office.
Responsibilities
The secretary has overall responsibility for strategy and policy across the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. Responsibilities include:
Arts and Culture
Broadcasting
Creative industries
Creative Industries Council
Cultural property, heritage and the historic environment
Cultural Renewal Taskforce
Culture, sports and arts sector recovery from COVID-19
Gambling and racing
Libraries
Media ownership and mergers
Museums and galleries
The National Lottery
Sport
Telecommunications and online
Tourism
History
The office was created in 1992 by Prime Minister John Major, as Secretary of State for National Heritage. In his autobiography, Major says that, before the office was created, responsibility for cultural interests was shared among various departments, but important to none of them. For instance, arts and libraries, although a separate department, had no minister in the Cabinet, sport was part of the Department for Education, film was part of the Department of Trade and Industry, broadcasting was part of the Home Office, tourism was part of the Department for Employment and heritage was part of the Department of the Environment. He also wrote that the system tended to favour the interests of the articulate and well-connected London-based arts lobby.
Thus, when he became Prime Minister, Major said that he saw that the only way to give culture and sport the higher profile that he thought that they deserved was to establish a new department, under a minister of Cabinet rank, to bring together all aspects of the arts, sport and heritage.
List of secretaries of state
Secretaries of State for National Heritage (1992–1997)
Secretaries of State for Culture, Media and Sport (1997–2010)
Secretaries of State for Culture, Olympics, Media and Sport (2010–2012)
Secretaries of State for Culture, Media and Sport (2012–2017)
Secretaries of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (2017–present)
In 2017 the DCMS was renamed to the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport in acknowledgement of the increasing responsibility the department had gained for Digital affairs. Karen Bradley continued as Secretary of State for the department.
See also
Shadow Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport
Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee
References
Culture, Media and Sport
United Kingdom
Ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport
1992 establishments in the United Kingdom |
356429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metroid%20Fusion | Metroid Fusion | is an action-adventure game published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance handheld console in 2002. It was developed by Nintendo Research & Development 1, which had developed the previous game in the series, Super Metroid (1994). Players control bounty hunter Samus Aran, who investigates a space station infected with shapeshifting parasites known as X.
Like previous Metroid games, Fusion is a side-scrolling game with platform jumping, shooting, and puzzle elements, but introduces mission-based progression that guides the player through certain areas. It was released the day after the GameCube game Metroid Prime in North America; both games can be linked using the GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable to unlock additional content for Prime.
Fusion was acclaimed for its tight gameplay, controls, graphics and music, though its shorter length and greater linearity received some criticism. It received several awards, including Handheld Game of the Year at the 2002 Interactive Achievement Awards, Best Game Boy Advance Adventure Game from IGN, and Best Action Game on Game Boy Advance from GameSpot. It was rereleased on the Nintendo 3DS's Virtual Console in 2011 as part of the 3DS Ambassador Program, and the Wii U's Virtual Console in 2014. A sequel, Metroid Dread, was released in 2021 for the Nintendo Switch.
Gameplay
Metroid Fusion is an action-adventure game in which the player controls Samus Aran. Like previous games in the series, Fusion is set in a large open-ended world with elevators that connect regions, which each in turn contains rooms separated by doors. Samus opens most doors by shooting at them, while some only open after she reaches a certain point. The way the game unfolds is more linear than other Metroid games due to its focus on storyline; for example, Fusion introduces Navigation Rooms, which tell the player where to go.
The gameplay involves solving puzzles to uncover secrets, platform jumping, shooting enemies, and searching for power-ups that allow Samus to reach new areas. Samus can absorb X Parasites, which restore health, missiles, and bombs. Power-ups are obtained by downloading them in Data Rooms or absorbing a Core-X, which appears after defeating a boss. The game includes features new to the franchise, such as the ability to grab ledges and climb ladders.
The player can use the GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable to connect to Fusion and unlock features in Prime: after completing Prime, they can unlock Samus's Fusion Suit, and after completing Fusion, they can unlock an emulated version of the first Metroid game. In Metroid: Zero Mission (2004), players can connect to Fusion using the Game Boy Advance Game Link Cable to unlock a Fusion picture gallery, which includes its ending images.
Plot
Bounty hunter Samus Aran explores the surface of the planet SR388 with a survey crew from Biologic Space Laboratories (BSL). She is attacked by parasitic organisms known as X. On the way back to the BSL station, Samus loses consciousness and her ship crashes. The BSL ship she was escorting recovers her body and transfers it to the Galactic Federation for medical treatment, who discover that the X has infected Samus' central nervous system. They cure her with a vaccine made from cells taken from the infant Metroid that Samus adopted on SR388. The vaccine gives her the ability to absorb the X nuclei for nourishment, but burdens her with the Metroids' vulnerability to cold. Samus's infected Power Suit is sent to the BSL station for examination, although parts of the suit were too integrated with her body to remove during surgery.
When Samus recovers consciousness, she discovers that an explosion has occurred on the BSL station. She is sent to investigate. The mission is overseen by her new gunship's computer, whom Samus nicknames "Adam" after her former commanding officer, Adam Malkovich. Samus learns that the X parasites can replicate their hosts' physical appearances, and that the X have infected the station with the help of the "SA-X", an X parasite mimicking Samus at full power.
Samus avoids the SA-X and explores the space station, defeating larger creatures infected by the X to recover her abilities. She discovers a restricted lab containing Metroids, and the SA-X sets off the labs' auto-destruct sequence while also attacking the released Metroids, who also devour the SA-X. Samus escapes but the lab is destroyed. The computer berates Samus for ignoring orders, and admits that the Federation was secretly using the lab to breed Metroids. It also reveals that the SA-X has asexually reproduced, subsequently cloning itself. The computer advises Samus to leave the station.
On her way to her ship, the computer orders Samus to leave the rest of the investigation to the Federation, which plans to capture SA-X for military purposes. Knowing that the X would only infect the arriving Federation troops and absorb their spacefaring knowledge to conquer the universe, Samus states her intention to destroy the station. Although the computer initially intends to stop Samus, she calls it "Adam", and reveals that Adam died saving her life. The computer suggests that she should alter the station's propulsion to intercept with SR388 and destroy the planet along with all X populations. Samus realizes that the computer is the consciousness of Adam, uploaded after death. En route to initiate the propulsion sequence, Samus confronts an SA-X, defeats it, and sets the BSL station on a collision course with SR388. As Samus prepares to leave, she is attacked by an Omega Metroid. The SA-X appears and attacks it, but is destroyed; Samus absorbs its nucleus and uses her newly restored Ice Beam to destroy the Omega Metroid. Her ship arrives, piloted by creatures Samus rescued from the station's Habitation Deck, and they escape before the station crashes into the planet, destroying it.
Development
Nintendo confirmed a Metroid game for the Game Boy Advance on March 23, 2001. Ken Lobb, Nintendo of America's director of game development, confirmed that it would be a new game and not a port of the 1994 Super NES game Super Metroid. Early footage was shown at the 2001 E3 convention under the name Metroid IV. The footage showed Samus in a dark suit, running on walls and ceilings, with simpler, more "Game Boy Color-like" graphics. At E3 2002, Nintendo demonstrated the game again, now under the title Metroid Fusion, with updated graphics. IGN awarded Metroid Fusion Best of Show and Best Action Game.
Metroid Fusion was developed by Nintendo Research & Development 1 (R&D1), the same team that created Super Metroid. Fusion's gameplay, screen layout, and controls mimic those of Super Metroid, with enhancements. Metroid Fusion is the first 2D Metroid game with animated cutscenes; the story is revealed through text and close-ups. It was written and directed by series designer Yoshio Sakamoto, and produced by Takehiro Izushi.
Sakamoto decided to create an original story instead of remaking a Metroid game because he "always [tries] to do something really unprecedented, something people have never played before". He continued, saying, "Many of our designers and creators want to challenge something new rather than simply porting over an old title. That's something I hope we'll always do. If you can challenge something new, you can look forward to the public response, be it good or bad." The game introduces gameplay mechanics that are new to the Metroid series. Metroid Fusion offers a more direct, almost mission-based structure that supports the player to explore areas. Objectives are also flexible in how they can be completed, acting "more as a guide for what the player should do instead of giving a completely blank map and saying 'Here you go, figure out what to do and how to do it.
According to the lead programmer Katsuya Yamano, Nintendo R&D1 did not consult previous Metroid games for programming techniques, and instead used their previous game Wario Land 4 as a reference. The system director, Takehiko Hosokawa, states that while parts of old Metroid gameplay remain in Fusion, the developers introduced new elements. Samus's suit design was revamped; the canonical explanation is that this was because an X Parasite had attacked Samus and made her lose all her abilities. Missiles were expanded with two "upgrades", much like the various beam upgrades: the Ice Missile which has a similar effect to the Ice Beam, and the Diffusion Missile which greatly increases the blast radius. Other minor abilities were added to Fusion, such as climbing walls and ceilings. The health and missile drops are replaced by X Parasites that are similarly released after defeating enemies.
The music was composed by Minako Hamano and Akira Fujiwara. According to Hamano, Sakamoto wanted her to create music in accordance with Adam's dialogue. Hamano aimed for "serious, ambient music rather than melody" because she did not want the exploration themes to be "annoying". She also rearranged jingles from Super Metroid for Fusion. As Nintendo of America wanted the developers to look for "Hollywood-like" voice actors, Hamano added a voice of an announcer. The developers planned to feature voice acting, but the voices were only used for warning announcements due to ROM cartridge limitations.
Release
Metroid Fusion was scheduled for a North American release date of November 18, 2002. On August 22, 2002, Nintendo announced that the game would be able to connect to Metroid Prime for the GameCube, a Metroid game that was released on the same day as Fusion. In Europe, the game was released on November 22, 2002, followed by the Australian release on November 29. The game was also released in Japan on February 14, 2003, and in China on March 2, 2006.
A two-disc soundtrack album, Metroid Prime & Fusion Original Soundtracks, was published by Scitron on June 18, 2003, with the catalog number SCDC-00276/7. The second disc contains tracks from Fusion, along with an additional track arranged by Shinji Hosoe.
Metroid Fusion was released worldwide on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in December 2011 as part of the "3DS Ambassadors" program, one of ten Game Boy Advance games for those who purchased their 3DS consoles before a price drop. During the Nintendo Direct presentation in February 2014, Nintendo president and CEO Satoru Iwata revealed that Metroid Fusion would be among the first three Game Boy Advance games to be released on the Wii U Virtual Console in April 2014.
Reception
Metroid Fusion received "universal acclaim" according to review aggregator Metacritic. Japanese game magazine Famitsu gave it 34 out of 40. X-Play claimed that it was a "pleasure to play", and praised its "beautiful" graphics and audio. The game satisfied IGN, which appreciated the lengthy minimum of 10 to 12 hours of playtime required to complete the game, further hailing it as an "outstanding achievement on the Game Boy Advance". GamesRadar and GamePro, however, felt that the game was "a little short", but still "love[d] every minute of it", finding the hidden secrets and new power-ups "sublimely ingenious". The sentiment was shared with GameSpot, which was disappointed that the game ended so soon, but still stated, "Metroid fans should absolutely get it, as should anyone willing to trade off some quantity for some serious quality in their gaming time." Nintendo World Report and Eurogamer were excited about the game, both calling it the best 2D Metroid game and the best Game Boy Advance game so far. Video game magazine Game Informer agreed, describing the game as "everything you could want from a Game Boy Advance game" from beginning to end, giving it a perfect review score. Play also enjoyed the game, describing it as a "magnified, modified, and improved" version of everything great from Metroid and Super Metroid.
Comparing the game to Super Metroid, GameSpot thought that Metroid Fusion offered that game's best qualities packaged in a new adventure. Nintendo Power heralded it as a return to the classic Metroid action gameplay style. The "perfect" controls were praised by Electronic Gaming Monthly, concluding its review by claiming "all games should feel this good." The game did not feel new to GameSpy, which complained that even the final enemy encounter draws heavy inspiration from Super Metroid. GameZone found that the small screen was a poor environment in which to play Metroid Fusion, but they ultimately still found it an exciting game.
Metroid Fusion received several accolades. It was named Handheld Game of the Year at the 2002 Interactive Achievement Awards. The game was also chosen as Best Game Boy Advance Adventure Game by IGN and Best Action Game on Game Boy Advance by GameSpot, which had named it the handheld's best game of November 2002 earlier in the year. It was a runner-up for GameSpots annual "Best Sound", "Best Graphics", "Best Story" and overall "Game of the Year" awards among Game Boy Advance games.
Sales
Metroid Fusion has sold over 1.6 million units worldwide. In its debut week, Fusion sold more than 100,000 units in North America. It finished the month of November 2002 with 199,723 copies sold in the United States alone, for total revenues of 5,590,768, making it the third best-selling Game Boy Advance game that month, and the tenth best-selling game across all platforms. The game went on to sell 940,000 copies by August 2006, with revenues of 27 million. During the period between January 2000 and August 2006, in the United States it was the twenty-first highest-selling game for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS or PlayStation Portable. As of November 2004, the game has sold 180,000 units in Japan.
Sequel
A sequel, Metroid Dread, was released in 2021 for the Nintendo Switch, developed by Nintendo and MercurySteam.
References
Notes
Citations
External links
2002 video games
Experimental medical treatments in fiction
Extinction in fiction
Game Boy Advance games
Impact event video games
Interactive Achievement Award winners
Fusion
Metroidvania games
Nintendo Research & Development 1 games
Single-player video games
Video games about shapeshifting
Video games developed in Japan
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games set in outer space
Video games set on fictional planets
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U |
356431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20television%20stations%20in%20South%20Carolina | List of television stations in South Carolina | This is a list of broadcast television stations that are licensed in the U.S. state of South Carolina.
Full-power stations
VC refers to the station's PSIP virtual channel. RF refers to the station's physical RF channel.
Defunct full-power stations
Channel 23: WGVL – Greenville (7/15/1953-4/29/1956)
Channel 25: WCOS-TV – Columbia (5/1/1953-1/21/1956)
LPTV stations
Translators
See also
South Carolina media
List of newspapers in South Carolina
List of radio stations in South Carolina
Media of locales in South Carolina: Charleston, Columbia, Greenville
Bibliography
External links
(Directory ceased in 2017)
South Carolina Broadcasters Association
South Carolina
Television Stations |
356433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepelstraat | Lepelstraat | Lepelstraat () is a small Dutch community six kilometres north of the city of Bergen op Zoom, and part of the municipality with that name.
It has 2,342 inhabitants and 30 percent of the municipality consists of farmland. Its earliest records of history date back to 1298 where in a manuscript of landrights it was mentioned as "Den Leepel Straet."
Lepelstraat has always been important in its region's religious history. In 1612 a little church was created in the attic of a farmhouse that was kept from the knowledge of authorities because Roman Catholicism was forbidden at that time. Even though this situation changed later in the 17th century, it existed until 1875 when Lepelstraat got its first real church, with a tower having a height of 68 metres. This tower was blown up near the end of World War II by retreating German troops and has never been rebuilt.
During the Netherlands' "Great Flood" in 1953 most of the land around Lepelstraat became flooded, costing almost two thousand lives. The water did not reach Lepelstraat itself, making it a safe haven for refugees who lost their homes, friends, and families.
External links
Detailed map of Bergen op Zoom, including Lepelstraat
Populated places in North Brabant
Bergen op Zoom |
356438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czartak | Czartak | Czartak () was a regional literary group in Poland, founded after World War I by Emil Zegadłowicz. Its most famous member was Zofia Kossak-Szczucka. Other members included Edward Kozikowski, Jan Nepomucen Miller and Janina Brzostowska.
Czartak's program may be described as a mystical naiveté that joined a love of nature with a disgust for modern civilization. Czartak's writers were fascinated by expressionism.
References
Polish writers' organisations
Polish literature
Writing circles
20th-century Polish literature |
356442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbott%20AxSYM | Abbott AxSYM | The Abbott AxSYM is an immunochemical automated analyzer made by Abbott Laboratories. It is used for serology tests and therapeutic drug monitoring, and uses antibodies to alter the deflection of polarized light. It can also be used to monitor hormone level and some cardiac markers such as troponin.
Appearance and use
Blood samples and reagents are placed in separate carousels on the right of the machine. This instrument is used in medical laboratories by trained medical personnel. It can process about 100 samples an hour.
References
Further reading
Evaluation of the Abbott AxSYM Immunoassay Analyser - Agnes D'Souza, M. J. Wheeler, Great Britain. Medical Devices Agency
(6S)-5-methyltetrahydrofolate Compared to Folic Acid Supplementation: Effect ... - Yvonne Lamers
Natriuretic Peptides: The Hormones of the Heart
Current Research in Head and Neck Cancer: Molecular Pathways, Novel ...
Serology
Medical testing equipment |
356443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeha | Yeha | Yeha ( yiḥa, older ESA 𐩥𐩢 ḤW; Old South Arabian: 𐩺𐩢𐩱 Yḥʾ) is a town in the Maekelay Zone of the northern Tigray Region in Ethiopia. It likely served as the capital of the pre-Aksumite kingdom of D'mt.
Archeology
The oldest standing structure in Ethiopia, the Temple of Yeha, is located in Yeha. This is a tower built in the Sabaean style, and dated through comparison with ancient structures in South Arabia to around 700 BC. Although no radiocarbon dating testing has been performed on samples from site, this date for the Great Tower is supported by local inscriptions. David Phillipson attributes its "excellent preservation" to two factors, "the care with which its original builders ensured a level foundation, firmly placed on the uneven bedrock; and to its rededication -- perhaps as early as the sixth century AD -- for use as a Christian church." Two other archaeological sites at Yeha include Grat Beal Gebri, a ruined complex distinguished by a portico 10 meters wide and two sets of square pillars, and a graveyard containing several rock-hewn shaft tombs first investigated in the early 1960s. One authority has speculated that one of these tombs contained a royal burial, while another believes the ancient residential area was likely one kilometer to the east of the modern village.
Additionally, Yeha is the location of an Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church monastery. The edifice was founded according to tradition by Abba Aftse, one of the Nine Saints. In his account of Ethiopia, Francisco Álvares mentions visiting this town in 1520 (which he called "Abbafaçem"), and provides a description of the ancient tower, the monastery, and the local church. This church was either the rededicated Great Temple, or a now destroyed building which the Deutsche Aksum-Expedition described in the early 20th century. (The current structure, which exhibits Aksumite architectural features, was built between 1948 and 1949.)
The Central Statistical Agency has not published an estimate for this village's 2005 population.
Explored briefly in February 1893 by the British antiquarian Theodore Bent and his wife Mabel, Yeha has also been the site of a number of archaeological excavations, beginning in 1952 by the Ethiopian Institute of Archeology. Although interrupted during the Derg regime, excavations were resumed in 1993 by a French archaeological team.
Notes
External links
Pictures of Yeha
Capitals of former nations
Populated places in the Tigray Region
Dʿmt
History of Ethiopia |
356444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Greece | Communist Party of Greece | The Communist Party of Greece (, Kommounistikó Kómma Elládas, KKE) is a political party in Greece.
Founded in 1918 as the Socialist Labour Party of Greece and adopted its current name in November 1924. It is the oldest political party in modern Greek politics. The party was banned in 1936, but played a significant role in the Greek resistance and the Greek Civil War, and its membership peaked in the mid-1940s. Legalization of the KKE was restored following the fall of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974.
The party has returned MPs in all elections since its restoration in 1974, and took part in a coalition government in 1989 when it got more than 13% of the vote.
History
Foundation
The October Revolution of the Bolsheviks in Russia in 1917 gave impetus for the foundation of Communist parties in many countries globally. The KKE was founded on 4 November 1918 as the Socialist Labour Party of Greece (Greek: , Sosialistikó Ergatikó Kómma Elládas; acronym: ΣΕΚΕ, SEKE) by Aristos Arvanitis, , Stamatis Kokkinos, Michael Sideris, , and others. The party was run by a five-member Central Committee which initially consisted of Dimitratos, Ligdopoulos, Sideris, Arvanitis and Kokkinos, and had a three-member Audit Committee initially including George Pispinis, Spyros Koumiotis and Avraam Benaroya. Ligdopoulos was elected director of the party's official newspaper, Ergatikos Agon.
The background of KKE has roots in more than 60 years of small socialist, anarchist and communist groups, mainly in industrialized areas. Following the example of the Paris Commune and the 1892 Chicago workers' movement for the eight-hour working day, these groups had as immediate political goals the unification of Greek workers into trade unions, the implementation of an eight-hour day in Greece and better salaries for workers. Inspired by the Paris Commune and the communist revolutionary efforts in the United States, Germany and Russia at the beginning of the century and the destruction that almost 20 years of wars had brought upon the Greek workers, a unified Social-Communist party was founded in Greece.
At the Second Congress of the SEKE in April 1920, the party decided to affiliate with Comintern, an international Communist organisation founded in Moscow in 1919. It changed its name to the 'Socialist Labour Party of Greece-Communist (SEKE-K). A new Central Committee was elected, which included Nikos and Panaghis Dimitratos, Yannis Kordatos, G. Doumas and M. Sideris. At the Third Extraordinary Congress of the SEKE-K in November 1924, the party was renamed the Communist Party of Greece and adopted the principles of Marxism–Leninism. Pandelis Pouliopoulos was elected as general-secretary. Ever since, the party has functioned on the basis of democratic centralism.
KKE between the two World Wars
KKE strongly opposed Greece's involvement in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, which it considered an imperialistic scheme to control the market of Asia Minor given the new political situation after the Ottoman Empire's collapse. KKE members propagated this position both on the front—which provoked accusations of treason from the Greek government—as well as in the mainland. KKE collaborated with the Soviet ambassador to persuade Venizelos' administration to withdraw its troops from Asia Minor and to persuade the Soviet Union to exert political pressure on Mustafa Kemal Atatürk to allow autonomy for Greek cities in Asia Minor.
KKE played a prominent role in strikes, anti-war demonstrations, foundation of trade unions and worker associations. KKE and other leftist political forces fostered the creation of labor unions in all sectors, including the General Greek Workers Confederation (ΓΣΕΕ), which shared common goals with KKE.
These activities met by opposition from the Mid-War governments. In 1929, as minister of Education in the government of Eleftherios Venizelos, Georgios Papandreou passed legislation against organised communist teachers, known as Idionymon. Such legislation was often used to prosecute KKE members and other leftist activists. Under the Idionymon all members of the Communist Party of Greece, being considered dangers to the state, were to be removed from public service or put in exile.
The first prison camps for left-wing citizens and communists were founded in that era. KKE and its organisations, although small in numbers, continue operating in all Greek major cities, especially industrial areas such as Athens, Piraeus, Patra, Thessaly and Volos, Thessaloniki, Kavala and elsewhere.
KKE collaborated with other newly founded Communist Parties to oppose the rise of the fascist movement in Europe. In 1932, the Comintern decreed that anti-fascist fronts be formed internationally. KKE responded by creating the People's Front, which was the largest Marxist anti-fascist organisation in Greece prior to the dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas.
The party was banned in 1936 by the dictatorial 4th of August Regime of Metaxas and brutally persecuted by his security chief, Konstantinos Maniadakis. Many KKE members were imprisoned or exiled on isolated Aegean Islands.
KKE members volunteered to fight on the side of the republican government of Spain during the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939. About 440 Greeks joined the ranks of the International Brigade, Especially brigades such as the XV International Brigade and the Dimitrov Battalion, many of whom were high-ranking KKE members.
KKE and the Macedonian issue
After the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, World War I in 1916–1918 and the disastrous Greco–Turkish War of 1919–1922, there were diplomatic approaches from the superpowers of that era regarding the re-drawing of Greek borders, based on Bulgaria and Turkey–United States relations pressing for more territory to improve trade routes with the British Empire. The ruling parties were simultaneously trying to move parts of Northern Greece (Macedonia and Thrace) to Bulgaria and Turkey; and to win the return of islands in the Aegean and parts of Macedonian territory to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. This policy was reiterated several times throughout the pre-war era.
The main impetus for their demand was the ethnic and religious minorities then living inside Greek borders in Northern Greece. KKE opposed any geo-strategic game in the area which would use minorities to start a new imperialistic war in the region. At its Third Party Congress in 1924, KKE announced its policy for the self-determination of minorities, pointing out the minorities in Macedonia. Its policy was dictated by each Marxist–Leninist theory, that stated any minorities should be self-determined under a common socialist state and it had its roots in the example of the newly founded Soviet Union.
In 1924, KKE expressed the official position of the Third International for "independent Macedonia and Thrace". Some members disagreed with this, but it remained the official position of the party and caused expulsions of communists by the Greek state. KKE was seen by many as a party whose policy was "the detachment of large areas of northern Greece". According to Richard Clogg, "this was dictated by Comintern and hurt the popularity of Communism at the time".
In 1934, KKE changed its view and expressed its intent to "fight for the national self-determination, under a People's Republic where all nations will found their self-determination and will build the common state of the workers".
Nikos Zachariadis, General Secretary of the party, officially renounced KKE's policy of secession in 1945. Anti-KKE propaganda up-to-day added on this quote the will to collaborate for this goal with the Bulgarian organizations of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization and the Thracian Revolutionary Organisation. This is not mentioned on any of KKE official documents. The quote is referenced as KKE's policy for "giving Greek soil to the northern enemies of the country", a fact that can not be crossed referenced with any of KKE referenced literature of that era.
During the civil war (1946–1949), an article written by Nikos Zachariadis expressed the KKE's strategy after the envisioned victory of the Democratic Army of Greece regarding what was then known as the "Macedonian Issue": "The Macedonian people will acquire an independent, united state with a coequal position within the family of free peoples' republics within the Balkans, within the family of Peoples' Republics to which the Greek people will belong. The Macedonian people are today fighting for this independent united state with a coequal position and is helping the DSE with all its soul". The policy of self-determination for Macedonia within a People's Republic was reiterated during the 5th KKE Central Committee meeting held in January 1949, which declared that the "Macedonian people participating in the liberation struggle would find their full national re-establishment as they want giving their blood for this acquisition [...] Macedonian Communists should pay great attentions to foreign chauvinist and counteractive elements that want to break the unity between the Greek and Macedonian people. This will only serve the monarcho-fascists and British imperialism". These statements can be explained due to the large number of Slavomacedonian fighters (30–50%) amongst the DSE fighters and prompted the government in Athens to begin a campaign against KKE and the party's military wing, the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE), blaming them for secession plans in northern Greece.
In order for KKE to clear up its position on the "Macedonian subject", the 6th Congress of its Central Committee was called a few months later, during which was clearly stated that KKE was fighting for a free Greece and for a common future for Greeks and Macedonians under the same state.
The issue was ended by Central Committee in 1954 with the withdrawal of the position of self-determination of minorities. In 1988, the General Secretary of KKE, Charilaos Florakis, once again presented KKE's political position on the matter in a speech to the Greek Parliament.
KKE during World War II
1940
By 1940, KKE had almost collapsed after Metaxas' dictatorship had imprisoned many of its leadership and members. By October, half of the party's two thousand members were in prison or in exile. The Security Police proved successful in dismantling the party structure; not only had it imprisoned the leadership, but it created a fake series of Rizospastis, the Central Committee newspaper. This generated confusion among the remaining scattered underground members.
A small group of old party officials formed the "Old Central Committee" and two of them were elected by the 6th Conference. In his memoirs for the Greek Civil war, C. M. Woodhouse (the British liaison with Greek resistance groups during World War II) wrote: "The 'Old Central Committee' interpreted a directive issued by Comintern as indicating collaboration with the German and Italian dictatorships, given the Hitler-Stalin alliance". On the other hand, Woodhouse argues that Georgios Siantos, who had escaped from prison; and Nikos Zachariadis, who was still incarcerated, took the opposite view that KKE must support Metaxas in his fight against Mussolini. The archives of KKE also address the confusion between different KKE cadres as the "Old Committee" interpreted the politics of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy as part of the "imperialistic game between the Axis forces and the British". This faction of KKE felt that the Metaxas regime was a "pawn of British imperialism in the region" and therefore the "Old Committee" viewed any war between the Axis forces and the British as an "imperialistic war that the people of any of the countries involved should not participate in". According to KKE's account, this position was criticised by Comintern in 1939 (a few months after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact), which had instructed KKE to fight against Italy in the event of an invasion of Greece.
Nikos Zachariadis, KKE General Secretary, wrote from prison on 2 November 1940: "Today the Greek people are waging a war of national liberation against Mussolini's fascism. In this war we must follow the Metaxas government and turn every city, every village and every house of Greece into a stronghold of the National Liberation Fight... On this war conducted by Metaxas government all of us should give all our forces without reservation. The working people's and the crowning achievement for today's fight should be and shall be a new Greece based on work, freedom, and liberated from any foreign imperialist dependence, with a truly pan-popular culture".
Several party members, including Nikos Ploumpidis of the "Old Central Committee", denounced this letter as a forgery produced by the Metaxas regime. Zachariadis was even accused of writing it to win the favour of Konstantinos Maniadakis, the Minister for Public Order, to win his release from prison. According to one source, when drafting this letter Zachariadis was unaware of the German–Soviet Non-aggression Pact and was castigated by the Comintern for an anti-Soviet stance.
According to KKE's archives, the "Old Central Committee" had been denounced for its stance on the war issue and today KKE claims that the majority of the party membership had not followed the decision of being neutral in case of an invasion. On 16 November 1940, Zachariadis repudiated the line of his first letter in a second letter where he accused the Greek Army of waging a "fascist" and "imperialistic war" and appealed to the Soviet Union for peaceful intervention, thus aligning his position with that of the "Old Central Committee".
On 7 December 1940, the "Old Central Committee" issued a manifesto addressed "to all the workers and public servants, to all soldiers, sailors and airmen, to patriot officers, to the mothers, fathers, wives and children of the fighters and the workers of all neighboring countries", in which it describes the war as a game of the imperialist powers, headed by the British. According to KKE, the "Old Central Committee" based this opinion on the belief that Mussolini's Italy would not dare to attack a country that had a cooperation agreement with the Soviet Union. The main political line of this manifesto was the call to the soldiers on the front not to go beyond Greek borders, but after securing them to try seek a peace agreement with the enemy.
Zachariadis may have issued a third letter on 17 January 1941, in which he explained the motives for his first letter and wrote: "Metaxas remains the principal enemy of the people and the country. His overthrowing is in the most immediate and vital interest of our people ... the peoples and soldiers of Greece and Italy are not enemies but brothers, and their solidarity will stop the war waged by capitalist exploiters".
According to KKE archives, Zachariadis had issued no further letters and the third letter may have been in fact the statement of the "Old Central Committee" on 18 March 1941. In any case, Zachariadis himself referred in his public statements after liberation almost exclusively to his first letter as proof of the patriotic character of KKE and its role as an inspiration to the Greek resistance movement during the war.
On 22 June 1941, the very same day that Hitler attacked the Soviet Union, KKE ordered its militants to organize "the struggle to defend the Soviet Union and the overthrow of the foreign fascist yoke".
1941: German invasion and beginning of the Resistance
On 6 April 1941, the German invasion was launched and Athens was occupied on 27 April following an unconditional surrender of the Greek forces by General Georgios Tsolakoglou, who was later appointed Prime Minister by the Nazis. Confusion remained among many Greek Communists as to what the Moscow-sanctioned position was. In his memoirs, KKE leader Ioannis Ioannidis wrote about a regional communist cadre who proclaimed the following as Greece was being bombed by the Axis: "The Germans will not bomb us. The mustached-one [Stalin] will not let them". Ioannis Ioannidis was purged by Nikos Zachariades, leader of the KKE in exile in 1953, and was stripped of his party offices. The article in the reference just cited ends with just the fact of his "Purge" and being "stripped of his Party offices", so it is unclear whether he was physically Purged (executed), as many Communists still were in 1953.
A large number of KKE members were already in prison before the Nazi invasion. The pro-Nazi occupation government handed some of them over to the Nazis fearing that they—following the pro-Soviet party line—would resort to sabotage in Greece following Hitler's attack on the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. There were many occasions that police officers released Communist prisoners, especially the ones that they were in exile in Aegean islands. In 1941, several KKE members managed to escape prison. One of the many stories includes the 20 communists held as political prisoners in Heraklion, Crete. They demanded to be released to fight against the invading Germans. The Greek government, which had left mainland Greece by then and was en route to Egypt, had no power to release them. They eventually escaped after their jail was damaged by German bombs and joined the British and Greek forces defending the Heraklion harbor. After the fall of Crete, many officers of the Greek Army joined forces with ELAS and became commanders in ELAS's corps of partisan units.
It became German policy—especially after it became obvious to them that they were losing the war—to execute civilians in retaliation for attacks against them by communist or non-communist partisans. Approximately 200 communists, delivered to the Germans on 1941, were executed at the Kaisariani Shooting Range on 1 May 1944.
Although KKE was suffering from a lack of central political leadership since its leader Nikos Zachariades had been taken by the Germans to the Dachau concentration camp, its members succeeded in maintaining communication with each other. The 6th Meeting of KKE Central Committee was held in Athens from 1–3 July 1941, which decided on strategy for an armed liberation struggle against the Axis invaders. At the same time, the "Old Central Committee" submitted to the authority of the new Central Committee. The first united resistance organization was founded in the regions of Macedonia and Thrace on 15 May 1941. In Thessaloniki, the Macedonian Bureau of KKE established the Eleftheri (Liberty) Organization, along with the Socialist Party, the Agrarian Party, the Democratic Union and Colonel Dimitrios Psarros (who later founded the EKKA).
The Macedonian Bureau of KKE organised the first two partisan units at the end of June 1941. The first was based in Kilkis and was named Athanasios Diakos, the second was based in Nigrita and was named Odysseas Androutsos. These small partisan units blew up bridges, attacked police stations and eventually organized into larger combat units of more than 300 men each. In several other places and in major cities, small armed groups of KKE members and non-communists began to emerge, protecting people from looters, the Germans, or collaborators. On 27 September 1941, Greek communists together with five other leftist parties formed the National Liberation Front (EAM) in Kallithea, Athens and began forming partisan militia units.
1942 to Liberation
On 16 February 1942, the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) was founded in a small kiosk in Fthiotida and by 1943 it consisted of 50,000 members, both men and women, with 30,000 as reserve units in major cities. The KKE played a prominent role in the organisation. By the end of the war, some 200,000 Greek citizens, both workers and peasants, had joined the ranks of KKE. KKE maintained its alliances with the EAM. Its main stated aim at this time was to form a united government with all parties that wanted to see Greece liberated from foreign powers.
ELAS conflicted finally with the rest of the resistance organizations and armies (especially EDES and EKKA), accusing most of them of being traitors and collaborators of the Nazis. These were the first conflicts of the coming civil war.
Nikos Zachariadis was imprisoned in Dachau; he was released in 1945 and returned to Greece as the elected general secretary of the KKE. During his imprisonment, Andreas Tsipas and Georgios Siantos served as party general secretaries.
KKE and the Greek Civil War
After the liberation of Greece from the Nazi German forces, the government of National Unity, led by G. Papandreou, landed in Athens in October 1944. The government was formed after the Treaty of Cazerta and its main purpose was to form the new Greek state, try accused political and military personnel of collaboration with the Germans and to hold a referendum for the government and the constitution. After the first weeks, it was obvious that British policy in the region was against these goals as KKE and EAM were controlling 98% of Greece and they were afraid of the foundation of new socialist state. Papandreou demanded the disarmament of ELAS and the trials of the collaborators were stalled. Meanwhile, British troops together with the "refined" Greek arm divisions after the prosecution of thousands of EAM members in the middle east, loyal to the Papandreou segment, were landing in all major Greek cities and EAM was welcoming them as liberators. In mid-November 1944, the situation escalated dramatically, KKE criticised the interference of British General Scobie in Greek affairs, EAM refused to disarm ELAS and ELAN. Six ministers of the EAM, resigned from their positions in the government of Georgios Papandreou in November 1944. Fighting broke out in Athens on 3 December 1944 during a demonstration organised by EAM and involving more than 100,000 people. According to some accounts, the police, covered by British troops, opened fire on the crowd. More than 28 people were killed and 148 injured. According to other accounts, it is uncertain if the first shots were fired by the police or the demonstrators. A member of the pro-monarchists Nikos Farmakis, in one of his interviews revealed that they had a direct order to fire at will when the demonstrators reach the court of the Palace. This incident was the beginning of the 37‑day Battle of Athens (Dekemvriana). Following a ceasefire agreement called the Treaty of Varkiza, ELAS laid down the majority of its weapons and dissolved all of its units. Right-wing groups, including elements which had collaborated with the Germans, seized this opportunity to persecute many KKE members.
According to EAM figures, in the few months after the Treaty of Varkiza the anticommunist violence on the Greek mainland had resulted in the imprisonment or exile of 100,000 ELAS partisans and EAM members, the deaths of 3,000 EAM officials and members, the rape of between 200 and 500 women, the burning of houses and other acts of violence. The KKE Central Committee issued a directive to all party forces not to engage in any armed conflict, but to try to prevent attacks by other means. This caused confusion among the majority of its supporters and served to weaken the party organisation across the country.
Large groups had returned to their partisan hideouts in the mountains and gradually formed smaller partisan units. As most of the ELAS armoury had been surrendered under the terms of the Varkiza treaty, these units armed themselves with weapons seized from attacks on militia units that had been provided arms by the police as well as attacking police stations. By mid-1946, these units forced the KKE leadership to change its neutral position and to plan the formation of a partisan army with the officers and fighters that were still free. On 26 October 1946, KKE militia units attacked the police station in Litochoro, armed their forces and founded the Central Greece Command of the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). After this successful operation, the remaining scattered groups reorganized the pre-Varkiza Treaty ELAS formations all over the country. KKE's political influence and organization structure helped form units in the Aegean Islands of as Mytilene, Chios, Ikaria, Samos and Crete.
The Civil War involved two sides. On the one side was the British and American-backed Greek government, led by Konstantinos Tsaldaris and later Themistoklis Sophoulis, which was elected in the 1946 elections which the KKE had boycotted. On the other side was the Democratic Army of Greece, of which the KKE was the only major political force, backed by the NOF, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania.
In December 1947, KKE and its allies that participated in the Civil War formed the Provisional Democratic Government ("Mountain Government") under the premiership of Markos Vafiadis. After this, the KKE (still legal due to the Treaty of Varkiza) turned illegal.
On 29 January 1949, the Greek National Army appointed General Alexander Papagos Commander-in-Chief. In August 1949, Papagos launched a major counter-offensive against DSE forces in northern Greece, code-named "Operation Torch". The plan was for the Greek National Army to gain control of the border with Albania in order to surround and defeat the DSE forces, numbering 8,500 fighters. The DSE suffered heavy losses from the operation, but managed to retreat its units to Albania.
Charilaos Florakis, whose nom de guerre was Kapetan Yiotis, was a DSE-appointed Brigadier General during this battle. Florakis was ordered by the DSE High Command to re-enter Greece with his battalion via the Gramos Mountains and try to establish connection with all the DSE forces that remained within Greece. The battalion indeed reached small DSE units south of Gramos down to Evritania and retreated thereafter back to Albania. Floriakis later served as General Secretary of KKE from 1972 to 1989.
On 28 August 1949, the Civil War in Greece ended with the DSE forces defeated militarily and politically and KKE entered a new phase in its history.
Post-war era
After the Civil War, the KKE was outlawed and most of its prominent members had to flee Greece, go underground or provide a signed declaration that they renounced communism to avoid prosecution as under Law 504, issued in 1948, a large number of KKE members were either prosecuted, jailed or exiled. Prominent members of the KKE were tried and executed, including Nikos Beloyannis in 1952 and Nikos Ploumpidis in 1954. The execution of Ploumpidis was the last such execution by the post-Civil War governments. The fear of widespread reaction from left-wing citizens curbed further executions and eventually led to the gradual release of most political prisoners. In 1955, there were 4,498 political prisoners and 898 exiles while in 1962 there were 1,359 prisoners and 296 exiles. However, under the prevailing anticommunist rules the communists and KKE sympathizers were barred from the public sector and lived under a repressive anticommunist surveillance system. Such discrimination against communists was partially relieved with the legalization of KKE in 1974 and the discrimination ended in the 1980s.
During this period of illegality, the KKE supported the United Democratic Left (EDA) Party. EDA functioned as the legal political expression of the outlawed KKE. It was not openly communist and attracted moderate voters reaching 70,000 members in the early 60s. Moreover, EDA had a very active youth wing. Historians have argued that the two parties operated parallel paths, something that contributed to the 1968 split between KKE and KKE Esoterikou.
Former king Constantine II claims that in 1964 he proposed to George Papandreou (senior) that the KKE be legalized. According to the former monarch, Papandreou refused to comply so as not to lose his party's left-wing supporters. This allegation cannot be verified as it was expressed after Papandreou's death. Moreover, Constantine's public statements regarding communism during the 1960s renders the veracity of this allegation questionable.
During the junta
On 21 April 1967, a group of right-wing Greek Army colonels led by Georgios Papadopoulos successfully carried out a coup d'état on the pretext of imminent "communist threat", establishing what became known as the Regime of the Colonels. All political parties, including EDA, were dissolved and civil liberties were suppressed for all Greek citizens. KKE members were persecuted along with other opponents of the junta.
In 1968, a crisis escalated between KKE's two main factions. The crisis was already festering during the 12th plenum of the party's central committee held in Budapest between 5 and 15 February 1968 in which three members of the politbureau (M. Partsalidis, Z. Zografos and P. Dimitriu) were expelled for fractionist activity and was further triggered by the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. This event led a number of Greek communists who were ideologically leaning with the so-called opportunist faction to break with KKE that was loyal to the Socialist Republic's policy and to follow the nascent Eurocommunist line, which favored a more pluralistic approach to socialism. A relatively large group split from KKE, forming what became the Communist Party of Greece (Interior). The spin-off party forged bonds with Eurocommunist parties such as the Italian Communist Party as well as with Nicolae Ceauşescu's Romanian Communist Party. Its supporters referred to KKE as the KKE (Exterior) ("ΚΚΕ εξωτερικού"), inferring that KKE's policies were dictated by the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Despite the difficulties resulting from the split, KKE continued its opposition to the Greek Junta throughout the next six years. Its political fighting against the regime took the form of labour disruptions and strikes and small demonstrations all over the country. Its power was rising inside the Universities where the newly founded Communist Youth of Greece (KNE) began working underground. KKE underground forces continued to work closely with other political groups of the center and left within Greece and abroad. In many European capitals anti-Junta committees were founded to support the struggle in Greece.
Legalisation
After the restoration of parliamentary democracy in 1974, Constantine Karamanlis legalised the KKE hoping to reclaim "a vital part of national memory". In the 1974 elections, the KKE participated with the KKE Interior and the EDA under the name of the United Left, receiving 9.36 per cent of the vote. In the elections from 1977 to 1989, the KKE participated on its own.
In 1989, the political consequences of the Civil War were finally lifted. The war was named "Civil War" instead of "War against the gangs" ("συμμοριτοπόλεμος"), that was the official state name for that era up until that point and DSE fighters were named "DSE fighters" instead of "Communist Gangfighters" ("κουμουνιστοσυμμορίτες").
Participation in government
In 1944, KKE participated in the national unity government of George Papandreou, holding the positions of Minister of Finance, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Labor, Minister of National Economy and Public Works and Deputy Minister of Finance.
In 1988, KKE and Greek Left (Greek EAP; the former KKE Interior), along with other left-wing parties and organisations, formed the Coalition of the Left and Progress (Synaspismos). In the June 1989 elections, Synaspismos gained 13.1 per cent of votes and joined a coalition with New Democracy to form a short-lived government amidst a political spectrum shaken by accusations of economic scandals against the previous administration of Andreas Papandreou's Panhellenic Socialist Movement. In November of the same year, Synaspismos participated in the "Universal Government" with New Democracy and Panhellenic Socialist Movement which appointed Xenophon Zolotas as Prime Minister for three months. In 1991, KKE withdrew from Synaspismos. Some KKE members left the party and remained in Synaspismos, which evolved into a separate left-wing party that is now an alliance of Synaspismos with other leftist groups called the Coalition of the Radical Left.
21st century
KKE actively participated in the anti-austerity protests beginning in 2010
and also supported Greek steel worker's strikes.
In the first 2012 legislative election held on 6 May, the party got 8.5% of the vote and increased its parliamentary seats by 5 for a total of 26 seats.
However, in the second 2012 legislative election held a month later, on 17 June 2012, the party's support halved, resulting in a loss of 4% and 14 MPs. After the failure of the Hellenic Parliament to elect a new President of State in late 2014, the parliament was dissolved and a snap legislative election was scheduled for 25 January 2015, where the party increased its support by 1 percentage point, to 5.5%. At the fresh elections later that year, the party got a slight increase of 0.1% to reach 5.6% of the vote.
Since the 2015 election, the party saw a further increase in its support on opinion polls, overtaking the former major party PASOK to reach 4th place.
Although KKE was again overtaken by PASOK (now called Movement for Change - KINAL) in the 2019 election, it nonetheless managed to maintain a 4th place on the polls, due to the decline of far-right party Golden Dawn.
Policies
Economy
The KKE proposes the nationalization of the means of production and a restructuring centralisation of the economy: consequently, it requires a scientific planning oriented to meet all the needs of the Greek people (for example: jobs, health care, education, culture, sport...).
Furthermore, the KKE is absolutely opposed to Greece remaining in the European Union and NATO.
LGBT rights
KKE voted against the Civil Partnerships Bill proposed by Syriza in December 2015 responding, among other things:
The family is a social relationship, it is an institution for the protection of children, as it was formed in the context of today's society, capitalism. We also believe that civil marriage should be the only, obligatory form of marriage. And whoever wants, let him have the right to the corresponding religious ceremony. But you do not touch upon this urban modernization that has taken place in other countries for years.
If the government wanted to introduce a less "bureaucratic" civil marriage, it could propose the necessary amendments to the Civil Code. There is no need for two legal regulations (civil marriage and cohabitation agreement) on the rights and obligations between spouses, the core of which is the potential reproduction, upbringing and upbringing of children.
Today, this is confirmed by the fact that the Cohabitation Agreement is extended in terms of obligations and rights of both parties, which essentially resembles marriage and especially by the fact that it extends to same-sex couples. Greece's condemnation by the European Court of Justice, cited by the government and the Report, was not a breach of any positive obligation imposed by the European Convention on Human Rights. But it was a negative discrimination against homosexual scales, but in the context of the institutionalization of the Cohabitation Pact. If there was no Cohabitation Pact for heterosexual couples, there would be no question of condemning Greece.
The aim of the bill is essentially the institutional recognition of same-sex couples, including - in a process - the acquisition of children by them. And there, is our disagreement.
Rights and obligations arise within marriage, which is the legal expression of the social relations of the family. It includes social protection of children, who are biologically the result of sexual relations between a man and a woman.
With the formation of a socialist-communist society, a new type of partnership will undoubtedly be formed—a relatively stable heterosexual relationship and reproduction.
Many democratic socialist parties, including Syriza, have denounced the KKE's anti-LGBT stances as bigotry.
Drug reform
KKE opposes decriminalization of drug consumption and drug trafficking. It opposes the division of drugs on more and less harmful, considering harm reduction legislation as "dominant bourgeois policy". It also opposes substitution rehabilitation programs (and endorses "cold turkey" programs) as it believes drug substitutes replace one addiction for another.
KKE positions on drug reform are summed up, among other texts, in an article on one of their websites:(KKE).. is opposed both to the current repressive policy that imprisons users and frees traders and to the problem management policies as well as to the efforts to privatize the existing detoxification and prevention services.
KKE believes in tackling the drug problem effectively. It supports the only realistic solution which is to strengthen the prevention - treatment - reintegration efforts. He says: No to ALL drugs. It denies the separation of soft - hard (drugs). It does not believe in substitution programs, which maintain drug addiction and do not cure it. The substitution should concern special groups (eg with chronic diseases). NO to the decriminalization of hashish. "Demand reduction" policy not "harm reduction" policy.
Splits and alliances
In 1956, after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at which Nikita Khrushchev denounced the excesses of Joseph Stalin, a faction created the Group of Marxist–Leninists of Greece (OMLE), which split from party in 1964, becoming the Organisation of Marxists-Leninists of Greece.
In 1968, amidst the Greek military junta of 1967–1974 and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, a relatively big group split from KKE, forming KKE Interior, claiming to be directed from within Greece rather than from the Soviet Union.
In 1988, KKE and Greek Left (the former KKE Interior), along with other left parties and organisations, formed the Coalition of the Left and Progress.
Also in 1988, the vast majority of members and officials from Communist Youth of Greece (KNE), the KKE's youth wing, split to form the New Left Current (NAR), drawing mainly youth in major cities, especially in Thessaloniki.
In the early 2000s, a small group of major party officials such as Mitsos Kostopoulos left the party and formed the Movement for the United in Action Left (KEDA), which in the 2007 legislative election participated in the Coalition of the Radical Left (Syriza), which was to win the 2015 national elections with a plurality.
Youth organisation
KKE's youth organization is the Communist Youth of Greece, which closely supports KKE's goals and strategic targets.
Current activities
KKE is a force in the Greek political scene, rallying a significant amount of support within the organized working-class movement. KKE is currently trying to mold a loose and rather disorganised international communist movement along a purely Marxist–Leninist line. Since its 18th congress (February 2009), KKE has opened up a discussion within the ranks and more broadly within the Greek left-leaning community on the future evolution of communism in the 21st century, with a particular emphasis on examining the causes of the collapse of the Socialist system in the former Soviet Union and in Eastern Europe.
The KKE stands in elections and has representatives in the Greek Parliament, local authorities and the European Parliament, where its two MEPs sit with the Non-Inscrits. On 3 June 2014, following the 2014 European elections the Central Committee of the KKE announced that it would no longer continue the party's affiliation to the European United Left–Nordic Green Left (GUE/NGL) group in the European parliament.
It publishes the daily newspaper Rizospastis. It also publishes the political and theoretical journal Komounistiki Epitheorisi (Communist Review) every two months and a journal covering educational issues, Themata Paideias.
The congresses of the Communist Party of Greece
The 1st congress – November 1918, Piraeus
The 2nd congress – April 1920, Athens
Extraordinary pre-election congress – September 1920, Athens
Extraordinary congress – October 1922, Athens
Extraordinary pre-election congress – September 1923, Athens
The 3rd (extraordinary) congress – 26 November–3 December 1924, Athens
The 3rd (ordinary) congress – March 1927, Athens
The 4th congress – December 1928, Athens
The 5th congress – March 1934, Athens
The 6th congress – December 1935, Athens
The 7th congress – October 1945, Athens
The 8th congress – August 1961 (illegally)
The 9th congress – December 1973 (illegally)
The 10th congress – May 1978
The 11th congress – December 1982, Athens
The 12th congress – May 1987
The 13th congress – 19–24 February 1991, Athens
The 14th congress – 18–21 December 1991, Athens
The 15th congress – 22–26 May 1996, Athens
The 16th congress – 14–17 December 2000, Athens
The 17th congress – 9–12 February 2005, Athens
The 18th congress – 18–22 February 2009, Athens
The 19th congress – 11–14 April 2013, Athens
The 20th congress – 30 March - 2 April 2017, Athens
The 21st congress – 24–27 June 2021, Athens
KKE delegations participated in international conferences of Communist and working parties (1957, 1960, 1969, Moscow). KKE approved the documents accepted at the conferences.
List of First Secretaries and General Secretaries
Nikolaos Dimitratos (November 1918–February 1922), expelled from the party on charges of "suspect behavior"
Yanis Kordatos (February–November 1922)
Nikolaos Sargologos (November 1922–September 1923), expelled from the party on charges of "espionage"
Thomas Apostolidis (September 1923–December 1924), expelled from the party on charges of "opportunism"
Pandelis Pouliopoulos (December 1924–September 1925)
Eleftherios Stavridis (1925–1926), expelled from the party on charges of pro-bourgeoisies political position
Pastias Giatsopoulos (September 1926– March 1927), expelled from the party on charges of "liquidarism"
Andronikos Chaitas (March 1927 – 1931), expelled from the party and executed in the Soviet Union in 1935
Nikos Zachariadis (1931–1936), first term
Andreas Tsipas (July 1941–September 1941)
Georgios Siantos (January 1942 – 1945), caretaker until the return of Zachariadis
Nikos Zachariadis (1945–1956), second term
Apostolos Grozos (1956)
Konstantinos Koligiannis (1956–1972)
Charilaos Florakis (1972–1989)
Grigoris Farakos (1989–1991), resigned from the party to join Synaspismos
Aleka Papariga (1991–2013)
Dimitris Koutsoumpas (2013–present)
Election results
Hellenic Parliament
A 1977 results compared to the United Left totals in the 1974 election.
B Contested as Coalition of the Left and Progress.
European Parliament
A Contested as Coalition of the Left and Progress.
Party membership
See also
All-Workers Militant Front (PAME)
International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties
Initiative of Communist and Workers' Parties
Footnotes
Further reading
Dimitri Kitsikis, Populism, Eurocommunism and the Communist Party of Greece, in M. Waller, Communist Parties in Western Europe – Oxford, Blackwell, 1988.
Dimitri Kitsikis, "Greece: Communism in a Non-Western Setting," in D. E. Albright, Communism and Political Systems in Western Europe. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979.
Dimitri Kitsikis, "Greek Communists and the Karamanlis Government," Problems of Communism, vol.26 (January–February 1977), pp. 42–56.
Artiem Ulunian, "The Communist Party of Greece and the Comintern: Evaluations, Instructions, and Subordination," in Tim Rees and Andrew Thorpe (eds.), International Communism and the Communist International, 1919-43. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998.
External links
Neni Panourgiá. Dangerous "Citizens Online". Online version of Dangerous Citizens: The Greek Left and the Terror of the State. .
Gabriele D'Angeli (19 April 2012). "The KKE and the Greek revolution". National Committee of the Italian Young Communists.
Dimitri Kitsikis (January 2010). Kitsikis/article "Grèce. Le Synaspismos tiraillé entre social-démocratie et anarchisme". Grande Europe. No. 16. La Documentation Française.
Dimitri Kitsikis (1975). "Le mouvement communiste en Grèce". Études internationales. Vol. 6. No. 3.
Communist parties in Greece
Marxism–Leninism
Greece
Eurosceptic parties in Greece
Far-left politics in Greece
1918 establishments in Greece
Political parties established in 1918
Parties represented in the European Parliament
International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties
Formerly banned communist parties
Far-left political parties |
356446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3zef%20Ignacy%20Kraszewski | Józef Ignacy Kraszewski | Józef Ignacy Kraszewski (28 July 1812 – 19 March 1887) was a Polish writer, publisher, historian, journalist, scholar, painter, and author who produced more than 200 novels and 150 novellas, short stories, and art reviews, which makes him the most prolific writer in the history of Polish literature. He is best known for his epic series on the history of Poland, comprising twenty-nine novels in seventy-nine parts.
Biography
He was the oldest son born to a family of the Polish nobility (Szlachta). He studied medicine, then philosophy, at the University of Vilnius, and was a supporter of the November Uprising in 1830. As a result, he was arrested and imprisoned until 1832. After his release, he had to live under police supervision in Vilnius, but was allowed to go to his father's estate near Pruzhany the following year. In 1838 he married Zofia Woroniczówna, niece of , the former Bishop of Warsaw, and went with her to Volhynia, where he engaged in farming his family's estates. In 1839, he published his first important work, the novel Poeta i świat (The Poet and the World).
Between 1841 and 1851, in Vilnius, he published the literary and scientific journal . When this failed, he returned to Warsaw, where he became a contributor to the Gazeta Warszawska, in addition to his other writing. In 1853, in an effort to better support and educate his four children, they moved to Zofia's inherited family estate near Zhytomyr, where he became a school superintendent and, in 1856, Director of the local theatre. He also dealt with the issue of serfdom, and was a member of the "Committee for the Liberation of the Peasant Estate"; advocating in favor of land grants. This was met with strong opposition and threats. As a result of his increasing disgust for the local nobility, he went back to Warsaw in 1859, apparently leaving his family in Zhytomyr, and taking over the editorship of the .
In 1861, he became a member of the , a secret organization, preparing for the revolution. Following the January Uprising, he fled to avoid being exiled to Siberia. His intention was to live in France, but he stopped when he reached Dresden, where he met many of his fellow revolutionaries, and was involved in relief efforts for Polish refugees. He remained there until 1868, when he began travelling; to Switzerland, Italy, France and Belgium. Later, he published an account of his travels: Reiseblätter (Travel Sheets).
His application for Saxon citizenship was approved in 1869. He acquired some property, with a garden, and lived there until 1879, when he able to afford a larger property. He lived there until 1883, when he was arrested, while visiting Berlin, and accused of working for the French secret service. He was, in fact, making monetary contributions to the French government. After being tried by the Reichsgericht in Leipzig, he was sentenced to three and a half years imprisonment in Magdeburg. Due to poor health, he was released on bail in 1885.
Rather than remain in Magdeburg, as required, he returned to Dresden, sold his property, and left to look for a new home in Sanremo. There, he hoped to regain his health, and avoid being arrested again. When the possibility of extradition arose, he fled to Geneva, where he died, four days after his arrival. His remains were transferred to Kraków, and he was interred at "Saint Michael the Archangel and Saint Stanislaus the Bishop and Martyr Basilica", commonly known as "Skałka". Since 1960, his former home in Dresden has been the .
He is credited with over 240 novels and short stories. His best-known works are the six "Saxon Novels", written between 1873 and 1883 in Dresden. Together, they create a detailed history of the Electorate of Saxony, from 1697 to 1763. The first of his books to be adapted for film was Gräfin Cosel (1968), directed by Jerzy Antczak, with Jadwiga Barańska in the title role. Twenty years later, in East Germany, the DEFA presented a six-part television series, the , including a new version of Gräfin Cosel, directed by Hans-Joachim Kasprzik.
Selected works
The Saxon Novels
König August der Starke, (Augustus II the Strong), Aufbau Tv, 1999
Gräfin Cosel, (Anna Constantia von Brockdorff), Aufbau Tv, 2012 . Translated into English as Countess Cosel; by the Comte de Soissons, Skomlin Ltd., 2017
Feldmarschall Flemming, (Jacob Heinrich von Flemming), Aufbau Tv, 2001,
Graf Brühl, (Heinrich von Brühl), Aufbau Tv, 2000 . Translated into English as Count Brühl, by the Comte de Soissons, Skomlin Ltd., 2017
Aus dem Siebenjährigen Krieg, Aufbau Tv, 2000
Der Gouverneur von Warschau, Aufbau Tv, 2003,
Other novels
1839: Poeta i świat, (The Poet and the World), Universitas, Lesser-Known Classics Series, 2002 . Gustav, a poor poet, finds his sensibilities at odds with everyday life.
1840: Mistrz Twardowski, (Master Twardowski), reissued by Nabu Press, 2010 . A sorcerer makes a deal with the Devil.
1841: Chata za wsią, (The Cottage outside the Village), Wolne Lektury, 2012 . A complicated romance that gives a realistic picture of Gypsy life and its conflicts with the prevailing culture.
1842: Ulana, Ossolineum, 1996, . A young nobleman, tired of the city, goes to live in a small village, where he falls in love with a peasant girl.
1843: Latarnia czarnoksięska, (The Magic Lantern), Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989 . Stanisław, a naïve young man, comes from abroad to live with relatives in Volhynia, then becomes bored and moves to Warsaw, meeting numerous characters along the way.
1845: Ostap Bondarczuk, Ludowa Spoldzielnia Wydawnicza, 1985, . The story of an orphan, in a village of serfs in Ukraine, during the Napoleonic wars.
1846: Zygmuntowskie czasy, (Sigismund's Times), MG, 2011 . A 16th-century tale about the adventures of a boy who goes to Kraków as a novice.
1847: Budnik, (The Building), Wolne Lektury, 2013 . A rural tale of foresters and home builders; their families and relationships.
1874: Morituri (Latin: About to Die), Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1986 . A cautionary tale about the fall of a noble family in post-partition Poland.
1876: Stara baśń, (An Ancient Tale), MG, 2018 . A story of political intrigues in pre-Christian Poland.
Sources
Elżbieta Szymańska/Joanna Magacz: Kraszewski-Museum in Dresden, Warschau 2006.
Zofia Wolska-Grodecka/Brigitte Eckart: Kraszewski-Museum in Dresden, Warschau 1996.
Elżbieta Szymańska/Ulrike Bäumer: Andenken an das Kraszewski-Museum in Dresden, ACGM Lodart, 2000
Victor Krellmann: "Liebesbriefe mit ebenholzschwarzer Tinte. Der polnische Dichter Kraszewski im Dresdner Exil", In: Philharmonische Blätter 1/2004, Dresden 2004.
Friedrich Scholz: Die Literaturen des Baltikums. Ihre Entstehung und Entwicklung. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1990.
Henryk Szczepański: Gwiazdy i legendy dawnych Katowic – Sekrety Załęskiego Przedmieścia. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Śląsk, 2015.
External links
Detailed biography from the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary @ Russian Wikisource
Polish Literature in English Translation
Kraszewski's Museum
Detailed biography @ the Virtual Library of Polish Literature
1812 births
1887 deaths
Writers from Warsaw
Polish historical novelists
Polish male novelists
Polish opinion journalists
19th-century journalists
Male journalists
19th-century Polish novelists
19th-century Polish male writers
Poles - political prisoners in the Prussian partition |
356452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BBegota | Żegota | Żegota (, full codename: the "Konrad Żegota Committee") was the Polish Council to Aid Jews with the Government Delegation for Poland (), an underground Polish resistance organization, and part of the Polish Underground State, active 1942–45 in German-occupied Poland. Żegota was the successor institution to the Provisional Committee to Aid Jews and was established specifically to save Jews. Poland was the only country in German-occupied Europe where such a government-established and -supported underground organization existed.
Estimates of the number of Jews that Żegota provided aid to, and eventually saved, range from several thousands to tens of thousands.
Operatives of Żegota worked in extreme circumstances – under threat of death by the Nazi forces.
Background and organization
The Council to Aid Jews, or Żegota, was the continuation of an earlier aid organization, the Provisional Committee to Aid Jews (Tymczasowy Komitet Pomocy Żydom), that was founded on 27 September 1942 by Polish Catholic activists Zofia Kossak-Szczucka and Wanda Krahelska-Filipowicz ("Alinka"). The Provisional Committee cared for as many as 180 people, but due to political and financial reasons it was dissolved and replaced by Żegota on 4 December 1942. One of the co-founders of Żegota was Henryk Woliński of the Home Army (AK) who helped integrate it with the Polish Underground State. Woliński is also credited with developing the idea for this organization.
Kossak-Szczucka initially wanted Żegota to become an example of a "pure Christian charity", arguing that Jews had their own international charity organizations. Nevertheless, Żegota was run by both Jews and non-Jews from a wide range of political movements. Julian Grobelny, an activist in the prewar Polish Socialist Party, was elected as General Secretary, and Ferdynand Arczyński – a member of the Polish Democratic Party – as treasurer. Adolf Berman and Leon Feiner represented the Jewish National Committee (an umbrella group representing the Zionist parties) and the Marxist General Jewish Labour Bund. Both parties operated independently, channeling funds donated by Jewish organizations abroad to Żegota and other underground operations. Other members included the Polish Socialist Party, the Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne) and the Catholic Front for the Rebirth of Poland (Front Odrodzenia Polski) led by Kossak-Szczucka and Witold Bieńkowski, editors of its underground publications. The right-wing National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe) refused to take part in the organization.
Operations
Żegota had specialized departments for issues such as clothing, children welfare, medical care, housing and other relevant issues. It had around one hundred cells that provided food, medical care, money, and false identification documents to thousands of Polish Jews hiding in the "Aryan" side of the German occupation zone. Creation and distribution of false documents has been described as one of the organization's major tasks, and it is estimated to have produced up to a hundred sets of false identities for Jewish refugees. Another estimate credits Żegota with forging about 50,000 documents such as marriage certificates, baptismal records, death certificates and employment cards to help Jews pass off as Christians. In forging documents, Żegota cooperated with the Home Army, which often provided facilities for forging German identification papers.
The organization headquarters was located in Warsaw at 24 . Żegota was active chiefly in Warsaw, but it also provided money, food, and medicines for prisoners in several forced-labor camps, as well as to refugees in Kraków, Wilno (Vilnius), and Lwów (L'viv). Żegota's activities overlapped to a considerable extent with those of the other major organizations dedicated to helping Jews in Poland – namely the Jewish National Committee, which cared for some 5,600 Jews; and the Bund, which cared for an additional 1,500. Together, the three organizations were able to reach some 8,500 of the 28,000 Jews hiding in Warsaw, and perhaps another 1,000 hiding elsewhere in Poland.
Żegota's children's section in Warsaw, headed by a Polish social worker Irena Sendler, cared for 2,500 Jewish children. Many were placed with foster families, in public orphanages, church orphanages, and convents.
Żegota repeatedly asked the Polish Government-in-Exile and the Government Delegation for Poland to appeal to the Polish people to help the persecuted Jews. The Government in Exile gradually increased its funding for Żegota throughout the war.
Richard C. Lukas estimated that 60,000, or about half of the Jews who survived the Holocaust in occupied Poland (such estimates vary), were aided in some shape or form by Żegota. Czesław Łuczak estimates the number of aid recipients at about 30,000. Paul R. Bartrop estimated that Żegota helped to save about 4,000 Jews and provided assistance to about 25,000 in total.
Operational difficulties
Under the German occupation, hiding or assisting Jewish refugees was punishable by death. However, it was no less dangerous due to the risk posed by fellow Poles, some of whom did not see kindly lending help for Jews. Irena Sendler is quoted as saying "during [the war] it was simpler to hide a tank under the carpet than shelter a Jewish child."
According to Richard C. Lukas, "The number of Poles who perished at the hands of the Germans for aiding Jews" is difficult to establish, with estimates ranging from several thousand to as high as fifty thousand. Paul R. Bartrop estimated that about 20,000 Żegota operatives were killed by the Nazis, and thousands of others were arrested and imprisoned.
Financial situation
The Polish Government-in-Exile, based in London, faced immense difficulties funding its institutions in German-occupied Poland; this affected funding for Żegota as well. Part of the funds had to be sent in via highly inefficient airdrops (only some 17% of which succeeded) and some could only be delivered late in the war.
Despite these difficulties, throughout the war, the Polish Government-in-Exile continually increased its funding for Żegota: the Polish Government's monthly support was increased from 30,000 złoty to 338,000 złoty in May 1944, and to 1,000,000 złoty by war's end. The Polish Government's overall financial contribution to Żegota and Jewish organizations came to 37,400,000 złoty, 1,000,000 dollars, and 200,000 Swiss francs (see financial details below). According to Marcin Urynowicz, the percentage of the funds allocated by the Polish Government-in-Exile to help Jews, including through Żegota, was based on their percentage in Poland's prewar general population.
Antony Polonsky writes that "Zegota's successes—it was able to forge false documents for some 50,000 persons—suggest that, had it been given a higher priority by the Delegatura and the government in London, it could have done much more." Polonsky quotes Władysław Bartoszewski as saying that the organization was considered a "stepchild" of the underground; and Emanuel Ringelblum, who wrote that "a Council for Aid to the Jews was formed, consisting of people of good will, but its activity was limited by lack of funds and lack of help from the government." A similar description is given by historian Martin Winstone, who writes that Żegota fought an uphill battle for funding and received more support from Jewish organizations than from the Polish Government-in-Exile. He also notes that the Polish right-wing parties completely refused to support it. Shmuel Krakowski described the funding as "modest", and writes that the Polish government could have allocated more to funding the organization. He writes that "[the funding] was indeed very little considering not only the needs of the council and the immensity of the Jewish tragedy but also the resources at the Polish underground's disposal... they could have been much more generous in allocating resources needed to save human lives."
Joseph Kermish describes the relationship between Żegota and the Government Delegation for Poland as strained, with frequent disagreements about funding and the extent of the humanitarian crisis Żegota was trying to address.
It has been estimated that the cost of saving one Jewish life was around 6,000–15,000 Polish zloties.
Prominent activists
In a letter from 26 February 1977 Adolf Berman mentions the following activists as especially meritorious:
Maria Grzegorzewska
Irena Solska
Janina Buchholtz-Bukolska
Irena Sawicka
Ewa Rybicka
Stanisław and Maria Ossowscy
Jan and Antonina Żabińscy
Stefania Sempołowska
Jan Wesołowski
Sylwia Rzeczycka
Regina Fleszarowa
Postwar recognition
In 1963 Żegota was commemorated in Israel with the planting of a tree in the Avenue of the Righteous at Yad Vashem, with Władysław Bartoszewski present. In 1995 a monument to the organization was unveiled in Warsaw. Another monument was unveiled in 2009 in the Survivors' Park in Łódź. Żegota is also commemorated in plaques at places of its regional offices in Warsaw and Kraków. In 2009 a commemorative series of coins was issued by the National Bank of Poland.
See also
List of Żegota members
Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust
Aleksander Ładoś
History of the Jews in Poland
Timeline of Jewish-Polish history
Polish resistance movement in World War II
Occupation of Poland (1939–45)
Notes and references
Specific
General
External links
Excerpts from the book Żegota by Irena Tomaszewska & Tecia Werbowski
Zegota – book and documentary film
The Activities of the Council for Aid to Jews ("Żegota") In Occupied Poland
Rescue of Jews by Poles in occupied Poland in 1939-1945
Polish Underground State
1942 establishments in Poland
Organizations which rescued Jews during the Holocaust
1945 disestablishments in Poland |
356454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%CA%BFmt | Dʿmt | D mt (Ge'ez: ደዐመተ, DʿMT theoretically vocalized as ዳዓማት, Daʿamat or ዳዕማት, Daʿəmat) was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia that existed between the 10th and 5th centuries BC. Few inscriptions by or about this kingdom survive and very little archaeological work has taken place. As a result, it is not known whether Dʿmt ended as a civilization before the Kingdom of Aksum's early stages, evolved into the Aksumite state, or was one of the smaller states united in the Kingdom of Aksum possibly around the beginning of the 1st century.
History
Given the presence of a large temple complex, the capital of Dʿmt may have been present day Yeha, in Tigray Region, Ethiopia. At Yeha, the temple to the god Ilmuqah is still standing.
The kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons.
Some modern historians including Stuart Munro-Hay, Rodolfo Fattovich, Ayele Bekerie, Cain Felder, and Ephraim Isaac consider this civilization to be indigenous, although Sabaean-influenced due to the latter's dominance of the Red Sea, while others like Joseph Michels, Henri de Contenson, Tekle-Tsadik Mekouria, and Stanley Burstein have viewed Dʿmt as the result of a mixture of Sabaeans and indigenous peoples. Some sources consider the Sabaean influence to be minor, limited to a few localities, and disappeared after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Aksumite state. However other sources hold that Dʿmt, though having indigenous roots, was under strong South Arabian economic and cultural influence.
After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller unknown successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century BC, the Aksumite Kingdom.
Name
Due to the similarity of the name of Dʿmt and Damot when transcribed into Latin characters, these two kingdoms are often confused or conflated with one another, but there is no evidence of any relationship to Damot, a kingdom far to the south and existing a millennium and a half later.
Known rulers
The following is a list of four known rulers of Dʿmt, in chronological order:
Regions
Barka
Bur
Hamassien
Marya
Seraye
Yeha
See also
History of Eritrea
Kingdom of Aksum
Land of Punt
References
Countries in ancient Africa
5th-century BC disestablishments
States and territories established in the 8th century BC
States and territories disestablished in the 5th century BC
8th-century BC establishments |
356455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw%20Bartoszewski | Władysław Bartoszewski | Władysław Bartoszewski (; 19 February 1922 – 24 April 2015) was a Polish politician, social activist, journalist, writer and historian. A former Auschwitz concentration camp prisoner, he was a World War II resistance fighter as part of the Polish underground and participated in the Warsaw Uprising. After the war he was persecuted and imprisoned by the communist Polish People's Republic due to his membership in the Home Army (Armia Krajowa, AK) and opposition activity.
After the collapse of the communist regime, Bartoszewski served twice as the Minister of Foreign Affairs from March through December 1995 and again from 2000 to 2001. He was also an ambassador and a member of the Polish Senate. Bartoszewski was a close ally and friend of Polish anti-Communist activist and later president Lech Wałęsa.
Bartoszewski was a chevalier of the Order of the White Eagle, an honorary citizen of Israel, and a member of the International Honorary Council of the European Academy of Diplomacy.
Early life
Bartoszewski was born in Warsaw to a Catholic family. He studied at Saint Stanisław Kostka Secondary School. In 1939 he graduated from The Humanist High School of the Roman Catholic Future Educational Society in Warsaw.
World War II
In September 1939, Bartoszewski took part in the civil defense of Warsaw as a stretcher-bearer. From May 1940, he worked in the first social clinic of the Polish Red Cross in Warsaw. On 19 September 1940, Bartoszewski was detained in the Warsaw district of Żoliborz during a surprise round-up of members of the public (łapanka), along with some 2,000 civilians (among them, Witold Pilecki). From 22 September 1940, he was detained in Auschwitz concentration camp (his inmate number was 4427). Due to actions undertaken by the Polish Red Cross, he was released from Auschwitz on 8 April 1941.
Polish Underground State
After his release from Auschwitz, Bartoszewski contacted the Association of Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej). In the summer of 1941, he reported on his concentration camp imprisonment to the Information Department of the Information and Propaganda Bureau of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa, or AK, a reformed version of the Association of Armed Struggle and the largest resistance movement in Poland). In 1942, he joined the Front for the Rebirth of Poland (Front Odrodzenia Polski), which was a secret, Catholic, social-educational and charity organization founded by Zofia Kossak-Szczucka. From October 1941 until 1944, Bartoszewski studied Polish studies in the secret Humanist Department of Warsaw University. At this time, higher education of Poles was outlawed by the German occupational authorities.
In August 1942, Bartoszewski became a soldier of the Home Army, working as a reporter in the "P" Subdivision of the Information Department of its Information and Propaganda Bureau. His pseudonym "Teofil" was inspired by Teofil Grodzicki, a fictional character from Jan Parandowski's novel entitled The Sky in Flames. He cooperated with Kazimierz Moczarski in the two-man P-1 report of the "P" subdivision.
From September 1942, Bartoszewski was active on behalf of the Front for the Rebirth of Poland in the Provisional Committee for Aid to Jews and its successor organization, the Council for Aid to Jews (codenamed Żegota). Żegota, a Polish World War II resistance organization whose objective was to help Jews during the Holocaust, operated under the auspices of the Polish Government in Exile through the Delegatura, its presence in Warsaw. He remained a member of Żegota until the Warsaw Uprising. In 1943, he replaced Witold Bieńkowski in the Jewish Department of the Delegatura.
From November 1942 to September 1943, Bartoszewski was an editorial team secretary of the Catholic magazine Prawda (The Truth), the press organ of the Front for the Rebirth of Poland. From fall of 1942 until spring of 1944, Bartoszewski was the editor-in-chief of the Catholic magazine Prawda Młodych (The Youth's Truth), which was also connected with the Front for the Rebirth of Poland and aimed at university and high-school students. In November 1942, Bartoszewski became a vice-manager of a division created in the Department of Internal Affairs of the Delegatura, whose remit was to help prisoners of Pawiak prison. In February 1943, Bartoszewski became a reporter and vice-manager of the Department's Jewish Report. As a part of his activities for Żegota and the Jewish Report, he organized assistance for the participants of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in April 1943.
On 1 August 1944, Bartoszewski began his participation in the Warsaw Uprising. He was an aide to the commander of radio post "Asma" and editor-in-chief of the magazine The News from the City and The Radio News. On 20 September, by orders from the commandant of the Warsaw District of the AK, General Antoni "Monter" Chruściel, Bartoszewski was decorated with the Silver Cross of Merit. This was the result of a proposal put forward by the chief of the Information and Propaganda Bureau in General Headquarters of the Home Army, Colonel Jan Rzepecki). On 1 October, he was appointed Second Lieutenant by the AK commander general Tadeusz "Bór" Komorowski (also due to a proposal by Rzepecki). He received the Cross of Valor order on 4 October.
Post-World War II
Bartoszewski left Warsaw on 7 October 1944. He continued his underground activity in the Information and Propaganda Bureau of the Home Army at its General Headquarters in Kraków. From November 1944 to January 1945, he held a position as editorial team secretary for Information Bulletin. At the end of February 1945, he returned to Warsaw, where he began his service in the information and propaganda section of NIE resistance movement. From May to August 1945, Bartoszewski was serving in the sixth unit of the Delegatura (he was responsible for information and propaganda) under the supervision of Kazimierz Moczarski). On 10 October 1945, he revealed that he had served in the AK.
In Autumn 1945, Bartoszewski started his cooperation with the Institute of National Remembrance at the presidium of the government and the Head Commission of Examination of German Crimes in Poland. His information gathered during the occupation period about the Nazi crimes, the situation in concentration camps and prisons, as well as his knowledge concerning the Jewish genocide, appeared to be very helpful.
In February 1946 he began his work in the editorial section of Gazeta Ludowa (People's Gazette), the main press organ of the Polish People's Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe, PSL). Soon, he joined the PSL, at that time the only influential party in opposition to the communist government. In the articles published in Gazeta Ludowa, he mentioned the outstanding figures of the Polish Underground State (the interview with Stefan Korboński, the report from the funeral of Jan Piekałkiewicz), and the events connected with the fight for liberation of the country (a series of sketches presenting the Warsaw Uprising entitled Dzień Walczącej Stolicy).
Due to his collaboration with the PSL, Bartoszewski became subject to repressions by the security services. On 15 November 1946, he was falsely accused of being a spy, resulting in him being arrested and held by the Ministry of Public Security of Poland. In December, he was transferred to the Mokotów Prison; he was released on 10 April 1948, with the help of Zofia Rudnicka (a former chief of Żegota, then working in the Ministry of Justice). Although Bartoszewski was accepted into the third year of Polish Studies in December 1948, his arrest in 1949 and the resulting five years' imprisonment rendered him unable to finish his studies.
Bartoszewski was again arrested on 14 December 1949. On 29 May 1952, he was sentenced by the Military District Court to eight years in prison due to the false charge of espionage. In April 1954, he was moved to the prison in Rawicz and in June to the prison in Racibórz. He was released in August 1954 on a year's parole due to his bad health condition. On 2 March 1955, during the wave of de-Stalinization, Bartoszewski was informed he was wrongly sentenced.
Career
Literary, academic and journalistic activity
After Bartoszewski was found wrongly sentenced and released from prison, he returned to his journalistic activity. Since August 1955, he was the editor-in-chief of specialist publishing houses of the Polish Librarians Association. Since July 1956, he was publishing his articles in Stolica weekly, and since January 1957 he was a member of an editorial section. From the Summer of 1958 to December 1960, he held the position of the secretary of the editorial section. In August 1957, Bartoszewski began working with Tygodnik Powszechny (Universal Weekly). Since July 1982, he was a member of the editorial section. In November 1958, Bartoszewski was again accepted by the Linguistic Department of Warsaw University, in extramural mode. He submitted his master's thesis written under the supervision of professor Julian Krzyżanowski. However, by decision of the vice-chancellor, he was expelled from the university in October 1962.
On 18 April 1963, Bartoszewski was decorated with the Polonia Restituta medal for his help to the Jews during the war. The proposal was put forward by the Jewish Historical Institute. Between September and November 1963, he resided in Israel at the invitation of the Yad Vashem Institute. In the name of the Council for Aid to Jews, he received the diploma of the Righteous Among the Nations. In 1966, he received the medal of the Righteous Among the Nations. In memoriam, former Israeli Ambassador Govrin will later write: "Władysław Bartoszewski will always be remembered as an individual who greatly contributed to the strengthening of Polish-Israeli ties, well before diplomatic ties were renewed and well after.
From November to December 1963, Bartoszewski lived in Austria, where he entered into communication with Austrian intellectual and political societies. In November 1963, he begun his cooperation with Radio Free Europe. In the next years, he was traveling to the Federal Republic of Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Israel and the United States, where he got in touch mainly with some of the representatives of Polish emigration (among others with Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, Jan Karski, Czesław Miłosz and Gustaw Herling-Grudziński). In 1969–73, Bartoszewski served as the chairman of the Warsaw Department of the Society of Book Lovers (Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Książki) and in December 1969 he was appointed a member of the board of the Polish PEN. From 1972 to 1983, he served as the chief secretary of the Polish PEN. In 1973–82, and again in 1984–85, Bartoszewski lectured as a senior lecturer (the counterpart of vice-professor). His lectures concerned modern history (with the special emphasis on the war and occupation) in the Institute of Modern History on the Humanistic Science Department of KUL (Catholic University of Lublin). In December 1981, he was an active participant in the First Polish Culture Congress, which was interrupted by the enforcement of martial law in Poland.
In 1983–1984 and 1986–1988, Bartoszewski lectured at the Institute of Political Science Faculty of Social Sciences at the Ludwig-Maximilian University in Munich (as well as the Media Science Institute at the same university in 1989–90). He was named Visiting Professor by the Bavarian government. In 1984, he received an honorary doctorate from Hebrew College in Baltimore (USA) as well as a certificate of the recognition from the American Jewish Committee in New York.
From May 1984, Bartoszewski was a full member of the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America. From 1986 he served as one of the deputy-chairmen at the Institute of Polish-Jewish Studies at the University of Oxford. In the academic year 1985 he was lecturing at the Faculty of History and Social Sciences at the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt in the Federal Republic of Germany. From 1988 to 1989, he lectured at the Institute of Political Science in the Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences at the University of Augsburg. In 1992 he was appointed a member of the Independent Commission of Experts (ICE) 1992–2002 which was set up by the Swiss parliament to examine the refugee policy of the Switzerland during World War II as well as economic and financial relationships between Switzerland and Nazi Germany. Bartoszewski took part in many international conferences and seminars dedicated to the issues of World War II, the Jewish genocide, Polish-German and Polish-Jewish relationships as well as the role of Polish intellectualists in politics. He delivered a number of lectures and reports on the various international forums.
Opposition activity
In 1970, due to his opposition activity and various relations in Western countries, Bartoszewski was forbidden to publish his works in Poland (until autumn 1974). He also fell victim to searches, denials of passport and distributing forgeries). In 1974, he was engaged in activity focusing on reprieving the convicted members of the organization (among others Stefan Niesiołowski and Andrzej Czuma). In January 1976, as one of the first, Bartoszewski signed the letter of intellectualists protesting against the introduction of changes into the constitution of the People's Republic of Poland. He helped establish the Society for Educational Courses and he lectured at the "Flying University".
On 21 August 1980, Bartoszewski signed the intellectuals' letter to the protesting workers from the Polish coast. During 1980/1981 he was a member of Solidarity. After announcing martial law on 13 December 1981, he was a detainee in Białołęka prison and later in the Internment Center in Jaworze at Drawsko Pomorskie Military Training Area. He was released on 28 April 1982 due to the support from intellectual communities from Poland and from abroad.
In 1981, Edward Raczyński, the President of Poland in exile, proposed Bartoszewski as his successor so Bartoszewski could become president in exile after his resignation. Raczyński, according to his own words, wanted someone from the country and not the emigre circles as well as with strong ties to the opposition in Poland. Bartoszewski, however, graciously refused. In 1987 Raczyński's final successor, Kazimierz Sabbat, also proposed Batoszewski be nominated, but he declined. Had he accepted the position, he would have succeeded Sabbat after his sudden death in 1989.
Third Republic of Poland
Diplomatic and politic activity
From September 1990 to March 1995, Bartoszewski held the position of Ambassador of the Polish Republic to Austria. On 28 April 1995, he delivered a speech during the solemn joint session of the Bundestag and Bundesrat on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the ending of World War II as the only foreign speaker. On 22 December 1995, he resigned from his office due to the end of Lech Wałęsa's presidential term. Once again, Bartoszewski became chief of Polish Internal Affairs in June 2000 in Jerzy Buzek's government. From 1997 to 2001, he was the Senator of the fourth term and the chairperson in the Office for International Affairs and European Integration. As a Senior Speaker he chaired the inaugural session of the Senate of the Republic of Poland. On 21 November 2007, Bartoszewski was named Secretary of State in the Office of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister Donald Tusk) and plenipotentiary for international affairs.
Social and academic activity
From June 1990, Bartoszewski was chairperson of the International Council of the National Auschwitz Museum. From 1991 to 1995, he was the member of the National Council for Polish-Jewish Relations from the presidential office. From March 1995, he was the deputy chairman of the Polish PEN. In 1996, he received an honorary doctorate of the University of Wrocław.
Starting in June 2001, Bartoszewski was the leader of the Council for the Protection of Memory of Combat and Martyrdom. On 27 January 2005, on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau, he delivered speeches as the representative of the Polish inmates of concentration camps. For many years he was a strong supporter of the Polish-Jewish and Polish-German reconciliation. Through his journalistic and academic activity he contributed to retaining the memory of the Polish Underground State, the Warsaw Uprising and the crimes of totalitarism.
From 26 January to 29 June 2006, Bartoszewski headed the board of LOT Polish Airlines. He was a member of the Polish Writers' Association. He was also chairperson of the Polish Institute of International Affairs in Warsaw, but resigned from the position on 29 August 2006. The reason was that there was no reaction from then-Minister of Foreign Affairs Anna Fotyga to the accusations formulated by deputy Minister of Defense Antoni Macierewicz who alleged that most of hitherto Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Third Republic of Poland were former agents of the Soviet special services according to files known as "fałszywkas" produced by the SB secret police.
Bartoszewski's scholarly credentials were controversial. He had no university degree but used the title of "professor", suggesting that he had an academic degree. After objections from the German and Polish academic communities, the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs removed the title of "professor" before Bartoszewski's name from its web page. Despite his lack of formal academic qualifications, Bartoszewski taught graduate-level history courses at several accredited and prestigious universities, including the renowned KUL (John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin), which lists Bartoszewski as a reader in modern history (and chair of Polish Postwar History) in the Faculty of Humanities, 1973–1985, and awarded him an honorary doctorate in 2008. From April 2009 he was a council member of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation. In July 2010 he became a member of the International Council of the Austrian Service Abroad.
At a joint conference of the Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM) and the Israel Council on Foreign Relations (ICFR) held in Warsaw in November 2017, ICFR director Laurence Weinbaum paid tribute to Bartoszewski and said he had played an important role in developing relations between Poland and Israel: "At a time when in certain quarters we are witness to shameless opportunism and the grotesque obfuscation of history, his legacy resonates especially strongly. Bartoszewski taught people that bellicose jingoism and intolerance should not be confused with the true love of one's country and that a society that gives way to its basest instincts is doomed to ruin."
Personal life
Władysław Bartoszewski was first married to Antonina Mijal, but that marriage ended in divorce. He later married Zofia Bartoszewska in 1967; they remained married until his death in 2015. His son, Władysław Teofil Bartoszewski, was born in 1955. He is an academic historian who has written on Polish Jewish history. He is the author of the 1991 book, The Convent at Auschwitz, George Braziller, .
On 24 April 2015, Bartoszewski was admitted to a Warsaw hospital, dying shortly after arrival of a heart attack, aged 93. Flags at the parliament were lowered to half-staff in Bartoszewski's honor. Bartoszewski was survived by wife Zofia and son Władysław Teofil. Bartoszewski's funeral was on 4 May and was buried at Powązki Military Cemetery.
Publications
English
1968 Warsaw Death Ring: 1939–1944, Interpres.
1969 Righteous Among Nations: How Poles Helped the Jews 1939–1945, ed. with Zofia Lewin, Earlscourt Pub, UK;, .
1970 The Samaritans: Heroes of the Holocaust, ed. with Zofia Lewin, Twayne Publishers, New York.
1988 The Warsaw Ghetto: A Christian's Testimony, Beacon Press; .
1991 The Jews in Warsaw: A History, ed. with Antony Polonsky, Blackwell Publishing; .
Polish
Konspiracyjne Varsaviana poetyckie 1939–1944: zarys informacyjny (Warszawa 1962)
Organizacja małego sabotażu "Wawer" w Warszawie (1940–1944) (1966)
Ten jest z Ojczyzny mojej. Polacy z pomocą Żydom 1939–1945 (oprac. wspólnie z Zofią Lewinówną; Znak 1967, 1969)
Warszawski pierścień śmierci 1939–1944 (1967, 1970; ponadto wydania w języku angielskim 1968 i niemieckim 1970)
Kronika wydarzeń w Warszawie 1939–1949 (oprac.; wespół z Bogdanem Brzezińskim i Leszkiem Moczulskim; Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe 1970)
Ludność cywilna w Powstaniu Warszawskim. Prasa, druki ulotne i inne publikacje powstańcze t. I-III (oprac.; praca zbiorowa; Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy 1974)
1859 dni Warszawy (introduction by Aleksander Gieysztor; bibliography of W. Bartoszewski by Zofia Steczowicz-Sajderowa; index by Zofia Bartoszewska; Znak 1974; 2nd edition expanded: 1984, )
Polskie Państwo Podziemne (inauguracyjny wykład TKN wygłoszony w Warszawie 2 XI 1979; II obieg; Niezależna Oficyna Wydawnicza NOWa 1979, 1980; OW "Solidarność" MKZ, Wrocław 1981; Komitet Wyzwolenia Społecznego 1981; Agencja Informacyjna Solidarności Walczącej, Lublin 1985)
Los Żydów Warszawy 1939–1943. W czterdziestą rocznicę powstania w getcie warszawskim (Puls, Londyn 1983; Bez Cięć 1985 [II obieg]; Międzyzakładowa Struktura "Solidarności" 1985 [II obieg]; wydanie 2 poprawione i rozszerzone: Puls 1988, ; Fakt, Łódź 1989 [II obieg])
Jesień nadziei: warto być przyzwoitym (II obieg; tł. z wydania zach.-niem.; posłowie Reinholda Lehmanna; [Lublin]: Spotkania 1984, 1986)
Dni walczącej stolicy. Kronika Powstania Warszawskiego (Aneks, Londyn 1984; Krąg, Warszawa 1984 [II obieg]; Alfa 1989, ; Świat Książki 2004, )
Metody i praktyki Bezpieki w pierwszym dziesięcioleciu PRL (pod pseud. Jan Kowalski; II obieg; Grupy Polityczne "Wola", Ogólnopolski Komitet Oporu Robotników "Solidarność" 1985; Biuletyn Łódzki 1985; Apel 1986; Rota 1986)
Syndykat zbrodni (pod pseudonimem "ZZZ"; 1986)
Na drodze do niepodległości (Editions Spotkania, Paryż 1987, )
Warto być przyzwoitym. szkic do pamiętnika (II obieg; CDN 1988)
Warto być przyzwoitym. Teksty osobiste i nieosobiste (Polskie tłumaczenie książki pt.: Herbst der Hoffnungen: es lohnt sich, anständig zu sein; Wydawnictwo Polskiej Prowincji Dominikanów W drodze 1990, ; wydanie 2 zmienione: 2005, )
Ponad podziałami. Wybrane przemówienia i wywiady – lipiec-grudzień 2000 (Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych 2001, )
Wspólna europejska odpowiedzialność. Wybrane przemówienia i wywiady, styczeń-lipiec 2001 (Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych 2001, )
Moja Jerozolima, mój Izrael. Władysław Bartoszewski w rozmowie z Joanną Szwedowską (posłowie: Andrzej Paczkowski; Rosner i Wspólnicy 2005, )
Władysław Bartoszewski: wywiad-rzeka (rozmowy z Michałem Komarem; Świat Książki 2006, )
Dziennik z internowania. Jaworze 15 December 1981 – 19 April 1982 (Świat Książki 2006)
Pisma wybrane 1942–1957, Tom I (Universitas 2007, )
German
Die polnische Untergrundpresse in den Jahren 1939 bis 1945 (Druckerei und Verlagsanstalt, Konstanz 1967)
Das Warschauer Ghetto wie es wirklich war. Zeugenbericht eines Christen (1983; also American and English edition)
Herbst der Hoffnungen: Es lohnt sich, anständig zu sein (Herder 1983; ; 1984, ; 1986, )
Aus der Geschichte lernen? Aufsätze und Reden zur Kriegs- und Nachkriegsgeschichte Polens (foreword: Stanisław Lem; Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, Munich 1986)
Uns eint vergossenes Blut. Juden und Polen in der Zeit der Endlösung (1987)
Polen und Juden in der Zeit der "Endlösung" (Informationszentrum im Dienste der christlich-jüdischen Verständigung, Wien 1990; )
Kein Frieden ohne Freiheit. Betrachtungen eines Zeitzeugen am Ende des Jahrhunderts (2000)
Und reiß uns den Hass aus der Seele (Deutsch-Polnischer Verlag 2005; )
Awards and honors
1944: Silver Cross of Merit with Swords and the Cross of Valor
1963: Knight's Cross of the Polonia Restituta
1965: Righteous Among the Nations
1981: Honorary doctorate from the University of London
1983: Herder Prize, Vienna
1984: Honorary doctorate from the University of Baltimore
1986: Peace Prize of the German Book Trade
1986: Commander's Cross with Star of the Polonia Restituta
1992: Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
1995: Knight of the Order of the White Eagle
1995: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (Großes Goldenes Ehrenzeichen am Bande)
1996: Heinrich Heine Prize of the city of Düsseldorf
1997: Grand Cross with Star of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
2001: Grand Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany – "For work of reconciliation between Poles, Germans and Jews"
2006: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Gregory the Great (Holy See; the highest papal award given to lay people)
2006: Knight of Freedom Award
2007: Jan Nowak-Jezioranski Prize of the Embassy of the USA
June 2007: International Adalbert Prize in Bratislava
2008: Prize of €15,000 – first European Civil Rights Prize of the Sinti and Roma
2009: Commander of the Legion of Honor (France)
2009: "Bene Merito" honorary distinction (Poland)
2012: Order of the White Double Cross, 2nd class
2013: Elie Wiesel Award
2015: Honorary citizen of Israel
References
The article was originally a translation of its Polish version (Władysław Bartoszewski), with additions from the German version.
External links
Władysław Bartoszewski – Blog
Address by the former Foreign Minister of Poland Wladislaw Bartoszewski at the ceremony of the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the concentration camp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, 27 January 2005 see page 156, 157
Władysław Bartoszewski – Interviews about Polish-Jewish relations
About Władysław Bartoszewski at Yad Vashem website
Audio recordings with Władysław Bartoszewski in the Online Archive of the Österreichische Mediathek (Interviews and lectures in German). Retrieved 18 September 2019
1922 births
2015 deaths
Writers from Warsaw
Home Army members
Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Poland
Ambassadors of Poland to Austria
Polish Righteous Among the Nations
Catholic Righteous Among the Nations
Polish Roman Catholics
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Commanders with Star of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Recipients of the Silver Cross of Merit (Poland)
Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)
Knights of St. Gregory the Great
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Commander's Crosses of the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
Recipients of the Grand Decoration with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria
Recipients of the Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Gregory the Great
Recipients of the Gold Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty people
Roman Catholic activists
Warsaw Uprising insurgents
Members of the Senate of Poland 1997–2001
Auschwitz concentration camp survivors
Polish opinion journalists
People detained by the Polish Ministry of Public Security
Herder Prize recipients
Żegota members
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland) |
356456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAT | IAT | Iat is a minor ancient Egyptian goddess. The abbreviation IAT may refer to:
Organisations
Immigration Appeal Tribunal
Indonesia Air Transport, an Indonesian airline
Institute for Affordable Transportation, an American organization
Institute of Armament Technology, now the Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, an Indian defense institution
International Academy of Trenton, a SABIS charter school in Trenton, New Jersey, United States
International Association of Trichologists
Institute of Agricultural Technology, the former name of Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology
Science and technology
Implicit-association test, a measure within social psychology
Import Address Table, in computer programming
Indicated air temperature
Indirect antiglobulin test, a clinical blood test
Information access technology
Intake air temperature
International Atomic Time
Information Assurance Technical, a category for Certified Information Systems Security Professional
Other uses
Indigenous Aryan Theory
International ACH Transaction, a code used by the Automated Clearing House
International Appalachian Trail, a hiking trail in the United States
Iwate Asahi Television, a Japanese television station
International Air Tattoo, the former name of a British air show |
356457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lookup%20table | Lookup table | In computer science, a lookup table (LUT) is an array that replaces runtime computation with a simpler array indexing operation. The process is termed as "direct addressing" and LUTs differ from hash tables in a way that, to retrieve a value with key , a hash table would store the value in the slot where is a hash function i.e. is used to compute the slot, while in the case of LUT, the value is stored in slot , thus directly addressable. The savings in processing time can be significant, because retrieving a value from memory is often faster than carrying out an "expensive" computation or input/output operation. The tables may be precalculated and stored in static program storage, calculated (or "pre-fetched") as part of a program's initialization phase (memoization), or even stored in hardware in application-specific platforms. Lookup tables are also used extensively to validate input values by matching against a list of valid (or invalid) items in an array and, in some programming languages, may include pointer functions (or offsets to labels) to process the matching input. FPGAs also make extensive use of reconfigurable, hardware-implemented, lookup tables to provide programmable hardware functionality.
History
Before the advent of computers, lookup tables of values were used to speed up hand calculations of complex functions, such as in trigonometry, logarithms, and statistical density functions.
In ancient (499 AD) India, Aryabhata created one of the first sine tables, which he encoded in a Sanskrit-letter-based number system. In 493 AD, Victorius of Aquitaine wrote a 98-column multiplication table which gave (in Roman numerals) the product of every number from 2 to 50 times and the rows were "a list of numbers starting with one thousand, descending by hundreds to one hundred, then descending by tens to ten, then by ones to one, and then the fractions down to 1/144" Modern school children are often taught to memorize "times tables" to avoid calculations of the most commonly used numbers (up to 9 x 9 or 12 x 12).
Early in the history of computers, input/output operations were particularly slow – even in comparison to processor speeds of the time. It made sense to reduce expensive read operations by a form of manual caching by creating either static lookup tables (embedded in the program) or dynamic prefetched arrays to contain only the most commonly occurring data items. Despite the introduction of systemwide caching that now automates this process, application level lookup tables can still improve performance for data items that rarely, if ever, change.
Lookup tables were one of the earliest functionalities implemented in computer spreadsheets, with the initial version of VisiCalc (1979) including a LOOKUP function among its original 20 functions. This has been followed by subsequent spreadsheets, such as Microsoft Excel, and complemented by specialized VLOOKUP and HLOOKUP functions to simplify lookup in a vertical or horizontal table. In Microsoft Excel the XLOOKUP function has been rolled out starting 28 August 2019.
Limitations
Although the performance of a LUT is a guaranteed for a lookup operation, no two entities or values can have the same key . When the size of universe —where the keys are drawn—is large, it might be impractical or impossible to be stored in memory. Hence, in this case, a hash table would be a preferable alternative.
Examples
Trivial hash function
For a trivial hash function lookup, the unsigned raw data value is used directly as an index to a one-dimensional table to extract a result. For small ranges, this can be amongst the fastest lookup, even exceeding binary search speed with zero branches and executing in constant time.
Counting bits in a series of bytes
One discrete problem that is expensive to solve on many computers is that of counting the number of bits that are set to 1 in a (binary) number, sometimes called the population function. For example, the decimal number "37" is "00100101" in binary, so it contains three bits that are set to binary "1".
A simple example of C code, designed to count the 1 bits in a int, might look like this:
int count_ones(unsigned int x) {
int result = 0;
while (x != 0) {
x = x & (x - 1);
result++;
}
return result;
}
The above implementation requires 32 operations for an evaluation of a 32-bit value, which can potentially take several clock cycles due to branching. It can be "unrolled" into a lookup table which in turn uses trivial hash function for better performance.
The bits array, bits_set with 256 entries is constructed by giving the number of one bits set in each possible byte value (e.g. 0x00 = 0, 0x01 = 1, 0x02 = 1, and so on). Although a runtime algorithm can be used to generate the bits_set array, it's an inefficient usage of clock cycles when the size is taken into consideration, hence a precomputed table is used—although a compile time script could be used to dynamically generate and append the table to the source file. Sum of ones in each byte of the integer can be calculated through trivial hash function lookup on each byte; thus, effectively avoiding branches resulting in considerable improvement in performance.
int count_ones(int input_value) {
union four_bytes {
int big_int;
char each_byte[4];
} operand = input_value;
const int bits_set[256] = {
0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4,
2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5,
2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4,
2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5, 2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6,
2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6,
4, 5, 5, 6, 5, 6, 6, 7, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5,
2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6, 2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5,
3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6, 4, 5, 5, 6, 5, 6, 6, 7,
2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6,
4, 5, 5, 6, 5, 6, 6, 7, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 5, 5, 6, 4, 5, 5, 6, 5, 6, 6, 7,
4, 5, 5, 6, 5, 6, 6, 7, 5, 6, 6, 7, 6, 7, 7, 8};
return (bits_set[operand.each_byte[0]] + bits_set[operand.each_byte[1]] +
bits_set[operand.each_byte[2]] + bits_set[operand.each_byte[3]]);
}}
Lookup tables in image processing
In data analysis applications, such as image processing, a lookup table (LUT) is used to transform the input data into a more desirable output format. For example, a grayscale picture of the planet Saturn will be transformed into a color image to emphasize the differences in its rings.
A classic example of reducing run-time computations using lookup tables is to obtain the result of a trigonometry calculation, such as the sine of a value. Calculating trigonometric functions can substantially slow a computing application. The same application can finish much sooner when it first precalculates the sine of a number of values, for example for each whole number of degrees (The table can be defined as static variables at compile time, reducing repeated run time costs).
When the program requires the sine of a value, it can use the lookup table to retrieve the closest sine value from a memory address, and may also interpolate to the sine of the desired value, instead of calculating by mathematical formula. Lookup tables are thus used by mathematics coprocessors in computer systems. An error in a lookup table was responsible for Intel's infamous floating-point divide bug.
Functions of a single variable (such as sine and cosine) may be implemented by a simple array. Functions involving two or more variables require multidimensional array indexing techniques. The latter case may thus employ a two-dimensional array of power[x][y] to replace a function to calculate xy for a limited range of x and y values. Functions that have more than one result may be implemented with lookup tables that are arrays of structures.
As mentioned, there are intermediate solutions that use tables in combination with a small amount of computation, often using interpolation. Pre-calculation combined with interpolation can produce higher accuracy for values that fall between two precomputed values. This technique requires slightly more time to be performed but can greatly enhance accuracy in applications that require the higher accuracy. Depending on the values being precomputed, precomputation with interpolation can also be used to shrink the lookup table size while maintaining accuracy.
In image processing, lookup tables are often called LUTs (or 3DLUT), and give an output value for each of a range of index values. One common LUT, called the colormap or palette, is used to determine the colors and intensity values with which a particular image will be displayed. In computed tomography, "windowing" refers to a related concept for determining how to display the intensity of measured radiation.
While often effective, employing a lookup table may nevertheless result in a severe penalty if the computation that the LUT replaces is relatively simple. Memory retrieval time and the complexity of memory requirements can increase application operation time and system complexity relative to what would be required by straight formula computation. The possibility of polluting the cache may also become a problem. Table accesses for large tables will almost certainly cause a cache miss. This phenomenon is increasingly becoming an issue as processors outpace memory. A similar issue appears in rematerialization, a compiler optimization. In some environments, such as the Java programming language, table lookups can be even more expensive due to mandatory bounds-checking involving an additional comparison and branch for each lookup.
There are two fundamental limitations on when it is possible to construct a lookup table for a required operation. One is the amount of memory that is available: one cannot construct a lookup table larger than the space available for the table, although it is possible to construct disk-based lookup tables at the expense of lookup time. The other is the time required to compute the table values in the first instance; although this usually needs to be done only once, if it takes a prohibitively long time, it may make the use of a lookup table an inappropriate solution. As previously stated however, tables can be statically defined in many cases.
Computing sines
Most computers only perform basic arithmetic operations and cannot directly calculate the sine of a given value. Instead, they use the CORDIC algorithm or a complex formula such as the following Taylor series to compute the value of sine to a high degree of precision:
(for x close to 0)
However, this can be expensive to compute, especially on slow processors, and there are many applications, particularly in traditional computer graphics, that need to compute many thousands of sine values every second. A common solution is to initially compute the sine of many evenly distributed values, and then to find the sine of x we choose the sine of the value closest to x through array indexing operation. This will be close to the correct value because sine is a continuous function with a bounded rate of change. For example:
real array sine_table[-1000..1000]
for x from -1000 to 1000
sine_table[x] = sine(pi * x / 1000)
function lookup_sine(x)
return sine_table[round(1000 * x / pi)]
Unfortunately, the table requires quite a bit of space: if IEEE double-precision floating-point numbers are used, over 16,000 bytes would be required. We can use fewer samples, but then our precision will significantly worsen. One good solution is linear interpolation, which draws a line between the two points in the table on either side of the value and locates the answer on that line. This is still quick to compute, and much more accurate for smooth functions such as the sine function. Here is an example using linear interpolation:
function lookup_sine(x)
x1 = floor(x*1000/pi)
y1 = sine_table[x1]
y2 = sine_table[x1+1]
return y1 + (y2-y1)*(x*1000/pi-x1)
Linear interpolation provides for an interpolated function that is continuous, but will not, in general, have continuous derivatives. For smoother interpolation of table lookup that is continuous and has continuous first derivative, one should use the cubic Hermite spline.
Another solution that uses a quarter of the space but takes a bit longer to compute would be to take into account the relationships between sine and cosine along with their symmetry rules. In this case, the lookup table is calculated by using the sine function for the first quadrant (i.e. sin(0..pi/2)). When we need a value, we assign a variable to be the angle wrapped to the first quadrant. We then wrap the angle to the four quadrants (not needed if values are always between 0 and 2*pi) and return the correct value (i.e. first quadrant is a straight return, second quadrant is read from pi/2-x, third and fourth are negatives of the first and second respectively). For cosine, we only have to return the angle shifted by pi/2 (i.e. x+pi/2). For tangent, we divide the sine by the cosine (divide-by-zero handling may be needed depending on implementation):
function init_sine()
for x from 0 to (360/4)+1
sine_table[x] = sin(2*pi * x / 360)
function lookup_sine(x)
x = wrap x from 0 to 360
y = mod (x, 90)
if (x < 90) return sine_table[ y]
if (x < 180) return sine_table[90-y]
if (x < 270) return -sine_table[ y]
return -sine_table[90-y]
function lookup_cosine(x)
return lookup_sine(x + 90)
function lookup_tan(x)
return lookup_sine(x) / lookup_cosine(x)
When using interpolation, the size of the lookup table can be reduced by using nonuniform sampling, which means that where the function is close to straight, we use few sample points, while where it changes value quickly we use more sample points to keep the approximation close to the real curve. For more information, see interpolation.
Other usages of lookup tables
Caches
Storage caches (including disk caches for files, or processor caches for either code or data) work also like a lookup table. The table is built with very fast memory instead of being stored on slower external memory, and maintains two pieces of data for a sub-range of bits composing an external memory (or disk) address (notably the lowest bits of any possible external address):
one piece (the tag) contains the value of the remaining bits of the address; if these bits match with those from the memory address to read or write, then the other piece contains the cached value for this address.
the other piece maintains the data associated to that address.
A single (fast) lookup is performed to read the tag in the lookup table at the index specified by the lowest bits of the desired external storage address, and to determine if the memory address is hit by the cache. When a hit is found, no access to external memory is needed (except for write operations, where the cached value may need to be updated asynchronously to the slower memory after some time, or if the position in the cache must be replaced to cache another address).
Hardware LUTs
In digital logic, a lookup table can be implemented with a multiplexer whose select lines are driven by the address signal and whose inputs are the values of the elements contained in the array. These values can either be hard-wired, as in an ASIC whose purpose is specific to a function, or provided by D latches which allow for configurable values. (ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, or RAM.)
An n-bit LUT can encode any n-input Boolean function by storing the truth table of the function in the LUT. This is an efficient way of encoding Boolean logic functions, and LUTs with 4-6 bits of input are in fact the key component of modern field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) which provide reconfigurable hardware logic capabilities.
Data acquisition and control systems
In data acquisition and control systems, lookup tables are commonly used to undertake the following operations in:
The application of calibration data, so as to apply corrections to uncalibrated measurement or setpoint values; and
Undertaking measurement unit conversion; and
Performing generic user-defined computations.
In some systems, polynomials may also be defined in place of lookup tables for these calculations.
See also
Associative array
Branch table
Gal's accurate tables
Memoization
Memory-bound function
Shift register lookup table
Palette, a.k.a. color lookup table or CLUT – for the usage in computer graphics
3D lookup table – usage in film industry
References
External links
Fast table lookup using input character as index for branch table
Art of Assembly: Calculation via Table Lookups
"Bit Twiddling Hacks" (includes lookup tables) By Sean Eron Anderson of Stanford University
Memoization in C++ by Paul McNamee, Johns Hopkins University showing savings
"The Quest for an Accelerated Population Count" by Henry S. Warren, Jr.
Arrays
Associative arrays
Computer performance
Software optimization
Articles with example C code |
356460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet%20of%20New%20Zealand | Cabinet of New Zealand | The Cabinet of New Zealand () is the New Zealand Government's body of senior ministers, accountable to the New Zealand Parliament. Cabinet meetings, chaired by the prime minister, occur once a week; in them, vital issues are discussed and government policy is formulated. Though not established by any statute, Cabinet has significant power in the New Zealand political system and nearly all bills proposed by Cabinet in Parliament are enacted.
The New Zealand Cabinet follows the traditions of the British cabinet system. Members of Cabinet are collectively responsible to Parliament for its actions and policies. Cabinet discussions are confidential and are not disclosed to the public apart from the announcement of decisions.
All ministers in Cabinet also serve as members of the Executive Council, the body tasked with advising the governor-general in the exercise of his or her formal constitutional functions. Outside Cabinet, there are a number of non-Cabinet ministers, responsible for a specific policy area and reporting directly to a senior Cabinet minister. Ministers outside Cabinet are also part of Cabinet committees and will regularly attend Cabinet meetings which concern their s. Therefore, although operating outside of Cabinet directly, these ministers do not lack power and influence as they are still very much part of the decision making process.
Constitutional basis
Cabinet is not established by any statute or constitutional document but exists purely by long-established constitutional convention. This convention carries sufficient weight for many official declarations and regulations to refer to Cabinet, and a government department—the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet—is responsible for supporting it. Although Cabinet lacks any direct legislative framework for its existence, the Cabinet Manual has become the official document which governs its functions, and on which its convention rests.
The structure of Cabinet has as its basis the formal institution known as the Executive Council, the body tasked with advising the governor-general in the exercise of his or her formal constitutional functions (i.e. the Governor-General in Council). Most ministers hold membership of both bodies, but some executive councillors—known as "ministers outside Cabinet"—do not attend Cabinet. The convention of members of the Executive Council meeting separately from the governor began during Edward Stafford's first tenure as premier (1856–1861). Stafford, a long-time advocate of responsible government in New Zealand, believed the colonial government should have full control over all its affairs, without the intervention of the governor. Because the governor chaired the Executive Council, Stafford intentionally met with his ministers without the governor present, thus reducing the Executive Council to its formal role.
Powers and functions
The lack of formal legislation establishing Cabinet leaves the powers of its members only loosely defined. Cabinet generally directs and controls policy (releasing government policy statements), and is responsible to the House of Representatives (the elected component of Parliament). It also has significant influence over law-making, and all draft government bills must be submitted to the Cabinet Legislation Committee before they can be introduced to the House. Convention regarding Cabinet's authority has considerable force, and generally proves strong enough to bind its participants. Theoretically, each minister operates independently, having received a ministerial warrant over a certain field from the Crown. But the governor-general can dismiss a minister at any time, conventionally on the advice of the prime minister, so ministers are largely obliged to work within a certain framework.
Collective responsibility
Cabinet itself acts as the accepted forum for establishing this framework. Ministers will jointly discuss the policy which the government as a whole will pursue, and ministers who do not exercise their respective powers in a manner compatible with Cabinet's decision risk losing those powers. This has become known as the doctrine of collective responsibility. Collective responsibility is a constitutional convention which rests on three principles. The first principle is unanimity, where members of Cabinet must publicly support decisions and defend them in public, regardless on any personal views on the matter. Secondly, the confidentiality limb means that all Cabinet discussions are to be kept confidential. This allows for open and explicit conversation, discussion and debate on the issues Cabinet chooses to look at. The final principle is confidence, where Cabinet and executive government must have the confidence of the House of Representatives. If there is no government, the governor-general has the ability to intervene to find a government which does have confidence.
Formally all ministers are equals and may not command or be commanded by a fellow minister. Constitutional practice does, however, dictate that the prime minister is primus inter pares, meaning 'first among equals'.
Problems arise when the prime minister breaches collective responsibility. Since ministerial appointments and dismissals are in practice in the hands of the prime minister, Cabinet can not directly initiate any action against a prime minister who openly disagrees with their government's policy. On the other hand, a prime minister who tries to act against concerted opposition from their Cabinet risks losing the confidence of their party colleagues. An example is former Prime Minister David Lange, who publicly spoke against a tax reform package which was sponsored by then-Finance Minister Roger Douglas and supported by Cabinet. Lange dismissed Douglas, but when the Cabinet supported Douglas against Lange, Lange himself resigned as prime minister.
Collective responsibility after MMP
The doctrine of collective responsibility has changed since the introduction of the mixed-member proportional system (MMP) in 1993 (see ). The change allowed for junior parties in a coalition the ability to 'agree to disagree' with the majority in order to manage policy differences. Following the 2011 general election the National-led government released the following statement in regards to the role of minor parties in the context of collective responsibility:
Collective responsibility applies differently in the case of support party Ministers. Support party Ministers are only bound by collective responsibility in relation to their own respective portfolios (including any specific delegated responsibilities). When support party Ministers speak about the issues in their portfolios, they speak for the government and as part of the government. When the government takes decisions within their portfolios, they must support those decisions, regardless of their personal views and whether or not they were at the meeting concerned. When support party Ministers speak about matters outside their portfolios, they may speak as political party leaders or members of Parliament rather than as Ministers, and do not necessarily support the government position.
Ministers outside Cabinet retain individual ministerial responsibility for the actions of their department (in common with Cabinet ministers).
Electoral reform and Cabinet structure
The 1993 referendum in New Zealand resulted in a number of structural changes to Cabinet. The change to the MMP system ultimately led to a larger number of political parties in Parliament, as under the proportional representation system any political party can enter Parliament if they received five percent of the party vote or won one electorate seat. The increased representation resulted in the need to form coalitions between parties, as no single party has received a majority of votes and seats under MMP.
In order to govern in a coalition under MMP, it is likely that a major party will have to relinquish and offer Cabinet positions to members of a minority party. The aftermath of the first MMP election in 1996 highlighted the changes resulting from the new proportional parliament. New Zealand First received 13.4% of the party vote, giving them 17 total seats in the House of Representatives (in contrast to 8.5% in the 1993 general election, conducted under the plurality voting system). This ultimately resulted in the as the National Party, who received 33.8% of the party vote, translating to 44 seats in the House, could not govern alone.
Negotiations forming the new government took nearly two months however the ultimate result being that New Zealand First were to have five ministers inside Cabinet and four outside. This translated to having 36.4% of representation in the new government. The Prime Minister following the 1996 election, Jim Bolger, was forced to tell his caucus during negotiations with New Zealand First, that he would not be able to satisfy all ambitions of the caucus, due to the forced inclusion of the minority party into the governmental framework, thus highlighting one of the challenges that came with MMP.
The result of MMP on Cabinet structure in New Zealand is also highlighted below under the heading. In the coalition deal following the election New Zealand First leader Winston Peters was given the position of deputy prime minister, and New Zealand First were given a number of ministerial portfolios including foreign affairs, infrastructure, regional economic development, and internal affairs.
Meetings
Members of Cabinet meet on a regular basis, usually weekly on a Monday, to discuss the most important issues of government policy. The meetings are chaired by the prime minister or, in the prime minister's absence, the next most senior minister in attendance, usually the deputy prime minister. Ministers outside Cabinet may occasionally be invited for the discussion of particular items with which they have been closely involved. All Cabinet meetings are held behind closed doors, and the minutes are taken by the Cabinet secretary and kept confidential. However, usually shortly after the weekly meeting the prime minister holds a press conference to discuss important national issues.
The Cabinet secretary and their deputy are the only non-ministers who attend Cabinet meetings. They are not political appointments and their role at Cabinet meetings is to formulate and record the Cabinet's decisions and advise on procedure, not to offer policy advice. The secretary has a dual role as the clerk of the Executive Council where they provide a channel of communication and liaison between the Cabinet and the governor-general.
The Cabinet room where the weekly meetings are normally held, and related offices are located at the top of the Beehive (the Executive Wing of Parliament Buildings).
Members
The prime minister assigns roles to ministers and ranks them in order to determine seniority. A minister's rank depends on factors such as "their length of service, the importance of their portfolio and their personal standing with the prime minister". The deputy prime minister is the second-highest ranked, after the prime minister. Under MMP, there are three categories of minister: ministers within the 'core' Cabinet, ministers outside Cabinet, and ministers from support parties (i.e. minor parties which have agreed to support a government party during confidence and supply votes). The size of Cabinet has grown over time. In the 1890s, for example, there were seven Cabinet ministers. The number of ministers within Cabinet increased in the period up until the 1970s, but has plateaued at 20 since ; this despite increases in the number of members of parliament. By contrast, the numbers of ministers outside Cabinet has grown, especially since the introduction of MMP.
All ministers are formally styled "The Honourable" (abbreviated to "The Hon."), except for the prime minister who uses the style "The Right Honourable" ("The Rt. Hon."). Formerly some other senior ministers used "The Right Honourable" by virtue of membership of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, but appointments were discontinued in 2000.
List of current ministers
The current Labour government has a Cabinet of 20 ministers. There are four Labour Party ministers outside Cabinet; and two support ministers from the Green Party, which has a 'cooperation agreement' with the Labour government. Additionally, there are two parliamentary under-secretaries who assist the ministers from a parliamentary standpoint.
The table below lists Cabinet ministers, ministers outside Cabinet, and parliamentary under-secretaries, sworn in on .
Committees
A Cabinet Committee comprises a subset of the larger Cabinet, consisting of a number of ministers who have responsibility in related areas of policy. Cabinet committees go into considerably more detail than can be achieved at regular Cabinet meetings, discussing issues which do not need the input of ministers holding unrelated portfolios. Cabinet committee terms of reference and membership are determined by the Prime Minister and the exact number and makeup of committees changes with the Government. , there are 10 Cabinet committees:
Cabinet Appointments and Honours Committee (APH)
Cabinet Business Committee (CBC)
Cabinet Priorities Committee (CPC)
Cabinet Economic Development Committee (DEV)
Cabinet Environment, Energy and Climate Committee (ENV)
Cabinet External Relations and Security Committee (ERS)
Cabinet Government Administration and Expenditure Review Committee (GOV)
Cabinet Legislation Committee (LEG)
Cabinet Māori Crown Relations: Te Arawhiti Committee (MCR)
Cabinet Social Wellbeing Committee (SWC)
Cabinet committees will often discuss matters under delegated authority or directly referred to them by Cabinet, and then report back the results of their deliberation. This can sometimes become a powerful tool for advancing certain policies, as was demonstrated in the Lange government. Roger Douglas, Minister of Finance, and his allies succeeded in dominating the finance committee, enabling them to determine what it recommended to Cabinet. The official recommendation of the finance committee was much harder for his opponents to fight than his individual claims in Cabinet would be. Douglas was able to pass measures that, had Cabinet deliberated on them itself rather than pass them to committee, would have been defeated.
See also
List of New Zealand governments
:Category:Members of the Cabinet of New Zealand
Notes
References
External links
Cabinet Manual 2017 - DPMC
Government of New Zealand
Politics of New Zealand
Constitution of New Zealand
New Zealand, Cabinet Of |
356467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20the%20Environment | Secretary of State for the Environment | The Secretary of State for the Environment was a UK cabinet position, responsible for the Department of the Environment (DoE). This was created by Edward Heath as a combination of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government, the Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Public Building and Works on 15 October 1970. Thus it managed a mixed portfolio of issues: housing and planning, local government, public buildings, environmental protection and, initially, transport – James Callaghan gave transport its own department again in 1976. It has been asserted that during the Thatcher government the DoE led the drive towards centralism, and the undermining of local government. Particularly, the concept of 'inner cities policy', often involving centrally negotiated public-private partnerships and centrally appointed development corporations, which moved control of many urban areas to the centre, and away from their, often left-wing, local authorities. The department was based in Marsham Towers, three separate tower blocks built for the separate pre-merger ministries, in Westminster.
In 1997, when Labour came to power, the DoE was merged with the Department of Transport to form the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR), thus, essentially, restoring the DoE to its initial 1970 portfolio. The titular mention of 'the Regions' referred to the government's pledge to create regional government. In the wake of the 2001 foot and mouth crisis, the environmental protection elements of the DETR were split of and merged with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF), to form the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). Meanwhile, the transport, housing and planning, and local and regional government aspects went to a new Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions (DTLR). A year later the DTLR also split, with transport getting its own department and the rest going to the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.
List of Environment Secretaries
References
Environment
1970 establishments in the United Kingdom
1997 disestablishments in the United Kingdom |
356468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaspismos | Synaspismos | The Coalition of the Left, of Movements and Ecology (, Synaspismós tīs Aristerás tōn Kinīmátōn kai tīs Oikologías), commonly known as Synaspismos (, Synaspismós, "Coalition") and abbreviated to SYN (ΣΥΝ), was a Greek political party of the radical New Left. It was founded in 1991 and was known as the Coalition of the Left and Progress (, Synaspismós tīs Aristerás kai tīs Proódou) until 2003. In 2004 SYN was a founding member of the Party of the European Left.
SYN was the largest party of the left-wing coalition formed in 2004 called Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA). SYN was dissolved in 2013.
History
Coalition, late 1980s–1991
Synaspismos emerged initially as an electoral coalition at the late 1980s, with the pro-Soviet Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and the Greek Left, one of the successors of the eurocommunist KKE Interior, as its largest constituents. The Party of Democratic Socialism, a splinter from the Union of the Democratic Centre which occupied a similar position to PASOK, was the largest non-Communist member party.
The disintegration of the USSR brought the Left into disunion, and the traditional majority within KKE purged all non-hardliners from the party—almost 45% of the Central Committee members, including ex-general secretary Grigoris Farakos, and majorities in many Local Committees (named by the KKE majority as revisionists and by the press as the renewers). At this time KKE also left the coalition.
Party, 1991–2013
After that, the other parties of the coalition and the renewing part of KKE decided to convert the alliance into a political party (1991).
Although the 'experiment' seemed to have great potential, serious ideological conflicts were afflicting the new party. At the legislative elections of 1993, SYN failed (for 2,000 votes) to pass the limit of 3% and enter the National Parliament. But next year, Synaspismos got its highest national 'score' ever (6,26%) in the 1994 European Parliament elections. Two years later, with 5,12%, got its highest score in 1996 legislative elections.
In the legislative elections of 2000, SYN was supported by the small Renewing Communist Ecological Left (AKOA) party and a small group of ecologists. After the elections a few members of the National Committee, who were asking for approximation with the social democrats, left the party accusing the majority of neo-communist turn and created the short-lived party AEKA. AEKA was first split and little later disbanded in some months, when the head of the party became an Undersecretary in the socialdemocratic administration of Kostas Simitis.
In the legislative elections of 2004, Synaspismos, together with several smaller parties (AKOA, Movement for the United in Action Left (KEDA), Internationalist Workers Left (DEA, Active Citizens)), formed an alliance called Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA), but contested the Euro-elections of the same year on its own, because of ideological disagreements within the party. The alliance with the smaller parties was formed again at the end of 2005, when chairman Alekos Alavanos proposed the 30-year-old Alexis Tsipras as candidate mayor of Athens for the Municipal Election of 2006, proclaiming the party's "overture to a younger generation". The Tsipras candidacy was received well, especially so by younger voters, and formed the party's springboard for its good 2007 parliamentary elections showing.
On 10 February 2008 Alexis Tsipras was elected party president, replacing Alavanos, who stepped down citing private reasons. At that time Tsipras did not hold a parliamentary seat, so Alavanos remained leader of the parliamentary group. After the legislative elections in 2009, Tsipras entered Parliament and became leader of the SYRIZA parliamentary group.
The 6th Congress of Synaspismos took place in June 2010. The "renewing wing" lead by Fotis Kouvelis, in disagreement with the party's participation in SYRIZA, left the party and founding Democratic Left. Fotis Kouvelis was followed by 3 more MPs, that left the party caucus.
Both in the May 2012 Greek Legislative election and in the June 2012 Greek Legislative election SYRIZA came second, electing 52 and 71 MPs, accordingly, of which 45 and 55 were part of Synaspismos.
In July of 2013, right before the first Congress of SYRIZA, the final congress of Synaspismos took place, that overwhelmingly voted to disestablish Synaspismos and to merge with SYRIZA.
Election results
Hellenic Parliament
European Parliament
Ideological identity
SYN described itself as "a radical left party, inspired by the ideas of the renewal of the communist and broader left movement in Greece and in Europe. It also fights for the merging of the ecological movement along with the left, to form a strategic alliance. The party's culture has been enriched by its active participation in the movement against the Neoliberal Capitalist Globalization."
Synaspismos aspired to be a "canopy party"; where, under the party flag, one could find people of varying ideological and theoretical backgrounds. Therefore, SYN members were encouraged to form, or participate in, intra-party platforms on the basis of kinship in ideology. Platforms mounted open discussions and published magazines, but might not work against party consensus decisions.
Note: the exact word used is "τάσεις" ("tendencies"), but the term platform is more fitting in English.
Tendencies
The role of the platforms was vital especially in congresses, because each of them proposed a thesis on party strategy and presented its own ballot of candidates for the National Committee. In the National Committee elected by the last Congress (5 February 2008), the rank (in terms of representation) was the following: "Left Current" (mainstream western Marxism, party center-left), "Renewing Wing" (radical social democracy, party right), the "Red-green Network" (eco-Marxism, party left) and the "Initiative" (eurosceptic Marxism, party extreme left). Since 2004 the Left Stream, the Red-greens and the Initiative formed the so-called Left Majority, which was responsible for moving the party to more radical leftist positions.
Left Unity (democratic socialist, supporting Alexis Tsipras), 50,63% in the last congress
Left Current (communist, eurosceptic), 29,83% in the last congress
Renewing Wing (Eurocommunist; most of its members left Synaspismos and founded Democratic Left), 17,23% in the last congress
Red-Green Network (eco-socialist, communist), participated with the Left Unity list in the last congress
Initiative for the Left Recomposition (communist, eurosceptic), 1,16% in the last congress
Representation and international alliances
The party had members in the National and European Parliament. After having survived the crisis of not achieving parliamentary representation in 1993, Synaspismos had, since 1996, been the fourth party in the Greek Parliament, and the third party (in terms of representation) in local government. In the European Parliament SYN was a member of the European United Left - Nordic Green Left group, and also a member of the European Social Forum. Moreover, SYN hosted the 1st Congress of European Left (29–30 October 2005), which formulated the Athens Declaration of the European Left as the manifesto of the European Left party.
Well-known executive members of Synaspismos were: Alexis Tsipras, Alekos Alavanos, Giannis Dragasakis, Nikos Konstantopoulos, Panagiotis Lafazanis et al.
Synaspismos was closely connected with the following:
The Athens daily newspaper ΑΥΓΗ (Dawn)
The Athens radio station "105.5 FM - Στο Κóκκινο" (In Red).
The "Nicos Poulantzas" Institute for Political Research
The Archive of Modern Social History (ΑΣΚΙ)
Structure
The structure of SYN consists of three levels:
Local: City, village or trade union committees, responsible for everyday matters at the workplace and neighborhood level, and deciding on issues of local interest.
Prefectural: The Prefectural Administration is elected by the members of the local committees and co-ordinates local committee work.
Nationwide: The National Committee (Central Political Committee (CPC)) is elected by the Party Congress, held every three years. It exercises the central administration of the party and convenes almost every month. Major decisions are usually taken at this level.
The Secretariat is elected by the CPC among its members, and oversees three duties: to represent the party in media outlets and in negotiations with other parties; to prepare CPC sessions; and to co-ordinate party work at the nationwide level. Though somewhat similar to the Politbüro of old-style communist parties, its role is not nearly as dominant. Usually the members of the Secretariat are working full-time for the party.
The Chairperson of SYN is elected by the Congress and was a primus inter pares member of both the CPC and the Secretariat.
SYN youth
SYN's youth organisation was SYN Youth (Νεολαία ΣΥΝ, SYN Youth), which was autonomous from the party structure. Until the late 1990s they were called "Left Youth League" (Ένωση Αριστερών Νέων). N-SYN had their own membership and executive bodies, but in general their decisions and activity were similar to the ones of the party. Their power was noteworthy in most Student Councils all around Greece, through the AR.EN.(Αριστερή Ενότητα, "Left Unity"). N-SYN also participated in the European Network of Democratic Young Left (ENDYL).
List of SYN leadership
SYN as electoral coalition
1989–1991: chairman Charilaos Florakis, secretary Leonidas Kyrkos
1991: chairwoman Maria Damanaki, secretary Fotis Kouvelis
SYN as party
1991–1993: chairwoman Maria Damanaki, no secretary
1993–2004: chairman Nikos Konstantopoulos, no secretary
2004–2008: chairman Alekos Alavanos, secretary Nikos Hountis
2008–2013: Alexis Tsipras, secretary Nikos Hountis, since July 2009 Dimitris Vitsas
References
External links
Radio Station In Red live
Institute Nikos Poulantzas
ASKI archives, currently only in Greek
Kitsikis/article Grèce. Le Synaspismos tiraillé entre social-démocratie et anarchisme, Grande Europe, no.16, janvier 2010, La Documentation Française. Read on Line
Defunct socialist parties in Greece
Political parties established in 1991
1991 establishments in Greece
Political parties disestablished in 2013
2013 disestablishments in Greece
Components of Syriza
Centre-left parties
Left-wing parties
Left-wing politics in Greece
Defunct communist parties in Greece
Ecosocialist parties
Feminist parties in Europe
Pacifism in Greece
Pacifist parties
Feminism in Greece
United fronts |
356469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B12%20%28disambiguation%29 | B12 (disambiguation) | Vitamin B is a water-soluble vitamin with a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system, and for the formation of blood.
B12 or B-12 may also refer to:
Music
B12 (band), a British electronic music duo
"B12", a song by Grey Daze led by Chester Bennington
Transportation
B12 (New York City bus), a bus line serving Brooklyn
Bensen B-12, a 1961 American unconventional aircraft
Chery B12, a 2007 Chinese Chery automobile model
LNER Class B12, a class of steam railway locomotive
Mallee Highway or B12
Martin B-12, a modified version of the Martin B-10 bomber
Nissan Sunny B12, a car model
Queensland B12 class locomotive, a class of steam railway locomotive
Alpina B12, a car model by Alpina
Other uses
Brandon C. Rodegeb or B-12 (born 1977), American music executive, film-maker, rap artist, and writer
Caro–Kann Defence's ECO code in chess
B12, a student model clarinet manufactured by Buffet Crampon
Boron-12 (B-12 or 12B), an isotope of boron
Big 12 Conference
See also
HLA-B12, an HLA-B serotype
IgG1-b12, an antibody against the HIV surface protein gp120 found in some long-term nonprogressors
12B (disambiguation) |
356471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20Lindsay | Norman Lindsay | Norman Alfred William Lindsay (22 February 1879 – 21 November 1969) was an Australian artist, etcher, sculptor, writer, art critic, novelist, cartoonist and amateur boxer. One of the most prolific and popular Australian artists of his generation, Lindsay attracted both acclaim and controversy for his works, many of which infused the Australian landscape with erotic pagan elements and were deemed by his critics to be "anti-Christian, anti-social and degenerate". A vocal nationalist, he became a regular artist for The Bulletin at the height of its cultural influence, and advanced staunchly anti-modernist views as a leading writer on Australian art. When friend and literary critic Bertram Stevens argued that children like to read about fairies rather than food, Lindsay wrote and illustrated The Magic Pudding (1918), now considered a classic work of Australian children's literature.
Apart from his creative output, Lindsay was known for his larrikin attitudes and personal libertine philosophy, as well as his battles with what he termed "wowserism". One such battle is portrayed in the 1994 film Sirens, starring Sam Neill and filmed on location at Lindsay's home in the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney. It is now known as the Norman Lindsay Gallery and Museum and is maintained by the National Trust of Australia.
Personal life
Lindsay was born in Creswick, Victoria, the son of Anglo-Irish surgeon Robert Charles William Alexander Lindsay (1843–1915) and Jane Elizabeth Lindsay (1848–1932), daughter of Rev. Thomas Williams, Wesleyen missionary, from Creswick. The fifth of ten children, he was the brother of Percy Lindsay (1870–1952), Lionel Lindsay (1874–1961), Ruby Lindsay (1885–1919), and Daryl Lindsay (1889–1976).
Lindsay married Catherine (Kate) Agatha Parkinson, in Melbourne on 23 May 1900. Their son Jack was born in Melbourne on 20 October 1900, followed by Raymond in 1903 and Philip in 1906. They divorced in 1918. He later married Rose Soady who was also his business manager, a most recognisable model, and the printer for most of his etchings. They had two daughters: Jane Lindsay, born in 1920, and Helen Lindsay, born in 1921. Philip died in 1958 and Raymond in 1960. In the Lindsay tradition, Jack became a prolific publisher, writer, translator and activist. Philip also became a writer of historical novels, and worked for the film industry.
Lindsay is buried in Springwood Cemetery in Springwood, close to Faulconbridge where he lived.
Career
In 1895, Lindsay moved to Melbourne to work on a local magazine with his older brother Lionel. His Melbourne experiences are described in Rooms and Houses.
In 1901, he and Lionel joined the staff of the Sydney Bulletin, a weekly newspaper, magazine and review. His association there would last fifty years.
Lindsay travelled to Europe in 1909, Rose followed later. In Naples he began 100 pen-and-ink illustrations for Petronius' Satyricon. Visits to the then South Kensington Museum where he made sketches of model ships in the Museum's collection stimulated a lifelong interest in ship models. The Lindsays returned to Australia in 1911.
Lindsay wrote the children's classic The Magic Pudding which was published in 1918.
Many of his novels have a frankness and vitality that matches his art. In 1930 he created a scandal when his novel Redheap (supposedly based on his hometown, Creswick) was banned due to censorship laws.
In 1938, Lindsay published Age of Consent, which described the experience of a middle-aged painter on a trip to a rural area, who meets an adolescent girl who serves as his model, and then lover. The book, published in Britain, was banned in Australia until 1962.
Lindsay also worked as an editorial cartoonist, notable for often illustrating the racist and right-wing political leanings that dominated The Bulletin at that time; the "Red Menace" and "Yellow Peril" were popular themes in his cartoons. These attitudes occasionally spilled over into his other work, and modern editions of The Magic Pudding often omit one couplet in which "you unmitigated Jew" is used as an insult.
Lindsay was associated with a number of poets, such as Kenneth Slessor, Francis Webb and Hugh McCrae, influencing them in part through a philosophical system outlined in his book Creative Effort. He also illustrated the cover for the seminal Henry Lawson book, While the Billy Boils. Lindsay's son, Jack Lindsay, emigrated to England, where he set up Fanfrolico Press, which issued works illustrated by Lindsay.
Lindsay influenced numerous artists, notably the illustrators Roy Krenkel and Frank Frazetta; he was also good friends with Ernest Moffitt.
Works
Lindsay is widely regarded as one of Australia's greatest artists, producing a vast body of work in different media, including pen drawing, etching, watercolour, oil and sculptures in concrete and bronze.
A large body of his work is housed in his former home at Faulconbridge, New South Wales, now the Norman Lindsay Gallery and Museum, and many works reside in private and corporate collections. His art continues to climb in value today. In 2002, a record price was attained for his oil painting Spring's Innocence, which sold to the National Gallery of Victoria for A$333,900.
Loss
His frank and sumptuous nudes were highly controversial. In 1940, Lindsay took sixteen crates of paintings, drawings and etchings to the U.S. to protect them from the war. Unfortunately, they were discovered when the train they were on caught fire and were impounded and subsequently burned as pornography by American officials. The artist's older brother Lionel remembered Lindsay's reaction: "Don't worry, I'll do more."
Output
Lindsay's creative output was vast, his energy enormous. Several eyewitness accounts tell of his working practices in the 1920s. He would wake early and produce a watercolour before breakfast, then by mid-morning he would be in his etching studio where he would work until late afternoon. He would work on a concrete sculpture in the garden during the afternoon and in the evening write a new chapter for whatever novel he was working on at the time.
As a break, he would work on a model ship some days. He was highly inventive, melting down the lead casings of oil paint tubes to use for the figures on his model ships, made a large easel using a door, carved and decorated furniture, designed and built chairs, created garden planters, Roman columns and built his own additions to the Faulconbridge property.
Screen versions of Lindsay's work
Film
The first major screen adaptation of Lindsay's literary works was the 1953 British film Our Girl Friday, based on his 1934 novel The Cautionary Armorist. The 1969 Australian-British co-production Age of Consent, adapted from Lindsay's 1938 novel of the same name, was the last full-length feature film directed by Michael Powell, and starred James Mason and Helen Mirren in her first credited movie role.
In 1994, Sam Neill played a fictionalised version of Lindsay in John Duigan's Sirens, set and filmed primarily at Lindsay's Faulconbridge home. The film is also notable as the movie debut of Australian supermodel Elle Macpherson.
Television
In 1972 five novels were adapted for TV as part of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Norman Lindsay festival. These were Halfway to Anywhere (adapted by Cliff Green), Redheap (adapted by Eleanor Witcombe), A Curate in Bohemia (adapted by Michael Boddy), The Cousin from Fiji (adapted by Barbara Vernon) and Dust or Polish (adapted by Peter Kenna).
Searches of the ABC's TARA Online television database and the collection database of the National Film & Sound Archive (conducted 4 Mar 2009) failed to return any results for these programs. Regrettably, many videotaped ABC programs, series (such as Certain Women) and program segments from the late 1960s and early 1970s, were subsequently erased as part of an ill-considered economy drive. Although the recent closure of ABC Sydney's Gore Hill studios uncovered considerable quantities of film and video footage long thought to have been lost (such as the complete The Aunty Jack Show), the absence of any reference on the TARA or NFSA databases and the paucity of citations elsewhere (e.g. IMDb) suggest that the master recordings of the adaptations of the Norman Lindsay novels may no longer exist. The first broadcasts of these programs also predated widespread domestic ownership of videocassette recorders in Australia, so it is unlikely that any domestically recorded off-air copies exist either.
Bibliography
Novels
A Curate in Bohemia (1913)
Redheap (1930) (published in the U.S. as Every Mother's Son)
Miracles by Arrangement (1932) (published in the U.S. as Mr. Gresham and Olympus)
Saturdee (1933)
Pan in the Parlour (1933)
The Cautious Amorist (1934) (first published in the U.S. in 1932); movie version: Our Girl Friday 1953
Age of Consent (1938); movie version: Age of Consent 1969
The Cousin from Fiji (1945)
Halfway to Anywhere (1947)
Dust or Polish? (1950)
Rooms and Houses (1968)
Children's books
The Magic Pudding 1918
The Flyaway Highway 1936
Poetry book
illustrations in Francis Webb A Drum for Ben Boyd Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1948
Other
Creative Effort: An essay in affirmation 1924
The Etchings of Norman Lindsay 1927, London, Constable & Co.
Hyperborea: Two Fantastic Travel Essays 1928
Madam Life's Lovers: A Human Narrative Embodying a Philosophy of the Artist in Dialogue Form 1929, London, Fanfrolico Press
The scribblings of an idle mind 1956
Norman Lindsay: Pencil Drawings 1969, Angus & Robertson, Sydney
Norman Lindsay's pen drawings 1974
Autobiographical
Bohemians of the Bulletin 1965
My Mask (autobiography) 1970
Books about Norman Lindsay
John Hetherington, Writers and Their Work: Norman Lindsay, 1962, Melbourne: Lansdowne Press.
Rose Lindsay, Model Wife: My Life with Norman Lindsay, 1967, Sydney: Ure Smith.
Jane Lindsay, A Portrait of Pa, 1975, Sydney: Angus & Robertson.
Douglas Stewart, Norman Lindsay: A Personal Memoir, 1975
See also
Kenneth G. Ross: author of the musical play Norman Lindsay and his Push in Bohemia (1978)
Norman Lindsay Gallery and Museum
Margaret Coen
References
Notes
References
Bibliography
Bloomfield, L., Norman Lindsay: Impulse to Draw, Bay Books, (Sydney), 1984.
Hetherington, J., Norman Lindsay: The Embattled Olympian, Oxford University Press, (Melbourne), 1973.
Wingrove. K. (ed.), Norman Lindsay on Art, Life and Literature, University of Queensland Press, (St. Lucia), 1990.
External links
Norman Lindsay Gallery
The Norman Lindsay Website – facsimile etchings and books
Lionel's account
Norman Lindsay at the National Library of Australia,
Norman Lindsay at Australian Art
Joanna Mendelssohn 'Norman Lindsay's The Cousin from Fiji and the Lindsay Family Papers' JASAL 4 (2005)
[CC-By-SA]
1879 births
1969 deaths
20th-century Australian novelists
Australian cartoonists
Australian children's writers
Australian male novelists
Australian watercolourists
Modern artists
People from the Blue Mountains (New South Wales)
20th-century Australian painters
20th-century male artists
Australian bibliophiles
Norman
People from Creswick, Victoria
20th-century Australian sculptors
20th-century Australian male writers
Australian etchers
Australian art critics
Australian propagandists
Australian male painters |
356472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Carter | Chris Carter | Chris Carter may refer to:
Music
Chris Carter (American musician) (born 1959), producer of Mayor of the Sunset Strip and host of Breakfast With The Beatles
Chris Carter (British musician) (born 1953), founding member of Throbbing Gristle
Chris Carter or Von Pimpenstein, American record producer and mixer
Sports
American football
Chris Carter (defensive back) (born 1974), American football safety
Chris Carter (linebacker) (born 1989), American football linebacker
Cris Carter (born 1965), American football Hall of Fame wide receiver
Chris Carter (wide receiver) (born 1987), American football wide receiver
Other sports
Chris Carter (middle-distance runner) (born 1942), British middle-distance runner
Chris Carter (outfielder) (born 1982), American former baseball right fielder
Chris Carter (infielder) (born 1986), American baseball first baseman/designated hitter
Chris Carter (triple jumper) (born 1989), American triple jumper
Other uses
Chris Carter (screenwriter) (born 1956), American television screenwriter and producer who created The X-Files
Chris Carter (actor) (born 1985), Canadian television screenwriter and actor
Chris Carter (politician) (born 1952), New Zealand politician and former cabinet minister
Chris Carter III (born 1981), Missouri state representative
See also
Christopher Carter (disambiguation)
Carter (name) |
356474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest%20Saunders | Ernest Saunders | Ernest Walter Saunders (born 21 October 1935) is a British former business manager and convict, best known as one of the "Guinness Four", a group of businessmen who attempted fraudulently to manipulate the share price of the Guinness company. He was sentenced to five years' imprisonment, but released after 10 months as he was believed to be suffering from Alzheimer's disease, which is incurable. He subsequently made a full recovery.
Personal life
He was born Ernest Walter Schleyer in Austria and moved to the United Kingdom in 1938 when his parents – a Jewish gynaecologist and an Austrian mother – emigrated to escape Nazi rule. He was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He married Carole Ann Stephing in 1963, and has two sons and one daughter.
Professional life
He had a career in management with Beecham, Great Universal Stores and Nestlé before becoming chief executive of Guinness plc (now a part of Diageo plc) in 1981, remaining in the position until 1986. He was renowned for his ruthless cost-cutting efficiency, earning from his employees the sobriquet 'Deadly Ernest'.
Under his charge, early in 1986, Guinness plc launched a friendly takeover bid for Edinburgh-based Distillers Company plc, which was being stalked by a hostile bidder. This was effected by quietly boosting the Guinness share price. Subsequent to the bid, which resulted in success for Guinness, Saunders was charged (along with Jack Lyons, Anthony Parnes and Gerald Ronson) and convicted on 27 August 1990 of counts of conspiracy to contravene section 13(1)(a)(i) of the Prevention of Fraud (Investments) Act 1958, false accounting and theft, in relation to dishonest conduct in a share support operation (see Guinness share-trading fraud). A series of appeals was finally dismissed in December 2002, although a ruling by the European Court of Human Rights in Saunders v. the United Kingdom declared that the defendants were denied a fair trial by being compelled to provide potentially self-incriminatory information to Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) inspectors which was then used as primary evidence against them. This breached their privilege against self-incrimination.
While there was no suggestion that Saunders himself sought to or actually did profit from these offences in an immediate or direct manner, the allegation was that they were committed to increase the likelihood of their company's takeover bid succeeding. His board of directors at Guinness plc was not informed of, and had not sanctioned, his arrangements, which included indemnities for unknowable amounts. He had passed $100 million to the American Ivan Boesky to invest shortly before Boesky's prosecution and imprisonment for insider trading, and following that investigation Saunders' plans were revealed to the DTI in Britain.
Sentence and appeal
Saunders appealed against his prison sentence of five years and three expert witnesses appeared at the Appeal Court. A consultant neurologist acting for the Crown, Dr Perkins, insisted that Saunders was suffering from depression rather than Alzheimer's disease. One of the other expert witnesses, another neurologist, used brain scans and other evidence to indicate that Saunders's brain was abnormally small for a man of his age, an observation which he said was consistent with a brain disease diagnosis.
On 16 May 1991, the sentence was reduced to two and a half years.
European Court of Human Rights
By a majority of 16-4 the ECtHR found that there was a breach of Article 6. The court rejected the argument of the British government that the complexity of large fraud cases and the public interest in securing a conviction justified the compulsion; the court also rejected the argument that power of a trial judge to exclude admissions was a defence in this case. The court stated that "the public interest cannot be invoked to justify the use of answers compulsorily obtained in a non-judicial investigation to incriminate the accused during the trial proceedings" and "the prosecution in a criminal case [must] seek to prove their case against the accused without resort to evidence obtained through methods of coercion or oppression in defiance of the will of the accused." Saunders was awarded damages of £75,000, which was paid in June 1997.
Later life
Saunders has worked as a business consultant, including advising mobile phone retailer Carphone Warehouse from its early days until prior to its flotation. Charles Dunstone, the Chief executive of Carphone Warehouse, said: "We were young guys who didn’t know what we were doing. He made us think about the questions we ought to ask or the information we ought to look at."
He was later appointed chairman of the executive committee of a US-based multinational petrol credit-card company, Harpur-Gelco.
Saunders also acted as a consultant to Seed International Ltd, a company based in the Cayman Islands. Seed offered investments in a variety of fields including wine, property, oil and gas exploration through Ocean International Marketing, their sales subsidiary with offices in Rotterdam.
See also
Guinness plc v Saunders
References
Further reading
Nick Kochan and Hugh Pym – The Guinness Affair: Anatomy of a Scandal (1987)
Adrian Milne and James Long – Guinness Scandal: Biggest Story in the City's History (1990)
James Saunders – Nightmare: Ernest Saunders and the Guinness Affair (Arrow Books, 1988)
Jonathan Guinness – Requiem for a Family Business (Macmillan 1997).
Gerald Ronson and Jeffrey Robinson – Gerald Ronson – Leading from the Front: My Story: The Gerald Ronson Story (2009)
1935 births
Living people
Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
20th-century British criminals
Austrian businesspeople
Austrian criminals
Austrian emigrants to the United Kingdom
British people convicted of theft
English businesspeople
English fraudsters
British people convicted of fraud
Emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss
Austrian people of Jewish descent |
356477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia%20Horner | Cynthia Horner | Cynthia Horner is a writer, magazine editor, and entertainment industry entrepreneur. An African-American woman, Horner is based in New York City.
Former Right On! Magazine Editorial Director, Cynthia Horner (now one of its owners) was born in Anderson, Indiana, the eldest of three children, and relocated to Southern California where she developed her career as a writer. By the age of 11, she had become the editor of her elementary school newspaper; while attending Newbury Park High School in Newbury Park, California, she became a professional journalist, writing stories about her community and high school for the local newspapers, and was granted early admission to Seaver College of Pepperdine University at Malibu where she received scholarships from Scripps-Howard Publishers, and the Seaver College Department of Communications.
Upon graduation from Pepperdine University she made magazine history by becoming the youngest editor of the nationally published magazine, Right On! Over the years, as a celebrity journalist she has interviewed Michael Jackson, The Jacksons, Janet Jackson, Prince (musician), Brandy (entertainer), Queen Latifah, New Edition, Mariah Carey, Beyonce, Destiny's Child, and hundreds of others. She is recipient of the Journalist of the Year Award from the International Association of African-American Music and has received numerous awards for her contribution to pop and urban culture.
Horner has contributed over two decades of service to the political community. Her father, the late Lawrence E. Horner, was the first African-American Mayor of Thousand Oaks, California, and was one of the highest-ranking African-American in the Conejo Valley's political community. Horner has participated in many voter education initiatives, provides mentorship and companionship to senior citizens, and is an advocate for children's literacy campaigns. She is a frequent guest speaker at elementary, junior high schools and high schools in the New York City school systems. As a role model for young people from all walks of life, Horner's ability to spark children's interest in the areas of reading and writing have had an indelible impact on the learning processes of impressionable generations.
Horner frequently makes appearances on talk shows, including the E Channel, BET,TV One and MTV, and is the co-author of several books, including the New York Times best seller, The Magic Of Michael Jackson. She is a proud member of Sigma Gamma Rho sorority, where she has contributed to the organization in numerous capacities. Horner was honored as Sigma of the Year by her organization in 2001, and received the Sigma Image Award by the Sigma Gamma Rho's Northeast Region in 2002. She was also honored as Soror of the Year in May 2004 by the National Pan-Hellenic Council of Greater New York City for her extensive community service and commitment to the Council.
In 2005, Horner formed her own entertainment company, Cynthia Horner's Independent Production Services (Cinnamon CHIPS), which is a media relations company under which she spearheads public relations projects, particularly in the non-profit sector, literary projects for herself and others, artist development, marketing and writing/editing projects for teen and adult music and general interest publications.
Horner has tutored young students for a number of years, has taught public relations at New York's The Learning Annex, lent assistance to the English Department for Long Island University, Brooklyn Campus, and has taught journalism at Essex County College in West Caldwell, New Jersey.
In addition she is the Publisher of Right On! Digital (https://www.rightondigital.com) and Right On magazine and Word Up!. Horner has contributed pieces to the National Enquirer, The Star, The Amsterdam News and others newsstand publications.
Horner is one of the founding editors and former Editor-in-Chief of Hip Hop Weekly magazine, a glossy celebrity weekly from the founders of the hip hop magazine, The Source, Dave Mays and Raymond "Benzino" Scott, that was founded in 2006.
References
Cynthia Horner. The Magic Of Michael Jackson. Signet, 1984.
External links
1950 births
Living people
African-American writers
Pepperdine University alumni
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people |
356478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Carter%20%28politician%29 | Chris Carter (politician) | Christopher Joseph Carter (born 4 May 1952) is a former New Zealand Labour Party and independent Member of the New Zealand Parliament. He was a senior Cabinet Minister in the Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand, serving lastly as Minister of Education, Minister Responsible for the Education Review Office and Minister of Ethnic Affairs. He was the Member of Parliament for the Te Atatu electorate, where he was first elected in 1993. He did not win re-election (to the replacement seat, Waipareira) in 1996, but won a new and expanded Te Atatu seat in 1999. In 2010 he was suspended from the Labour Party caucus following a dispute with party leader Phil Goff, shortly afterwards he became an independent MP. He was expelled by the Labour Party for breaching the Party's constitution in bringing the Party in disrepute, on 11 October 2010. In September 2011 Carter resigned from Parliament following his appointment to a United Nations position in Afghanistan where he served for 4 years. In 2015 he was appointed to head UN operations in Rakhine State in Myanmar where he served for 3 years. In 2018 he rejoined the New Zealand Labour Party and stood for election as a Labour Party representative in the 2019 New Zealand local elections. Carter was elected and appointed as Chairperson of the Henderson Massey Local Board with 11,250 votes. He also won election in 2019 as one of the 7 elected Board Members of the Waitemata District Health Board with 14,593 votes. Both positions have three year terms.
Early and personal life
Carter was born on 4 May 1952, and brought up in the Auckland suburb of Panmure. He was educated at St Peter's College, Auckland and at the University of Auckland where he received an MA (Hons) in history.
Before entering politics, Carter had served as a teacher and as a poultry farmer. His partner is Peter Kaiser, a headmaster, and they have been together for over 40 years. On 10 February 2007, Carter and Kaiser were joined in the first civil union for a Cabinet Minister or Member of Parliament since civil unions in New Zealand were introduced after legislation was passed in December 2004.
Member of Parliament
At the Carter stood unsuccessfully as the Labour Party candidate in the Albany electorate, losing to National's Don McKinnon. In a local-body election in 1988 he stood as a candidate for the Te Atatu ward of the Auckland Regional Authority, but was unsuccessful. He placed third out of six candidates. In the lead up to the he contested the Labour nomination for the seat of Te Atatu. One of six contenders, he emerged one of the two front-runners alongside news service manager Dan McCaffrey. At the selection meeting McCaffrey was successful.
At the he stood as the Labour candidate for Te Atatu and won the seat. In 1993 he was appointed Labour's spokesperson for Ethnic Affairs. In 1994, Carter was named by the Speaker of the House Peter Tapsell for calling John Banks a hypocrite over his pro-life stance on abortions.
The Te Atatu seat was abolished for the and he lost the newly created Waipareira electorate to National's Brian Neeson by just 107 votes, and not having been placed on the Labour list for the election.
After losing his seat, Carter started one of the first branches of New Zealand Rainbow Labour for centre-left lesbians, gays, bisexuals, transgender people (LGBT) and others during the 1996–1999 term. At the the Te Atatu seat was recreated and he won the seat once again. From 1999 to 2002 he was Labour's junior whip.
After being re-elected in Carter was elevated to cabinet and was appointed Minister of Conservation, Minister of Local Government and Minister of Ethnic Affairs. In 2004 he was additionally appointed Minister for Building Issues. Carter was the first openly gay man ever appointed as a New Zealand Cabinet minister. He had been a strong advocate of gay equality for some time, and continued this role on entering Parliament.
At the , Carter was re-elected to his seat with 59.4% of the vote, a majority of 10,447. Labour lost power in the . Carter was re-elected, but his majority was almost halved to 5,298.
On 14 June 2010, 4 days after the release of ministerial credit card records, Carter along with two other MPs Shane Jones MP and Mita Ririnui MP (Lab – Lists) were demoted by Opposition Leader Phil Goff MP () for misuse of such credit cards. In the case of Carter, he was accused of purchasing personal items with the card, which was outside the rules for Ministerial expenditure as a minister under the former Clark government over a six-year period. Carter repaid the money in full, a total of $26 ($NZ). His main dispute with Phil Goff was over allegations by Goff that Carter had travelled too much as a Cabinet Minister. All of Carter's travel as a minister was official travel and approved by Cabinet (of which Goff was a member). Carter's demotion included removal from the front bench, and loss of the shadow portfolio of Foreign Affairs. Carter subsequently speculated publicly about whether he would continue as a Member of Parliament.
As a cabinet minister, Carter was entitled to the title of The Honourable and became The Hon. Mr Chris Carter, which is a title granted for the rest of his life.
On 29 July 2010 Carter was suspended from the Labour Party caucus for allegedly being behind an anonymous letter sent around the press gallery claiming there was a leadership challenge against Phil Goff; a charge he later admitted. On 17 August 2010, Speaker Lockwood Smith announced that Carter was officially an independent MP and no longer a Labour MP.
Carter remained an independent MP until his resignation as a Member of Parliament on 30 September 2011. Because Carter's resignation was less than six months prior to the general election on 26 November , no by-election was held to fill the vacancy he created.
United Nations
In early September 2011 Carter was appointed as programme manager of the Governance Unit of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Afghanistan, leading the strengthening of local governance in all 34 Afghan Provinces. He served in that role for 4 years.
On 18 October 2013, Carter was waiting for a colleague to leave his compound in Kabul when a suicide bomber attacked a passing military convoy on the street some away; he was separated from the blast by a glass wall. If his Australian colleague had not been late, they could have been the victims of the attack themselves. Carter considered it a "close shave".
In September 2015 Carter was appointed as the Senior UN Advisor for Rakhine State in Myanmar after serving for 4 years in Afghanistan. His Myanmar role, which he filled until 2019, was to lead and coordinate development by UN Agencies operating in Rakhine State, a region of Myanmar marked by serious religious and ethnic conflict between Buddhist and Muslim communities.
Local politics
In 2019, Carter retired from the United Nations after seven years' service and returned to New Zealand to live in Te Atatū. He had rejoined the New Zealand Labour Party in 2018. In the 2019 New Zealand local elections, he was elected a member of Auckland Council's Henderson-Massey Local Board and became Chairperson. He was also elected as a member of the Waitemata District Health Board.
References
Further reading
For some more biographical details: List of alumni of St Peter's College, Auckland
External links
Parliamentary website page
|-
|-
1952 births
Gay politicians
LGBT members of the Parliament of New Zealand
Living people
Members of the Cabinet of New Zealand
Ministers of Housing (New Zealand)
New Zealand educators
New Zealand farmers
New Zealand Labour Party MPs
People from the Auckland Region
University of Auckland alumni
People educated at St Peter's College, Auckland
Independent MPs of New Zealand
New Zealand education ministers
Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives
New Zealand MPs for Auckland electorates
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1987 New Zealand general election
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1996 New Zealand general election
21st-century New Zealand politicians
21st-century LGBT people |
356486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Social%20Movement | Democratic Social Movement | The Democratic Social Movement (DIKKI; Greek: ΔΗΚΚΙ – Δημοκρατικό Κοινωνικό Κίνημα, Dimokratiko Koinoniko Kinima) is a Greek democratic socialist political party. The party was founded in 1995 by Dimitris Tsovolas and several ex-members of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), the then ruling social-democratic party.
History
Formation and early success
In the 1996 legislative election, DIKKI received 4.43% of the vote and 9 seats in the Hellenic Parliament. In the 1999 election to the European Parliament, the party received 6.85% of the vote and 2 seats in the European Parliament, and was a full member of the European United Left - Nordic Green Left group.
Failures and disputes
After these initial successes, however, DIKKI failed to elect members to the Hellenic Parliament on two consecutive elections; it received 2.69% of the vote in the 2000 legislative election and 1.8% of the vote in the 2004 legislative election.
After the 2004 election, Tsovolas unilaterally decided to dissolve DIKKI and give the party possessions away to the Greek state. That decision led to a conflict between the party leader and the National Committee, who voted against the dissolution; there are accusations that Tsovolas went through these actions, because he was planning to be readmitted in PASOK in the near future. The National Committee went to law and the court ruled that the party is legally administered by the national executive bodies, thus it cannot cease to exist unless the National Congress or the National Committee takes such decision. The party possessions were returned and Tsovolas was expelled.
Reorientation
In the local elections of 2006 DIKKI supported many tickets led by the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), and numerous party members (for the size of the party) were elected in local councils. Moreover, DIKKI participated in All Workers Militant Front (PAME), a trade unionist coordination centre closely related with KKE.
Although it was expected that co-operation between the two parties would become permanent, on August 22, 2007 DIKKI announced that it was participating in the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA), which received 5.04% of the vote in the legislative election held on September 16, 2007.
On February 20, 2015, the party announced it was severing ties with SYRIZA.
In the summer of 2015, it joined an alliance with Popular Unity. It would remain affiliated until June 2019, when it joined an electoral coalition with the United Popular Front.
Electoral results
Parliament
European Parliament
References
External links
Greek election results, via the Greek Ministry of Internal Affairs
1995 establishments in Greece
Eurosceptic parties in Greece
Former components of Syriza
Political parties established in 1995
Socialist parties in Greece |
356488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATX | ATX | ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended) is a motherboard and power supply configuration specification developed by Intel in 1995 to improve on previous de facto standards like the AT design. It was the first major change in desktop computer enclosure, motherboard and power supply design in many years, improving standardization and interchangeability of parts. The specification defines the dimensions; the mounting points; the I/O panel; and the power and connector interfaces among a computer case, a motherboard, and a power supply.
ATX is the most common motherboard design. Other standards for smaller boards (including microATX, FlexATX, nano-ITX, and mini-ITX) usually keep the basic rear layout but reduce the size of the board and the number of expansion slots. Dimensions of a full-size ATX board are , which allows many ATX chassis to accept microATX boards. The ATX specifications were released by Intel in 1995 and have been revised numerous times since. The most recent ATX motherboard specification is version 2.2. The most recent ATX12V power supply unit specification is 2.53, released in June 2020. EATX (Extended ATX) is a bigger version of the ATX motherboard with dimensions. While some dual CPU socket motherboards have been implemented in ATX, the extra size of EATX makes it the typical form factor for dual socket systems, and with sockets that support four or eight memory channels, for single socket systems with a large number of memory slots.
In 2004, Intel announced the BTX (Balanced Technology eXtended) standard, intended as a replacement for ATX. While some manufacturers adopted the new standard, Intel discontinued any future development of BTX in 2006. , the ATX design still remains the de facto standard for personal computers.
Connectors
On the back of the computer case, some major changes were made to the AT standard. Originally AT style cases had only a keyboard connector and expansion slots for add-on card backplates. Any other onboard interfaces (such as serial and parallel ports) had to be connected via flying leads to connectors which were mounted either on spaces provided by the case or brackets placed in unused expansion slot positions.
ATX allowed each motherboard manufacturer to put these ports in a rectangular area on the back of the system with an arrangement they could define themselves, though a number of general patterns depending on what ports the motherboard offers have been followed by most manufacturers. Cases are usually fitted with a snap-out panel, also known as an I/O plate or I/O shield, in one of the common arrangements. If necessary, I/O plates can be replaced to suit a motherboard that is being fitted; the I/O plates are usually included with motherboards not designed for a particular computer. The computer will operate correctly without a plate fitted, although there will be open gaps in the case which may compromise the EMI/RFI screening and allow ingress of dirt and random foreign bodies. Panels were made that allowed fitting an AT motherboard in an ATX case. Some ATX motherboards come with an integrated I/O plate.
ATX also made the PS/2-style mini-DIN keyboard and mouse connectors ubiquitous. AT systems used a 5-pin DIN connector for the keyboard and were generally used with serial port mice (although PS/2 mouse ports were also found on some systems). Many modern motherboards are phasing out the PS/2-style keyboard and mouse connectors in favor of the more modern Universal Serial Bus. Other legacy connectors that are slowly being phased out of modern ATX motherboards include 25-pin parallel ports and 9-pin RS-232 serial ports. In their place are onboard peripheral ports such as Ethernet, FireWire, eSATA, audio ports (both analog and S/PDIF), video (analog D-sub, DVI, HDMI, or DisplayPort), extra USB ports, and Wi-Fi.
A notable issue with the ATX specification was that it was last revised when power supplies were normally placed at the top, rather than the bottom, of computer cases. This has led to some problematic standard locations for ports, in particular the 4/8 pin CPU power, which is normally located along the top edge of the board to make it convenient for top mounted power supplies. This makes it very difficult for cables from bottom mounted power supplies to reach, and commonly requires a special cutout in the back plane for the cable to come in from behind and bend around the board, making insertion and wire management very difficult. Many power supply cables barely reach or fail to reach, or are too stiff to make the bend, and extensions are commonly required due to this placement.
Variants
Several ATX-derived designs have been specified that use the same power supply, mountings and basic back panel arrangement, but set different standards for the size of the board and number of expansion slots. Standard ATX provides seven slots at spacing; the popular microATX size removes and three slots, leaving four. Here width refers to the distance along the external connector edge, while depth is from front to rear. Note each larger size inherits all previous (smaller) colors area.
AOpen has conflated the term Mini ATX with a more recent design. Since references to Mini ATX have been removed from ATX specifications since the adoption of microATX, the AOpen definition is the more contemporary term and the one listed above is apparently only of historical significance. This sounds contradictory to the now common Mini-ITX standard (), which is a potential source of confusion. A number of manufacturers have added one to three additional expansion slots (at the standard 0.8 inch spacing) to the standard 12-inch ATX motherboard width.
Form factors considered obsolete in 1999 included Baby-AT, full size AT, and the semi-proprietary LPX for low-profile cases. Proprietary motherboard designs such as those by Compaq, Packard-Bell, Hewlett Packard and others existed, and were not interchangeable with multi-manufacturer boards and cases. Portable and notebook computers and some 19-inch rackmount servers have custom motherboards unique to their particular products.
Although true E-ATX is most motherboard manufacturers also refer to motherboards with measurements , , and as E-ATX. While E-ATX and SSI EEB (Server System Infrastructure (SSI) Forum's Enterprise Electronics Bay (EEB)) share the same dimensions, the screw holes of the two standards do not all align; rendering them incompatible.
In 2008, Foxconn unveiled a Foxconn F1 motherboard prototype, which has the same width as a standard ATX motherboard, but an extended 14.4" length to accommodate 10 slots. The firm called the new design of this motherboard "Ultra ATX" in its CES 2008 showing. Also unveiled during the January 2008 CES was the Lian Li Armorsuit PC-P80 case with 10 slots designed for the motherboard.
The name "XL-ATX" has been used by at least three companies in different ways:
In September 2009, EVGA Corporation had already released a "XL-ATX" motherboard as its EVGA X58 Classified 4-Way SLI.
Gigabyte Technology launched another XL-ATX motherboard, with model number GA-X58A-UD9 in 2010 measuring at , and GA-X79-UD7 in 2011 measuring at . In April 2010, Gigabyte announced its GA-890FXA-UD7 motherboard that allowed all seven slots to be moved downward by one slot position. The added length could have allowed placement of up to eight expansion slots, but the top slot position is vacant on this particular model.
MSI released MSI X58 Big Bang in 2010, MSI P67 Big Bang Marshal in 2011, MSI X79 Xpower Big Bang 2 in 2012 and MSI Z87 Xpower in 2013 all of them are . Although these boards have room for additional expansion slots (9 and 8 total, respectively), all three provide only seven expansion connectors; the topmost positions are left vacant to provide more room for the CPU, chipset and associated cooling.
In 2010, EVGA Corporation released a new motherboard, the "Super Record 2", or SR-2, whose size surpasses that of the "EVGA X58 Classified 4-Way SLI". The new board is designed to accommodate two Dual QPI LGA1366 socket CPUs (e.g. Intel Xeon), similar to that of the Intel Skulltrail motherboard that could accommodate two Intel Core 2 Quad processors and has a total of seven PCI-E slots and 12 DDR3 RAM slots. The new design is dubbed "HPTX" and is .
Power supply
The ATX specification requires the power supply to produce three main outputs, +3.3 V, +5 V and +12 V. Low-power −12 V and +5 VSB (standby) supplies are also required. The −12 V supply is primarily used to provide the negative supply voltage for RS-232 ports and is also used by one pin on conventional PCI slots primarily to provide a reference voltage for some models of sound cards. The 5 VSB supply is used to produce trickle power to provide the soft-power feature of ATX when a PC is turned off, as well as powering the real-time clock to conserve the charge of the CMOS battery. A −5 V output was originally required because it was supplied on the ISA bus; it was removed in later versions of the ATX standard, as it became obsolete with the removal of the ISA bus expansion slots (the ISA bus itself is still found in any computer which is compatible with the old IBM PC specification; e.g., not found in the PlayStation 4).
Originally, the motherboard was powered by one 20-pin connector. An ATX power supply provides a number of peripheral power connectors and (in modern systems) two connectors for the motherboard: an 8-pin (or 4+4-pin) auxiliary connector providing additional power to the CPU and a main 24-pin power supply connector, an extension of the original 20-pin version. 20-pin MOLEX 39-29-9202 at the motherboard. 20-pin MOLEX 39-01-2200 at the cable. The connector pin pitch is 4.2 mm (one sixth of an inch).
Four wires have special functions:
PS_ON# (power on) is a signal from the motherboard to the power supply. When the line is connected to ground (by the motherboard), the power supply turns on. It is internally pulled up to +5 V inside the power supply.
PWR_OK ("power good") is an output from the power supply that indicates that its output has stabilized and is ready for use. It remains low for a brief time (100–500 ms) after the PS_ON# signal is pulled low.
+5 VSB (+5 V standby) supplies power even when the rest of the supply wire lines are off. This can be used to power the circuitry that controls the power-on signal.
+3.3 V sense should be connected to the +3.3 V on the motherboard or its power connector. This connection allows remote sensing of the voltage drop in the power-supply wiring. Some manufacturers also provided a +5 V sense wire (typically colored pink) connected to one of the red +5 V wires on some models of power supply; however, the inclusion of such wire was a non-standard practice and was never part of any official ATX standard.
Generally, supply voltages must be within ±5% of their nominal values at all times. The little-used negative supply voltages, however, have a ±10% tolerance. There is a specification for ripple in a 10 Hz–20 MHz bandwidth:
The 20–24-pin Molex Mini-Fit Jr. has a power rating of 600 volts, 8 amperes maximum per pin (while using 18 AWG wire). As large server motherboards and 3D graphics cards have required progressively more and more power to operate, it has been necessary to revise and extend the standard beyond the original 20-pin connector, to allow more current using multiple additional pins in parallel. The low circuit voltage is the restriction on power flow through each connector pin; at the maximum rated voltage, a single Mini-Fit Jr pin would be capable of 4800 watts.
Physical characteristics
ATX power supplies generally have the dimensions of , with the width and height being the same as the preceding LPX (Low Profile eXtension) form factor (which are often incorrectly referred to as "AT" power supplies due to their ubiquitous use in later AT and Baby AT systems, even though the actual AT and Baby AT power supply form factors were physically larger) and share a common mounting layout of four screws arranged on the back side of the unit. That last dimension, the 140 mm depth, is frequently varied, with depths of 160, 180, 200 and 230 mm used to accommodate higher power, larger fan and/or modular connectors.
Main changes from AT and LPX designs
Power switch
Original AT cases (flat case style) have an integrated power switch that protruded from the power supply and
sits flush with a hole in the AT chassis. It utilizes a paddle-style DPST switch and is similar to the PC and PC-XT style power supplies.
Later AT (so-called "Baby AT") and LPX style computer cases have a power button that is directly connected to the system computer power supply (PSU). The general configuration is a double-pole latching mains voltage switch with the four pins connected to wires from a four-core cable. The wires are either soldered to the power button (making it difficult to replace the power supply if it failed) or blade receptacles were used.
An ATX power supply is typically controlled by an electronic switch connected to the power button on the computer case and allows the computer to be turned off by the operating system. In addition, many ATX power supplies have a manual switch on the back that also ensures no power is being sent to the components. When the switched off the power supply is fully turned off and computer cannot be turned on with the front power button.
Power connection to the motherboard
The power supply's connection to the motherboard was changed from the older AT and LPX standards; AT and LPX had two similar connectors that could be accidentally interchanged by forcing the different keyed connectors into place, usually causing short-circuits and irreversible damage to the motherboard (the rule of thumb for safe operation was to connect the side-by-side connectors with the black wires together). ATX uses one large, keyed connector which can not be connected incorrectly. The new connector also provides a 3.3 volt source, removing the need for motherboards to derive this voltage from the 5 V rail. Some motherboards, particularly those manufactured after the introduction of ATX but while LPX equipment was still in use, support both LPX and ATX PSUs.
If using an ATX PSU for purposes other than powering an ATX motherboard, power can be fully turned on (it is always partly on to operate "wake-up" devices) by shorting the "power-on" pin on the ATX connector (pin 16, green wire) to a black wire (ground), which is what the power button on an ATX system does. A minimum load on one or more voltages may be required (varies by model and vendor); the standard does not specify operation without a minimum load and a conforming PSU may shut down, output incorrect voltages, or otherwise malfunction, but will not be hazardous or damaged. An ATX power supply is not a replacement for a current-limited bench laboratory DC power supply; instead it is better described as a bulk DC power supply.
Airflow
The original ATX specification called for a power supply to be located near to the CPU with the power supply fan drawing in cooling air from outside the chassis and directing it onto the processor. It was thought that in this configuration, cooling of the processor would be achievable without the need of an active heatsink. This recommendation was removed from later specifications; modern ATX power supplies usually exhaust air from the case.
ATX power supply revisions
Original ATX
ATX, introduced in late 1995, defined three types of power connectors:
4-pin "Molex connector" – transferred directly from AT standard: +5 V and +12 V for P-ATA hard disks, CD-ROMs, 5.25 inch floppy drives and other peripherals.
4-pin Berg floppy connector – transferred directly from AT standard: +5 V and +12 V for 3.5 inch floppy drives and other peripherals.
20-pin Molex Mini-fit Jr. ATX motherboard connector – new to the ATX standard.
A supplemental 6-pin AUX connector providing additional 3.3 V and 5 V supplies to the motherboard, if needed. This was used to power the CPU in motherboards with CPU voltage regulator modules which required 3.3 volt and/or 5 volt rails and could not get enough power through the regular 20-pin header.
The power distribution specification defined that most of the PSU's power should be provided on 5 V and 3.3 V rails, because most of the electronic components (CPU, RAM, chipset, PCI, AGP and ISA cards) used 5 V or 3.3 V for power supply. The 12 V rail was only used by computer fans and motors of peripheral devices (HDD, FDD, CD-ROM, etc.)
ATX12V 1.x
While designing the Pentium 4 platform in 1999/2000, the standard 20-pin ATX power connector was found insufficient to meet increasing power-line requirements; the standard was significantly revised into ATX12V 1.0 (ATX12V 1.x is sometimes inaccurately called ATX-P4). ATX12V 1.x was also adopted by AMD Athlon XP and Athlon 64 systems. However, some early model Athlon XP and MP boards (including some server boards) and later model lower-end motherboards do not have the 4-pin connector as described below.
Numbering of the ATX revisions may be a little confusing: ATX refers to the design, and goes up to version 2.2 in 2004 (with the 24 pins of ATX12V 2.0), while ATX12V describes only the PSU.
For instance, ATX 2.03 is quite commonly seen on PSUs from 2000 and 2001 and often includes the P4 12V connector, even if the norm itself did not define it yet.
ATX12V 1.0
The main changes and additions in ATX12V 1.0 (released in February 2000) were:
Increased the power on the 12 V rail (power on 5 V and 3.3 V rails remained mostly the same).
An extra 4-pin mini fit JR (Molex 39-01-2040), 12-volt connector to power the CPU.
Formally called the +12 V Power Connector, this is commonly referred to as the P4 connector because this was first needed to support the Pentium 4 processor.
Before the Pentium 4, processors were generally powered from the 5 V rail. Later processors operate at much lower voltages, typically around 1 V and some draw over 100 A. It is infeasible to provide power at such low voltages and high currents from a standard system power supply, so the Pentium 4 established the practice of generating it with a DC-to-DC converter on the motherboard next to the processor, powered by the 4-pin 12 V connector.
ATX12V 1.1
This is a minor revision from August 2000. The power on the 3.3 V rail was slightly increased and other smaller changes were made.
ATX12V 1.2
A relatively minor revision from January 2002. The only significant change was that the −5 V rail was no longer required (it became optional). This voltage was required by the ISA bus, which is no longer present on almost all modern computers.
ATX12V 1.3
Introduced in April 2003 (a month after 2.0). This standard introduced some changes, mostly minor. Some of them are:
Slightly increased the power on 12 V rail.
Defined minimal required PSU efficiencies for light and normal load.
Defined acoustic levels.
Introduction of Serial ATA power connector (but defined as optional).
Guidance for the −5 V rail was removed (but it was not prohibited).
ATX12V 2.x
ATX12V 2.x brought a significant design change regarding power distribution. By analyzing the power demands of then-current PCs, it was determined that it would be much cheaper and more practical to power most PC components from 12 V rails, instead of from 3.3 V and 5 V rails.
In particular, PCI Express expansion cards take much of their power from the 12 V rail (up to 5.5 A), while the older AGP graphics cards took only up to 1 A on 12 V and up to 6 A on 3.3 V. The CPU is also driven by a 12 V rail, while it was done by a 5 V rail on older PCs (before the Pentium 4).
ATX12V 2.0
The power demands of PCI Express were incorporated in ATX12V 2.0 (introduced in February 2003), which defined quite different power distribution from ATX12V 1.x:
Most power is now provided on 12 V rails. The standard specifies that two independent 12 V rails (12 V2 for the four-pin connector and 12 V1 for everything else) with independent overcurrent protection are needed to meet the power requirements safely (some very high power PSUs have more than two rails; recommendations for such large PSUs are not given by the standard).
The power on 3.3 V and 5 V rails was significantly reduced.
The ATX motherboard connector was extended to 24 pins. The extra four pins provide one additional 3.3 V, 5 V and 12 V circuit.
The six-pin AUX connector from ATX12V 1.x was removed because the extra 3.3 V and 5 V circuits which it provided are now incorporated in the 24-pin ATX motherboard connector.
The power supply is required to include a Serial ATA power cable.
Many other specification changes and additions
ATX12V v2.01
This is a minor revision from June 2004. An errant reference for the −5 V rail was removed. Other minor changes were introduced.
ATX12V v2.1
This is a minor revision from March 2005. The power was slightly increased on all rails. Efficiency requirements changed.
ATX12V v2.2
Also released in March 2005 it includes corrections and specifies High Current Series wire terminals for 24-pin ATX motherboard and 4-pin +12 V power connectors.
ATX12V v2.3
Effective March 2007. Recommended efficiency was increased to 80% (with at least 70% required) and the 12 V minimum load requirement was lowered. Higher efficiency generally results in less power consumption (and less waste heat) and the 80% recommendation brings supplies in line with new Energy Star 4.0 mandates. The reduced load requirement allows compatibility with processors that draw very little power during startup. The absolute over-current limit of 240 VA per rail was removed, allowing 12 V lines to provide more than 20 A per rail.
ATX12V v2.31
This revision became effective in February 2008. It added a maximum allowed ripple/noise specification of 400 millivolts to the PWR_ON and PWR_OK signals, requires that the DC power must hold for more than 1 millisecond after the PWR_OK signal drops, clarified country-specific input line harmonic content and electromagnetic compatibility requirements, added a section about Climate Savers, updated recommended power supply configuration charts, and updated the cross-regulation graphs.
ATX12V v2.32
This the unofficial name given to the later revisions of the v2.31 spec.
ATX12V v2.4
The ATX12V 2.4 specifications were published in April 2013. It is specified in Revision 1.31 of the 'Design Guide for Desktop Platform Form Factors', which names this as ATX12V version 2.4.
ATX12V v2.51
The specifications for ATXV12 2.51 were released in September 2017 and introduced support for Alternative Sleep Mode (ASM) which supersedes the traditional S3 power state. Windows 10 implements this functionality as Modern Standby.
ATX12V v2.52
The specifications for ATXV12 2.52 were released in June 2018 introduces minor changes to the standard, most notably it requires power supply manufacturers to ensure power supplies with Alternative Sleep Mode (ASM) support are able to withstand power cycles every 180 seconds (480 times per day or 175,200 per year). Power supply fans are also recommended to turn on with at least a two second delay for an improved user experience.
ATX12V v2.53
The specifications for ATXV12 2.53 were released in June 2020 and constitute another minor update to the ATX standard. ATXV12 2.53 makes further recommendations on efficiency and references the Energy Star Computers Specification Version 8.0 which was finalized in April 2020.
ATX power supply derivatives
ATX12VO
Standing for ATX 12-volt-only, this is a new specification published by Intel in 2019, aimed at pre-built systems in the first run, and possibly affecting DIY and "high expandability" systems (defined as a pre-built computer with a discrete GPU) when a market emerges. It was motivated by stricter power efficiency requirements by the California Energy Commission going into effect in 2021. Several OEMs were already using a similar design with proprietary connectors and this effectively standardizes those.
Under this standard, power supplies provide only a 12V output. ATX12VO introduces a new 10-pin connector to supply the motherboard, replacing the 24-pin ATX12V connector. This greatly simplifies power supplies, but moves DC-to-DC conversion and some connectors to the motherboard instead. Notably, SATA power connectors, which include 3.3V and 5V pins, need to move to the motherboard instead of being connected directly to the power supply.
SFX
SFX is merely a design for a small form factor (SFF) power supply casing (such as those using microATX, FlexATX, nano-ITX, mini-ITX, and NLX), with the power specifications almost identical to ATX. Thus, an SFX power supply is mostly pin-compatible with the ATX power supply as the main difference is its reduced dimensions; the only electrical difference is that the SFX specifications do not require the −5 V rail. Since −5 V is required only by some ISA-bus expansion cards, this is not an issue with modern hardware and decreases productions costs. As a result, ATX pin 20, which carried −5 V, is absent in current power supplies; it was optional in ATX and ATX12V version 1.2 and deleted as of ATX version 1.3.
SFX has dimensions of 125 × 63.5 × 100 mm (width × height × depth), with a 60 mm fan, compared with the standard ATX dimensions of 150 × 86 × 140 mm. Optional 80 or 40 mm fan replacement increases or decreases the height of an SFX unit.
Some manufacturers and retailers incorrectly market SFX power supplies as μATX or MicroATX power supplies.
Some manufacturers make SFX-L dimensions of 125 × 63.5 × 130 mm to accommodate a 120 mm fan.
TFX
Thin Form Factor is another small power supply design with standard ATX specification connectors. Generally dimensioned (W × H × D): 85 × 64 × 175 mm (3.34 × 2.52 × 6.89 in).
WTX
WTX power supplies provide a WTX style motherboard connector which is incompatible with the standard ATX motherboard connector.
AMD GES
This is an ATX12V power supply derivative made by AMD to power its Athlon MP (dual processor) platform. It was used only on high-end Athlon MP motherboards. It has a special 8-pin supplemental connector for motherboard, so an AMD GES PSU is required for such motherboards (those motherboards will not work with ATX(12 V) PSUs).
a. ATX12V-GES 24-pin P1 motherboard connector. The pinout on the motherboard connector is as follows when viewing the motherboard from above:
b. ATX12V-GES 8-pin P2 motherboard connector. This pinout on the motherboard connector is as follows when viewing the motherboard from above:
EPS12V
EPS12V is defined in Server System Infrastructure (SSI) and used primarily by SMP/multi-core systems such as Core 2, Core i7, Opteron and Xeon. It has a 24-pin ATX motherboard connector (same as ATX12V v2.x), an 8-pin secondary connector and an optional 4-pin tertiary connector. Rather than include the extra cable, many power supply makers implement the 8-pin connector as two combinable 4-pin connectors to ensure backwards compatibility with ATX12V motherboards.
Recent specification changes and additions
High-performance video card power demands dramatically increased during the 2000s and some high-end graphics cards have power demands that exceed AGP or PCIe slot capabilities. For these cards, supplementary power was delivered through a standard 4-pin peripheral or floppy power connector. Midrange and high-end PCIe graphics cards manufactured after 2004 typically use a standard 6 or 8-pin PCIe power connector directly from the PSU.
Interchanging PSUs
Although the ATX power supply specifications are mostly vertically compatible in both ways (both electrically and physically), there are potential issues with mixing old motherboards/systems with new PSUs and vice versa. The main issues to consider are the following:
The power allocation between 3.3 V, 5 V and 12 V rails is very different between older and newer ATX PSU designs, as well as between older and newer PC system designs.
Older PSUs may not have connectors which are required for newer PC systems to properly operate.
Newer systems generally have higher power requirements than older systems.
This is a practical guidance what to mix and what not to mix:
Older systems (before Pentium 4 and Athlon XP platforms) were designed to draw most power from 5 V and 3.3 V rails.
Because of the DC-DC converters on the motherboard that convert 12 V to the low voltages required by the Intel Pentium 4 and AMD Athlon XP (and subsequent) processors, such systems draw most of their power from the 12 V rail.
Original ATX PSUs have power distribution designed for pre-P4/XP PCs. They lack the supplemental 4-pin 12-volt CPU power connector, so they most likely cannot be used with P4/XP or newer motherboards. Adapters do exist but power drain on the 12 V rail must be checked very carefully. There is a chance it can work without connecting the 4-pin 12 V connector, but caution is advised.
ATX12V 1.x PSUs have power distribution designed for P4/XP PCs, but they are also greatly suitable for older PCs, since they give plenty of power (relative to old PCs' needs) both on 12 V and on 5 V/3.3 V. It is not recommended to use ATX12V 1.x PSUs on ATX12V 2.x motherboards because those systems require much more power on 12 V than ATX12V 1.x PSUs provide.
ATX12V 2.x PSUs have power distribution designed for late P4/XP PCs and for Athlon 64 and Core Duo PCs. They can be used with earlier P4/XP PCs, but the power distribution will be significantly suboptimal, so a more powerful ATX12V 2.0 PSU should be used to compensate for that discrepancy. ATX12V 2.x PSUs can also be used with pre-P4/XP systems, but the power distribution will be greatly suboptimal (12 V rails will be mostly unused, while the 3.3 V/5 V rails will be overloaded), so this is not recommended.
Systems that use an ISA bus should have a PSU that provides the −5 V rail, which became optional in ATX12V 1.2 and was subsequently phased out by manufacturers.
Some proprietary brand-name systems require a matching proprietary power supply, but some of them may also support standard and interchangeable power supplies.
Efficiency
Efficiency in power supplies means the extent to which power is not wasted in converting electricity from a household supply to regulated DC. Computer power supplies vary from around 70% to over 90% efficiency.
Various initiatives exist to improve the efficiency of computer power supplies. Climate Savers Computing Initiative promotes energy saving and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by encouraging development and use of more efficient power supplies. 80 PLUS certifies a variety of efficiency levels for power supplies and encourages their use via financial incentives. Efficient power supplies also save money by wasting less power; as a result they use less electricity to power the same computer, and they emit less waste heat which results in significant energy savings on central air conditioning in the summer. The gains of using an efficient power supply are more substantial in computers that use a lot of power.
Although a power supply with a larger than needed power rating will have an extra margin of safety against overloading, such a unit is often less efficient and wastes more electricity at lower loads than a more appropriately sized unit. For example, a 900-watt power supply with the 80 Plus Silver efficiency rating (which means that such a power supply is designed to be at least 85-percent efficient for loads above 180 W) may only be 73% efficient when the load is lower than 100 W, which is a typical idle power for a desktop computer. Thus, for a 100 W load, losses for this supply would be 27 W; if the same power supply was put under a 450 W load, for which the supply's efficiency peaks at 89%, the loss would be only 56 W despite supplying 4.5 times the useful power. For a comparison, a 500-watt power supply carrying the 80 Plus Bronze efficiency rating (which means that such a power supply is designed to be at least 82-percent efficient for loads above 100 W) may provide an 84-percent efficiency for a 100 W load, wasting only 19 W.
See also
AT (form factor)
BTX (form factor)
Computer form factor
Mini-ITX
PC 97
Power supply unit (computer)
SSI CEB
Notes
References
External links
ATX Motherboard Specifications
ATX Motherboard Specification, v1.1
ATX Motherboard Specification, v2.2
ATX Power Supply Specifications
ATX12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.01
ATX12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.2
ATX12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.3
ATX12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.31
ATX12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.4
ATX12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.5 (Revision 002 / v2.52)
ATX12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.5 (Revision 003 / v2.53)
EPS Power Supply Specifications
EPS12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.0
EPS12V Power Supply Design Guide, v2.91
EPS12V Power Supply Design Guide v2.92
Other
Power Supply Form Factors
Various power supply cables and connectors
A short history of power supply voltage rails
ATX power supply connectors with pinouts
More ATX power supply connectors with pinouts
ATX Power Supply Terminology
Motherboard form factors
IBM PC compatibles |
356493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%20mine%20detector | Polish mine detector | The Mine detector (Polish) Mark I () was a metal detector for landmines developed during World War II. Initial work on the design had started in Poland but after the invasion of Poland by the Germans in 1939, and then the Fall of France in mid-1940, it was not until the winter of 1941–1942 that work was completed by Polish lieutenant Józef Kosacki.
History
In the pre-war period, the Department of Artillery of Poland's Ministry of National Defence ordered the construction of a device that could be helpful in locating duds on artillery training grounds. The instrument was designed by the AVA Wytwórnia Radiotechniczna, but its implementation was prevented by the German invasion of Poland. Following the fall of Poland and the transfer of Polish HQ to France, work restarted on the device, this time intended as a mine detector. Little is known of this stage of construction as the work was stopped by the Battle of France and the need to evacuate the Polish personnel to Great Britain.
There in late 1941 Lieutenant Józef Kosacki devised a final version, based partially on the earlier designs. His invention was not patented; he gave it as a gift to the British Army. He was given a letter of thanks from the King for this act. His design was accepted and 500 mine detectors were immediately sent to El Alamein where they doubled the speed of the British Eighth Army. During the war more than 100,000 of this type were produced, together with several hundred thousands of further developments of the mine detector (Mk. II, Mk. III and Mk IV). The detector was used later during the Allied invasion of Sicily, the Allied invasion of Italy and the Invasion of Normandy. This type of detector was used by the British Army until 1995.
An attempt was made to mount a version of the mine detector on a vehicle so that sappers would be less vulnerable. To this end "Lulu" (on a Sherman tank) and subsequently "Bantu" (on a Staghound armoured car) were developed. The detector mechanism was in non-metallic rollers on arms held away from the vehicle. When the roller passed over a mine or a similar piece of metal, the roller it was under was indicated in the vehicle. Prototypes were built but never tried in combat.
Design
See also
Demining
Land mine
Notes
References
"The History of Landmines" by Mike Croll published in Great Britain in 1998 by Leo Cooper, Pen & Sword Books Ltd.
The Polish Contribution to The Ultimate Allied Victory in The Second World War Tadeusz Modelski, Worthing, England 1986, Page 221
Time Magazine/Canadian Edition, March 8, 1999, page 18
Mieczysław Borchólski "Z saperami generała Maczka", MON 1990,
External links
Polish mine detector (Time Magazine/Canadian Edition), March 8, 1999 page 18
MK. III "Polish" Mine Detector
World War II military equipment of Poland
Mine warfare countermeasures
Science and technology in Poland
World War II military equipment of the United Kingdom
Polish inventions
Metal detecting
Military equipment of Poland
Military equipment of World War II
Military equipment introduced in the 1940s |
356496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20television%20stations%20in%20Nebraska | List of television stations in Nebraska | This is a list of broadcast television stations that are licensed in the U.S. state of Nebraska.
Full-power stations
VC refers to the station's PSIP virtual channel. RF refers to the station's physical RF channel.
Defunct full-power stations
Channel 10: KFOR-TV - CBS - Lincoln (5/31/1953-3/13/1954, merged with KOLN-TV)
Channel 16: KTUW - Ind. - Scottsbluff (2006-2009)
Channel 17: KTVG-TV - Fox - Grand Island (2/19/1993-4/5/2010)
Channel 24: KLKE - satellite of KLKN - Albion (1996-2003)
LPTV stations
Translators
Cable-only stations
LNKTV - Local Government and Community Cable - Lincoln
Nebraska
Television stations |
356522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Employment | Secretary of State for Employment | The Secretary of State for Employment was a position in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. In 1995 it was merged with Secretary of State for Education to make the Secretary of State for Education and Employment. In 2001 the employment functions were hived off and transferred to the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions.
Minister of Labour (1916–1940)
Minister of Labour and National Service (1940–1959)
Minister of Labour (1959–1968)
Secretary of State for Employment and Productivity (1968–1970)
Secretary of State for Employment (1970–1995)
Secretary of State for Education and Employment (1995–2001)
The office was merged with the Department of Social Security to form the Department of Work and Pensions in 2001.
Employment
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom |
356526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereford%20Gospels | Hereford Gospels | The Hereford Gospels (Hereford, Hereford Cathedral Library, MS P. I. 2) is an 8th-century illuminated manuscript gospel book in insular script (minuscule), with large illuminated initials in the Insular style. This is a very late Anglo-Saxon gospel book, which shares a distinctive style with the Caligula Troper (Cotton Library, MS Caligula A.xiv). An added text suggests this was in the diocese of Hereford in the 11th century.
The manuscript was likely produced either in Wales (like the Ricemarch Psalter [In the Doomsday books Hereford is referred to as Hereford, Wales] and possibly the Lichfield Gospels) or in the West Country of England near the Welsh border. Correspondences with the Lichfield Gospels include roughly 650 variances from the Vulgate, suggestive that the two manuscripts result from a similar textual tradition.
Like other Insular manuscripts, the decoration has features relating to pre-Christian Celtic art, featuring spirals, tri-partite divisions of circles, common in the La Tene style, as well as Germanic and Mediterranean elements.
It is now housed in Hereford Cathedral in the largest surviving chained library, a library in which the books are chained so as to prevent theft.
This book should not be confused with a different manuscript sometimes known as the "Hereford Gospels", now held at Pembroke College, Cambridge as MS 302.
References
External links
Replicas of the illuminated pages of the Hereford Gospel by Diane George
More information at Earlier Latin Manuscripts
Gospel Books
Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts
8th-century biblical manuscripts
8th-century illuminated manuscripts
Illuminated manuscripts of Welsh origin |
356528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachtopf | Aachtopf | The Aachtopf () is Germany's biggest karst spring, south of the western end of the Swabian Jura near the town of Aach. It produces an average of 8,500 litres per second. Most of the water stems from the River Danube where it disappears underground at the Danube Sinkhole, north near Immendingen and about north near Fridingen. The cave system has been explored since the 1960s, but as of 2020 only a small part has been discovered due to a large blockage after a few hundred metres.
Etymology
The name Aachtopf is compounded from Aach (meaning "water" in Old High German); Topf can be translated as "bowl" and is commonly used for round, bowl-shaped springs.
Geography
The Aachtopf is a karst spring, south of the western end of the Swabian Jura near the town of Aach. The spring is the source of the river Radolfzeller Aach, which flows southward into Lake Constance, and empties into the Rhine.
Origin
The spring marks the southern end of a cave system that transports water from the western end of the Swabian Jura. It produces an average of 8,500 litres per second. Production varies seasonally and in response to the weather, but the spring never runs dry. Most of the water is derived from the Danube where it disappears underground at the Donauversickerung (Danube Sinkhole) near Immendingen and Fridingen. The Rhine's steeper gradient on its much shorter route to the North Sea creates stronger headward erosion than that of the much older River Danube (see the Danube upper river geology). This stream capture of the upper Danube and its surface tributaries is expected to cause the long-term disappearance of the Danube drainage entirely in favour of the Rhine.
The Danube flows eastwards into the Black Sea, whereas the Rhine flows northwards to the North Sea. Therefore, the water of the Aach flows under the European watershed. This is a relatively common feature of karst stream captures.
The karst spring is connected to a huge cave, which runs northwards. The cave is completely water-filled and can only be explored by cave divers.
History of exploration
In 1719, F. W. Bräuninger published his hypothesis that the water of the spring originated from the Danube.
On 9 October 1877, the geologist Adolf Knop from Karlsruhe Technical College laced the water in the Danube basin with 10 kg sodium fluorescein, 20 zentner (1000 kg) of salt and 1200 kg of shale oil. After 60 hours he was able to detect all three substances in the spring, as evidenced by "splendidly green, salt water with a distinct creosote taste".
In 1886, the first attempt to dive down the Aachtopf (and one of the world’s first cave dives) was made, to , at the location of a bottleneck where the water has a strong flow.
In 1960, the first exploration of the cave was made by Jochen Hasenmayer, a famous German cave diver. from the spring the syphon opens into a cavern, the "Seenhalle" (Lake Hall). A collapse blocks the cave after . The cave is expected to continue for several kilometres on the other side of the blockage.
In 1990, a local caving club was formed to find the lost cave segment towards the Danube basin by digging a shaft behind the collapse at the bottom of a large sink hole. In 1995, members discovered a cavern at deep, which they dubbed the Grey Hall, and in 2003 another cavern with a lake, which Rudi Martin has described in a report. The group has published maps of the "Donauhöhle".
As of 2020, exploration is ongoing and the continuation of the cave has not been discovered.
Fauna
In 2015, the only known cavefish in Europe, a Barbatula loach, was discovered in the Danube–Aachtopf system.
References
External links
Aachtopf showcaves.com.
15 min
6 min
43 min
Springs of Germany
Karst springs
Karst formations of Germany
Landforms of Baden-Württemberg
Caves of Germany
SAachtopf
SAachtopf
Geography of Hegau |
356530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialistische%20Partij | Socialistische Partij | Socialistische Partij is Dutch for Socialist Party. It may refer to :
The Netherlands :
Socialistische Partij (1918-1928), Dutch Socialist Party in the interbellum, dissolved in 1928
Socialistische Partij (Netherlands), current Dutch Socialist Party in The Netherlands
Belgium :
Socialistische Partij Anders, Socialist Party of Flanders, Belgium |
356531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Health%20and%20Social%20Care | Secretary of State for Health and Social Care | The secretary of state for health and social care, also referred to as the health secretary, is a secretary of state in the Government of the United Kingdom, responsible for the work of the Department of Health and Social Care. The incumbent is a member of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, eighth in the ministerial ranking.
The position can trace its roots back to the nineteenth century, and has been a secretary of state position since 1968. For 30 years, from 1988 to 2018, the position was titled Secretary of State for Health, before Prime Minister Theresa May added "and Social Care" to the designation in the 2018 British cabinet reshuffle.
The current secretary of state for health and social care is Sajid Javid, who was appointed by Prime Minister Boris Johnson in June 2021.
Responsibilities
Corresponding to what is generally known as a health minister in many other countries, the health secretary's remit includes the following:
Oversight of England's National Health Service, including:
Delivery of care
Performance
Financial management
Matters concerning England's social care policy (although responsibility is shared with the Ministry of Housing Communities and Local Government in respect of adult social care, and the Department for Education in respect of children's social care).
Matters concerning England's national public health
Relations with international health partnerships (WHO)
History
The first Boards of Health were created by Orders in Council dated 21 June, 14 November and 21 November 1831. In 1848, a General Board of Health was created with lay members as its leadership and the first commissioner of woods and forests as its president. In 1854, this board was reconstituted and the president appointed separately. However, the board was abolished in 1858 and its function of overseeing the local boards was transferred to a new Local Government Act Office within the Home Office. From 1871, that function was transferred to the new Local Government Board.
The Ministry of Health was created in by the Ministry of Health Act 1919 as a reconstruction of the Local Government Board. Local government functions were eventually transferred to the minister of housing and local government, leaving the Health Ministry in charge of Health proper.
From 1968, it was amalgamated with the Ministry of Social Security under the secretary of state for social services, until a de-merger of the Department of Health and Social Security on 25 July 1988.
Since devolution in 1999, the position holder's responsibility for the NHS is mainly restricted to the health service in England, with the holder's counterparts in Scotland and Wales responsible for the NHS in Scotland and Wales. Prior to devolution, the secretaries of state for Scotland and Wales had those respective responsibilities, but the Department of Health had a larger role than now in the co-ordination of health policy across Great Britain. Health services in Northern Ireland have always had separate arrangements from the rest of the UK, and are currently the responsibility of the health minister in the Northern Ireland Executive.
A small number of health issues remain reserved matters, that is, they are not devolved.
List of ministers
Colour key (for political parties):
References
External links
See also
Health and Social Care minister
Minister of Health
Health in the United Kingdom
National Health Service
Ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
Health ministers of the United Kingdom |
356538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20parties%20in%20Belgium | List of political parties in Belgium | Belgium is a federal state with a multi-party political system, with numerous parties who factually have no chance of gaining power alone, and therefore must work with each other to form coalition governments.
Almost all Belgian political parties are divided into linguistic groups, either Dutch-speaking parties (see also political parties in Flanders), Francophone parties or Germanophone parties.
The Flemish parties operate in Flanders and in the Brussels-Capital Region. The Francophone parties operate in Wallonia and in the Brussels-Capital Region. There are also parties operating in the comparatively small German-speaking community.
From the creation of the Belgian state in 1830 and throughout most of the 19th century, two political parties dominated Belgian politics: the Catholic Party (Church-oriented and conservative) and the Liberal Party (anti-clerical and progressive). In the late 19th century the Labour Party arose to represent the emerging industrial working class. These three groups still dominate Belgian politics, but they have evolved substantially in character.
Party status and financing
In Belgium, the status of political parties is not defined or regulated by the constitution or by laws. A party does not even need to be a formal organisation or be registered; they can exist de facto. Anyone can simply stand for elections by presenting an electoral list, provided the candidates are eligible and the list is supported by incumbent members of that body or by a certain number of voters.
Nevertheless, some aspects have been strictly regulated in the last decades. Private funding of political parties is very restricted; political parties are publicly funded based on the number of votes they received in the elections as well as for parliamentary groups (in total c. €70 million per year). Campaign expenses are regulated during a certain period preceding an election (sperperiode).
The law of 4 July 1989 on electoral expenses (for Chamber elections) and party financing uses the following definition of a political party:
One non-profit association (vzw/asbl) must be designated in order to receive public funding and provide accounting to an audit committee. Usually the main political parties have multiple such vzws/asbls that exist to facilitate their party structure. For example, when Vlaams Blok was taken to court for racism in 2004, the court in fact convicted three vzws, after which a successor party Vlaams Belang was founded.
Equivalent laws exist for the electoral expenses in the European Parliament elections, the regional elections and local elections.
Main ideologies or categories
Catholics/Christian Democrats
After World War II, the Catholic (now Christian Democratic) Party severed its formal ties with the Church. It became a mass party of the centre.
In 1968, the Christian Democratic Party, responding to linguistic tensions in the country, divided into two independent parties: the Parti Social Chrétien (PSC) in French-speaking Belgium and the Christelijke Volkspartij (CVP) in Flanders. The two parties pursue the same basic policies but maintain separate organisations. The CVP is the larger of the two, getting more than twice as many votes as the PSC. The chairman of the Flemish Catholic party is now Joachim Coens. Maxime Prévot is president of the Francophone Catholic party. Following the 1999 general elections, the CVP and PSC were ousted from office, bringing an end to a 40-year term on the government benches. In 2001, the CVP changed its name to Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams (CD&V). In 1971 the German wing of the PSC became independent to get the name Christlich Soziale Partei. In 2002, the PSC also changed its name to Centre démocrate humaniste (cdH).
After the big losses in the 1999 general elections, when both CVP and PSC were banished to the opposition benches, some party members decided to leave the mother parties in order to form a new liberal-conservative party. In Flanders, the New Christian Democrats (NCD) was founded by Johan Van Hecke and Karel Pinxten. In Wallonia, the Citizens' Movement for Change (MCC) was founded by Gérard Deprez. Both parties soon joined the major liberal parties, respectively the VLD in Flanders and the MR in Wallonia.
Socialists/Social Democrats
The modern Belgian Socialist parties are the descendants of the Belgian Labour Party. They have lost much of their early Marxist trends. They are now primarily labour-based parties similar to the German Social Democratic Party and the French Socialist Party. The Socialists have been part of several postwar governments and have produced some of the country's most distinguished statesmen. The Socialists also split along linguistic lines in 1978. Conner Rousseau is the current head of the Flemish Socialist Party and Paul Magnette is the current president of the Francophone Socialists. In general, the Walloon Socialists tend to concentrate on domestic issues. In the 1980s, the Flemish Socialists focused heavily on international issues, and on security in Europe in particular, where they frequently opposed U.S. policies. However, first with Willy Claes, then Frank Vandenbroucke and with Erik Derycke as Foreign Minister, all three Flemish Socialists, the party made a significant shift to the centre adopting less controversial stances on foreign policy issues.
The Francophone Parti Socialiste (PS) is mainly based in the industrial cities of Wallonia (Liège, Charleroi, and Mons). The Flemish Socialists' support is less regionally concentrated. The Flemish Socialists changed their party's name to Socialistische Partij Anders (SP.a) in 2002 and to Vooruit in 2021.
Recently, because of grassroots allegations about the party's "too little Socialist stand" in many political issues, a radical party wing broke away from the motherparty and formed, with support from smaller leftist parties, the Committee for Another Policy (CAP). Within the SP.a, the more Marxist SP.a-Rood, is trying to change the course of the party.
Liberals
The Liberal Parties chiefly appeal to businesspeople, property owners, shopkeepers, and the self-employed, in general. In the terms generally used in English-speaking countries, Belgian liberals would be called "moderate conservatives", "fiscal conservatives" and "social liberals".
There are two Liberal parties, formed along linguistic lines: The Open Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten (Open VLD) who opened up their ranks to Volksunie and CD&V defectors some years ago, managed to break the dominance of CD&V over Belgian politics in 1999. Open VLD is currently headed by Egbert Lachaert. The Mouvement Réformateur (MR) is the equivalent party on the Francophone side, and is headed by Georges-Louis Bouchez. The MR is a federation mainly composed of the former PRL, it is also composed of the Germanophone Partei für Freiheit und Fortschritt (PFF), and is eventually also composed of the Christian-democratic split-off called MCC. It used to be composed of the Brussels-based FDF until September 2012, which is now an independent party.
Recently, the Flemish liberal party faced several high-ranking elected officials breaking away in order to found new "right-liberal" parties: MEP Ward Beysen (Liberaal Appèl, LA), senator Leo Govaerts (Veilig Blauw), senator Hugo Coveliers (VLOTT), VLD board member Boudewijn Bouckaert (Cassadra vzw) and senator Jean-Marie Dedecker (Lijst Dedecker, LDD).
Communists
The first communist party in Belgium was founded by the more radical elements of the Belgian Labour Party in 1921 and was named the Communist Party of Belgium (KPB-PCB). The party was a member of the Comintern and entered parliament in 1925. It received its highest score in the post-war elections of 1946, when it won 12.7% of the popular vote and took part in the next coalition government. With the start of the Cold War the party started its decline and after the elections of 1985 it was no longer represented in the Belgian Parliament. The party eventually disbanded itself in 1989, but two minor parties, the Kommunistische Partij (KP) in Flanders and the Parti Communiste (PC) in Wallonia, see themselves as the successors.
The most successful Maoist movement to emerge in Belgium was All Power To The Workers (AMADA-TPO) at the end of the 1960s during a time of students protests at the University of Leuven. In 1979 this movement evolved into the Workers' Party of Belgium (PVDA-PTB), which is currently the largest communist party in Belgium and is represented in various municipal and provincial councils, as well as in the Chamber of Representatives, in the Flemish Parliament, in the Walloon Parliament and in the Brussels Parliament.
Other minor communist and far-left parties include: the Trotskyist Revolutionary Communist League (LCR-SAP) and the Left Socialist Party (LSP-PSL).
Regionalist parties
A specific phenomenon in Belgium was the emergence of one-issue parties whose only reason for existence was the defence of the cultural, political, and economic interests of one of the linguistic groups or regions of Belgian society. See Flemish movement.
The most militant Flemish regional party in Parliament in the 1950s and 1960s, the Volksunie (VU), once drew nearly one-quarter of Belgium's Dutch-speaking electorate away from the traditional parties. The Volksunie was in the forefront of a successful campaign by the country's Flemish population for cultural and political parity with the nation's long dominant French-speaking population. However, in recent elections the party has suffered severe setbacks. In October 2001 the party disintegrated. The left-liberal wing founded Spirit, later called the Social Liberal Party, while the more traditional Flemish nationalist wing continued under the banner Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie (N-VA). After a disappointing result in the regional elections of 2009, the Social Liberal Party decided to merge with the Flemish ecologists of Groen!. The N-VA, on the other hand, formed an electoral alliance with Christian-democratic CD&V from 2004 to 2008. After this period, the party's popularity grew significantly and it became the largest Flemish party. N-VA won the 2010 federal elections with 28% of the Flemish votes (17.4% of overall vote) and the 2014 Flemish parliament election with 31.9% of votes. The N-VA is led by Bart De Wever who has been mayor of Antwerp since 2013. N-VA member Geert Bourgeois has been minister-president of the Flemish government from 2014 to 2019. N-VA policies are primarily focused on economic reform through extended devolution of political power within the Belgian confederation model of governance, and do eventually propose full secession from the Belgian confederation.
Democratic, Federalist, Independent (DéFI) is a Brussels French-speaking Belgian political party that aims to defend and expand linguistic rights of French-speaking people in and around Brussels. It has been affiliated with the Mouvement Réformateur, a liberal alliance party, under the name FDF.
The Union des Francophones (UF) is an electoral list combining the major Belgian Francophone parties for the regional elections in Flanders.
Greens
The Flemish (Agalev) and Francophone (Ecolo) ecologist parties made their parliamentary breakthrough in 1981. They focus heavily on environmental issues and are the most consistent critics of U.S. policy. Following significant gains made in the 1999 general elections, the two green parties joined a federal coalition cabinet for the first time in their history, but were ousted after the next elections. Agalev subsequently changed its name to Groen! in 2003. In 2012 the party dropped its trademark exclamation point and went on as Groen.
Nationalists
The foremost Flemish party in Belgium is the Vlaams Belang, which was founded in 2004, after its predecessor was condemned by a High Court for "permanent incitation to discrimination and racism." On the far right, the Flanders separatist party Vlaams Blok steadily rose in the 1980s and 1990s. The other parties except the fortuynist party VLOTT maintain a cordon sanitaire on the Vlaams Belang as they did the Vlaams Blok. Although other parties in Belgium are supportive of Flemish and Dutch cultural issues, the Vlaams Belang is most strident in pursuing a secessionist agenda, for Flemish independence.
In Wallonia, the Front National (FN) was the largest anti-immigrant Wallonian party. Officially, it was a bilingual party, but in reality, it was a purely French-speaking group, although it did support Belgian federalism.
German-speaking Community
The German-speaking parties do not play an important role on federal level. The main German-speaking parties are the Christian-democratic Christlich-Soziale Partei (CSP), the liberal Partei für Freiheit und Fortschritt (PFF), the social-democratic Sozialistische Partei (SP) and regionalist Pro deutschsprachige Gemeinschaft (ProDG).
Alliances
After the installation of a 5% electoral threshold, with private funding close to forbidden and public funding only for parties with at least one representative in parliament, some of the smaller parties have made alliances with a larger, more traditional party, especially in the Flemish Region. Parties in any alliance remain independent, but they would field candidates on one combined list at elections. In general, the smaller party/parties would be assured of gaining seats, and the larger party would be assured of obtaining a larger overall share of the vote. This was especially true for the CD&V/N-VA alliance, whereby CD&V became the largest party by votes in the Flemish regional elections, so therefore it could initiate coalition talks and the party could appoint the leader of the Flemish regional government. The VLD/Vivant alliance did not perform well in the polls. The proposed SP.a/Spirit/Groen! alliance did not happen, instead the SP.a/Spirit alliance went to the polls, although the tripartite cartel became reality in some constituencies on the local level in the October 2006 municipal elections.
Political parties
Flemish parties
Francophone parties
Bilingual parties
German-speaking parties
Minor parties
Flemish
Libertair, Direct, Democratisch/LDD (Libertarian, Direct, Democratic)
Rood! (Red!, socialist party)
Nieuwe Christen-Democraten/NCD (New Christian Democrats)
VLOTT
Francophone
Parti Communiste/PC (Communist Party in Wallonia)
Force Nationale - Walloon far right party
Rassemblement Wallonie-France Rassemblement Wallon Liberal Democrats (Belgium) (LiDem) (former Listes Destexhe)
Bilingual/Unionist
Piratenpartij- Parti pirate
DierAnimal (Party for the animals)
Be.One (immigrant rights)
Agora
Belgische Unie - Union Belge/BUB (Belgian Union)
Pro Bruxsel
European Federalist Party
Comité voor een Andere Politiek - Comité pour une Autre Politique/CAP (Committee for Another Policy)
Internationale Arbeidersliga - Ligue Internationale des Travailleurs (International Workers' League)
Ligue communiste révolutionnaire - Socialistische Arbeiderspartij/LCR-SAP (Revolutionary Communist League)
Linkse Socialistische Partij - Parti Socialiste de Lutte/LSP-PSL (Left Socialist Party)
Volt Belgique - België - Belgien (Belgian section of Volt Europa)
See also
Political parties in Flanders
List of political parties by country
Liberalism in Belgium
Politics of Belgium
Politics of Flanders
Politics of Wallonia
References
Belgium
Political parties
Belgium |
356541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Armouries%20Ms.%20I.33 | Royal Armouries Ms. I.33 | Royal Armouries Ms. I.33 is the earliest known surviving European fechtbuch (combat manual), and one of the oldest surviving martial arts manuals dealing with armed combat worldwide. I.33 is also known as the Walpurgis manuscript, after a figure named Walpurgis shown in the last sequence of the manuscript, and "the Tower manuscript" because it was kept in the Tower of London during 1950-1996; also referred to as British Museum No. 14 E iii, No. 20, D. vi.
It was created around 1300 in Franconia and is first mentioned by Henricus a Gunterrodt in his De veriis principiis artis dimicatoriae of 1579.
The manuscript is anonymous and is so titled through an association with the Royal Armouries Museum.
The manuscript
The manuscript including the text date to about 1270-1320 CE It is first mentioned by Henricus a Gunterrodt in his De veriis principiis artis dimicatoriae of 1579, where he reports it to have been acquired (looted) by a friend of his, one Johannes Herbart of Würzburg when serving in the force of Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach in the campaigns of 1552/3. It remained in a Franconian monastery (presumably in Upper Franconia) until the mid-16th century. From the 17th century, the manuscript was part of the ducal library of Gotha (signature Cod. Membr. I. no. 115) until it disappeared in World War II and resurfaced at a Sotheby's auction in 1950, where it was purchased by the Royal Armouries. The author of the treatise may be a cleric called Lutegerus (viz. a Latinised form of the German proper name Liutger).
The treatise expound a martial system of defensive and offensive techniques between a master and a pupil, referred to as sacerdos (priest) and scolaris (student), each armed with a sword and a buckler, drawn in ink and watercolour and accompanied with Latin text, interspersed with German fencing terms. On the last two pages, the pupil is replaced by a woman called Walpurgis.
The pages of the manuscript are vellum, the 32 parchment folia (64 pages) of the manuscript show Latin text written in a clerical hand, using the various sigla which were standard at the time (but which fell out of use at the end of the medieval period; an image from the manuscript (the second image on fol 26r) was copied into Codex Guelf 125.16.Extrav. in the 1600s by a draughtsman who under his drawing stated that he could not decipher the Latin text).
Contents
The pages are thought possibly or very likely from an earlier larger work, which have later been subsequently bound together separated from the other pages. The text provides guidance on the use of a single-handed sword. The fencing system is based on a number of wards (custodie) which are answered by defensive postures (obsessiones). The wards are numbered 1 to 7 on the first two pages and supplemented by various 'special' wards later in the text. The seven basic wards are:
under the arm (sub brach)
right shoulder (humero dextrali)
left shoulder (humero sinistro)
head (capiti)
right side (latere dextro)
breast (pectori)
'long-point' (langort)
The German terms appearing in the Latin text are the following:
albersleiben (possibly the fool's guard position)
durchtreten, durchtritt ('stepping through')
halpschilt ('half shield', one of the obsessiones)
krucke ('crutch', a defensive position)
langort ('long-point', may be either a custodia or an obsessio)
nucken ('nudge', a specific attack)
schiltslac ('shield-blow')
schutzen ('protect')
stich ('stab')
stichschlac ('stab-blow')
vidilpoge ('fiddle-bow', a specific custodia)
Sporadic dialectal elements in these terms (notably nucken and halpschilt) suggest a location of composition consistent with the reported discovery in a Franconian monastery in the wider area of Würzburg.
References
Jeffrey L. Singman (now Forgeng), "The medieval swordsman: a 13th century German fencing manuscript", in Royal Armouries Yearbook 2, pp. 129–136, 1997.
Jeffrey L. Forgeng, The Medieval Art of Swordsmanship, A Facsimile & Translation of the World's Oldest Personal Combat Treatise, published jointly with the Royal Armouries at Leeds, The Chivalry Bookshelf, 2003;
Paul Wagner & Stephen Hand, Medieval Sword And Shield: The Combat System of Royal Armouries MS I.33, The Chivalry Bookshelf, 2003;
Stephen Hand, "Re-Interpreting Aspects of the Sword & Buckler System in Royal Armouries MS I.33", in Spada 2: Anthology of Swordsmanship, pp. 91–109, The Chivalry Bookshelf, 2005;
Franck Cinato & André Surprenant, Le livre de l’art du combat. Liber de arte dimicatoria. Édition critique du Royal Armouries MS. I.33, collection Sources d'Histoire Médiévale n°39, CNRS Editions, Paris, 2009.
Herbert Schmidt, Schwertkampf Band 2, Der Kampf mit Schwert und Buckler, Wieland Verlag,
External links
Official Royal Armouries collection catalogue record of manuscript I.33, (collections.royalarmouries.org)
The Illuminated Fight Book, facsimile project
Walpurgis Fechtbuch (MS I.33) (wiktenauer.com)
Full text of I.33 and translation (schwertfechten.ch)
David Rawlings, Obsesseo: The Art of Sword and Buckler training DVD (London Longsword Academy/Boar's Tooth)
A Partial, Possible Interpretation of the I.33 Manuscript by John Jordan
Demonstration of basic attacks includes slow-motion video clips (Higgins Armory Sword Guild)
Anonymous Fechtbuch: Manuscript I.33 (The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts)
The Guards of I.33 and Their Footwork and Cuts by Randall Pleasant (The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts)
Fall Under the Sword and Shield: An Examination of the First Play of MS I.33 by Randall Pleasant (The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts)
A comparative pictorial study of the Wards and techniques of the I.33 or Tower Fechtbuch by Brian Hunt (The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts)
14th-century illuminated manuscripts
Combat treatises
Historical European martial arts
Swordsmanship |
356543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese%20Communist%20Party | Portuguese Communist Party | The Portuguese Communist Party (, , PCP) is a communist, Marxist–Leninist political party in Portugal based upon democratic centralism. The party also considers itself patriotic and internationalist, and it is characterized as being between the left-wing and far-left on the political spectrum.
The Party was founded in 1921, establishing contacts with the Communist International (Comintern) in 1922, and became in 1923 the Portuguese section of the Comintern. Made illegal after a coup in the late 1920s, the PCP played a major role in the opposition to the dictatorial regime of António de Oliveira Salazar. During the five-decades-long dictatorship, the party was constantly suppressed by the political police, the PIDE, which forced its members to live in clandestine status under the threat of arrest, torture, and murder. After the Carnation Revolution in 1974, which overthrew the 48-year regime, the 36 members of party's Central Committee had, in the aggregate, experienced more than 300 years in jail.
After the end of the dictatorship, the party became a major political force of the new democratic regime. One of its goals, according to the party is to maintain its "vanguard role in the service of the class interests of the workers". Currently, the PCP is the fifth largest in the Portuguese Assembly of the Republic, where it holds 6 of the 230 assembly seats.
The Party publishes the weekly Avante!, founded in 1931. Its youth organization is the Portuguese Communist Youth, a member of the World Federation of Democratic Youth.
History
Origins
At the end of World War I, in 1918, Portugal fell into a serious economic crisis, in part due to the Portuguese military intervention in the war. The Portuguese working classes responded to the deterioration in their living standards with a wave of strikes. Supported by an emerging labour movement, the workers achieved some of their objectives, such as an eight-hour working day.
In September 1919, the working-class movement founded the first Portuguese Labour Union Confederation, the General Confederation of Labour; however, the feeling of political powerlessness, due to the lack of a coherent political strategy among the Portuguese working class, plus the growing popularity of the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in 1917, led to the foundation of the Portuguese Maximalist Federation (FMP) in 1919. The goal of FMP was to promote socialist and revolutionary ideas and to organize and develop the worker movement.
After some time, members of the FMP began to feel the need for a "revolutionary vanguard" among Portuguese workers. After several meetings at various trade union offices, and with the aid of the Comintern, this desire culminated in the foundation of the Portuguese Communist Party as the Portuguese Section of the Comintern on 6 March 1921.
Unlike virtually all other European communist parties, the PCP was not formed after a split of a social democratic or socialist party, but from the ranks of anarcho-syndicalist and revolutionary syndicalist groups, the most active factions in the Portuguese labor movement. The party opened its first headquarters in the Arco do Marquês do Alegrete Street in Lisbon. Seven months after its creation, the first issue of O Comunista (The Communist), the first newspaper of the party, was published.
The first congress of the party took place in Lisbon in November 1923, with Carlos Rates as the leader. The congress was attended by about a hundred members of the party and asserted its solidarity with socialism in the Soviet Union and the need for a strong struggle for similar policies in Portugal; it also stated that a fascist coup in Portugal was a serious threat to the party and to the country.
Outlawed
After the military coup of 28 May 1926, the party was outlawed and had to operate in secrecy. By coincidence, the coup was carried out on the eve of the second congress, forcing the suspension of party business. In 1927, the party's main office was closed. The party was first re-organized in 1929 under Bento Gonçalves. Adapting its new illegal status, the party re-organized as a network of clandestine cells.
Meanwhile, in 1938, the PCP had been expelled from the Comintern. The reason for the expulsion was a sense of distrust in the Comintern caused by a sudden breakdown in the party's activity after a period of strong communist tumult in the country, accusations of alleged embezzlement of money carried out by some important members of the party and, mainly, the weak internal structure of the party, dominated by internal wars. The action against the PCP, signed by Georgi Dimitrov, was in part taken due to some persecution against Comintern member parties or persons (like the Communist Party of Poland or Béla Kun) led by Joseph Stalin. These series of events would, in part, lead to the end of the Comintern in 1943. The PCP would only re-establish its relations with the communist movement and the Soviet Union in 1947, after sporadic contacts made through the communist parties of Spain and France and later through Mikhail Suslov.
After the 1933 rise of Salazar's dictatorial Estado Novo regime, suppression of the party grew. Many members were arrested, tortured, and executed. Many were sent to the Tarrafal concentration camp in the Cape Verde Islands. This included Bento Gonçalves, who would die there. The vast wave of arrests led to a major re-organization in 1940 and 1941, named the "Reorganization of '40". The first congress held after these changes was held in 1943, and stated that the party should unite with all those who also wanted an end to the dictatorship. Another important conclusion was the need to increase the party's influence inside the Portuguese army. The party was able, for the first time, to assure a strong clandestine organization, with a network of clandestine cadres, which would significantly aid the resistance against Salazar's regime.
In 1945, with the defeat of the major fascist regimes in World War II, Salazar was forced to fake some democratic changes to keep up a good image in the eyes of the West, so in October of that year, the democratic resistance was authorized to form a platform, which was named Movement of Democratic Unity (Portuguese: Movimento de Unidade Democrática, or MUD). Initially, the MUD was controlled by the moderate opposition, but it soon became strongly influenced by the PCP, which controlled its youth wing. In the leadership of the youth wing were several communists, among them Octávio Pato, Salgado Zenha, Mário Soares, Júlio Pomar, and Mário Sacramento. This influence led to the MUD being outlawed by the government in 1948, after several waves of suppression.
The fourth congress, held in July 1946, pointed to massive popular struggle as the only way to overthrow the regime, and stated the policies that would help the party leaders that same popular movement. This, along with the consolidation of the clandestine work, was the main conclusion of the congress. A brief report of the conclusions of this congress were published by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. At this time, Álvaro Cunhal travelled to Yugoslavia with the aid of Bento de Jesus Caraça to improve relations with the Socialist Bloc. Later, in 1948, he travelled to the Soviet Union to speak with Mikhail Suslov, after which the bonds between the PCP and the International Communist Movement were re-established. Soon after returning from the Soviet Union, Cunhal was arrested by the PIDE.
The fifth congress, held in September 1957, was the only congress to be held outside Portugal. In Kiev, the Party approved its first program and statutes. For the first time, the party took an official position on colonialism, stating that every people had the right of self-determination, and made clear its support of the liberation movements in the Portuguese colonies, such as MPLA in Angola, FRELIMO in Mozambique, and PAIGC in Guinea-Bissau.
In January 1960, a group of ten PCP members managed to escape from the high-security prison in Peniche. The escape returned to freedom many of the leading figures of the Party, among them, Álvaro Cunhal, who would be elected in the following year the first secretary-general in nineteen years. Among the escapees was also Jaime Serra, who would help to organize a secret commando group, the Armed Revolutionary Action (Portuguese: Acção Revolucionária Armada or ARA). The ARA was the armed branch of the PCP that would be responsible in the 1970s for some military action against the dictatorial regime.
In 1961, the Colonial War in Africa began - first in Angola, and in the next year in Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau. The war lasted thirteen years and devastated Portuguese society, forcing many thousands of Portuguese citizens to leave the country, both to seek a better future in countries like France, Germany, or Switzerland and to escape conscription. The PCP, which had been involved in the formation of the nationalist guerrilla movements, along with the Soviet Union, immediately stated its opposition to the war, and its support for the anti-colonial movements. The war prompted unrest in Portuguese society and helped lead to the decline of the Salazar regime.
In 1962, the Academic Crisis occurred. The Salazar regime, fearing the growing popularity of democratic ideas among students, made several student associations and organizations illegal, including the National Secretariat of Portuguese Students. Most members of this organization were intellectual communist militants who were persecuted and forbidden to continue their university studies. With assistance from the PCP, the students responded with demonstrations that culminated on 24 March with a large student demonstration in Lisbon. The demonstration was brutally suppressed by the police, leading to hundreds of injuries among the protesters. Immediately thereafter, the students began a strike against the regime.
In the sixth congress, in 1965, Álvaro Cunhal, elected secretary-general in 1961, released the report, The Path to Victory—The Tasks of the Party in the National and Democratic Revolution, written while he was in exile in Moscow in collaboration with Margarida Tengarrinha, which became a document of major influence in the democratic movement. Widely distributed among the clandestine members, it contained eight political goals, such as "the end of the monopolies in the economy", "the need for agrarian reform and redistribution of the land", and "the democratization of access to culture and education" — policies that the Party considered essential to make Portugal a fully democratic country. Nine years later, on 25 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution occurred, putting an end to 48 years of resistance and marking the beginning of a new cycle in the party's life.
Carnation Revolution
Immediately after the revolution, basic democratic rights were re-established in Portugal. On 27 April, political prisoners were freed. On 30 April, Álvaro Cunhal returned to Lisbon, where he was received by thousands of people. May Day was commemorated for the first time in 48 years, and an estimated half million people gathered in the FNAT Stadium (now 1 May Stadium) in Lisbon to hear speeches by Cunhal and the socialist Mário Soares. On 17 May, the party's newspaper, Avante!, produced the first legal issue in its history.
The following months were marked by radical changes in the country, always closely followed and supported by PCP. A stormy process to give independence to the colonies started with the full support of the party and, within a year, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, and São Tomé and Príncipe became independent countries.
Six months after the Carnation Revolution, on 20 October 1974, the party's seventh congress took place. More than a thousand delegates and hundreds of Portuguese and foreign guests attended. The congress set forth important statements that discussed the ongoing revolution in the country. The 36 members of the elected central committee had in the aggregate experienced more than 300 years in jail. On 26 December 1974, the PCP became the first legally recognized party.
The revolutionary process continued. On 11 March 1975, the left-wing military forces defeated a coup attempt by rightists in the military. This resulted in a turn in the revolutionary process to the political left, with the main sectors of the economy, such as the banks, transportation, steel mills, mines, and communications companies, being nationalized. This was done under the lead of Vasco Gonçalves, a member of the military wing who supported the party and who had become prime minister after the first provisional government resigned. The party then asserted its complete support for these changes and for the Agrarian Reform process that implemented collectivization of the agricultural sector and the land in a region named the "Zone of Intervention of the Agrarian Reform" or "ZIRA", which included the land south of the Tagus River. The PCP took the lead of that process and drove it according to the party's program, organizing thousands of peasants into cooperatives. Combined with the party's strong clandestine organization and support of the peasants' movement during the preceding years in that region, these efforts made the south of Portugal the major stronghold of the PCP. The party gained more than half of the votes in Beja, Évora, and Setúbal in subsequent elections.
One year after the revolution, the first democratic elections took place to elect the parliament that would write a new constitution to replace the constitution of 1933. The party achieved 12.52% of the vote and elected 30 members of parliament. In the end, as the party wanted, the constitution included several references to "socialism" and a "classless society" and was approved with the opposition of only one party, the right-wing Democratic and Social Centre (Portuguese: Centro Democrático Social or CDS).
In 1976, after the approval of the constitution, the second democratic election was carried out and the PCP raised its share of the vote to 14.56% and 40 seats. In the same year, the first Avante! Festival took place, and the eighth congress was held in Lisbon from 11–14 November. The congress mainly stated the need to continue the quest for socialism in Portugal and the need to defend the achievements of the revolution against what the party considered to be a political step backward, led by a coalition of the Socialist Party and the right-wing Centro Democrático Social, who opposed the agrarian reform process.
In 1979, the party held its ninth congress, which analysed the state of post-revolutionary Portugal, right-wing politics, and the party's struggles to nationalize the economy. In December 1979, new elections took place. The party formed the United People Alliance (Portuguese: Aliança Povo Unido or APU) in coalition with the Portuguese Democratic Movement (Portuguese: Movimento Democrático Português or MDP/CDE) and increased its vote to 18.96% and 47 seats. The election was won by a centrist/right-wing coalition led by Francisco Sá Carneiro, which immediately initiated policies that the party considered to be contrary to working-class interests. Despite a setback in a subsequent election in 1980, in which the PCP dropped to 41 seats, the party achieved several victories in local elections, winning the leadership of dozens of municipalities in the FEPU coalition. After the sudden death of Sá Carneiro in an air crash in 1980, the party achieved 44 seats and 18.20% of the vote as part of the APU in the 1983 elections. Also in 1983, the party held its tenth congress, which again criticized what it saw as the dangers of right-wing politics.
In 1986, the surprising rise of Mário Soares, who reached the second round in the presidential election, defeating the party's candidate, Salgado Zenha, made the party call an extra congress. The eleventh congress was called with only two weeks' notice, in order to decide whether or not to support Soares against Freitas do Amaral. Soares was supported, and he won by a slight margin. Had he not been supported by the PCP, he would have probably lost. In 1987, after the resignation of the government, another election took place. The PCP, now in the Unitary Democratic Coalition (Portuguese: Coligação Democrática Unitária or CDU) with the Ecologist Party "The Greens" (Portuguese: Partido Ecologista "Os Verdes" or PEV) and the Democratic Intervention (Portuguese: Intervenção Democrática or ID), saw an electoral decline to 12.18% and 31 seats.
Fall of the Socialist Bloc
In 1988, the PCP held another congress, the twelfth, in which more than 2000 delegates participated and which put forth a new program entitled Portugal, an Advanced Democracy for the 21st Century.
At the end of the 1980s, the Socialist Bloc of Eastern Europe started to disintegrate, and the party faced one of the biggest crises in its history. With many members leaving, the party called a thirteenth congress for May 1990, in which a huge ideological battle occurred. The majority of the more than 2000 delegates decided to continue the party's "revolutionary way to Socialism" — i. e., to retain its Leninist ideology. By so doing, it clashed with what many other communist parties around the world were doing. The congress asserted that socialism in the Soviet Union had failed, but a unique historical experience, several social changes, and several achievements by the labour movement had been influenced by the Socialist Bloc. Álvaro Cunhal was re-elected secretary-general, but Carlos Carvalhas was elected assistant secretary-general.
In the legislative election of 1991, the party won 8.84% of the national vote and 17 seats, continuing its electoral decline.
The fourteenth congress took place in 1992, and Carlos Carvalhas was elected the new secretary-general, replacing Álvaro Cunhal. The congress analysed the new international situation created by the disappearance of the Soviet Union and the defeat of socialism in Eastern Europe. The party also traced the guidelines intended to put Cavaco Silva and the right-wing government on its way out, a fact that would happen shortly after. In 1995, the right-wing Social Democratic Party was replaced in the government by the Socialist Party after the October legislative election, in which the PCP received 8.61% of the votes.
In December 1996, the fifteenth congress was held, this time in Porto, with more than 1600 delegates participating. The congress criticized the right-wing policies of the socialist government of António Guterres, and debated the future of the PCP following the debacle of the Socialist Bloc. In the subsequent local elections, the party continued to decline, but in the legislative election of 1999, the party increased its voting percentage for the first time in many years. The sixteenth congress was held in December 2000, and Carlos Carvalhas was re-elected secretary-general. In the legislative election of 2002, the PCP achieved its lowest voting result ever, with only 7.0% of the vote.
In November 2004, the seventeenth party congress elected Jerónimo de Sousa, a former metal worker, as the new secretary-general.
In the legislative election of February 2005, the Party increased its share of the vote, and won 12 of the 230 seats in parliament, receiving about 430,000 votes (7.60%).
After the 2005 local election, in which the PCP regained the presidency of 7 municipalities, the party holds the leadership of 32 (of 308) municipalities, most of them in Alentejo and Setúbal, and holds the leadership of hundreds of civil parishes and local assemblies. The local administration by PCP is usually marked by concern about such issues as preventing privatization of the water supply, funding culture and education, providing access to sports, and promoting health, facilitating participatory democracy, and preventing corruption. The presence of the Greens in the coalition also keeps an eye on environmental issues such as recycling and water treatment.
The PCP's work now follows the program of an "Advanced Democracy for the 21st Century". Issues like the decriminalization of abortion, workers' rights, the increasing fees for the health service and education, the erosion of the social safety net, low salaries and pensions, imperialism and war, and solidarity with other countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Palestine, Cuba, and the Basque Country are constant concerns in the party's agenda.
The party has three members elected to the European Parliament, after the European election of 2014. They sit in the European United Left–Nordic Green Left group.
Since the 2015 legislative election, the party supports the government headed by António Costa, together with the Left Bloc and the Greens. However, the PCP has been historically critical of the Socialist Party.
After the 2019 European Parliament election in Portugal the party lost one european deputy, it now has two members who sit in the European United Left-Nordic Green Left group in the European Parliament.
Electoral results
Since 1987
(source: Portuguese Electoral Commission)
Note:
In 2004, after the enlargement of the European Union, the number of MEPs elected by Portugal decreased from the original 25 to 24.
The Local election results report the voting for the Municipal Chambers only and don't include occasional coalitions in some municipalities, e.g. in Lisbon, between 1989 and 2001. Voting for the Municipal Assemblies and Parish Assemblies is usually higher (11.7% and 12.0%, respectively, in 2005).
The number of mandates denotes the number of councillors in Local elections, MPs in Parliamentary elections and MEPs in European Parliament elections.
The CDU is composed of the PCP, the PEV and the ID
Presidential elections
(source: Portuguese Electoral Commission)
Notes:
In 1980, Carlos Brito withdrew in favour of Ramalho Eanes, won.
In 1986, the Party's first candidate was Ângelo Veloso, that later withdrew in favour of Salgado Zenha, lost.
In 1986, in the second round, the Party supported Mário Soares, won.
In 1996, Jerónimo de Sousa withdrew in favour of Jorge Sampaio, won.
Organization
Principles
The PCP's statutes define it as the political party of the proletariat and of all Portuguese workers, and also as the vanguard of all working people. That vanguard role results from its class nature and its close liaison with the masses, mobilizing them and winning their support.
The PCP organizes in its ranks industrial and office workers, small and medium farmers, intellectuals and technical workers, small and medium shopkeepers, and industrialists, who fight for democracy and for socialism. The party considers itself the legitimate pursuer of the Portuguese people's best traditions of struggle and of their progressive and revolutionary achievements throughout their history.
The PCP upholds Marxism–Leninism as its theoretical basis, which is a materialist and dialectical conception of the world and a scientific tool of social analysis. These principles guide the party's action and enable it to systematically answer new challenges and realities. The party also orients its members and its activity in the spirit of proletarian internationalism, of cooperation between the communist parties and revolutionary and progressive forces, and of solidarity with the workers of other countries.
Aside from upholding Marxism–Leninism and maintaining its "proletarian vanguard role", its goals, according to the party are:
to bring about the process of social transformation and the defeat of capitalism through revolutionary means,
to uphold dialectical and historical materialism as an "instrument of analysis and guide for action",
the rupture with right-wing policies,
the realization of a patriotic and left-wing alternative, and
the realization of an "Advanced Democracy" with the values of the April revolution, for a future socialist and communist Portugal.
Secretary-Generals
José Carlos Rates (1921–1929)
Bento António Gonçalves (1929–1942)
period with no secretary-general (1942–1961)
Álvaro Cunhal (1961–1992)
Carlos Carvalhas (1992–2004)
Jerónimo de Sousa (2004–present)
Internal organization
The main principle that guides the party's internal structure, being a Leninist party, is democratic centralism, which implies that:
all party organs, from top to bottom, are elected and may be dismissed by those who elected them, if needed;
the members who have tasks in any structure of the party are responsible to both lower and upper levels, being obliged to report the activities to both and to give consideration to their opinions and criticisms;
lower-level structures must respect the decisions of the upper structures;
every member is free to give his opinion during the discussion, and the structures must take in account the contribution of every member;
every member must obey the decisions achieved by consensus or by a majority;
every member must work along with his own structure; and
the party does not recognize the existence of organized factions inside it.
The structure and internal organization of the PCP are defined by its statutes. The most recent statutes were approved in the seventeenth congress, held in 2004. The upper organs of the PCP at the national level are the congress, the central committee, and the central commission of control.
The supreme organ of the party is its congress, which is summoned by the outgoing central committee and held every four years. The congress is composed of delegates elected by the respective lower organs proportional to each organ's membership size. The congress approves its theses after a wide discussion period inside the organizations and may also change the party's program and statutes. All the decisions of the congress are made by the delegates voting. With the exception of the voting for the central committee, which a recent Portuguese law requires to be secret, all voting, including the approval of the theses, are conducted by a show of hands. The theses, after approval, guide all the party's political actions and stances until the next congress.
The main organ between the congresses is the central committee, which is elected in the congresses under a proposal of the retiring central committee. This proposal may only be made after a long period of hearing the lower structures in order to include in it the names they propose. The CC may not change the orientation present in the congress' theses. The main task of the central committee is to define the guidelines of the party's political work and decide the immediate tasks of the party, assuring that the lower structures comply with those decisions. The CC elects, from its members, its Political Bureau, its Secretariat, and also the Central Commission of Control. This last must assure the compliance between the Party's activities and the statutes, and control the Party's finances. The CC may, or may not, elect the party's secretary-general from its members.
The intermediate organs of the Party are, by rule, the organs that coordinate an organization of district, municipality, and parish levels, but organizations at a neighbourhood or professional class level also exist. The main organ of an intermediate part of the party's structure is the Assembly. The Assembly works as a small Congress for the organization members. The Assembly elects the regional or municipal committees, which are responsible for applying the theses of the Assembly to the organization's work.
The base level organ of the Party is the cell. The cell is defined as being the link between the party and the working class and the masses. A cell is composed of a minimum of three Party members and exists at a work place or neighborhood level. The cell may elect its own secretariat, which has the responsibility of discussing and putting into practice the Party's guidelines. The cell must ensure the recruitment of new members, promote the reading of Avante! and the other publications, ensure that the members pay their membership fees and keep the upper structures aware of the cell's political work.
Media
The Portuguese Communist Party publishes the weekly Avante! (Onward!), widely distributed throughout the country, and also the magazine of theoretical discussion O Militante (The Militant), published bi-monthly. The party's press also includes the bulletin Emigração (Emigration), targeted at the large Portuguese diaspora, and the magazine Portugal e a UE (Portugal and the EU), directed by the party's members elected in the European Parliament, which presents information related to the European politics and to the European United Left–Nordic Green Left group. Both Avante! and O Militante are sold in the party's offices to the members. Buying Avante! is considered one of the members' duties. Avante! is also sold among other newspapers in many news stands around the country.
Avante! was illegally printed and distributed from February 1931 until May 1974. Many times, the newspaper distribution suffered breakdowns due to the suppression by the political police of party members who helped to distribute the newspaper, or due to the destruction of the clandestine printing offices. Successfully evading official censorship, Avante! was one of the very few Portuguese newspapers that freely reported on events like World War II, the Colonial War in Africa or massive workers' strikes and waves of student protest against the dictatorship. Avante! continues to be printed after more than three decades of democracy, and has now a full online edition. The Avante! Festival was named after the newspaper.
During the campaign for the Portuguese legislative election of 2005, the party created a radio broadcast on its website and also a digital forum, being the first Portuguese party to use the internet actively in an electoral campaign. After the last Congress, the statutes were changed and the party now considers its website as another official media and it is regularly updated. The campaign radio broadcast evolved into an online radio station named Comunic. It broadcasts thematic interviews with party's members, music and propaganda.
Usually, the party's largest political campaigns and struggles are supported by the distribution of a massive number of leaflets and advertising posters in hot spots like train stations, factories, universities, main streets, and avenues or markets. The free television spots that the Portuguese law grants to the parties, either in the campaign time or out of it, are used by PCP to promote initiatives and political campaigns.
The party also owns a publishing company, Edições Avante! (Avante! Editions), that publishes and sells several books related to the party's history or to Marxism. Classics of Marxism–Leninism, such as The Communist Manifesto, Capital, On the Jewish Question, or What is to be Done?, several books of Portuguese authors on the history of the party and the resistance, official documents like the program or the statutes, books from foreign authors, like Ten Days that Shook the World and several other works are present in the Avante! Edition's catalog.
Youth organization
The youth organization of PCP is the Portuguese Communist Youth (), and was founded on 10 November 1979, after the unification of the Communist Students League and the Young Communist League. The Portuguese Communist Youth is a member of the World Federation of Democratic Youth, a youth non-governmental organization that congregates several left-wing youth organizations from all the continents. The WFDY holds an international event, named World Festival of Youth and Students, in which the Portuguese Communist Youth uses to participate.
The youth wing follows a structure similar to the Party's, also based on the Leninist principle of democratic centralism, and both organizations maintain a cooperative relationship. JCP is, however, an independent organization.
Mainly composed by students and some working-class young people, the Portuguese Communist Youth has, as its main political concerns, such issues as the promotion of a free and public education for all ages, employment, peace, and housing. It also promotes international solidarity brigades for countries like Cuba, Palestine, or Venezuela, alone or with other European Communist youth organizations like KNE or SDAJ. It has its main organizational strength among high-school and university students, with a strong presence among the Students' unions.
Avante! Festival
Every year, in the first weekend of September, the party holds a festival called the Avante! Festival (Portuguese: Festa do Avante!). After taking place in different locations around Lisbon, like the Lisbon International Fair, Ajuda or Loures, it is now held in Amora, a city near Seixal, on land bought by the Party after a massive fundraising campaign in the early 1990s. The Party considered this campaign to be the only way to avoid the boycott organized by the owners of the previous festival grounds, a boycott that ultimately resulted in the Festival not being held in 1987.
The festival attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors. The events themselves consist of a three-day festival of music, with hundreds of Portuguese and international bands and artists across five different stages, ethnography, gastronomy, debates, a books and music fair, theatre (Avanteatro), cinema (Cineavante) and sporting events. Several foreign communist parties also participate.
Famous artists, Communist and non-Communist, Portuguese and non-Portuguese, have performed at the Festival, including Chico Buarque, Baden Powell, Ivan Lins, Zeca Afonso, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Holly Near, Johnny Clegg, Charlie Haden, Judy Collins, Richie Havens, Tom Paxton, Ska-P, The Soviet Circus Company, the Kuban Cossack Choir, Dexys Midnight Runners, The Band, Hevia, Brigada Victor Jara, Adriano Correia de Oliveira, Carlos Paredes, Jorge Palma, Manoel de Oliveira, Babylon Circus, and many others.
The preparation of the party begins right after the end of the previous festival. Hundreds of the Party's members and friends, mostly young people, volunteer for the hard work of building a small town in a few months.
See also
Politics of Portugal
List of political parties in Portugal
Carnation Revolution
Unitary Democratic Coalition
Avante!
Footnotes
Bibliography
Academic sources
Further reading
Carlos Cunha, "Nationalist or Internationalist? The Portuguese Communist Party's Autonomy and the Communist International", in Tim Rees and Andrew Thorpe (eds.), International Communism and the Communist International, 1919-1943. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998.
Carlos Cunha, The Portuguese Communist Party's Strategy for Power, 1921-1986. New York: Garland Publishing, 1992.
J.G.P. Quintela, Para a História do Movimento Comunista em Portugal: 1. A Construção do Partido (Primeiro Periodo 1919-1929). [Towards a History of the Communist Movement in Portugal: 1. Construction of the Party (First Period, 1919-1929).] Oporto: Afrontamento, 1976.
External links
In Portuguese:
Portuguese Communist Party official web site
Portuguese Communist Youth official web site
Avante Festival! official website
Avante! newspaper online edition
PCP's short biography by the Carnation Revolution archive centre
In English:
Portuguese Communist Party web site
Portuguese Communist Party programme
Portuguese Communist Youth official web site
Political parties in Portugal
Far-left political parties
1921 establishments in Portugal
Comintern sections
Communist parties in Portugal
Eurosceptic parties in Portugal
Formerly banned communist parties
Organisations based in Lisbon
Political history of Portugal
Political parties established in 1921
Left-wing parties
International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties |
356547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20in%20science | 2003 in science | The year 2003 was an exciting one for new scientific discoveries and technological breakthroughs progress in many scientific fields. Some of the highlights of 2003, which will be further discussed below, include: the anthropologic discovery of 350,000-year-old footprints attesting to the presence of upright-walking humans; SpaceShipOne flight 11P making its first supersonic flight; the observation of a previously unknown element, moscovium was made; and the world's first digital camera with an organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display is released by Kodak.
The year 2003 is also notable for the disintegration of the Columbia Space Shuttle upon its re-entry into earth's atmosphere, a tragic disaster which took the lives of all seven astronauts on board; the Concorde jet made its last flight, bringing to an end the era of civilian supersonic travel, at least for the time being; and the death of Edward Teller, physicist and inventor of the hydrogen bomb.
Anthropology
March 13 – The journal Nature reports that 350,000-year-old upright-walking human footprints have been found in Italy.
Astronomy
February 11 – NASA's WMAP satellite completes the first detailed cosmic microwave background radiation map of the universe. The image reveals the universe is 13.7 billion years old (within one percent error) and provides evidence that supports the inflationary theory.
May 16 – Total lunar eclipse
May 31 – Annular solar eclipse in Northern Scotland, Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland, with partial eclipse was realised by her name is katherine covering much of Europe and Russia.
August 27 – Opposition of Mars, closest approach to earth of Mars since 57,617 BC, at a distance of 55,758,006 kilometers.
October–November – The Sun is at solar maximum with a period of high activity, generating many large solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
November 9 – Total lunar eclipse.
November 14 – Trans-Neptunian object 90377 Sedna, one of the most distant objects in the Solar System, discovered by Palomar Observatory.
November 23 – Total solar eclipse in Antarctica.
The 2dF Survey of galaxy redshifts is published.
Biology
April 1 – A banteng delivered in the United States is the second successful cloning of an endangered species and the first such clone to survive beyond infancy.
October – The last native wild crested ibis in Japan dies.
October 13 – The open access scientific journal PLoS Biology from the Public Library of Science, commences operation.
November 20 – A new species of baleen whale, Omura's whale (Balaenoptera omurai), is described by Japanese scientists in the journal Nature.
Chemistry
August – Chemical elements
Moscovium first synthesized.
Nihonium first identified.
Mathematics
Danish computer scientist Peter Bro Miltersen poses the 100 prisoners problem in probability theory.
Medicine
February 26 – A US businessman is diagnosed with the first known case of SARS in Hanoi, Vietnam, by WHO doctor Carlo Urbani.
June – The concept of Acute Traumatic Coagulopathy (ATC) is introduced by Karim Brohi, Professor of Trauma Sciences at Queen Mary University of London.
October 16 – China becomes the first country to approve the commercial production of a gene therapy.
Meteorology
NOAA hurricane experts issue first experimental Eastern Pacific Hurricane Outlook.
Philosophy
Space exploration
February 1 – Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrates over Texas upon reentry killing all seven astronauts on board. Specimens of Caenorhabditis elegans survive.
June 2 – The first European Mars mission Mars Express launched.
September 27 – The first European lunar mission Smart 1 launched.
October 15 – The People's Republic of China launches Shenzhou 5, their first human spaceflight mission.
December 25 – Mars Express enters orbit around Mars. Its lander, Beagle 2, lands on the surface but is unable to deploy its communications equipment and its fate is discovered only in 2015.
Technology
March – The world's first digital camera with an organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display is released by Kodak.
April 24 – Microsoft released a server operating system Windows Server 2003 to manufacturing.
July 30 – The last old-style Volkswagen Beetle rolls off its production line in Puebla, Puebla, Mexico.
October 24 – Concorde makes its last flight, bringing the era of civilian supersonic travel to a close for the foreseeable future.
December 17 – SpaceShipOne, piloted by Brian Binnie, makes its first rocket-powered flight, the first privately built craft to ever achieve supersonic flight.
Intel releases the Pentium M microprocessor.
Awards
Nobel Prize
Physics: Alexei Alexeevich Abrikosov, Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg, and Anthony James Leggett
Chemistry: Peter Agre and Roderick MacKinnon
Medicine: Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield
Turing Award for Computing: Alan Kay
Abel Prize in Mathematics (first award): Jean-Pierre Serre
Wollaston Medal for Geology: Ikuo Kushiro
Births
May 4 – Idaho Gem, the world's first cloned mule.
May 28 – Prometea, the first cloned horse.
Deaths
February 1 – Astronauts, crew of STS-107
Michael P. Anderson (b. 1959), American.
David M. Brown (b. 1956), American.
Kalpana Chawla (b. 1961), Punjabi-born American.
Laurel Clark (b. 1961), American.
Rick Husband (b. 1957), American.
William C. McCool (b. 1961), American.
Ilan Ramon (b. 1954), Israeli.
February 14 – Dolly (b. 1996), Scottish sheep, the world's first cloned mammal.
March 29 – Carlo Urbani (b. 1956), Italian physician, discoverer of SARS.
April 17 – Dr. Robert Atkins (b. 1930), American nutritionist.
May 10 – Eleanor C. Pressly (b. 1918), American mathematician and aeronautical engineer.
May 28
Oleg Grigoryevich Makarov (b. 1933), Soviet cosmonaut.
Ilya Prigogine (b. 1917), Russian-born chemist, Nobel laureate in chemistry.
September 9 – Edward Teller (b. 1908), Hungarian American physicist, inventor of the hydrogen bomb.
October 15 – Bertram Brockhouse (b. 1918), Canadian physicist.
Notes
21st century in science
2000s in science |
356550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna%20la%20Beltraneja | Joanna la Beltraneja | Joanna la Beltraneja (21 February 1462 – 12 April 1530) was a claimant to the throne of Castile, and Queen of Portugal as the wife of King Afonso V, her uncle.
Birth and parentage
King Henry IV of Castile married Joan of Portugal, daughter of King Edward of Portugal and the youngest sister of King Afonso V of Portugal, on May 21, 1455. Seven years later, Joanna was born at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid.
Henry IV had previously been married to Blanche II of Navarre. After thirteen years, that marriage was annulled on the grounds that it had never been consummated. This was attributed to a curse, which only affected Henry's relationship with Blanche; a number of prostitutes from Segovia testified that they had noticed no impairment.
Henry had no other children and was rumoured to be impotent. Whether true or not, this rumour was widely circulated by Henry's opponents, who further insinuated that the little infanta (Joanna) was the child of Beltrán de la Cueva, a royal favourite at court, who was created the 1st Duke of Alburquerque in 1464. They called Joanna "la Beltraneja", a mocking reference to her supposed illegitimacy.
Joanna's mother, Joan of Portugal, was eventually banished to Bishop Fonseca's castle, where she fell in love with Fonseca's nephew and became pregnant. Henry divorced Joan in 1468.
Heir to the throne
On 9 May 1462, Joanna was officially proclaimed heir to the throne of Castile and created Princess of Asturias. Henry had the nobles of Castile swear allegiance to her and promise that they would support her as monarch.
Many of the more prominent nobles, seeking to increase their own power, refused to recognise Joanna, preferring that Henry would have named as heir his younger half-brother, Infante Alfonso. Armed conflict broke out and in 1464 the league of nobles forced Henry to repudiate Joanna and recognise Infante Alfonso as his heir. Alfonso then became Prince of Asturias, a title traditionally held by the heir apparent. Henry agreed to this compromise with the stipulation that Infante Alfonso would marry Joanna (his half-niece), to ensure that they both would receive the crown.
But in 1468, Infante Alfonso died, and Henry divorced Joanna's mother, resulting in Joanna's displacement in the succession. Her half-aunt, Infanta Isabella, was placed before her in the succession, although Joanna was considered the heir after Isabella.
Joanna was held in custody by the Mendoza family from 1465–1470, and then by Juan, Marqués de Villena (elevated, in 1472, to 1st Duke of Escalona), and his family from 1470–1475. There were many negotiations for her marriage to someone who could defend her rights of succession. On 26 October 1470, she was betrothed and then married by proxy to Charles, Duke of Guienne, brother of Louis XI of France, and proclaimed as the legitimate heir to the throne. But Charles died in 1472. After a few unsettled arrangements, which included French and Burgundian princes, Joanna was promised in marriage to her maternal uncle, King Afonso V of Portugal, who swore to defend her (and his own) rights to the Crown of Castile.
When Henry died in 1474, she was recognized as queen by some noble factions, while others preferred her half-aunt Isabella as queen. This began the four-year War of the Castilian Succession.
In addition to the King of Portugal, Joanna was supported by some of the high Castilian nobility and by descendants of Portuguese families that had settled in Castile after 1396: the Archbishop of Toledo (Alfonso Carrillo de Acuña); the 2nd Duke of Escalona, a powerful and wealthy nobleman; the Estúñiga family, with lands bordering Portugal; the Marquess of Cádiz; and the Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava, Rodrigo Téllez Girón.
Isabella was supported by Ferdinand of Aragon (whom she married), and by most of the Castilian nobility and clergy: the powerful House of Mendoza; the Manrique de Lara family; the 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia; the 1st Duke of Alburquerque; the Order of Santiago; and the Order of Calatrava, except its Grand Master.
Throne claimant
On 10 May 1475, King Afonso V of Portugal invaded Castile and married Joanna in Plasencia, 15 days later, making her Queen of Portugal. Joanna and Afonso V held court at Toro, and she was considered a promising ruler by her courtiers, though too young. Joanna sent a letter to the cities of Castile, expounding the wish of her father King Henry IV that she should rule, and proposed that the cities vote for which succession they wished should be recognized. However, Joanna found fewer supporters than expected. Very shortly, Isabella I's husband King Ferdinand II led her forces against the armies of Joanna and her husband Afonso V.
Both armies met at Toro (1 March 1476). King Afonso V was beaten by the left and center of King Ferdinand's army, and fled from the battlefield. His son Prince John of Portugal defeated the Castilian right wing, recovered the lost Portuguese Royal standard, and held the field, but overall the battle was indecisive. Even so, the prestige of Joanna and Afonso V dissolved because Ferdinand II sent messages to all the cities of Castile and to several other kingdoms informing them about a huge victory where the Portuguese were crushed. Faced with this news, the party of Joanna la Beltraneja, who was under siege at the Royal Alcazar, was terminated, and the Portuguese were forced to return to their kingdom.
"That is the battle of Toro. The Portuguese army had not been exactly defeated; however, the sensation was that Donna Joanna’s cause had completely sunk. It made sense that for the Castilians, Toro was considered as divine retribution, the compensation willed by God for the terrible disaster of Aljubarrota, still alive in the Castilian memory."
After this, Joanna's husband Afonso tried without success to form an alliance with Louis XI of France. In 1478, the marriage of Joanna and Afonso V was annulled by Pope Sixtus IV on grounds of consanguinity, ending her tenure as Queen of Portugal. She was also forced to renounce the title of Queen of Castile.
Later life
In 1479, Alfonso renounced his pretension to the Castilian Crown and signed a treaty with Isabella and Ferdinand. Joanna was given a choice: enter a convent, or marry Isabella's one-year-old son John when he came of age (and if he then consented). Joanna chose to enter the Convent of Santa Clara in Coimbra, and the ceremony was witnessed by Isabella, who praised her decision. She was not incarcerated in the convent, and was eventually allowed to reside in the Castle of São Jorge in Lisbon. In 1482, King Francis Phoebus of Navarre, nephew of Louis XI of France, proposed to her, with the implication of again raising her claim to Castile. This was intended as a French warning to Isabella and Ferdinand, who threatened Roussillon. But Francis died soon after. Isabella died in 1504, and it is alleged that, as a maneuver to retain control of Castile, rather than have his son-in-law Philip succeed there, Ferdinand then proposed marriage to Joanna, but she refused.
Joanna signed her letters "La Reina" ("the Queen"), until she died. She would become known in Portugal as "a Excelente Senhora" ("the Excellent Lady"). She died in Lisbon, having survived her aunt Isabella I. Joanna's claim to Castile was extinguished at her death, as her heir would have been her cousin Joanna, Isabella's daughter, who was already Queen of Castile.
In fiction
Juana la Beltraneja, a play by Santiago Sevilla (Humanities Portal of Liceus.com). The depiction of Juan Pacheco and Beltrán de la Cueva shows the pernicious influence of certain members of the nobility towards princess Joanna.
Isabel, a Spanish television series about Isabella I of Castile, which includes Joanna (Isabella's niece). Joanna is played by Carmen Sánchez.
The Queen's Cross, A Biographical Romance of Queen Isabella of Spain by Lawrence Schoonover, includes the figure of Joanna la Beltraneja in its story. This well-written and well-researched historical novel was published by William Sloane Associates, Inc. (New York), 1955.
Jean Plaidy's Spain trilogy provides viewpoints from Isabella, Ferdinand and La Beltraneja, especially in book 2 "Spain for the Sovereigns"
Notes
References
Articles
, Vicente Ángel Alvarez. La guerra civil castellana y el enfrentamiento con Portugal (1475-1479). Universidad de Alicante, Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, 2006.
Books
, John B. The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 8. Macmillan, 1959.
, Juan B.España Estratégica, guerra y diplomacia en la história de España. Madrid, Sílex ediciones, 2007.
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1462 births
1530 deaths
Joanna
Joanna
Castilian infantas
Princes of Asturias
Pretenders to the throne of the kingdom of Castile
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Portuguese queens consort
Spanish people of English descent
15th-century Castilians
16th-century Spanish people
15th-century Portuguese people
16th-century Portuguese people
15th-century Spanish women
16th-century Spanish women
15th-century Portuguese women
16th-century Portuguese women |
356552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20Monarchs%20of%20Spain | Catholic Monarchs of Spain | The Catholic Monarchs were Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the de facto unification of Spain. They were both from the House of Trastámara and were second cousins, being both descended from John I of Castile; to remove the obstacle that this consanguinity would otherwise have posed to their marriage under canon law, they were given a papal dispensation by Sixtus IV. They married on October 19, 1469, in the city of Valladolid; Isabella was eighteen years old and Ferdinand a year younger. It is generally accepted by most scholars that the unification of Spain can essentially be traced back to the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella.
Spain was formed as a dynastic union of two crowns rather than a unitary state, as Castile and Aragon remained separate kingdoms until the Nueva Planta decrees of 1707–1716. The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was constantly on the move, in order to bolster local support for the crown from local feudal lords. The title of "Catholic King and Queen" was officially bestowed on Ferdinand and Isabella by Pope Alexander VI in 1494, in recognition of their defence of the Catholic faith within their realms.
Marriage
At the time of their marriage on October 19, 1469, Isabella was eighteen years old and the heiress presumptive to the Crown of Castile, while Ferdinand was seventeen and heir apparent to the Crown of Aragon. They met for the first time in Valladolid in 1469 and married within a week. From the start, they had a close relationship and worked well together. Both knew that the crown of Castile was "the prize, and that they were both jointly gambling for it". However, it was a step toward the unification of the lands on the Iberian peninsula, which would eventually become Spain.
They were second cousins, so in order to marry they needed a papal dispensation. Pope Paul II, an Italian pope opposed to Aragon's influence on the Mediterranean and to the rise of monarchies strong enough to challenge the Pope, refused to grant one, so they falsified a papal bull of their own. Even though the bull is known to be false, it is uncertain who was the material author of the falsification. Some experts point at Carrillo de Acuña, Archbishop of Toledo, and others point at Antonio Veneris. Pope Paul II remained a bitter enemy of Spain and the monarchy for all his life, and the following quote is attributed to him: "May all Spaniards be cursed by God, schismatics and heretics, the seed of Jews and Moors",
Isabella's claims to it were not secure, since her marriage to Ferdinand enraged her half-brother Henry IV of Castile and he withdrew his support for her being his heiress presumptive that had been codified in the Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando. Henry instead recognised Joanna of Castile, born during his marriage to Joanna of Portugal, but whose paternity was in doubt, since Henry was rumored to be impotent. When Henry died in 1474, Isabella asserted her claim to the throne, which was contested by thirteen-year-old Joanna. Joanna sought the aid of her husband (who was also her uncle), Afonso V of Portugal, to claim the throne. This dispute between rival claimants led to the War of 1475–1479. Isabella called on the aid of Aragon, with her husband, the heir apparent, and his father, Juan II of Aragon providing it. Although Aragon provided support for Isabella's cause, Isabella's supporters had extracted concessions, Isabella was acknowledged as the sole heir to the crown of Castile. Juan II died in 1479, and Ferdinand succeeded to the throne in January 1479.
In September 1479, Portugal and the Catholic Monarchs of Aragon and Castile resolved major issues between them through the Treaty of Alcáçovas, including the issue of Isabella's rights to the crown of Castile. Through close cooperation, the royal couple were successful in securing political power in the Iberian peninsula. Ferdinand's father had advised the couple that "neither was powerful without the other". Though their marriage united the two kingdoms, leading to the beginnings of modern Spain, they ruled independently and their kingdoms retained part of their own regional laws and governments for the next centuries.
Royal motto and emblems
The coat of arms of the Catholic Monarchs was designed by Antonio de Nebrija with elements to show their cooperation and working in tandem. The royal motto they shared, Tanto monta ("as much one as the other"), came to signify their cooperation." The motto was originally used by Ferdinand as an allusion to the Gordian knot: Tanto monta, monta tanto, cortar como desatar ("It's one and the same, cutting or untying"), but later adopted as an expression of equality of the monarchs: Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando ("It's one and the same, Isabella the same as Ferdinand").
Their emblems or heraldic devices, seen at the bottom of the coat of arms, were a yoke and a sheaf of arrows. Y and F are the initials of Ysabel (spelling at the time) and Fernando. A double yoke is worn by a team of oxen, emphasizing the couple's cooperation. Isabella's emblem of arrows showed the armed power of the crown, "a warning to Castilians not acknowledging the reach of royal authority or that greatest of royal functions, the right to mete out justice" by force of violence. The iconography of the royal crest was widely reproduced and was found on various works of art. These badges were later used by the fascist Spanish political party Falange, which claimed to represent the inherited glory and the ideals of the Catholic Monarchs.
Royal Councils
The establishment of System of Royal Councils to oversee discrete regions or areas was Isabella succeeded to the throne of Castile in 1474 when Ferdinand was still heir-apparent to Aragon, and with Aragon's aid, Isabella's claim to the throne was secured. As Isabella's husband was king of Castile by his marriage and his father still ruled in Aragon, Ferdinand spent more time in Castile than Aragon at the beginning of their marriage. His pattern of residence Castile persisted even when he succeeded to the throne in 1479, and the absenteeism caused problems for Aragon. These were remedied to an extent by the creation of the Council of Aragon in 1494, joining the Council of Castile established in 1480. The Council of Castile was intended "to be the central governing body of Castile and the linch-pin of their governmental system" with wide powers and with royal officials who were loyal to them and excluded the old nobility from exercising power in it. The monarchs created the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 to ensure that individuals converting to Christianity did not revert to their old faith or continue practicing it. The Council of the Crusade was created under their rule to administer funds from the sale of crusading bulls. In 1498 after Ferdinand had gained control of the revenues of the wealthy and powerful Spanish military orders, he created the Council of Military Orders to oversee them. The conciliar model was extended beyond the rule of the Catholic Monarchs, with their grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor establishing the Council of the Indies, the Council of Finance, and the Council of State.
Domestic policy
The Catholic Monarchs set out to restore royal authority in Spain. To accomplish their goal, they first created a group named the Holy Brotherhood. These men were used as a judicial police force for Castile, as well as to attempt to keep Castilian nobles in check. To establish a more uniform judicial system, the Catholic Monarchs created the Royal Council, and appointed magistrates (judges) to run the towns and cities. This establishment of royal authority is known as the Pacification of Castile, and can be seen as one of the crucial steps toward the creation of one of Europe's first strong nation-states. Isabella also sought various ways to diminish the influence of the Cortes Generales in Castile, though Ferdinand was too thoroughly Aragonese to do anything of the sort with the equivalent systems in the Crown of Aragon. Even after his death and the union of the crowns under one monarch, the Aragonese, Catalan, and Valencian Corts (parliaments) retained significant power in their respective regions. Further, the monarchs continued ruling through a form of medieval contractualism, which made their rule pre-modern in a few ways. One of those is that they traveled from town to town throughout the kingdom in order to promote loyalty, rather than possessing any single administrative center. Another is that each community and region was connected to them via loyalty to the crown, rather than bureaucratic ties.
Religious policy
Along with the desire of the Catholic Monarchs to extend their dominion to all the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, their reign was characterised by religious unification of the peninsula through militant Catholicism. Petitioning the pope for authority, Pope Sixtus IV issued a bull in 1478 to establish a Holy Office of the Inquisition in Castile. This was to ensure that Jews and Muslims who converted to Christianity did not revert to their previous faiths. The papal bull gave the sovereigns full powers to name inquisitors, but the papacy retained the right to formally appoint the royal nominees. The inquisition did not have jurisdiction over Jews and Muslims who did not convert. Since in the kingdom of Aragon it had existed since 1248, the Spanish Inquisition was the only common institution for the two kingdoms. Pope Innocent VIII confirmed Dominican Tomás de Torquemada, a confessor of Isabella, as Grand Inquisitor of Spain, following in the tradition in Aragon of Dominican inquisitors. Torquemada pursued aggressive policies toward converted Jews (conversos) and moriscos. The pope also granted the Catholic Monarchs the right of patronage over the ecclesiastical establishment in Granada and the Canary Islands, which meant the control of the state in religious affairs.
The monarchs began a series of campaigns known as the Granada War (1482–1492), which was aided by Pope Sixtus IV's granting the tithe revenue and implementing a crusade tax so that the monarchs could finance the war. After 10 years of fighting the Granada War ended in 1492 when Emir Boabdil surrendered the keys of the Alhambra Palace in Granada to the Castilian soldiers. With the fall of Granada in January 1492, Isabella and Ferdinand pursued further policies of religious unification of their realms, in particular the expulsion of Jews who refused to convert to Christianity.
After a number of revolts, Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the expulsion of all Jews from Spain. People who converted to Catholicism were not subject to expulsion, but between 1480 and 1492 hundreds of those who had converted (conversos and moriscos) were accused of secretly practicing their original religion (crypto-Judaism or crypto-Islam) and arrested, imprisoned, interrogated under torture, and in some cases burned to death, in both Castile and Aragon.
The Inquisition had been created in the twelfth century by Pope Lucius III to fight heresy in the south of what is now France and was constituted in a number of European kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs decided to introduce the Inquisition to Castile, and requested the Pope's assent. On 1 November 1478, Pope Sixtus IV published the papal bull Exigit Sinceras Devotionis Affectus, by which the Inquisition was established in the Kingdom of Castile; it was later extended to all of Spain. The bull gave the monarchs exclusive authority to name the inquisitors.
During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs and long afterwards the Inquisition was active in prosecuting people for violations of Catholic orthodoxy such as crypto-Judaism, heresy, Protestantism, blasphemy, and bigamy. The last trial for crypto-Judaism was held in 1818.
In 1492 the monarchs issued a decree of expulsion of Jews, known formally as the Alhambra Decree, which gave Jews in Spain four months to either convert to Catholicism or leave Spain. Tens of thousands of Jews emigrated to other lands such as Portugal, North Africa, the Low Countries, Italy and the Ottoman Empire.
Foreign policy
Although the Catholic Monarchs pursued a partnership in many matters, because of the histories of their respective kingdoms, they did not always have unified viewpoint in foreign policy. Despite that, they did have a successful expansionist foreign policy due to a number of factors. The victory over the Muslims in Granada allowed Ferdinand to involve himself in policy outside the Iberian peninsula.
The diplomatic initiative of King Ferdinand continued the traditional policy of the Crown of Aragon, with its interests set in the Mediterranean, with interests in Italy and sought conquests in North Africa. Aragon had a traditional rivalry with France, which had been traditional allies with Castile. Castile's foreign interests were focused on the Atlantic, making Castile's funding of the voyage of Columbus an extension of existing interests.
Castile had traditionally had good relations with the neighboring Kingdom of Portugal, and after the Portuguese lost the War of the Castilian Succession, Castile and Portugal concluded the Treaty of Alcáçovas. The treaty set boundaries for overseas expansion which were at the time disadvantageous to Castile, but the treaty resolved any further Portuguese claims on the crown of Castile. Portugal did not take advantage of Castile's and Aragon's focus on the reconquest of Granada. Following the reestablishment of good relations, the Catholic Monarchs made two strategic marriages to Portuguese royalty.
The matrimonial policy of the monarchs sought advantageous marriages for their five children, forging royal alliances for the long-term benefit of Spain. Their first-born, a daughter named Isabella, married Afonso of Portugal, forging important ties between these two neighboring kingdoms that would lead to enduring peace and future alliance. Joanna, their second daughter, married Philip the Handsome, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. This ensured alliance with the Holy Roman Empire, a powerful, far-reaching European territory which assured Spain's future political security. Their only son, John, married Margaret of Austria, seeking to maintain ties with the Habsburg dynasty, on which Spain relied heavily. Their fourth child, Maria, married Manuel I of Portugal, strengthening the link forged by Isabella's elder sister's marriage. Their fifth child, Catherine, married Arthur, Prince of Wales and heir to the throne of England, in 1501; he died at the age of 15 a few months later, and she married his younger brother shortly after he became King Henry VIII of England in 1509. These alliances were not all long lasting, with their only son and heir-apparent John dying young; Catherine was divorced by Henry VIII; and Joanna's husband Philip dying young, with the widowed Joanna deemed mentally unfit to rule.
Under the Catholic Monarchs an efficient army loyal to the Crown was created, commanded by Castilian Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, known as the Great Captain . Fernández de Córdoba reorganised the military troops on a new combat unit, tercios reales, which entailed the creation of the first modern army dependent on the crown, regardless of pretensions of the nobles.
Voyages of Columbus
Through the Capitulations of Santa Fe, Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus received finances and was authorised to sail west and claim lands for Spain. The monarchs accorded him the title of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and he was given broad privileges. His voyage west resulted in the European colonization of the Americas and brought the knowledge of its existence to Europe. Columbus' first expedition to the supposed Indies actually landed in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492. Since Queen Isabella had provided the funding and authorization for the voyage, the benefits accrued to the Kingdom of Castile. "Although the subjects of the Crown of Aragon played some part in the discovery and colonization of the New World, the Indies were formally annexed not to Spain but to the Crown of Castile." He landed on the island of Guanahani, and called it San Salvador. He continued onto Cuba, naming it Juana, and finished his journey on the island of the Dominican Republic and Haiti, calling it Hispaniola, or La Isla Española ("the Spanish [Island]" in Castilian). On his second trip, begun in 1493, he found more Caribbean islands including Puerto Rico. His main goal was to colonize the existing discoveries with the 1500 men that he had brought the second time around. Columbus finished his last expedition in 1498, and discovered Trinidad and the coast of present-day Venezuela. The colonies Columbus established, and conquests in the Americas in later decades, generated an influx of wealth into the new unified state of Spain, leading it to be the major power of Europe from the end of the sixteenth century until the mid-seventeenth century, and the largest empire until 1810.
Death
Isabella's death in 1504 ended the remarkably successful political partnership and personal relationship of their marriage. Ferdinand remarried Germaine of Foix in 1505, but they produced no living heir. Had there been one, Aragon would doubtless have been separated from Castile. The Catholic Monarchs' daughter Joanna succeeded to the crown of Castile, but was deemed unfit to rule and following the death of her husband Phillip the Fair, Ferdinand retained power in Castile as regent until his death, with Joanna confined. He died in 1516 and is buried alongside his first wife Isabella in Granada, the scene of their great triumph in 1492. Joanna's son Charles I of Spain (also Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) came to Spain, and she, kept confined in Tordesillas, was nominal co-ruler of both Castile and Aragon until her death. With her death, Charles succeeded to the territories that his grandparents had accumulated and brought the Habsburg territories in Europe to the expanding Spanish Empire.
See also
Black Propaganda against Portugal and Spain
Iberian Union
Portuguese Restoration War
Notes
References
Further reading
Country Studies
Elliott, J.H., Imperial Spain, 1469–1716 (1963; Pelican 1970)
Edwards, John. Ferdinand and Isabella: Profiles in Power.Pearson Education. New York, New York. 2005..
Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs. Blackwell Publishers. Massachusetts, 2000. .
Kamen, Henry. Spain: 1469–1714 A Society of Conflict. Taylor & Francis. New York & London. 2014. .
Married couples
Spanish Renaissance people
15th century in Al-Andalus
15th-century Spanish monarchs
16th-century Spanish monarchs
Reconquista
Spanish Inquisition
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Spanish Empire
Royal styles |
356555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20bustard | Little bustard | The little bustard (Tetrax tetrax) is a bird in the bustard family, the only member of the genus Tetrax. The genus name is from Ancient Greek and refers to a gamebird mentioned by Aristophanes and others.
Distribution
It breeds in Southern Europe and in Western and Central Asia. Southernmost European birds are mainly resident, but other populations migrate further south in winter. The central European population once breeding in the grassland of Hungary became extinct several decades ago. The species is declining due to habitat loss throughout its range. It used to breed more widely, for example ranging north to Poland occasionally. It is only a very rare vagrant to Great Britain despite breeding in France.
On 20 December 2013, the Cypriot newspapers 'Fileleftheros' and 'Politis', as well as news website 'SigmaLive', reported the discovery of a dead little bustard in the United Nations Buffer Zone. The bird had been shot by poachers hunting illegally in the zone. The shooting was particularly controversial amongst conservationists and birders since the little bustard is a very rare visitor to Cyprus and had not been officially recorded in Cyprus since December 1979.
Description
Although the smallest Palearctic bustard, the little bustard is still pheasant-sized at long with a wingspan and a weight of . In flight, the long wings are extensively white. The breeding male is brown above and white below, with a grey head and a black neck bordered above and below by white.
The female and non-breeding male lack the dramatic neck pattern, and the female is marked darker below than the male. Immature bustards resemble females. Both sexes are usually silent, although the male has a distinctive "raspberry-blowing" call: prrt.
Diet
This species is omnivorous, taking seeds, insects, rodents and reptiles.
Breeding
Like other bustards, the male little bustard has a flamboyant display with foot stamping and leaping in the air. Females lay 3 to 5 eggs on the ground.
Habitat
The bird's habitat is open grassland and undisturbed cultivation, with plants tall enough for cover. Males and females do not differ markedly in habitat selection. It has a stately slow walk, and tends to run when disturbed rather than fly. It is gregarious, especially in winter.
Tracking of male Little Bustards has revealed that they are nocturnal migrants that make frequent stopovers in non-irrigated and irrigated croplands to reach more productive agricultural post-breeding areas.
References
External links
Oiseaux.net Little bustard photos
little bustard
Birds of Central Asia
Birds of Europe
Near threatened animals
Near threatened biota of Asia
Near threatened biota of Europe
little bustard
little bustard |
356557 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippa%2C%205th%20Countess%20of%20Ulster | Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster | Philippa of Clarence (16 August 1355 – 5 January 1381) was a medieval English princess and the suo jure Countess of Ulster.
Biography
She was born at Eltham Palace in Kent on 16 August 1355, the only child of Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, and Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster. Her father was the third son, but second son to survive infancy, of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. She was the eldest grandchild of King Edward and Queen Philippa, her namesake.
Philippa married Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, at the age of fourteen, in the Queen's Chapel at Reading Abbey, an alliance that would have far-reaching consequences in English history. Her cousin, King Richard II, remained childless, making Philippa and her descendants next in line to the throne until his deposition. In the Wars of the Roses, the Yorkist claim to the crown was based on descent from Edward III through Philippa, her son Roger Mortimer, and granddaughter Anne Mortimer, who married Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge, a son of Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York.
Philippa died in 1382 and was buried at Wigmore Abbey, Herefordshire.
Marriage and issue
Her children with Edmund Mortimer were as follows:
Ancestry
Notes
References
1355 births
1382 deaths
People from Eltham
People from Herefordshire
14th-century English women
14th-century English people
Daughters of English dukes
Earls of Ulster (1264)
Ulster
Heirs to the English throne
Ulster
Philippa
Philippa |
356560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Work%20and%20Pensions | Secretary of State for Work and Pensions | The secretary of state for work and pensions, also referred to as the work and pensions secretary, is a secretary of state in the Government of the United Kingdom, with overall responsibility for the business of the Department for Work and Pensions. The incumbent is a member of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, 13th in the ministerial ranking.
The office holder works alongside the other Work and Pensions ministers. The corresponding shadow minister is the shadow secretary of state for work and pensions, and there is also currently a Shadow Secretary of State for Employment Rights and Protections and a Shadow Secretary of State for the Future of Work. The performance of the Secretary of State is also scrutinised by the Work and Pensions Select Committee.
The incumbent is Thérèse Coffey, following her appointment by Prime Minister Boris Johnson in September 2019.
Responsibilities
Corresponding to what is generally known as a labour minister in many other countries, the work and pensions secretary's remit includes:
Support people of working age
Oversight of employers and pensions
Providing support for disability
Support for families and children
History
It was created on 8 June 2001 by the merger of the Employment division of the Department for Education and Employment and the Department of Social Security.
The Ministry of Pensions was created in 1916 to handle the payment of war pensions to former members of the Armed Forces and their dependants. In 1944 a separate Ministry of National Insurance (titled the Ministry of Social Insurance until 17 November 1944) was formed; the two merged in 1953 as the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. In 1966 the Ministry was renamed the Ministry of Social Security, but this was short-lived, as the Ministry merged with the Ministry of Health in 1968 to form the Department of Health and Social Security. Confusingly, the Secretary of State responsible for this Department was titled the Secretary of State for Social Services. The Department was de-merged in 1988, creating the separate Department of Health and Department of Social Security.
Ministers and secretaries of state
Colour key (for political parties):
Posts of Minister of Pensions and Minister of National Insurance merged in 1953.
* Incumbent's length of term last updated: .
See also
Secretary of State for Employment
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Pensions and Financial Inclusion
References
Work and Pensions, Secretary of State
Ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
Secretaries of State for Work and Pensions |
356567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist%20Party%20%28Netherlands%29 | Socialist Party (Netherlands) | The Socialist Party (SP, ; , ) is a democratic socialist political party in the Netherlands. Founded in 1971 as the Communist Party of the Netherlands/Marxist–Leninist (KPN/ML, ), the party has since moderated itself from Marxism–Leninism (Maoism) towards democratic socialism and social democracy. The SP has also been described as left-wing populist and soft Eurosceptic, and is an advocate of Dutch republicanism.
Positioned to the political left of the Labour Party, the party has been part of the parliamentary opposition since it was formed. After the 2006 Dutch general election, the SP became one of the major parties of the Netherlands winning 25 out of 150 parliamentary seats, an increase of 16 seats. In the 2010 Dutch general election, the parliamentary presence of the socialists decreased to 15 seats. In the 2012 Dutch general election, the party maintained those 15 seats. Following the 2017 and 2021 general elections, the SP fell back to the nine seats it held before 2006.
History
Foundation until 1994
The Socialist Party was founded in October 1971 as a Maoist party named the Communist Party of the Netherlands/Marxist–Leninist (KPN/ML). This KPN/ML was formed following a split from the Communist Unity Movement of the Netherlands (Marxist–Leninist). The issue that provoked the split from was an intense debate on the role of intellectuals in the class struggle. The founders of KPN/ML, with Daan Monjé in a prominent role, belonged to the proletarian wing of the , who did not want an organisation dominated by students and intellectuals. In 1972, the KPN/ML changed its name to the Socialist Party (Dutch: ). Even in its early years, while adhering to Maoist principles such as organising the masses, the SP was very critical of the Communist Party of China, condemning the support of the Chinese party for UNITA in Angola with the brochure "" ('Answer to the thick skins of the KEN').
The SP started to build a network of local parties, with strong local roots. The SP had its own General Practitioners' offices, provided advice to citizens and set up local action groups. This developed within front organisations, separate trade unions, environmental organisations and tenant associations. This work resulted in a strong representation in several municipal legislatures, notably in Oss. Also in some States-Provincial, the SP gained a foothold, especially in the province of North Brabant.
Since 1977, SP attempted to enter the House of Representatives, but the party failed in 1977, 1981, 1982, 1986 and 1989. In 1991, the SP officially scrapped the term Marxism–Leninism because the party had evolved to the point that the term was no longer considered appropriate.
After 1994
In 1994 general election, the party's first members of parliament, namely Remi Poppe and Jan Marijnissen, were elected. Its slogan was "Vote Against" (Dutch: ). In the 1990s, the major party of the Dutch left, the Labour Party (PvdA), moved to the centre, making the SP and the GreenLeft viable alternatives for some left-wing voters. In the 1998 general election, the party was rewarded for its opposition to the purple government of the first Kok cabinet and more than doubled its seats to five. In the 1999 European Parliament election, Erik Meijer was elected into the European Parliament for the SP.
In the 2002 general election, the SP ran with the slogan "Vote in Favor" (Dutch: ). The party nearly doubled to nine seats. This result was kept in the 2003 general election. Leading up to the latter election, the SP was predicted to win as many as 24 (16%) seats in the polls. However, these gains failed to materialise as many potential SP voters chose to cast strategic votes for the Labour Party which stood a good chance of winning the elections. In the 2004 European Parliament election, its one seat was doubled to two.
In the 2005 referendum on the European Constitution, the SP was the only left-wing party in parliament to oppose it. Support for the party grew in opinion polls, but it fell slightly after the referendum.
The 2006 municipal elections were a success for the SP which more than doubled its total number of seats. This can in part be explained by the party standing in many more municipalities, but it can also be seen as a reaction to the so-called "right-wing winter" in national politics as the welfare reforms of the right-wing second Balkenende cabinet were called by its centre-left and left-wing opponents. In a reaction to these results, Marijnissen declared on election night that the "SP has grown up".
After the untimely end of the second Balkenende cabinet and the minority government of the third Balkenende cabinet, the SP gained 16 seats in the parliament after the 2006 general election, nearly tripling its parliamentary representation. With 25 seats, the SP became the third largest party of the Dutch parliament. In the 2006–2007 cabinet formation, the SP was unable to work out its policy differences with the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) and remained in opposition against the fourth Balkenende cabinet which comprised the CDA, the PvdA and the Christian Union parties.
In the 2007 provincial elections, the SP gained 54 provincial legislators more than in the 2003 provincial elections and made it to a total of 83 provincial legislators. As a result of the provincial elections, the SP has increased its representatives in the Senate of the Netherlands (upper house) to 11 from the 4 it had previously.
In the 2010 general election, the SP fared worse than in the previous election, with a loss of 10 seats, a gain of 15 and only 9.9% of the overall vote. The party's popularity rose after the election, with polls throughout 2012 indicating it could challenge the ruling VVD with a seat count reaching into the 30s. The SP's popularity peaked in early August, a month before the election, with polls from Peil, Ipsos, and TNS NIPO indicating it would become the largest party with a result as high as 37 seats. However, PvdA's popularity surged in the final weeks, and the SP's lead collapsed. The party ultimately placed fourth on 15 seats, with a slight decrease in its vote share compared to 2010.
In the 2017 general election, the SP lost one seat and finished sixth.
Name
The party was founded as the Communist Party of the Netherlands/Marxist–Leninist (KPN/ML) in 1971. In 1972, it adopted the Socialist Party name (Dutch: ), with an unofficial spelling using instead of . In 1993, the party changed its name to the correctly spelled .
Ideology and issues
The party labels itself as socialist, and has also been described as social-democratic. In its manifesto of principles, it calls for a society where human dignity, equality and solidarity are most important. Its core issues are employment, social welfare and investing in health care, public education and public safety. The party opposes privatisation of public services and is critical of globalisation. It has taken a soft Eurosceptic stance.
Election results
House of Representatives
Senate
European Parliament
Leadership
Leadership
Leaders
Daan Monjé (22 October 1971 – 1 October 1986)
Hans van Hooft Sr. (1 October 1986 – 20 May 1988)
Jan Marijnissen (20 May 1988 – 20 June 2008)
Agnes Kant (20 June 2008 – 5 March 2010)
Emile Roemer (5 March 2010 – 13 December 2017)
Lilian Marijnissen (13 December 2017 – present)
Chairmen
Hans van Hooft Sr. (22 October 1971 – 20 May 1988)
Jan Marijnissen (20 May 1988 – 28 November 2015)
Ron Meyer (28 November 2015 – 14 December 2019)
Jannie Visscher (14 December 2019 – present)
Secretaries
Tiny Kox (20 January 1994 – 24 May 2003)
Paulus Jansen (24 May 2003 – 20 June 2005)
Hans van Heijningen (20 June 2005 – 20 January 2018)
Lieke Smits (20 January 2018 – 14 December 2019)
Arnout Hoekstra (14 December 2019 – present)
Parliamentary leaders in the Senate
Jan de Wit (13 June 1995 – 19 May 1998)
Bob Ruers (19 May 1998 – 10 June 2003)
Tiny Kox (10 June 2003 – present)
Parliamentary leaders in the House of Representatives
Jan Marijnissen (17 May 1994 – 20 June 2008)
Agnes Kant (20 June 2008 – 5 March 2010)
Emile Roemer (5 March 2010 – 13 December 2017)
Lilian Marijnissen (13 December 2017 – present)
Lijsttrekker in general elections
Remi Poppe – 1977
Hans van Hooft Sr. – 1981, 1982, 1986
Jan Marijnissen – 1989, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2006
Emile Roemer – 2010, 2012, 2017
Lilian Marijnissen - 2021
Representation
Members of the House of Representatives
Current members of the House of Representatives since the 2021 Dutch general election:
Lilian Marijnissen, parliamentary leader
Renske Leijten
Sandra Beckerman
Jasper van Dijk
Maarten Hijink
Bart van Kent
Peter Kwint
Michiel van Nispen
Mahir Alkaya
Members of the Senate
Current members of the Senate since the 2019 Dutch Senate election:
Tiny Kox, parliamentary leader
Arda Gerkens, deputy parliamentary leader and parliamentary secretary
Bastiaan van Apeldoorn
Rik Janssen
Members of the European Parliament
The party currently has no members of the European Parliament since the 2019 European Parliamentary election.
Local and provincial government
The SP provides no King's Commissioners or mayors which are appointed by the Minister of the Interior. The SP opposes this procedure and wants mayors to be elected by the municipal council. However, former SP leader Emile Roemer was the first party member who became both mayor and commissioner (he was acting mayor of Heerlen and Alkmaar, and has been King's Commissioner of Limburg since 1 December 2021). The SP is part of the provincial executive (Gedeputeerde staten) in six out of twelve provinces. The SP is also part of several municipal executives (College van burgemeester en wethouders), notably in Amsterdam and Utrecht.
Organisation
As of 2016, the SP has 41,710 members and has grown considerably since it entered parliament in 1994, making it the third largest party in terms of its number of members. Like other parties in the Netherlands, the SP has seen a decline in membership in recent years.
Organisational structure
The highest body within the SP is the party council, formed by the chairs of all local branches and the party board. It convenes at least four times a year. The party board is elected by the party congress which is formed by delegates from the municipal branches. The congress decides on the order of the candidates for national and European elections and it has a final say over the party program.
At the party congress which was held on 28 November in 2015, Ron Meyer was elected as the secretary of the party board. Previously, he was working for the Netherlands Trade Union Confederation (FNV). Ron Meyer was elected along with 10 other party board members.
Lilian Marijnissen became the leader of the party on 13 December 2017.
The SP is a constant active force in extra-parliamentary protest. Many of its members are active in local campaigning groups, often independent groups dominated by the SP, or in the SP neighbourhood centres, where the party provides help for the working class.
An example more of nationwide nature is the movement for a National Healthcare Fund (Nationaal ZorgFonds). This campaign demonstrates the necessity of a single payer system and wants to remove market and commercialisation aspects of the current healthcare system. The expensive advertising annually organised by healthcare insurance companies in order to attract new customers is a big example. The NHS inspired movement thinks that money should solely be spent on healthcare itself. Switching from one insurance company to another can only be done once every year as restricted by Dutch law.
Linked organisations
The youth-wing is called ROOD; the word rood is officially written in capitals but is not an acronym. The SP publishes the magazine the Tribune monthly which was also the name of a historical Communist Party of the Netherlands newspaper; however, the relationship between Rood and the SP have been rocky in the past year due to the youth wing taking a more radical approach to politics.
Splinter groups
At one point, two Trotskyist entryist groups operated within the SP. This included Offensive, now called Socialist Alternative, and the International Socialists. The latter was expelled on the grounds of double membership. The similar yet very small group Offensief was not considered a factor of power, but its members were banned from the SP in February 2009, on the grounds of being "a party within a party". Members of the party Socialist Alternative Politics still operate within the SP.
Relationships to other parties
The SP has always been in opposition on a national level, although there are now numerous examples of government participation on a local and provincial level. On many issues, the SP is the most left-wing party in parliament. Between 1994 and 2002, the Labour Party (PvdA) had a conscious strategy to isolate the party, always voting against the latter's proposals. However, the party did co-operate well with GreenLeft. After its disastrous election result in 2002, the PvdA, now back in opposition, did co-operate with the SP against some of the policies of the centre-right Balkenende government and their relationship improved significantly. New tensions arose after the 2006 general election, when the SP approached the PvdA in electoral support and the PvdA joined the government whereas the SP did not.
As of 2016, the ruling VVD–PvdA coalition has meant that the PvdA lost a huge part of its base. In the polls, the party stand at around 12 seats and losing 26, a stable position for the last three years. Despite that, the SP has gained little to nothing, remaining stable at around 16 seats in the same polls.
Notes
References
Further reading
Jan Marijnissen & Karel Glastra van Loon, "The Last War of the 20th Century: Discussions on the new world order" (On the threshold of the new millennium, Jan Marijnissen en Karel Glastra van Loon spoke with prominent experts in the area of peace and security, both within the Netherlands and abroad.)
Jan Marijnissen, "Enough!: a socialist bites back" (SP-chairman Jan Marijnissen summarises and internationalises his opposition against the ideological mainstream in today's politics throughout the world. Neoliberalism, argues Marijnissen, causes the return of 19th century social and democratic circumstances. Who does not agree, has the duty to stand up and say: enough!)
Harry van Bommel & Niels de Heij, "A Better Europe Starts Now" (European cooperation has already brought us many benefits, for example in the areas of human rights and of our prosperity. That does not mean that it is always good or that cooperation in all areas offers added value. The outcome of the referendum on the European Constitution demonstrated that a clear majority holds the European Union as it is now in little esteem, and that there was a need for a broad social discussion over Europe and the role of the Netherlands within it. This paper is intended to contribute to such a debate by making proposals for a more democratic, slimmed down, balanced and affordable EU, as well as a fruitful European agricultural policy.)
Anja Meulenbelt & Harry van Bommel, "The promised land, the stolen land". (March 2007) (A summary of the study by Anja Meulenbelt and Harry van Bommel).
External links
Speech by former SP leader Jan Marijnissen at the congress of the Socialist Left Party of Norway which gives an overview of the SP's history and policies (24 March 2007)
Socialist parties in Europe
Organisations based in Utrecht (province)
Amersfoort |
356583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmalkalden-Meiningen | Schmalkalden-Meiningen | Schmalkalden-Meiningen is a Landkreis in the southwest of Thuringia, Germany. Its neighboring districts are (from the northwest clockwise) the districts Wartburgkreis, Gotha, Ilm-Kreis, the district-free city Suhl, the district Hildburghausen, the Bavarian district Rhön-Grabfeld, and the district Fulda in Hesse.
History
The district is located mainly on the territory of the former duchy of Saxe-Meiningen (part Meiningen district) and the former dominion of Schmalkalden. The district as a unit originated in 1994 with the merging of the previous districts Meiningen, Schmalkalden and (partially) Suhl-Land, which were formed during the time in the GDR. The municipality Kaltennordheim passed from the Wartburgkreis to Schmalkalden-Meiningen on 1 January 2019.
Geography
The main river in Schmalkalden-Meiningen is the Werra. The landscape of the district consists of the Rhön Mountains in the west and the Thuringian Forest Mountains in the east, separated by the valley of the river Werra. To the south lies the hilly Grabfeld. The Rennsteig hiking path crosses the Thuringian Forest and is the Border to Gotha district. The area around Oberhof is a famous winter sports resort. The capital Meiningen in the center of the district lies at an altitude of 287 meters above the sea. The lowest point is 250 meters in Breitungen. The highest mountain is the Wildekopf mountain with 943 meters near Zella-Mehlis.
Culture and economy
Meiningen is a cultural city with a famous theater and an old traditional Court orchestra. The city has a classical cityscape with extensive parks. Featured castles are in Meiningen and in Schmalkalden. Economically are significant mechanical engineering, high technology, tool manufacturing and food industry.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of Schalkalden-Meiningen shows symbols from the coats of arms of the three precursor districts, which also symbolise the historic states which formerly ruled in the territory of the district. The rooster in the top left derives from the coat of arms of the counts of Henneberg. It stands on three green mounds, a reminder of the hills and mountains of the area. The lion of Hesse appears in the top right canton, as Hesse controlled the area from 1360 to 1866. The banner in the bottom left comes from the coat of arms of the district of Meiningen, and derives from the coat of arms of the city of Würzburg. The prince-bishops of Würzburg owned Meiningen in the past. The coat of arms of Saxony in the bottom right recalls the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, which existed from 1680 until 1918.
Towns and municipalities
{|
|-----
!Verwaltungsgemeinschaft-free towns
!colspan=2|and municipalities
|-
|valign=top|
Brotterode-Trusetal
Meiningen
Oberhof
Schmalkalden
Steinbach-Hallenberg
Zella-Mehlis
|valign=top|
Breitungen
Fambach
Floh-Seligenthal
Grabfeld
Rhönblick
|valign=top|
Rippershausen
Rosa
Roßdorf
Sülzfeld
Untermaßfeld
|}
References
External links |
356586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronyism | Cronyism | Cronyism is the practice of partiality in awarding jobs and other advantages to friends or trusted colleagues, especially in politics and between politicians and supportive organizations. For instance, this includes appointing "cronies" to positions of authority, regardless of their qualifications; this is in contrast to meritocracy, in which appointments are made purely on qualification.
Cronyism exists when the appointer and the beneficiary (such as an appointee) are in social or business contact. Often, the appointer needs support in their own proposal, job or position of authority, and for this reason the appointer appoints individuals who will not try to weaken their proposals, vote against issues, or express views contrary to those of the appointer.
Politically, "cronyism" is derogatorily used to imply buying and selling favors, such as: votes in legislative bodies, as doing favors to organizations, giving desirable ambassadorships to exotic places, etc. Whereas cronyism refers to partiality to a partner or friend, nepotism is the granting of favour to relatives.
Etymology
The word "crony" first appeared in 17th-century London, according to the Oxford English Dictionary and is believed to be derived from the Greek word chronios (χρόνιος), meaning "long term".
A less likely but oft-quoted source is the supposed Irish term Comh-Roghna, which translates as "close pals", or mutual friends.
Concept
Government officials are particularly susceptible to accusations of cronyism, as they spend taxpayers' money. Many democratic governments are encouraged to practice administrative transparency in accounting and contracting, however, there often is no clear delineation of when an appointment to government office is "cronyism".
In the private sector, cronyism exists in organizations, often termed "the old boys' club" or "the golden circle"; again, the boundary between cronyism and "networking" is difficult to delineate.
It is not unusual for a politician to surround him- or herself with highly qualified subordinates, and to develop social, business, or political friendships leading to the appointment to office of friends, likewise in granting government contracts. In fact, the counsel of such friends is why the officeholder successfully obtained their powerful position; therefore, cronyism usually is easier to perceive than to demonstrate and prove. Politicians with representatives of business, other special interests, as unions and professional organizations get "crony-business" done in political agreements, especially by "reasonable" and lucrative honorariums to the politician for making speeches, or by legal donations to ones election campaign or to ones political party, etc.
Cronyism describes relationships existing among mutual acquaintances in private organizations where business, business information, and social interaction are exchanged among influential personnel. This is termed crony capitalism, and is an ethical breach of the principles of the market economy; in advanced economies, crony capitalism is a breach of market regulations.
Given crony capitalism's nature, these dishonest business practices are frequently (yet not exclusively) found in societies with ineffective legal systems. Consequently, there is an impetus upon the legislative branch of a government to ensure enforcement of the legal code capable of addressing and redressing private party manipulation of the economy by the involved businessmen and their government cronies.
The economic and social costs of cronyism are paid by society. Those costs are in the form of reduced business opportunity for the majority of the population, reduced competition in the market place, inflated consumer goods prices, decreased economic performance, inefficient business investment cycles, reduced motivation in affected organizations, and the diminution of economically productive activity. A practical cost of cronyism manifests in the poor workmanship of public and private community projects.
Cronyism is self-perpetuating; cronyism then begets a culture of cronyism. This can only be apprehended by a comprehensive, effective, and enforced legal code, with empowered government agencies which can effect prosecutions in the courts.
Some instances of cronyism are readily transparent. With others, it is only in hindsight that the qualifications of the alleged "crony" must be evaluated. All appointments that are suspected of being cronyism are controversial. The appointed party may choose to either suppress disquiet or ignore it, depending upon the society's level of freedom of expression and individual personal liberty.
Examples
A recent example can be found in political activity in South Carolina, particularly in relation to Governor Henry McMaster, who initially gained his position after becoming the first high-level state official to endorse President Donald Trump and subsequently rose from lieutenant governor to governor of the state when President Trump appointed Nikki Haley to be the United States ambassador to the United Nations in November 2016. On July 9, 2019, Governor McMaster would then go on to attempt to force a vote for the President of the University of South Carolina ahead of schedule and for the benefit of his favorite candidate, Robert Caslen Jr., former superintendent of West Point Academy who was favored by President Trump and previously interviewed by the Trump administration for the position of National Security Advisor. Less than two weeks later, in spite of protestation from a majority of the student body, alumni, and major donors, the vote was cast in favor of Caslen on July 19, 2019.
The Russian president Vladimir Putin is alleged to be the "head of the clan", whose assets are estimated at $200 billion. A list of Russian and Ukrainian politicians associated with "kleptocratic style" has been published by the Kleptocracy Archives project.
U.S. President Donald Trump assigned at least five members of his private golf clubs to choice government jobs such as ambassadorships. This is the first time in modern history that a president has rewarded people with jobs that paid money to his own companies.
The nominations of Prime Minister Boris Johnson for the House of Lords were selected based on their support for his version of Brexit, rather than ability or service to the public as is customary (for instance, the previous Speaker of the House of Commons John Bercow did not receive a nomination due to Johnson's perception that he worked against him for getting key Brexit votes through). The process for procurement of government contracts in light of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom has been criticised by some as a "chumocracy" (cronyism).
India: High command culture
In India, it has been seen that the chiefs of national political parties directly appoint their close aides as the regional subordinates rather than through the party's internal elections—thus underminging the autonomy of the state units. The culture was first seen under the premiership of Indira Gandhi, then under her successor Sonia Gandhi, and now under the Bharatiya Janata Party's Modi government. Over the years, several chief ministers of wide range of parties have been appointed likewise. Before the independence of India, Mahatma Gandhi could override most decisions of the Indian National Congress, regardless of his on-paper status in the party.
See also
References
Further reading
[Also in T. G. Andrews and R. Mead (Eds.), Cross Cultural Management, Volume 2 -The Impact of Culture 1: 126–150. Routledge, UK.]
External links
SuperNews: Hurricane Katrina - A political flash cartoon about the cronyism surrounding Michael D. Brown and Hurricane Katrina.
Corruption
Political terminology of the United States
Oligarchy
Ethically disputed political practices
Nepotism
Public choice theory
Group processes
Politics of India |
356593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20Environment%2C%20Food%20and%20Rural%20Affairs | Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs | The secretary of state for environment, food and rural affairs, also referred to as the environment secretary, is a secretary of state in the Government of the United Kingdom, with overall responsibility for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). The incumbent is a member of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, 15th in the ministerial ranking.
The office holder works alongside the other Defra ministers. The corresponding shadow minister is the shadow secretary of state for environment, food and rural affairs.
The incumbent is George Eustice, following his appointment by Prime Minister Boris Johnson in July 2019.
Responsibilities
The secretary of state has three main responsibilities at the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, to:
bear overall responsibility for all departmental issues.
lobby for the United Kingdom in other international negotiations on sustainable development and climate change.
List of environment secretaries
Secretaries of State for the Environment (1970–1997)
Secretaries of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions (1997–2001)
Secretaries of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2001–present)
* Incumbent's length of term last updated: .
See also
List of Secretaries of state for the environment; Secretaries of state for the environment, transport and the regions
References
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
Agriculture in England
Ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
Rural society in the United Kingdom
2001 establishments in the United Kingdom
pl:Ministrowie środowiska Wielkiej Brytanii |
356598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20of%20Agriculture%2C%20Fisheries%20and%20Food%20%28United%20Kingdom%29 | Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom) | The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) was a United Kingdom government department created by the Board of Agriculture Act 1889 (52 & 53 Vict. c.30) and at that time called the Board of Agriculture, and then from 1903 the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, and from 1919 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. It attained its final name in 1955 with the addition of responsibilities for the British food industry to the existing responsibilities for agriculture and the fishing industry, a name that lasted until the Ministry was dissolved in 2002, at which point its responsibilities had been merged into the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).
On its renaming as the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food in 1955, it was responsible for agriculture, fisheries and food. Until the Food Standards Agency was created, it was responsible for both food production and food safety, which was seen by some to give rise to a conflict of interest. MAFF was widely criticised for its handling of the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (more widely known as mad cow disease) and later the outbreak of foot and mouth disease in 2001.
It was merged with the part of the Department for Environment, Transport and the Regions that dealt with the environment (and with a small part of the Home Office) to create a new government department, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) in 2001. MAFF was formally dissolved on 27 March 2002, when the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Dissolution) Order 2002 (S.I. 2002/794) came into force.
Background
The Board of Agriculture, which later become the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF), was established under the Board of Agriculture Act 1889. It was preceded, however, by an earlier Board of Agriculture, founded by Royal Charter on 23 August 1793 as the Board or Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and Internal Improvement, which lasted until it was dissolved in June 1822. Though its founders hoped the board would become a department of state it was never more than a private society which spread useful knowledge and encouraged improvements in farming.
A significant predecessor of the second Board of Agriculture (later MAFF) was the Tithe Commission, which was set up in 1841 under the Tithe Act 1836 and amalgamated with the Enclosure Commissioners and the Copyhold Commissioners to become the Lord Commissioners for England and Wales under the Settled Land Act 1882, responsible to the Home Secretary, which became the Land Department of the new Board of Agriculture in 1889.
Another predecessor was the Cattle Plague Department, set up by the Home Office to deal with an outbreak of rinderpest in London in June 1865. This was renamed the Veterinary Department of the Privy Council in 1869 and became part of the new Board of Agriculture in 1889.
Board of Agriculture
The Board of Agriculture Act 1889, passed on 12 August, established the Board of Agriculture and combined all Government responsibilities for agricultural matters in one department. The first President of the new Board was the Rt. Hon. Henry Chaplin, there were 90 members of staff and the first annual estimate was for £55,000. From 1892 to 1913, its secretary, the most senior civil servant, was Sir Thomas Elliott.
The Board took responsibility for the Ordnance Survey in 1890, and it took responsibility for the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in 1903. Also in 1903, the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1903 was passed to transfer certain powers and duties relating to the fishing industry from the Board of Trade to what then became the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.
In 1904, the Board appointed honorary agricultural correspondents throughout the country to liaise with the Board on Regional Matters and to give advice to farmers. In 1911, responsibility for all agricultural matters in Scotland except animal health was transferred to a newly created Board of Agriculture for Scotland.
Meanwhile, the country was increasingly becoming dependent on imported food. By 1914, the output of home-grown food only met one-third of the country's needs.
World War I
War was declared on 4 August 1914. Good harvests and little interruption to imports of food during the first two years of meant that there were no shortages of food, though the ministry was buying wheat, meat and sugar. The agricultural situation then changed for the worse with a poor crop harvest, failure of the potato crop, declining harvest abroad and increased shipping losses. In 1916, Rowland Prothero was appointed President of the Board of Agriculture with a seat in the Cabinet and with the aim of stimulating food production.
In December 1916, a Ministry of Food was created under the New Ministries & Secretaries Act 1916 and Lord Devonport appointed Food Controller to regulate the supply and consumption of food and to encourage food production. A Food Production Department was established by the Board of Agriculture in 1917 to organise and distribute agricultural inputs, such as labour, feed, fertiliser and machinery, and increase output of crops. Provision of labour provided considerable difficulty as many men working on farms had enlisted but co-operation between the War Office and the Board enabled men to be released to help with spring cultivation and harvest. Also in 1917, the Women's Land Army was created to provide substitutes for men called up to the forces.
The Corn Production Act 1917 guaranteed minimum prices for wheat and oats, specified a minimum wage for agricultural workers and established the Agricultural Wages Board, to ensure stability for farmers and a share of this stability for agricultural workers. The aim was to increase output of home-grown food and reduce dependence on imports.
In June 1917, Lord Devonport resigned as Food Controller to be replaced by Lord Rhondda, who introduced compulsory rationing of meat, sugar and butter in early 1918. By 1918, there were controls over 94% of foodstuffs; the Food Controller bought all essential food supplies and the Corn Production Act guaranteed cereal prices. The ministry had a staff of more than 8,000 with food control committees and divisional commissioners across the country. The ministry's Wheat Commission took over flour mills and dictated the shape and weight of bread, prohibiting sales of muffins, crumpets and teacakes. Oats, barley and beans were added to bread. These measures were said to have saved about 10 million sacks of wheat, but they were not universally welcomed. Meat was imported from the USA and Argentina and refrigerated merchant ships were equipped with guns from April 1915. Meat prices were controlled from September 1917, and meat became scarce. Milk production fell during the war by about 25% and condensed milk imports rose from 49,000 tonnes to 128,000 tonnes. Lord Rhondda died on 1 July 1918 and was succeeded by John Clynes, MP. The armistice treaty ending World War I was signed on 11 November 1918. Following the war, the Food Controller resigned in 1919 and the Ministry of Food progressively wound down and closed on 31 March 1921.
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1919 abolished the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and created the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, which took on the powers of the Board and the remaining functions of the Food Production Department established during the war. In 1919 prices of farm produce had risen by 25% compared to prices at the end of the war. The Agriculture Act 1920 set out guaranteed prices for wheat and oats based on the 1919 averages, to be reviewed annually. However, in the early 1920s, prices fell drastically, the Act was repealed, guaranteed prices were replaced by lump sum payments and the Agricultural Wages Board abolished, as part of the Government's deflationary policies. By 1922 virtually all of war-time controls had gone. The area under cultivation in Britain fell from 12 million acres (49,000 km²) in 1918 to 9 million acres (36,000 km²) in 1926. Farm prices continued to decline and then fell by 34% in the three years after 1929.
During this period, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries remained a small department concerned with pest and disease control, agricultural research and education, improvement of livestock, and provision of allotments and smallholdings. Over the next few years, its workload grew.
In the late 1920s and early 1930s the Government introduce new measures to support domestic agriculture and farmers' income. Subsidies or price insurance schemes were created for sugar beet, wheat, cattle, dairy and sheep. The Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marketing) Act 1928 promoted the standardisation of grades and packaging and introduced the "National Mark", a trade mark denoting home-produced food of a defined quality for eggs, beef, apples and pears. The Agricultural Marketing Acts of 1931 and 1933 sought to organise farmers into co-operative marketing associations and created Marketing Boards for bacon, pigs, hops, milk and potatoes. The Import Duties Act 1932 introduced a tariff on most imports including fruit and vegetables and quotas on imports of bacon, ham and other meat products. In 1936 the tithe rent charge was abolished, compensation paid to the Church and the money recovered from farmers over a 60-year period. In 1937 a scheme was introduce to subsidize the spreading of lime on agricultural land to boost the fertility of the soil. The Food (Defence Plans) Department was established in 1937 and was then constituted as the Ministry of Food on the outbreak of war in 1939.The Minister of Agriculture was given powers to regulate the cultivation and management of land, end tenancies, even take possession of land, under the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939. On 1 September 1939 many of these powers were delegated to County War Agricultural Executive Committees ("War Ags").
World War II
War was declared on 3 September 1939. The UK entered the war well prepared for the maintenance of supplies of food but with less than 40% of the country's needs produced at home. The Ministry of Food was formed on 8 September and William Morrison appointed Minister. The Scientific Food Committee was established in May 1940 and outlined a basal diet of 2000 calories. The Ministry of Food became the sole buyer and importer of food and regulated prices, guaranteeing farmers prices and markets for their produce. The Marketing Boards, except for milk and hops, were suspended.
Recruiting began for the Women's Land Army and in 1940, food rationing was introduced. Lord Woolton succeeded William Morrison as Minister for Food. In 1941, the US Lend-Lease act was passed under which food, agricultural machinery and equipment was sent from the US to the UK.
Postwar era
The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Ministry of Food were merged in 1955, becoming the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
See also
Forestry Commission
Lobbying in the United Kingdom
Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
Sir John Sinclair, 1st Baronet
Arthur Young
References and notes
Sinclair, J. (1796). Account of the Origin of the Board of Agriculture and its progress for three years after its establishment. London: W. Bulmer and Co.
Ernle, Lord; edited by Hall, G. (1956), English Farming Past and Present, 5th edition. London: Longmans, Green and Co., Chapter XIX The War and State Control, 1914-1918.
Foreman, S. (1991). Loaves and Fishes, an illustrated history of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 1889-1999. London: MAFF.
Debate on draft Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Dissolution) Order 2002, Fifth Standing Committee on Delegated Legislation, 22 January 2002.
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Economic history of the United Kingdom
Agricultural organisations based in the United Kingdom
Ministries established in 1889
1889 establishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct environmental agencies
2002 disestablishments in the United Kingdom |
356603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAC | BAC | BAC or Bac may refer to:
Places
Bac, a village in Montenegro
Baile Átha Cliath, Irish language name for Dublin
Bîc River, aka Bâc River, a Moldovan river
Baç Bridge, bridge in Turkey
Barnes County Municipal Airport (ICAO airport code: KBAC; FAA airport code: BAC) Valley City, North Dakota, US; see List of airports in North Dakota
Arts and entertainment
Baryshnikov Arts Center, in Manhattan, New York City
Batman: Arkham City, a 2011 video game
Battersea Arts Centre, London, England
Benedicta Arts Center, St. Joseph, Minnesota, USA
Big Apple Chorus, New York based barbershop chorus
Boston Area Crusaders, former name of the Boston Crusaders Drum and Bugle Corps
Organizations
BAC-Credomatic, a Central American financial company owned by Grupo Aval Acciones y Valores
Bangabandhu Aeronautical Centre
Bank of America, N.A., under the New York Stock Exchange ticker symbol system
Boeing Airplane Company, the former name of Boeing Commercial Airplanes
Briggs Automotive Company, a British car manufacturing company
Bristol Aeroplane Company (1920–1956), British aviation company
British Aircraft Company (1930–1936), British aviation company
British Aircraft Corporation (1959/1960–1977), British aviation company
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers, North American labor union
Education
Baccalaureate (disambiguation), the name of a number of educational qualifications
Basic Airborne Course, of the United States Army Airborne School
Belmont Abbey College, Belmont, North Carolina
Bibliothèque et Archives Canada, the Library and Archives Canada, in Ottawa
Boston Architectural College, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Botswana Accountancy College, Gaborone, Botswana
Broughton Anglican College, a school in Menangle, New South Wales, Australia
Medicine, science and technology
BACnet, Building Automation and Control
.BAC, a filetype used by the RSTS/E timesharing system for compiled BASIC-PLUS files
Bacterial Artificial Chromosome, a DNA construct used for transforming and cloning in bacteria
Basic Access Control, a protocol used to transmit data contained in a passport equipped with RFID chip
Benzalkonium chloride, a type of cationic surfactant
Blood alcohol content (or blood alcohol concentration)
Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma, a type of lung cancer often diagnosed in non-smokers
HP Business Availability Center, software in HP Business Service Management
Sports
Bank Atlantic Center, an indoor arena in Sunrise, Florida, USA
Badminton Asia Confederation, governing body for badminton in Asia
Bauru Atlético Clube, a Brazilian football (soccer) club
British Athletes Commission
Other uses
Born Again Christian
See also
Bač (disambiguation)
Bacs (disambiguation)
CBAC (disambiguation)
Kbac (disambiguation)
WBAC 1340 AM |
356604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss%20Party%20of%20Labour | Swiss Party of Labour | The Swiss Party of Labour (; ; ; ) is a communist party in Switzerland. It is associated with the European United Left–Nordic Green Left group in the European Parliament, although Switzerland is not in the EU.
History
The party was founded in 1944 by the illegal Communist Party of Switzerland. On May 21 the constituent conference of the Basel Federation of the party was held. On October 14–15 the same year the first Party Congress of the party was held in Zürich. Léon Nicole was elected President and Karl Hofmaier General Secretary. On October 6–7, 1945 the Second Congress was held in Geneva. By this time the party has 20 000 members. On November 30-December 1 the 3rd Congress in Zürich. On July 27 a Swiss Party Conference was held in Bern. Karl Hofmaier was removed from his position due to a financial scandal. In the national elections of 1947 the party received 5.1% of the vote.
On July 4–6, 1949, the 4th Congress was held. Steps to strengthen the organization as a Cadre Party are taken. Edgar Woog elected General Secretary. In 1950, the party works intensively for the Stockholm Appeal. 260 000 signatures are collected in Switzerland. On May 31-June 2, 1952, the 5th Congress is held in Geneva. On December 7 the Central Committee expels Léon Nicole from the party. On May 28–30, 6th Congress in Geneva.
On May 16–18, 1959, 7th Congress in Geneva. A new party programme approved with the concept of antimonopolistic unity, "Swiss Road to Socialism" (inspired by the similar programme of the Communist Party of Great Britain). On May 16–18, 1964, 8th Congress in Geneva. In 2015, the party has no seats in the Swiss cantonal councils, and was not represented in any of the 26 cantonal governments. The Ticino section of the party, during an extraordinary congress held on 16 September 2007, by an overwhelming majority, decided to change its name to "Communist Party", thus resuming the original name and redirecting the policy of practice to one that was critical of the Party of European Left. This resulted in conflict with the national party headed by Norberto Crivelli, Socialist leader passed to the communists in the 80s.
The XXII Congress of the section of the Ticino, held on 10 November 2013, marked the unification of the organs partisan Ticino with those of the Italian Grisons, creating the Communist Party of Southern Switzerland, which after 2014 has stopped the collaboration with the Swiss Party of Labour, becoming the Communist Party (Switzerland) which is not active on a national level.
2007 national elections
Holding two seats in the Swiss National Council (the lower or first chamber of the Swiss parliament) going into the 2007 elections, the party stood candidates in the cantons of Zürich, Vaud, Geneva and the Ticino on their own; in Neuchâtel the candidate appeared on a joint list with Solidarity. While the share of the vote in 2007 was similar to the party's 2003 results (0.7%), the party lost the seat held by Josef Zisyadis, while retaining the seat held by Marianne Huguenin. However, on 1 November 2007 Huguenin announced her resignation from the National Council to focus on her position as mayor of Renens, Vaud, leaving Zisyadis to take the Party's seat in the National Council representing Vaud.
Electoral performance
National results
Cantonal-level
1.* indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.
2.Combined result for PdA and Solidarity.
3.Part of the Canton of Bern until 1979.
References
External links
The Swiss Workers Party in History of Social Security in Switzerland
Communist parties in Switzerland
Political parties established in 1944
Party of the European Left member parties
1944 establishments in Switzerland
Socialist parties in Switzerland
Marxist parties
Left-wing parties
Far-left political parties |
356609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalplan%20Ost | Generalplan Ost | The Generalplan Ost (; ), abbreviated GPO, was the Nazi German government's plan for the genocide and ethnic cleansing on a vast scale, and colonization of Central and Eastern Europe by Germans. It was to be undertaken in territories occupied by Germany during World War II. The plan was attempted during the war, resulting indirectly and directly in the deaths of millions by shootings, starvation, disease, extermination through labor, and genocide. However, its full implementation was not considered practicable during major military operations, and never materialized due to Germany's defeat.
The program operational guidelines were based on the policy of Lebensraum designed by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in fulfilment of the Drang nach Osten (drive to the East) ideology of German expansionism. As such, it was intended to be a part of the New Order in Europe.
The plan was a work in progress. There are four known versions of it, developed as time went on. After the invasion of Poland, the original blueprint for Generalplan Ost (GPO) was discussed by the RKFDV in mid-1940 during the Nazi–Soviet population transfers. The second known version of GPO was procured by the RSHA from in April 1942. The third version was officially dated June 1942. The final settlement master plan for the East came in from the RKFDV on October 29, 1942. However, after the German defeat at Stalingrad, planning of the colonization in the East was suspended, and the program was gradually abandoned. The planning had nonetheless included implementation cost estimates, which ranged from 40 to 67 billion Reichsmarks, the latter figure being close to Germany's entire GDP for 1941. A cost estimate of 45.7 billion Reichsmarks was included in the spring 1942 version of the plan, in which more than half the expenditure was to be allocated to land remediation, agricultural development, and transport infrastructure. This aspect of the funding was to be provided directly from state sources and the remainder, for urban and industrial development projects, was to be raised on commercial terms.
Development and reconstruction of the plan
The body responsible for the Generalplan Ost was the SS's Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) under Heinrich Himmler, which commissioned the work. The document was revised several times between June 1941 and spring 1942 as the war in the east progressed successfully. It was a strictly confidential proposal whose content was known only to those at the top level of the Nazi hierarchy; it was circulated by RSHA to the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories (Ostministerium) in early 1942.
According to testimony of SS-Standartenführer Dr. Hans Ehlich (one of the witnesses before the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials), the original version of the plan was drafted in 1940. As a high official in the RSHA, Ehlich was the man responsible for the drafting of Generalplan Ost along with Dr. Konrad Meyer, Chief of the Planning Office of Himmler's Reich Commission for the Strengthening of Germandom. It had been preceded by the Ostforschung.
The preliminary versions were discussed by Heinrich Himmler and his most trusted colleagues even before the outbreak of war. This was mentioned by SS-Obergruppenführer Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski during his evidence as a prosecution witness in the trial of officials of the Race and Settlement Main Office (RuSHA). According to Bach-Zelewski, Himmler stated openly: "It is a question of existence, thus it will be a racial struggle of pitiless severity, in the course of which 20 to 30 million Slavs and Jews will perish through military actions and crises of food supply." A fundamental change in the plan was introduced on June 24, 1941 – two days after the start of Operation Barbarossa – when the 'solution' to the Jewish question ceased to be part of that particular framework gaining a lethal, autonomous priority.
Nearly all the wartime documentation on Generalplan Ost was deliberately destroyed shortly before Germany's defeat in May 1945, and the full proposal has never been found, though several documents refer to it or supplement it. Nonetheless, most of the plan's essential elements have been reconstructed from related memos, abstracts and other documents.
A major document which enabled historians to accurately reconstruct the Generalplan Ost was a memorandum released on April 27, 1942, by Erhard Wetzel, director of the NSDAP Office of Racial Policy, entitled "Opinion and thoughts on the master plan for the East of the Reichsführer SS". Wetzel's memorandum was a broad elaboration of the Generalplan Ost proposal. It came to light only in 1957.
The extermination document for the Slavic people of Eastern Europe did survive the war and was quoted by Yale historian Timothy Snyder in 2010. It shows that ethnic Poles were the primary target of Generalplan OST.
Phases of the plan and its implementation
Generalplan Ost was a secret Nazi German plan for the colonization of Central and Eastern Europe. Implementing it would have necessitated genocide and ethnic cleansing on a vast scale to be undertaken in the European territories occupied by Germany during World War II. It would have included the extermination of most Slavic people in Europe. The plan, prepared in the years 1939–1942, was part of Adolf Hitler's and the Nazi movement's Lebensraum policy and a fulfilment of the Drang nach Osten () ideology of German expansion to the east, both of them part of the larger plan to establish the New Order.
The final version of the Generalplan Ost proposal was divided into two parts; the "Small Plan" (Kleine Planung), which covered actions carried out in the course of the war; and the "Big Plan" (Grosse Planung), which described steps to be taken gradually over a period of 25 to 30 years after the war was won. Both plans entailed the policy of ethnic cleansing. As of June 1941, the policy envisaged the deportation of 31 million Slavs to Siberia.
The Generalplan Ost proposal offered various percentages of the conquered or colonized people who were targeted for removal and physical destruction; the net effect of which would be to ensure that the conquered territories would become German. In ten years' time, the plan effectively called for the extermination, expulsion, Germanization or enslavement of most or all East and West Slavs living behind the front lines of East-Central Europe. The "Small Plan" was to be put into practice as the Germans conquered the areas to the east of their pre-war borders. After the war, under the "Big Plan", more people in Eastern Europe were to be affected. In their place up to 10 million Germans would be settled in an extended "living space" (Lebensraum). Because the number of Germans appeared to be insufficient to populate the vast territories of Central and Eastern Europe, the peoples judged to lie racially between the Germans and the Russians (Mittelschicht), namely, Latvians and even Czechs, were also supposed to be resettled there.
According to Nazi intentions, attempts at Germanization were to be undertaken only in the case of those foreign nationals in Central and Eastern Europe who could be considered a desirable element for the future Reich from the point of view of its racial theories. The Plan stipulated that there were to be different methods of treating particular nations and even particular groups within them. Attempts were even made to establish the basic criteria to be used in determining whether a given group lent itself to Germanization. These criteria were to be applied more liberally in the case of nations whose racial material (rassische Substanz) and level of cultural development made them more suitable than others for Germanization. The Plan considered that there were a large number of such elements among the Baltic states. Erhard Wetzel felt that thought should be given to a possible Germanization of the whole of the Estonian nation and a sizable proportion of the Latvians. On the other hand, the Lithuanians seemed less desirable since "they contained too great an admixture of Slav blood." Himmler's view was that "almost the whole of the Lithuanian nation would have to be deported to the East". Himmler is described to even have had a positive attitude towards germanizing the populations of Alsace-Lorraine, border areas of Slovenia (Upper Carniola and Southern Styria) and Bohemia-Moravia, but not Lithuania, claiming its population to be of "inferior race".
Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were to be deprived of their statehood, while their territories were to be included in the area of German settlement. This meant that Latvia and especially Lithuania would be covered by the deportation plans, though in a somewhat milder form than the expulsion of Slavs to western Siberia. While the Estonians would be spared from repressions and physical liquidation (that the Jews and the Poles were experiencing), in the long term the Nazi planners did not foresee their existence as independent entitites and they would be deported as well, with eventual denationalisation; initial designs were for Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia to be Germanized within 25 years; Heinrich Himmler revised them to 20 years.
In 1941 it was decided to destroy the Polish nation completely and the German leadership decided that in 15–20 years the Polish state under German occupation was to be fully cleared of any ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists. A majority of them, now deprived of their leaders and most of their intelligentsia (through mass murder, destruction of culture, the ban on education above the absolutely basic level, and kidnapping of children for Germanization), would have to be deported to regions in the East and scattered over as wide an area of Western Siberia as possible. According to the plan this would result in their assimilation by the local populations, which would cause the Poles to vanish as a nation.
According to plan, by 1952 only about 3–4 million 'non-Germanized' Poles (all of them peasants) were to be left residing in the former Poland. Those of them who would still not Germanize were to be forbidden to marry, the existing ban on any medical help to Poles in Germany would be extended, and eventually Poles would cease to exist. Experiments in mass sterilization in concentration camps may also have been intended for use on the populations. The Wehrbauer, or soldier-peasants, would be settled in a fortified line to prevent civilization reanimating beyond the Ural Mountains and threatening Germany. "Tough peasant races" would serve as a bulwark against attackhowever, it was not very far east of the "frontier" that the westernmost reaches within continental Asia of the Nazi Germany's major Axis partner, Imperial Japan's own Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere would have existed, had a complete defeat of the Soviet Union occurred.
The seizure of food supplies in Ukraine brought about starvation, as it was intended to do to depopulate that region for German settlement. Soldiers were told to steel their hearts against starving women and children, because every bit of food given to them was stolen from the German people, endangering their nourishment.
Widely varying policies were envisioned by the creators of Generalplan Ost, and some of them were actually implemented by Germany in regards to the different Slavic territories and ethnic groups. For example, by August–September 1939 (Operation Tannenberg followed by the A-B Aktion in 1940), Einsatzgruppen death squads and concentration camps had been employed to deal with the Polish elite, while the small number of Czech intelligentsia were allowed to emigrate overseas. Parts of Poland were annexed by Germany early in the war (leaving aside the rump German-controlled General Government and the areas previously annexed by the Soviet Union), while the other territories were officially occupied by or allied to Germany (for example, the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia became a theoretically independent puppet state, while the ethnic-Czech parts of the Czech lands (so excluding the Sudetenland) became a "protectorate"). The plan was partially attempted during the war, resulting indirectly and directly in millions of deaths of ethnic Slavs by starvation, disease, or extermination through labor. The majority of Germany's 12 million forced laborers were abducted from Eastern Europe, mostly in the Soviet territories and Poland.
One of the indictment charges at the trial of Adolf Eichmann, the S.S. officer responsible for the transportation aspects of the Final Solution, was that he was responsible for the deportation of 500,000 Poles. Eichmann was convicted on all 15 counts. Poland's Supreme National Tribunal stated that "the wholesale extermination was first directed at Jews and also at Poles and had all the characteristics of genocide in the biological meaning of this term."
See also
World War II casualties of the Soviet Union
World War II casualties of Poland
A-A line, military goal of Operation Barbarossa
Areas annexed by Nazi Germany
Barbarossa decree
Chronicles of Terror
Einsatzgruppen
Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany
Holocaust victims
Manifest destiny
Hunger Plan to seize food from the Soviet Union
Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles
Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs
Nazism and race
Racial policy of Nazi Germany
World War II evacuation and expulsion
Forced labor under German rule during World War II
Footnotes
References
Primary sources
In
Further reading
Bakoubayi Billy, Jonas: Musterkolonie des Rassenstaats: Togo in der kolonialpolitischen Propaganda und Planung Deutschlands 1919-1943, J.H.Röll-Verlag, Dettelbach 2011, .
Eichholtz, Dietrich. "Der Generalplan Ost." Über eine Ausgeburt imperialistischer Denkart und Politik, Jahrbuch für Geschichte, Volume 26, 1982.
Heiber, Helmut. "Der Generalplan Ost." Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, Volume 3, 1958.
Madajczyk, Czesław. Die Okkupationspolitik Nazideutschlands in Polen 1939-1945, Cologne, 1988.
Madajczyk, Czesław. Generalny Plan Wschodni: Zbiór dokumentów, Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce, Warszawa, 1990.
Roth, Karl-Heinz, "Erster Generalplan Ost." (April/May 1940) von Konrad Meyer, Dokumentationsstelle zur NS-Sozialpolitik, Mittelungen, Volume 1, 1985.
Szcześniak, Andrzej Leszek. Plan Zagłady Słowian. Generalplan Ost, Polskie Wydawnictwo Encyklopedyczne, Radom, 2001.
Wildt, Michael. "The Spirit of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA)." Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2005) 6#3 pp. 333–349. Full article available with purchase.
External links
Berlin-Dahlem (May 28, 1942). Full text of the original German Generalplan Ost document. "Legal, economic and spatial foundations of the East." Digitized copy of the 100-page version from the Bundesarchiv Berlin-Licherfelde.
Worldfuturefund.org: Documentary sources regarding Generalplan Ost
Dac.neu.edu: Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe
Der Generalplan Ost der Nationalsozialisten.
Deutsches Historisches Museum (2009), Berlin, Übersichtskarte: Planungsszenarien zur "völkischen Flurbereinigung" in Osteuropa.
Eastern Front (World War II)
Ethnic cleansing in Europe
Forced migration
Anti-Slavic sentiment
Anti-Polish sentiment
Anti-Ukrainian sentiment
Anti-Russian sentiment
Anti-Latvian sentiment
Anti-Estonian sentiment
German words and phrases
German colonial empire
Holocaust terminology
Heinrich Himmler
Nazi SS
Genocides
The Holocaust in Belarus
The Holocaust in Estonia
The Holocaust in Latvia
The Holocaust in Lithuania
The Holocaust in Poland
The Holocaust in Russia
The Holocaust in Ukraine
Axis powers
Nazi war crimes in the Soviet Union
Germanization |
356610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84lvsborg | Älvsborg | Älvsborg or Elfsborg may refer to:
Military
, a minelayer of the Swedish Navy
Älvsborg Fortress, a former fortification at the mouth of the Göta River
Älvsborg Regiment (I 15), a former infantry regiment in Borås
Älvsborg Brigade (IB 15), a former infantry brigade in Sweden's Western Military District
New Älvsborg, a large sea fortress in Rivö fjord within Gothenburg
Sports
Älvsborgs FF, a football club in Gothenburg
IF Elfsborg, professional football club based in Borås
SK Elfsborg, a swimming club in Borås; see List of Swedish Swimming Championships champions (women)
Other uses
Älvsborg County, a former county in Sweden
Älvsborg Line, a railway line in Sweden
Älvsborg, Gothenburg, one of twenty-one boroughs of Gothenburg, Sweden
See also
Älvsborg Bridge, a suspension bridge over the Göta River
Fort Nya Elfsborg, a 17th-century fortress on the Delaware River in New Jersey |
356612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20the%20Environment%2C%20Transport%20and%20the%20Regions | Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions | The Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions was a United Kingdom Cabinet position created in 1997, with responsibility for the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR). The position and department were created for John Prescott by merging the positions and responsibilities of the Secretary of State for Environment, the Secretary of State for Transport and some other functions.
Frank Dobson, who had been Shadow Secretary of State for the Environment prior to the 1997 general election, was made Secretary of State for Health, while Andrew Smith, who had been Shadow Secretary of State for Transport, was made a junior minister at the Department for Education and Employment.
Michael Meacher, who had been Shadow Minister for Environmental Protection within the Shadow Cabinet, was given the non-cabinet position of Minister of State for the Environment, and attended cabinet meetings where the Environment was discussed, and a position of Minister of State for Transport was similarly created, initially held by Gavin Strang.
In June 2001, the department was renamed the Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions (DTLR), with the Environment portfolio being merged with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food into the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. All departments were given their own Secretaries of State. In May 2002, the Local Government and the Regions portfolios were separated from Transport and given to the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, which in turn became the Department for Communities and Local Government in May 2006.
Transport
From 1997 to 2001, the Ministers of State with responsibility for Transport were:
Gavin Strang (3 May 1997 – 27 July 1998)
John Reid (27 July 1998 – 17 May 1999)
Helen Liddell (17 May 1999 – 29 July 1999)
Lord Macdonald of Tradeston (29 July 1999 – 8 June 2001)
John Reid attended cabinet meetings, but was not formally a member of the cabinet, whereas Gavin Strang was given a seat in the cabinet when he held the position.
Environment
Ministers of State with responsibility for the Environment included:
Michael Meacher (1997–2001)
Richard Caborn (1997–1999)
Nick Raynsford (1999–2001)
Local government
Hilary Armstrong was Minister of State with responsibility for Local Government (1997–2001).
References
Environment, Transport and the Regions
Waste organizations
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
1997 establishments in the United Kingdom
2001 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
pl:Ministrowie środowiska Wielkiej Brytanii |
356617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Tannenberg | Operation Tannenberg | Operation Tannenberg () was a codename for one of the anti-Polish extermination actions by Nazi Germany that were directed at the Poles during the opening stages of World War II in Europe, as part of the Generalplan Ost for the German colonization of the East. The shootings were conducted with the use of a proscription list (Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen), compiled by the Gestapo in the span of two years before the 1939 invasion.
The top secret lists identified more than 61,000 members of the Polish elite: activists, intelligentsia, scholars, clergy, actors, former officers and others, who were to be interned or shot. Members of the German minority living in Poland assisted in preparing the lists. that up to 20,000 Germans living in Poland belonged to organizations involved in various forms of subversion.
Operation Tannenberg was followed by the Intelligenzaktion, a second phase of the Unternehmen Tannenberg directed by Heydrich's Sonderreferat from Berlin, which lasted until January 1940. In Pomerania alone, 36,000–42,000 Poles, including children, were killed before the end of 1939.
Implementation
The plan was finalized in May 1939 by the Central Office II P (Poland). Following the orders of Adolf Hitler, a special unit dubbed Tannenberg was created within the Reich Security Main Office (Reichssicherheitshauptamt). It commanded a number of Einsatzgruppen units formed with Gestapo, Kripo and Sicherheitsdienst (SD) officers and men who were theoretically to follow the Wehrmacht (armed forces) into occupied territories. Their task was to track down and arrest all the people listed on the proscription lists exactly as it had been compiled before the outbreak of war.
The first phase of the action occurred in August 1939 when about 2,000 activists of Polish minority organisations in Germany were arrested and murdered. The second phase of the action began on September 1, 1939, and ended in October, resulting in at least 20,000 deaths in 760 mass executions by Einsatzgruppen special task units with help from regular Wehrmacht units. A special formation was created from the German minority living in Poland called Selbstschutz, whose members had trained in Germany before the war in diversion and guerilla fighting (see: Deutscher Volksverband, the German People's Union in Poland). The formation was responsible for many massacres and due to its bad reputation was dissolved by Nazi authorities after the September Campaign with transfer to regular formations.
Massacres of hospital patients
During Operation Tannenberg patients from Polish hospitals were murdered in Wartheland (Wielkopolska) by Einsatzgruppe VI under Herbert Lange. He was appointed commandant of the first Chełmno extermination camp soon thereafter. By mid-1940, Lange and his men were responsible for the murder of about 1,100 patients in Owińska, 2,750 patients at Kościan, 1,558 patients and 300 Poles at Działdowo who were shot in the back of the neck; and hundreds of Poles at Fort VII where the mobile gas-chamber (Einsatzwagen) was first developed along with the first gassing bunker.
According to the historian Peter Longerich, the hospital massacres were conducted on the initiative of Einsatzgruppen, because they were not ordered by Himmler. Lange's experience in the mass killing of Poles during Operation Tannenberg was the reason why Ernst Damzog, the Commander of Sicherheitspolizei (Security Police) and SD stationed in occupied Poznań (Posen) placed him in charge of the SS-Sonderkommando Lange (special detachment) for the purpose of mass gassing operations which led to the eventual annihilation of the Łódź Ghetto.
See also
Nazi crimes against the Polish nation
Intelligenzaktion
Special Prosecution Book-Poland
Intelligenzaktion Pommern
Valley of Death
Katyn massacre
Gestapo–NKVD conferences (1939–1940)
Pacification operations in German-occupied Poland
Operation Himmler
Anti-Polonism
History of Poland (1939–1945)
Genocide
Wawelberg Group
Notes and references
Bibliography
Verbatim transcript of Part I of the book The German New Order in Poland published for the Polish Ministry of Information by Hutchinson & Co., London, in late 1941. The period covered by the book is September, 1939 to June, 1941.
Alfred Spiess, Heiner Lichtenstein: Unternehmen Tannenberg. Der Anlass zum Zweiten Weltkrieg. Korrigierte und erweiterte Ausgabe. (Ullstein-Buch ; Nr. 33118 : Zeitgeschichte) Ullstein, Frankfurt/M ; Berlin 1989, .
External links
Jean Maridor, La Station de Radiodiffusion de Gleiwitz (Gliwice) - L'Opération TANNENBERG.
1939 in Germany
1939 in Poland
Einsatzgruppen
Massacres in Poland
Germany–Poland relations
Invasion of Poland
Nazi war crimes in Poland
Mass murder in 1939
Mass murder in 1940
Persecution by Nazi Germany
Persecution of Poles
Persecution of Jews
Persecution of intellectuals |
356618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockhart%20Stadium | Lockhart Stadium | Lockhart Stadium was a stadium used mostly for soccer in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, United States. It was used in a variety of sports, particularly soccer and American football.
Originally designed in 1959 for high school sports, the stadium's long-standing soccer connection began in 1977 when it became the home venue for the original Fort Lauderdale Strikers of the original North American Soccer League (NASL). In 1998, it was refitted for soccer to house the Miami Fusion in Major League Soccer, but the team folded in 2002. It was also the home stadium of the Florida Atlantic Owls football team from 2002 to 2010. Later it was the home of the Fort Lauderdale Strikers of the second iteration of NASL from 2011 to 2016.
The stadium site was redeveloped in 2019 and 2020 with the construction of DRV PNK Stadium for Major League Soccer club Inter Miami CF.
History
The stadium was built in 1959 as part of a new sports complex that also included the Fort Lauderdale Stadium baseball park. It was originally designed to host American football and track and field competitions for four local high schools: Fort Lauderdale High School, Stranahan High School, Northeast High School, and Dillard High School. The stadium was named for former city commissioner H. Y. "Doug" Lockhart and was dedicated at a football game on September 18, 1959.
For nearly twenty years, Lockhart Stadium was primarily used for high school football and track, but occasionally saw use for state football as well as soccer. A more substantial role as a soccer venue came in 1977, when the Miami Toros of the original North American Soccer League relocated to the stadium, renaming themselves the Fort Lauderdale Strikers. This began Lockhart's long association with the sport. The Strikers played there until 1982, when they moved to Minnesota. On November 23, 1980, the United States men's national soccer team defeated Mexico 2–1 in a World Cup qualifier at Lockhart, the first U.S. win over Mexico in over 46 years.
After the departure of the Strikers, the stadium largely returned to its original use for high school sports for several years. The stadium would, however, play host to Miami Dolphins scrimmages during training camps in the late 1990s.
In 1998, the stadium was renovated for use by the Miami Fusion of Major League Soccer (MLS). The renovation increased capacity to 20,000 and redesigned the field expressly for soccer. This was an unusual move at the time, as all other MLS teams played in football stadiums, and started the league's eventual trend toward soccer-specific stadiums.
The stadium continued to host high-profile soccer games through this period, including D.C. United's 1998 victory over Vasco da Gama in the Interamerican Cup. However, the Fusion were contracted by the league in 2002. In 2003 Lockhart was refitted once again for use by the Florida Atlantic University Owls college football team. In 2011, the Owls began playing at the on-campus FAU Stadium in Boca Raton.
Billy Graham's final South Florida crusade took place at the Lockhart Stadium in 1985. The stadium was host to the 2007 Caribbean Carnival for Broward County, after Miramar turned their request down. The stadium also hosted the 2008 and 2009 MLS combines.
In 2009, Miami FC moved to Lockhart Stadium from Miami. They changed their name to the Fort Lauderdale Strikers in 2011.
The Fort Lauderdale Strikers announced in 2016 that they were moving from Lockhart Stadium to a stadium at Central Broward Regional Park. A $70-million Schlitterbahn Water Park proposed for the 64 acres taken up by Lockhart Stadium was tied up in court being challenged by the owners of Rapids Water Park in Riviera Beach. After the Strikers' 2016 departure, the stadium fell into a state of disrepair.
In late January 2019, Major League Soccer expansion team Inter Miami CF announced its intentions to pursue the Lockhart Stadium site to serve as the club's training ground for its first team, youth academy, and USL League One reserve side Fort Lauderdale CF. The development would also include an 18,000-seat stadium, which will serve as the long-term home of Fort Lauderdale CF as well as the interim home of the first team while the Miami Freedom Park stadium is under construction. The Fort Lauderdale city council unanimously approved Inter Miami's bid for the Lockhart Stadium site on March 19. On April 2, the Fort Lauderdale City Commission cleared Inter Miami to begin the demolition process; as part of the deal, the team was to begin clearing the site within 180 days, with demolition of the stadium beginning on May 8.
On July 9, 2019, the Fort Lauderdale City Commission unanimously approved a 50-year lease agreement for the Lockhart Stadium site with Inter Miami; under the terms of the agreement, the city of Fort Lauderdale will retain ownership of the property while Inter Miami will be responsible for the construction, operation, and maintenance of the new stadium and facilities.
USA Eagles Internationals
The stadium hosted two USA Eagles internationals in 2003 and 2016.
References
External links
Fort Lauderdale Strikers
Stadium image
North American Soccer League stadiums
Soccer venues in Florida
Sports venues completed in 1959
Sports venues demolished in 2019
High school football venues in the United States
Florida Atlantic Owls football
Defunct college football venues
Former Major League Soccer stadiums
Rugby union stadiums in Florida
Buildings and structures in Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Tourist attractions in Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Sports in Fort Lauderdale, Florida
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) stadiums
1959 establishments in Florida
2019 disestablishments in Florida
National Premier Soccer League stadiums
Sports venues in Broward County, Florida |
356619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Middleton%20Barry | Edward Middleton Barry | Edward Middleton Barry RA (7 June 1830 – 27 January 1880) was an English architect of the 19th century.
Biography
Edward Barry was the third son of Sir Charles Barry, born in his father's house, 27 Foley Place, London. In infancy he was delicate, and was placed under the care of a confidential servant at Blackheath. At an early age he was sent to school in that neighbourhood, and then to a private school at Walthamstow, where he remained until he became a student at King's College London.
He was apprenticed to Thomas Henry Wyatt for a short time, after which he joined his father's practice. He continued to assist his father until the latter's sudden death in 1860, but he had already made considerable progress in working on his own account. In 1848 he had become a student at the Royal Academy, and even while assisting his father found time to devote to works of his own. The first of these was St. Saviour's Church, Haverstock Hill, in 1855–56. His designs for St. Giles's schools, Endell Street, which were carried out under his own superintendence in 1859–60, gave him a recognised position. It was to the originality displayed in these works that he owed his admission, in 1861, as an associate to the Royal Academy.
The reconstruction, in 1857, in the short space of eight months, of the theatre at Covent Garden, which had been destroyed by fire, and the erection in the following year of the Floral Hall adjoining, afford examples of his energy, constructive skill, and artistic ability. These works were executed for his own private clients, and without diminishing the assistance which he was then rendering to his father. In 1860 Sir Charles Barry died suddenly, and upon Edward devolved the duty of completing his father's works. Foremost of these was the new Palace of Westminster, which was at length entrusted to him by the government; and Halifax Town Hall.
On 29 March 1862 he married Lucy, daughter of Thomas Kettlewell. The remaining years of his life record a long series of works designed by him, many of them of national magnitude and importance. In 1869 he was elected an academician, and in 1873, on the retirement of Sir George Gilbert Scott, and then again in 1878 he was elected professorship of architecture in the Royal Academy. In 1874, on the resignation of Sydney Smirke, he was appointed treasurer of the academy.
Significant contributions
Among his most significant contributions to London’s architectural scene is the Theatre of the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden. The previous theatre (built by Robert Smirke in 1809) was destroyed in a fire in 1857. Edward Barry was commissioned to design the new "Royal Italian Opera" as it was then known, completing it for its official opening on 15 May 1858. He also designed the adjacent Floral Hall, a glass and cast iron structure heavily influenced by the Crystal Palace built for the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Covent Garden work was hugely influential in Barry’s appointment to design the Royal Opera House in Valletta, Malta (1866), bombed by the Luftwaffe during the Second World War. Barry often favoured a very classical style.
Other projects
St Saviour's Church Hampstead, London (1856)
Birmingham and Midland Institute (1855, this later became Birmingham Reference Library but was demolished in the 1960s)
Leeds Grammar School (1857 – now part of the University of Leeds’ Business School)
Henham Hall, Suffolk; tomb of Alexander Berens in West Norwood cemetery (1858) (photograph in the gallery of West Norwood Cemetery)
Duxbury Hall, Lancashire (1859)
St. Giles's Schools, Endell Street (1860)
Burnley Grammar School (1860)
Gawthorpe Hall, Lancashire (additions) (1861)
Birmingham Free Public Library (1861)
Pyrgo Park, Romford (additions) (1862)
Stabling at Millbank for the Speaker (1862)
Halifax Town Hall, West Yorkshire (designed by Charles Barry, 1860; completed by E.M. Barry, 1863)
Barbon Park Lodge, Westmorland (1863)
Royal Opera House, Valletta, Malta (1864)
the Star and Garter Hotel, Richmond Hill, London (additions) (1865)
Schools, Canford, Dorset (1865)
Charing Cross Hotel and the nearby Queen Eleanor Memorial Cross (a Victorian replica erected in 1863 by the London, Chatham and Dover Railway Company – the original cross was erected by King Edward I in 1291, but removed in 1647), London (1865)
Cannon Street Hotel (1866)
St Dunstan's College (1867)
rebuilding and extension of Crewe Hall, near Crewe, Cheshire (1866–70)
Bakeham House, Egham (1868)
Esher Lodge (additions) (1870)
rebuilding of Crowcombe Court, Somerset (1870)
Palace of Westminster (his supervision of his father’s work was finally completed in 1870; the only substantial element for which Edward was entirely responsible was the colonnade on New Palace Yard and the striking railings around the Yard, but included work on the Queen's Robing Room, Royal Staircase and the decoration of the Central Octagon Hall)
Thorpe Abbotts, Norfolk (additions) (1871)
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire (additions) (1872)
Wykehurst Place, near Bolney, West Sussex (1872), for Henry Huth
The Exchange, Bristol (1872)
Cobham Park, Cobham, Surrey (1873)
Shabden, Surrey (1873)
the East Range of Downing College, Cambridge (1873)
St Anne's Church, Clifton, near Eccles, Salford (1874)
Peterborough Cathedral, pulpit (1874)
The Hospital For Sick Children, (Great Ormond Street Hospital), London (1872 – now demolished, though his St Christopher's Chapel (1875) survives)
London and Westminster Bank, Temple Bar (additions and alterations) (1873)
Entrance to Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (1875)
Doric temple mausoleum to Eustratios Ralli, West Norwood Cemetery listed Grade II (1875)
Royal Infirmary, Waterloo Road (alterations) (1875)
new galleries ('The Barry Rooms') and dome for the National Gallery, London; remodelling the top of Burlington House’s central staircase (1876)
Peakirk Church, Hermitage (restored) (1879)
Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire (additions, &c.) (1879)
House for Art Union, Strand (1879)
Final works
Towards the end of his life, Barry began working with his eldest brother, Charles Barry, Jr. Among the projects jointly attributed to them are new chambers at Inner Temple, London (completed in 1879), and the design of the Great Eastern Hotel at London’s Liverpool Street station, completed in 1884, after Edward's death.
References
Barry, Edward Middleton (1830–1880), G. W. Burnet, rev. David G. Blissett, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004, accessed 17 Dec 2009
External links
This article on his father contains a paragraph describing Edward's career.
1830 births
1880 deaths
Royal Academicians
19th-century English architects
Alumni of King's College London
Architects from London
Edward Middleton |
356621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skaraborg | Skaraborg | Skaraborg may refer to the following places:
Skaraborg County, a former county of Sweden
Västergötland, a historical province of Sweden that includes the area of the former county
Västra Götaland County, a current county of Sweden that includes the area of the former county |
356624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothenburg%20and%20Bohus%20County | Gothenburg and Bohus County | Gothenburg and Bohus County () was a county of Sweden until 1997, when it was merged with Skaraborg County and Älvsborg County to form Västra Götaland County.
The county was named after the city of Gothenburg and the historical province of Bohuslän. Gothenburg was the seat of residence for the governor and represented the westernmost part of the province of Västergötland.
See also
List of governors of Gothenburg and Bohus County
List of governors of Älvsborg County
List of governors of Skaraborg County
List of governors of Västra Götaland County
County Governors of Sweden
Former counties of Sweden
Västra Götaland County
History of Bohuslän
1680 establishments in Sweden
1997 disestablishments in Sweden |
356628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe%20African%20National%20Union | Zimbabwe African National Union | The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) was a militant organisation that fought against white minority rule in Rhodesia, formed as a split from the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU). ZANU split in 1975 into wings loyal to Robert Mugabe and Ndabaningi Sithole, later respectively called ZANU–PF and ZANU - Ndonga. These two sub-divisions ran separately at the 1980 general election, where ZANU-PF has been in power ever since, and ZANU – Ndonga a minor opposition party.
Formation
ZANU was formed 8 August 1963 when Ndabaningi Sithole, Henry Hamadziripi, Mukudzei Midzi, Herbert Chitepo, Edgar Tekere and Leopold Takawira decided to split from ZAPU at the house of Enos Nkala in Highfield. The founders were dissatisfied with the militant tactics of Nkomo. In contrast to future developments, both parties drew from both the Shona and the Ndebele, the two major tribes of the country. Both ZANU and ZAPU formed political wings within the country (under those names) and military wings: the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) respectively to fight the struggle from neighbouring countries – ZANLA from Mozambique and Zambia, and ZIPRA from Zambia and Botswana.
Operations in exile
Most of ZANU's operations were planned from exile, where the party leadership was based throughout the 1970s, when the party had offices in Lusaka, Dar-es-Salaam, Maputo and London.
Relationship with armed wing
The Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) was ZANU's military wing. Before 1980, it was very heavily dependent on China and other communist countries for finance, arms supplies and training. For this reason, ZANU made itself amenable to Mao Zedong Thought and other communist ideology.
Leadership and splits
There were two splits within ZANU prior to independence. The first was with Nathan Shamuyarira and others leaving to join the Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe (FROLIZI) in 1973 after Shamuyarira's bid for the party leadership was defeated by Chitepo.
Following the assassination of Chitepo on 18 March 1975, Sithole assumed leadership of the party, but faced immediate opposition from the more militant wing of ZANU, as Sithole was a proponent of détente. This crisis grew with the Mgagao Declaration, where ZANLA leaders and guerillas declared their opposition to Sithole, and led to the effective split of ZANU into a group led by Sithole, who renounced violent struggle, and the group led by Robert Mugabe and Simon Muzenda, with the support of ZANLA, who continued the murder and intimidation of farmers. Both groups continued to use the name ZANU. The Mugabe faction formed the Patriotic Front with ZAPU in 1976, and became known as ZANU-PF. Sithole's faction, dubbed "ZANU Mwenje" or "ZANU Sithole", joined a transitional government of whites and blacks in 1979, led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa. When sanctions remained in place, he joined Muzorewa for the Lancaster House Agreement in London, where a new constitution and elections were prepared.
Zimbabwe independence
At the 1980 general election to the newly constituted state of Zimbabwe, ZANU–PF (registered as such) won a majority with ZAPU (registered as PF–ZAPU) in second place. ZAPU merged into ZANU–PF in 1987. Sithole's group (registered as ZANU) failed to win any seats in 1980. Later it won a few seats and was renamed ZANU-Ndonga; it remains a minor party with support among the Ndau.
See also
Politics of Zimbabwe
Rhodesian propaganda war
Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU)
References
ZANU–PF
Defunct political parties in Zimbabwe
Political parties in Rhodesia
Socialist parties in Zimbabwe
Left-wing parties
Communist parties in Zimbabwe
History of Zimbabwe
Guerrilla organizations
Political parties disestablished in 1987
Rebel groups in Zimbabwe
African and Black nationalist organizations in Africa
National liberation movements
National liberation armies
African resistance to colonialism
Organizations formerly designated as terrorist
Communist terrorism
Left-wing nationalist parties
1963 establishments in Southern Rhodesia
1987 disestablishments in Zimbabwe |
356630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89velyne%20Thomas | Évelyne Thomas | Évelyne Thomas (born 10 January 1954) is a French journalist and television presenter, mostly known to present the television program C'est mon choix.
Life and career
Early life and beginnings
Évelyne Thomas was born in Périgueux in the department of Dordogne. She graduated with a Master of Advanced Studies in international law. She began her career in written press in 1984 for the daily newspaper Nord Matin, especially as a justice columnist specialized in affairs at the Cour d'assises. She stayed there until 1986 and then joined television on the regional channel France 3 Nord-Pas-de-Calais as a reporter for the daily news and political, economical and European programs of the redaction until 1989. She then became presenter and co-producer of Doigts dans la prise, a weekly program about new tendencies. From 1988 to 1992, Évelyne Thomas presented the regional evening news on France 3 Nord-Pas-de-Calais.
In 1992, Évelyne Thomas joined the channel France 3 Paris Île-de-France, where she became the main presenter of the 19/20, the daily news part of the early evening. She was also the presenter and chief editor of De qui se moque-t-on ?, a program about consumption and citizenship on the same channel, presenter and producer of Droit de suite, and presenter of Emploi du temps, a daily program about employment, on the national antenna. In 1996, she arrived at TF1 to present the daily talk show Évelyne. The next year, Évelyne Thomas enquired on sects and natural medicine on Envoyé spécial. In 1998, she presented and produced the program 7 en France on TPS. In 1999, she co-hosted several programs on France 3 like Mon auto et moi, a weekly program about automotive broadcast on Sunday afternoon with Alexandre Debanne and Denis Astagneau, and Pourquoi, comment, a program broadcast twice a month on prime time with Sylvain Augier.
Recognition period
Since 22 November 1999, Évelyne Thomas presented the program C'est mon choix on France 3 from Monday to Friday at the beginning of the afternoon, a program that made her known from the wide audience and that was a great success. The program made rejuvenate the audience of the channel creating a real popular interest on the witness of anonymous people and its presenter. Éveleyne Thomas became the favourite presenter of the French people and the Marianne for four years in 2003. C'est mon choix is reinforced on the broadcast programming of France 3. The program is also broadcast during the week in the evening and on weekends for special evenings. But the program was criticized by the press, who judged the presenter hustling and sensationalist. The program even caused a debate at the National Assembly and then a cease and desist by the Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel. After five years, the bad relationship with producer Jean-Luc Delarue ended the broadcast on 18 June 2004, despite a very good audience. In addition to C'est mon choix, she presented in prime time on France 3 the programs Au nom des autres, Des vies d'exception and Symphonic Show.
Television failure and interruption
In September 2004, Évelyne Thomas co-hosted three episodes of Combien ça coûte ? with Jean-Pierre Pernaut on TF1. The channel then gives her in 2005 the presentation of the program C'était mieux hier ?, but this entertainment program mixing archived images and sequences on stage only had one episode broadcast on 2 February 2005. In November 2005 and still on TF1, she produced a reality program titled Starting Over : départ pour une vie meilleure. This program shows women who want to change life. The program does not find its audience and she left in consequent the channel at the end of the year. Évelyne Thomas then arrived on RTL9 where she presented since November 2006 a talk show titled Chacun sa place !. This program being too expensive to produce for a cable channel, it was suspended the next month. At the end of 2006, Évelyne Thomas joined the daily newspaper France-Soir to animate a page of letters from readers until May 2007.
After three years without presenting on television, Évelyne Thomas presented in 2009 a daily magazine broadcast live on Direct 8 in the late morning titled Y'a une solution à tout !. However, the program ended three months later. The audience was tripled passing from 30 000 to 90 000 auditors and reaching a high level of 130 000 auditors. Since January 2011, seven years after the end of C'est mon choix, Évelyne Thomas came back on France 3 where she was a columnist on the program Midi en France presented by Laurent Boyer. She went every week meeting people who live in different areas of France. In September 2011, France 3 asked her to come back daily and live on the stage with Laurent Boyer and the entire team. During summer 2011 and 2012, Évelyne Thomas presented the morning radio program on Évelyne & News on RTL. In June 2013, she stopped Midi en France to present another similar program titled Dimanche en France.
Other activities
In 2003, Évelyne Thomas served as a model to the sculptor Daniel Druet for the bust of Marianne.
In 2004, she played her own role in the Yann Moix film Podium.
Bibliography
References
External links
1964 births
French journalists
French women journalists
French television presenters
French women television presenters
French television talk show hosts
Living people
People from Périgueux |
356637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Left%20%28Luxembourg%29 | The Left (Luxembourg) | The Left ( ; ; ) is a democratic socialist political party in Luxembourg. A soft Eurosceptic party, The Left is associated with The Left in the European Parliament – GUE/NGL group in the European Parliament but does not have any members. The party participates in the Party of the European Left, and is positioned on the left wing of the political spectrum.
The Left was founded by the New Left and the Communist Party of Luxembourg (KPL) as an electoral party. It had members from both parties and independents. In the 1999 Luxembourg general election, the Left won 3.3% of the votes and one seat in the parliament; André Hoffmann was elected from the southern constituency. In 2000, after anticipated elections in the city of Esch sur Alzette, Hoffmann became deputy mayor and Aloyse Bisdorff (KPL) succeeded him in parliament. In accordance with the Left's statutes, Bisdorff resigned from parliament and was succeeded by Serge Urbany in 2002. A dispute arose between a number of members of the KPL and the majority of the Left, and the two parties ran separate lists in the 2004 Luxembourg general election. The Left won 1.9% of the votes and lost its parliamentary presence. In the 2009 Luxembourg general election, it increased its share of the vote to 3.3% and Hoffmann returned to parliament as the Left's sole representative; Hoffmann's personal vote of 9,067 in the south constituency was almost equal to the total number of votes gathered by the KPL, which won 10,803 votes.
Election results
Parliament
European Parliament
References
Bibliography
Wehenkel, Henri, Communisme et postcommunisme au Luxembourg, in: Communisme 2014, 1989-2014 - L'éternel retour des communistes, p. 165-172
Wehenkel, Henri/Redondo, Jean-Laurent/Hoffmann, André/Urbany, Serge, Table ronde: PCL et/ou nouvelle gauche: renouvellement et/ou scission, in: Cahiers Marxistes, No. 201, April–May 1996, p. 121-144
External links
Official newspaper
1999 establishments in Luxembourg
Democratic socialist parties in Europe
Party of the European Left member parties
Political parties established in 1999
Political parties in Luxembourg
Socialist parties in Luxembourg |
356640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia%20Dukakis | Olympia Dukakis | Olympia Dukakis (June 20, 1931 – May 1, 2021) was an American actress. She performed in more than 130 stage productions, more than 60 films and in 50 television series. Best known as a screen actress, she started her career in theater. Not long after her arrival in New York City, she won an Obie Award for Best Actress in 1963 for her off-Broadway performance in Bertolt Brecht's Man Equals Man.
She later moved to film acting and won an Academy Award and a Golden Globe, among other accolades, for her performance in Moonstruck (1987). She received another Golden Globe nomination for Sinatra (1992) and Emmy Award nominations for Lucky Day (1991), More Tales of the City (1998) and Joan of Arc (1999). Dukakis's autobiography, Ask Me Again Tomorrow: A Life in Progress, was published in 2003. In 2018, a feature-length documentary about her life, titled Olympia, was released theatrically in the United States.
Early life and education
Olympia Dukakis () was born in Lowell, Massachusetts, on June 20, 1931, the daughter of Alexandra "Alec" (née Christos) and Constantine "Costa" S. Dukakis. Her parents were Greek immigrants; her father a refugee from Anatolia and her mother from the Peloponnese. She had a brother named Apollo, six years her junior. As a girl, she dominated in sports and was a three-time New England fencing champion. She contended with pressures within her patriarchal Greek family and around her, "in a neighborhood where ethnic discrimination, particularly against Greeks, was routine."
Dukakis was an alumna of Arlington High School in Arlington, Massachusetts, and was educated at Boston University where she majored in physical therapy, earning a BA, which she made use of when treating patients with polio during the height of the epidemic. She later returned to BU and earned a Master of Fine Arts degree in performing arts.
Career
Stage
Prior to her film career, Dukakis began a decades-long stage life working in 1961 in productions at the Williamstown Summer Theater, in the northwestern corner of Massachusetts. Once out of that corner of New England and hitting the pavement of the Great White Way, it didn't take long for her to be recognized for her talent and skill. In 1963, Dukakis' early life Off-Broadway was rewarded with an Obie Award for Distinguished Performance, as Widow Leocadia Begbick in Man Equals Man (a.k.a., A Man's A Man). But her stage work began across the summer of 1961, in productions at the Williamstown Summer Theatre, she continued to perform there every few years, with her last appearance on that stage occurring in 2003, where she played multiple roles in The Chekov Cycle. By 1963, she had begun her career on screen. Transitioning to a professional life centered in New York City, she performed many times in productions in Central Park at the renowned Delacorte Theater. Returning to Western Massachusetts in 2013 for her last stage performance, she played Mother Courage in Mother Courage and Her Children at Shakespeare & Company, in Lenox, Massachusetts.
With her husband, Louis Zorich, and with other acting couples, she co-founded the Whole Theater Company. The company's first play was Our Town, in 1973. With Dukakis serving as artistic director, the theater rolled out five productions per season for almost two decades. Across that span, productions included the works of Euripides, Eugene O'Neill, Samuel Beckett, Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, and Lanford Wilson. Among the actors performing with Dukakis and her husband were José Ferrer, Colleen Dewhurst, Blythe Danner, and Samuel L. Jackson.
Dukakis' prolific stage directing credits include many of the classics: Orpheus Descending, The House of Bernarda Alba, Uncle Vanya, and A Touch of the Poet, as well as the more contemporary; One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and Kennedy's Children. She also adapted such plays as "Mother Courage" and The Trojan Women for her Montclair, New Jersey situated theater company. Her Broadway theatre credits include Who's Who in Hell and Social Security. She appeared in Martin Sherman's one-woman play, Rose, entirely a monologue about a woman who survived the Warsaw Ghetto, in London and then on Broadway. For the role, she won the 2000 Outer Critics Circle Awards for Outstanding Solo Performance. Twenty-two years after earning her first Obie, she won her second in 1985, a Ensemble Performance Award, for playing Soot Hudlocke in The Marriage of Bette and Boo.
Screen
Dukakis appeared in a number of films, including Steel Magnolias, Mr. Holland's Opus, Jane Austen's Mafia!, The Thing About My Folks and Moonstruck, for which she won an Oscar for Best Supporting Actress. She also played the role of Anna Madrigal in the Tales of the City television mini-series, which garnered her an Emmy Award nomination, and appeared on Search for Tomorrow as Dr. Barbara Moreno (1983), who romanced Stu Bergman. She appeared as Dolly Sinatra in the mini-series of Frank Sinatra's life (1992).
Moonstruck (1987) was directed by Norman Jewison who predicted Dukakis would receive honors for the role. She believed him after receiving the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. In addition to her Oscar, she took the Golden Globe in the same category. The honors compounded as she collected the Los Angeles and New York Film Critics Awards, all in recognition of her talent, some acting improvised, as she delivered a serious while hilarious performance. The role of a no-nonsense matriarch, Rose Castorini, plays off Cher's Best Actress Award-winning role as daughter Loretta. She was nominated for the Canadian Academy Award for The Event (2003) and in the middle of the first decade of the 21st century, her roles included 3 Needles, The Librarian: Return to King Solomon's Mines, In the Land of Women, and Away From Her, the 2006 film which cast her alongside Gordon Pinsent as the spouses of two Alzheimer's patients.
She took on powerful roles on the small screen as well. In 1998, she starred as Charlotte Kiszko in the British TV drama A Life for a Life: The True Story of Stefan Kiszko (ITV), based on the actual story of a man wrongfully imprisoned for seventeen years for the murder of a child, Lesley Molseed, after police suppressed evidence of his innocence. In another genre entirely, she provided the voice of Grandpa's love interest for The Simpsons episode "The Old Man and the Key" (2002).
In 2008, Dukakis directed the world premiere production of Todd Logan's "Botanic Garden" at Victory Gardens Theatre in Chicago, Illinois. That same year she starred in the revival of Tennessee Williams' The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore, opposite Kevin Anderson at the Hartford Stage, and co-adapted and starred in the world-premiere of Another Side of the Island, based on William Shakespeare's The Tempest, at Alpine Theatre Project in Whitefish, Montana.
In 2011, Dukakis guest-starred on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. She played the role of Debby Marsh, an attorney. In 2013, she starred in and executive-produced the 2013 film Montana Amazon, co-starring Haley Joel Osment. That same year, on May 24, she was honored with the 2,498th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
In 2018, Dukakis starred in Eleftheromania, which follows an Auschwitz survivor as she recites a true story about a group from the Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp. The following year, Dukakis reprised the role of Anna Madrigal, which she had first played in 1993, in a Netflix update of Armistead Maupin's Tales of The City.
In 2018, Olympia, an American documentary film about her life and career, had its festival premiere at DOC NYC. The film, directed by Harry Mavromichalis, features Whoopi Goldberg, Laura Linney, Ed Asner, Lainie Kazan, Armistead Maupin, Austin Pendleton, Diane Ladd and Dukakis' cousin, Governor Michael Dukakis. It was released theatrically in the United States in July 2020.
Dukakis' final performance is as a judge in the upcoming 2021 film Not To Forget.
Personal life
In 1962, Dukakis married fellow Manhattan stage actor Louis Zorich. Planning for a family, they moved out of the city in 1970 to settle in Montclair, New Jersey. It was there they raised their three children: Christina, Peter and Stefan. They had four grandchildren.
In her 2003 autobiography, Ask Me Again Tomorrow: A Life in Progress, Dukakis describes the challenges she faced as a first-generation Greek-American in an area with anti-Greek ethnic bigotry, violence and discrimination; difficulties with her mother and in other relationships; and battles with substances and chronic illness. Her life off the screen and stage was very active. She taught acting for 15 years at NYU and gave master classes for professional theatre universities, colleges and companies across the country. She received the National Arts Club Medal of Honor.
For 10 years she studied with Indian mentor Srimata Gayatri Devi in the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. A strong advocate for women's rights and LGBT rights, including same-sex marriage, Dukakis embraced the roles of a trans landlady in Tales of the City, and a butch lesbian in Cloudburst. She was a figure on the lecture circuit discussing topics such as women living with chronic illness, life in the theater, the environment, and feminism. She is quoted as having said, "I recognize that the real pulse of life is transformation, yet I work in a world dominated by men and the things men value, where transformation is not the coinage. It's not even the language!"
Death
After a period of ill health, Dukakis died under hospice care at her home in Manhattan on May 1, 2021, at the age of 89.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
1931 births
2021 deaths
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
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Actresses from Massachusetts
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356641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20War%20of%20Independence | First War of Independence | First War of Independence may refer to:
India's First War of Independence
First Italian War of Independence
First War of Scottish Independence
See also
War of Independence (disambiguation)
Second War of Independence (disambiguation)
First Battle of Independence |
356643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal%20Colebatch | Hal Colebatch | Sir Harry Pateshall Colebatch CMG (29 March 1872 – 12 February 1953) was a long-serving and occasionally controversial figure in Western Australian politics. He was a member of the Western Australian Legislative Council for nearly 20 years, the twelfth Premier of Western Australia for a month in 1919, agent-general in London for five years, and a federal senator for four years.
Early life
Hal Colebatch was born in Wolferlow in Herefordshire, England, on 29 March 1872. His family migrated to Australia in 1878, settling at Goolwa in South Australia. Colebatch left school in 1883 at the age of 11, because his father could not afford to continue his education. He then found work as an office boy and junior reporter for a local newspaper, the Norwood Free Press. When this paper collapsed, he worked for a series of short-lived papers on the South Australian goldfields. He worked for the Petersburg Times and the Laura Standard. In 1888, he moved to Broken Hill, New South Wales, where he worked for six years as reporter for the Silver Age. There, he reported on a number of strike meetings in 1892, and was subsequently summoned as a Crown witness in the prosecution of some strike leaders.
In 1894, Colebatch migrated to Western Australia to take up a position as reporter on the Coolgardie newspaper Golden Age. After the collapse of the Golden Age the following year, he moved to Kalgoorlie to report on the Kalgoorlie Miner. In 1896, he moved to Perth to join the Morning Herald as mining editor and chess editor. Colebatch was a keen chess player at this time and, in 1898, he won the state title, thereby becoming Western Australia's third chess champion. On 29 April 1896, Colebatch married Mary Maude Saunders in Perth.
The press gallery ban
In 1898, Hal Colebatch telegraphed to the Kalgoorlie Miner a report on a fist-fight in the state parliament between two members. Information on the fight had been provided by a police inspector who had been on duty in the House, and had been instructed to brief reporters. The information was greatly exaggerated. However, by the time Colebatch discovered this fact, the telegraph office was closed. The Kalgoorlie Miner ran the story on the front page.
The premier, Sir John Forrest, was furious about the report because of its potential effect on investment in the state. The government subsequently sued the proprietors of the Kalgoorlie Miner for publishing a libel, but the case was unsuccessful. Forrest then ordered Colebatch to be barred from the press gallery. On 19 October, the sergeant-at-arms forcibly ejected Colebatch and, the following day, the latter indicated his intention to sue for assault. Colebatch subsequently received plenty of support in the House from members who felt that he had been unfairly treated; and, shortly afterwards, his suspension was lifted.
In Northam
In 1904, Colebatch moved to Northam, where he bought the Northam Advertiser. He ran the paper until 1923, when he gave it to his sons as a reward for their war service. He would continue contributing to the paper for the rest of his life.
In Northam, Colebatch met and became friends with James Mitchell. Colebatch encouraged Mitchell to stand for parliament and, in 1905, he managed Mitchell's successful campaign for election to the Legislative Assembly seat of Northam. Mitchell would hold the seat until 1933, and this would later prevent Colebatch from contesting the lower house seat himself. From 1909 to 1912, Colebatch was the mayor of Northam. In February 1912, he formed a Northam branch of the Liberal League.
In Western Australian politics
In 1910, Colebatch unsuccessfully contested a by-election for the then upper-house rural seat of East Province. The following year, he contested the Legislative Assembly seat of Avon but was again unsuccessful. On 14 May 1912, he was elected to the Legislative Council seat of East Province in a by-election. There, he played a key role in the Legislative Council's persistent opposition to much of the more radical legislation put forward by John Scaddan's Labor government. When Scaddan's government fell in 1916, Colebatch was appointed Colonial Secretary and minister for education in Frank Wilson's government. The following year, he became deputy premier under Henry Lefroy. That year also, he oversaw the establishment of the first high schools in regional Western Australia.
The Spanish flu crises
In the latter half of 1918, Spanish flu was sweeping the world but had not yet broken out in Western Australia. As minister for health, Colebatch was responsible for quarantine. This presented a series of challenges. Late in 1918, with Lefroy absent and Colebatch acting as premier as well as health minister, the troopship Boonah returned to Western Australia carrying soldiers infected with the Spanish flu. Colebatch was required to maintain a balance between the conflicting requirements of maintaining an effective quarantine while treating and repatriating the returned troops. Once the Boonah crisis was over, Colebatch was widely seen to have handled it responsibly and effectively.
Early in the new year, another crisis eventuated when the Spanish flu broke out in Victoria and South Australia. Both states initially declined to declare infection and close their borders, so Colebatch closed Western Australia's borders unilaterally. His decision greatly angered the acting prime minister William Watt, but he was strongly supported in Western Australia.
Premiership
On 17 April 1919, Lefroy resigned as premier, and Colebatch succeeded him. He remains the only premier of Western Australia to have governed from the Legislative Council, having done so on the understanding that an Assembly seat would be found for him. Colebatch continued as colonial secretary and minister for education, and also took on the treasury and railways portfolios. He brought Mitchell into the ministry as minister for lands.
Within two weeks, Colebatch had yet another crisis to deal with: the Fremantle wharf crisis of 1919. The labour crisis dragged on for almost a month, culminating in one of the most violent confrontations in Western Australian history. Lumpers objected to goods being unloaded by non-union labour from the ship Dimboola. Colebatch was the target of a barrage of projectiles when he personally confronted the unionists. One of the unionists, Tom Edwards, was killed by police. Unlike previous crises, Colebatch was not seen to have handled the crisis well, and he sustained heavy criticism during and after it.
On 17 May, Colebatch resigned, having been premier for exactly one month. It remains the state's shortest premiership term on record. His decision to resign was influenced by the stress of the wharf crisis and extensive subsequent criticism. However his health was an issue, and he had been unable to find a Legislative Assembly seat in a country electorate as desired. H.G.P. Colebatch (2004) also asserts that Colebatch resigned as premier because he was not ambitious and had not wanted the job in the first place.
Colebatch handed over the premiership to his friend Mitchell. He retained the public health and education portfolios, and added that of agriculture. He continued as deputy premier and leader of the government in the Legislative Council. He was responsible for the creation of a North West department and became its minister a month later. In April 1921, he relinquished agriculture and public health portfolios, instead taking on the justice portfolio. After the 1921 election, Colebatch was the only government minister in the Legislative Council, thus assuming a substantial workload.
Agent-general for Western Australia
Colebatch was appointed a Commander (CMG) of the Order of St Michael and St George in the New Year's Honours of 1923 and, shortly afterwards, resigned his seat to take up appointment as the state's agent-general in London, in which role he attracted this praise from a Perth newspaper: . . . the Agent-General (Mr H.P. Colebatch) is regarded in England as one of the most able representatives this country has ever had in London.
He was due to finish his term in November 1926, but an election was due in Western Australia at that time, and neither Colebatch nor the incumbent Labor government wished Colebatch to return during the election campaign. Colebatch's term was therefore extended into 1927, in which year he was made Knight bachelor and travelled widely in Europe, having a meeting with Benito Mussolini.
When Colebatch returned to Western Australia in 1927, the premier Philip Collier commissioned him to produce a book commemorating the state's centenary. A Story of a Hundred Years: Western Australia 1829–1929, edited by Hal Colebatch, was published in 1929.
In federal politics
While he was working on A Story of a Hundred Years, Colebatch was asked by prime minister Stanley Bruce to sit on a royal commission into the Constitution of Australia. The commission travelled throughout Australia and held 198 sittings but its conclusions were of little or no consequence.
In 1928, Colebatch was elected as a federal senator. He took his seat on 1 July 1929, holding it until 20 March 1933, when he was again offered the position of agent-general for Western Australia in London. Colebatch's time as a senator was a frustrating period for him, as his advocacy of free trade as a means of international co-operation and peace was extremely unpopular at the time. His most important contribution was the establishment of the Standing Committee on Regulations and Ordinances, whose purpose is to vet government regulations made by executive action without reference to parliament, to ensure that they do not adversely affect the rights of citizens. Later, he became heavily involved in the Western Australian secession campaign and, after becoming agent-general for the second time, he was asked to lead a delegation which unsuccessfully petitioned the British parliament for secession.
Later years
Colebatch's second term as agent-general for Western Australia was from 1933 until 1939. During this time, he again travelled widely throughout Europe. In 1934 the Western Australian Secession Delegation arrive in London, Colebatch made many speeches and argued for the cause. His focus was on the preamble to the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act in particular the word "indissoluble" questioning as to whether the British Parliament could bind a person to a country for all time.
According to his memoirs, he made contact with anti-Nazi Germans who were trying to forestall the rise of Adolf Hitler. After returning to Western Australia, he worked tirelessly to awaken Australia to the necessity of preparing for war. He was widowed early in 1940. On 11 May 1940 he was elected to the Legislative Council for the Metropolitan Province. In 1944 he married Marion Frances Gibson. He held his Legislative Council seat until the election of 1948 when the Liberal Party failed to dissuade him from nominating, and then endorsed both him and its preferred candidate, Harry Hearn, who won comfortably.
In his final years, Colebatch applied himself to writing an autobiography, which has never been published. He died on 12 February 1953 after a brief illness and was honoured with a state funeral the following day. His second wife and three sons survived him. The third son, also named Hal Colebatch, was a poet, novelist, solicitor and writer on legal and political subjects. Hal Junior wrote a biography of Hal Senior.
Notes
References
De Garis, Brian K. (1962). A Political Biography of Sir Hal Colebatch. Masters Thesis, University of Western Australia.
1872 births
1953 deaths
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356650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varian%20Fry | Varian Fry | Varian Mackey Fry (October 15, 1907 – September 13, 1967) was an American journalist. Fry ran a rescue network in Vichy France that helped approximately 2,000 to 4,000 anti-Nazi and Jewish refugees to escape Nazi Germany and the Holocaust. He was the first of five Americans to be recognized as "Righteous Among the Nations", an honorific given by the State of Israel to non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.
Early life
Varian Fry was born in New York City. His parents were Lillian (Mackey) and Arthur Fry, a manager of the Wall Street firm Carlysle and Mellick. The family moved to Ridgewood, New Jersey, in 1910. He grew up in Ridgewood and enjoyed bird-watching and reading. During World War I, at 9 years of age, Fry and friends conducted a fund-raising bazaar for the American Red Cross that included a vaudeville show, an ice cream stand and fish pond. He was educated at Hotchkiss School from 1922 to 1924, when he left the school due to hazing rituals. He then attended the Riverdale Country School, graduating in 1926.
An able, multi-lingual student, Fry scored in the top 10% on the entrance exams to Harvard University and, while a Harvard undergraduate, founded Hound & Horn, an influential literary quarterly, in 1927 with Lincoln Kirstein. He was suspended for a prank just before graduation and had to repeat his senior year. Through Kirstein's sister, Mina, he met his future wife, Eileen Avery Hughes, an editor of Atlantic Monthly, who was seven years his senior and had been educated at Roedean School and Oxford University. They married on June 2, 1931.
Journalist
While working as a foreign correspondent for the American journal The Living Age, Fry visited Berlin in 1935, and personally witnessed Nazi abuse against Jews on more than one occasion, which "turned him into an ardent anti-Nazi". He said in 1945, "I could not remain idle as long as I had any chances at all of saving even a few of its intended victims."
Following his visit to Berlin, Fry wrote about the savage treatment of Jews by Hitler's regime in the New York Times in 1935. He wrote books about foreign affairs for Headline Books, owned by the Foreign Policy Association, including The Peace that Failed. It describes the troubled political climate following World War I, the break-up of Czechoslovakia and the events leading up to World War II.
Emergency Rescue Committee
Greatly disturbed by what he saw, Fry helped raise money to support European anti-Nazi movements. Shortly after the invasion of France in June 1940, which the Germans quickly occupied, Fry and his friends formed the Emergency Rescue Committee (ERC), with support of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and others. By August 1940, Fry was in Marseille representing the ERC in an effort to help persons wishing to flee the Nazis, and circumvent the processes by French authorities who would not issue exit visas. Fry had $3,000 and a short list of refugees under imminent threat of arrest by agents of the Gestapo, mostly Jews. Clamoring at his door came anti-Nazi writers, avant-garde artists, musicians and hundreds of others desperately seeking any chance to escape France.
Some historians later noted it was a miracle that a white American Protestant would risk everything to help the Jews.
Beginning in 1940, in Marseille, despite the watchful eye of the collaborationist Vichy regime, Fry and a small group of volunteers hid people at the Villa Air-Bel until they could be smuggled out. More than 2,200 people were taken across the border to Spain and then to the safety of neutral Portugal from which they made their way to the United States.
Fry helped other exiles escape on ships leaving Marseille for the French colony of Martinique, from which they too could go to the United States. Among Fry's closest associates were Americans Miriam Davenport, a former art student at the Sorbonne, and the heiress Mary Jayne Gold, a lover of the arts and the "good life" who had come to Paris in the early 1930s.
When the Nazis seized France in 1940, Gold went to Marseille, where she worked with Fry and helped finance his operation. Also working with Fry was a young academic named Albert O. Hirschman.
Especially instrumental in getting Fry the visas he needed for the artists, intellectuals and political dissidents on his list, was Hiram Bingham IV, an American Vice Consul in Marseille who fought against anti-Semitism in the State Department and was personally responsible for issuing thousands of visas, both legal and illegal. He was also helped in his mission by Alfred Barr, Museum Director at the MoMa and his wife Margaret Scolari Barr art historian also working at the MoMA.
From his isolated position in Marseille, Fry relied on the Unitarian Service Committee in Lisbon to help the refugees he sent. This office, staffed by American Unitarians under the direction of Robert Dexter, helped refugees to wait in safety for visas and other necessary papers, and to gain ship passage from Lisbon.
Fry was forced to leave France in September 1941 after officials both of the Vichy government and at the United States State Department had become angered by his covert activities. In 1942, the Emergency Rescue Committee and the American branch of the European-based International Relief Association joined forces under the name the International Relief and Rescue Committee, which was later shortened to the International Rescue Committee (IRC). The IRC is a leading nonsectarian, nongovernmental international relief and development organization that still operates today.
Refugees aided by Fry
Among those Fry aided were:
Hannah Arendt
Jean Arp
Hans Aufricht
Hans Bellmer
Georg Bernhard
Victor Brauner
André Breton
Camille Bryen
De Castro
Marc Chagall
Frédéric Delanglade
Óscar Domínguez
Marcel Duchamp
Heinrich Ehrmann
Max Ernst
Edvard Fendler
Lion Feuchtwanger
Leonard Frank
Giuseppe Garetto
Oscar Goldberg
Emil Julius Gumbel
Hans Habe
Jacques-Salomon Hadamard
Konrad Heiden
Jacques Hérold
Wilhelm Herzog
Erich Itor Kahn
Fritz Kahn
Berthold Jacob
Heinz Jolles
Arthur Koestler
Siegfried Kracauer
Wifredo Lam
Jacqueline Lamba
Wanda Landowska
Lotte Leonard
Claude Lévi-Strauss
Jacques Lipchitz
Alberto Magnelli
Alma Mahler Gropius Werfel
Jean Malaquais
Bohuslav Martinů
Golo Mann
Heinrich Mann
Valeriu Marcu
André Masson
Roberto Matta
Walter Mehring
Alfredo Mendizabel
Otto Meyerhof
Boris Mirkine-Guetzevitch
Hans Namuth
Hans Natonek
Ernst-Erich Noth
Max Ophüls
Hertha Pauli
Benjamin Péret
Alfred Polgar
Poliakoff-Litovzeff
Peter Pringsheim
Denise Restout
Hans Sahl
Jacques Schiffrin
Anna Seghers
Victor Serge
Ferdinand Springer
Fred Stein
Bruno Strauss
Sophie Taeuber
Remedios Varo
Franz Werfel
Kurt Wolff and Helen Wolff
Wols (Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze)
Ylla (Camilla Koffler)
Back in the United States
Fry wrote and spoke critically against U.S. immigration policies particularly relating to the issue of the fate of Jews in Europe. In a December 1942 issue of The New Republic, he wrote a scathing article titled: "The Massacre of Jews in Europe".
Although by 1942 Fry had been terminated from his position at the Emergency Rescue Committee, American private rescuers acknowledged that his program in France had been uniquely effective, and recruited him in 1944 to provide behind-the-scenes guidance to the Roosevelt administration's late-breaking rescue program, the War Refugee Board.
Fry published a book in 1945 about his time in France under the title Surrender on Demand, first published by Random House, 1945. (Its title refers to the 1940 French-German armistice clause requiring France to hand over to German authorities any refugee from "Greater Germany" the Gestapo might identify, a requirement Fry routinely violated.) A later edition was published by Johnson Books, in 1997, in conjunction with the U.S. Holocaust Museum. In 1968, the US publisher Scholastic (which markets mainly to children and adolescents) published a paperback edition under the title Assignment: Rescue.
After the war, Fry worked as a journalist, magazine editor and business writer. He also taught college and was in film production. Feeling as if he had lived the peak of his life in France, he developed ulcers. Fry went into psychoanalysis and said that "as time went on, he grew more and more troubled."
Fry and his wife Eileen divorced after he returned from France. She developed cancer and died on May 12, 1948. During her hospital convalescence, Fry visited her and read to her daily. At the end of 1948 or early 1949, Fry met Annette Riley, who was 16 years his junior. They married in 1950, had three children together, but were separated in 1966, possibly owing to his irrational behavior, believed to have been a result of manic depression.
Fry died of a cerebral hemorrhage and was found dead in his bed on September 13, 1967 by the Connecticut State Police. He was buried at Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York with his parents.
Fry's papers are held in Columbia University's Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
Published works
Author
"A Bibliography of the Writings of Thomas Stearns Eliot". Hound & Horn, 1928.
Assignment Rescue: An Autobiography. Madison, Wisconsin: Demco, 1992. .
Bricks Without Mortar: The Story of International Cooperation. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1938. .
Headline Books. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1938.
Surrender on Demand. New York: Random House, 1945.
The Peace that Failed: How Europe Sowed the Seeds of War. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1939.
To Whom it May Concern. 1947.
War in China: America's Role in the Far East. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1938.
Co-author
Fry, Varian and Emil Herlin. War Atlas: A Handbook of Maps and Facts. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1940. .
Goetz, Delia and Varian Fry. The Good Neighbours: The Story of the Two Americas. The Foreign Policy Association, 1939.
Popper, David H., Shepard Stone and Varian Fry. The puzzle of Palestine. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1938.
Wolfe, Henry Cutler, James Frederick Green, Stoyan Pribichevich, Varian Fry, William V. Reed, Elizabeth Ogg and Emil Herlin, Spotlight on the Balkans. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1940.
Legacy
1967 - The government of France recognized Fry's contribution to freedom with the Legion of Honor.
1980 - Mary Jayne Gold's 1980 book titled Crossroads Marseilles 1940 sparked an interest in Fry and his heroic efforts.
1991 - The United States Holocaust Memorial Council awarded Fry the Eisenhower Liberation Medal.
1994 - Fry became the first United States citizen to be listed in the Righteous Among the Nations at Israel's national Holocaust Memorial, award by Yad Vashem.
1997 - Irish film director David Kerr made a documentary entitled Varian Fry: The America's Schindler that was narrated by actor Sean Barrett.
1998 - Fry was awarded the "Commemorative Citizenship of the State of Israel" on January 1, 1998.
2001 - Fry's story was also told in dramatic form in the 2001 made-for-television film Varian's War, written and directed by Lionel Chetwynd and starring William Hurt and Julia Ormond.
2002 - On the initiative of Samuel V. Brock, the U.S. Consul General in Marseille from 1999 to 2002, the square in front of the consulate was renamed Place Varian Fry.
2005 - A street in the newly reconstructed East/West Berlin Wall area in the Berlin borough of Mitte at Potsdamer Platz was named Varian-Fry-Straße in recognition of his work.
2005 - A street in his home town of Ridgewood, New Jersey, was renamed Varian Fry Way.
2007 - On October 15, 2007, the U.S. House of Representatives honored Varian Fry on the 100th anniversary of his birth.
2019 - Julie Orringer's historical novel The Flight Portfolio is a fictionalized account of Fry's life and experiences in Marseille, which merges real events and historical characters with invented elements. The invented elements include a clandestine love affair and intrigue surrounding the plot to rescue a fictional young physics genius.
See also
Charles Fernley Fawcett
Chiune Sugihara
List of Righteous among the Nations by country
Sousa Mendes Foundation
References
Notes
Bibliography
Gold, Mary Jayne. Crossroads Marseilles, 1940. New York: Doubleday, 1980. .
Grunwald-Spier, Agnes. The Other Schindlers: Why Some People Chose to Save Jews in the Holocaust. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: The History Press, 2010. .
Isenberg, Sheila. A Hero of Our Own: The Story of Varian Fry. Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse, 2005. .
McCabe, Cynthia Jaffee. "Wanted by the Gestapo: Saved by America – Varian Fry and the Emergency Rescue Committee", pp. 79–91 in Jackman, Jarrell C. and Carla M. Borden, eds. The Musses Flee Hitler: Cultural Transfer and Adaptation 1930-1945. Washington, D.C.: (Smithsonian, 1983.
Marino, Andy. A Quiet American: The Secret War of Varian Fry. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999. .
Mattern, Joanne. Life Stories of 100 American Heroes. Vancouver: KidsBooks, 2001. .
Mauthner, Martin. German Writers in French Exile, 1933-1940. London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2007, .
McClafferty, Carla Killough. In Defiance of Hitler: The Secret Mission of Varian Fry. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux (BYR), 2008. .
Moulin, Pierre. Dachau, Holocaust, and US Samurais: Nisei Soldiers First in Dachau?. Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse, 2007. .
Paldiel, Mordecai. Saving the Jews: Men and Women who Defied the Final Solution. Lanham, Maryland: Taylor Trade Publications, 2011. .
Richards, Tad. The Virgil Directive. New York: Fawcett, 1982. .
Riding, Alan. And the Show Went On: Cultural Life in Nazi-occupied Paris. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2010. .
Roth, John K. and Elisabeth Maxwell. Remembering for the Future: The Holocaust in an Age of Genocide. London: Palgrave, 2001. .
Schwertfeger, Ruth. In Transit: Narratives of German Jews in Exile, Flight, and Internment During 'The Dark Years' of France. Berlin, Germany: Frank & Timme GmbH, 2012. .
Sogos, Giorgia. "Varian Fry: „Der Engel von Marseille“. Von der Legalität in die Illegalität und zur Rehabilitierung", in Gabriele Anderl, Simon Usaty (Hrsg.). "Schleppen, schleusen, helfen. Flucht zwischen Rettung und Ausbeutung". Wien: Mandelbaum,2016, S. 209–220, .
Strempel, Rüdiger, Letzter Halt Marseille - Varian Fry und das Emergency Rescue Committee, in Clasen, Winrich C.-W./Schneemelcher, W. Peter, eds, Mittelmeerpassagen, Rheinbach 2018,
Subak, Susan Elisabeth. Rescue and Flight: American Relief Workers Who Defied the Nazis. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2010. .
Sullivan, Rosemary. Villa Air-Bel. New York: HarperCollins, 2006. .
Watson, Peter. The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution and the Twentieth Century. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010. .
External links
Varian Fry Institute
Varian Fry from the Varian Fry Foundation Project/IRC
A Tribute to Varian Fry from Holocaust Survivors and Remembrance Project
Varian Fry, The American Schindler by Louis Bülow
Varian Fry, his activity to save Jews' lives during the Holocaust, at Yad Vashem website
Finding aid to the Varian Fry papers at Columbia University Rare Book & Manuscript Library
American humanitarians
American male journalists
20th-century American journalists
American Righteous Among the Nations
American Protestants
Journalists from New York City
Protestant Righteous Among the Nations
Hotchkiss School alumni
Harvard University alumni
People from Ridgefield, Connecticut
1907 births
1967 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
Riverdale Country School alumni
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery |
356652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist%20Party%20of%20Latvia | Socialist Party of Latvia | The Socialist Party of Latvia (; , LSP) is a communist political party in Latvia. It is positioned on the far-left on the political spectrum.
It was formed in 1994, as a successor party to the Communist Party of Latvia, which was banned in 1991. According to the "programme of the party", the LSP was founded as an organization upholding socialist ideas after the 1991 events that the party describes as a 'counter-revolutionary bourgeois-nationalist coup'.
Overview
The current CEOs of the party are Bokišs Fridijs, Burlaks Ingars and Frolovs Vladimirs. Between 1999 and 2015, the position was held by Alfrēds Rubiks, once mayor of Riga and later, leader of the unionist movement and head of the Latvian Communist Party (CPSU platform). He was imprisoned for six years in 1991, on charges of participating in a coup d'état against the Latvian authorities in August 1991. He is not one of the party's members in the Saeima (Latvian Parliament) since he is not allowed to contest elections. However, his sons Artūrs Rubiks and Raimonds Rubiks are members of the Saeima representing the Socialist Party, elected on a joint list with Harmony.
The LSP is more popular among the Russian-speaking population of Latvia. It places a high priority on issues important to ethnic Russians, such as language and citizenship laws. The party also believes that Latvian citizenship should be granted to all citizens of the former USSR living in Latvia in 1990. This would entail a major change in the current law, which only gives automatic citizenship to descendants of people who were citizens of the Republic of Latvia before it was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940, and requires the Soviet citizens who moved to Latvia between 1940 and 1990 (mainly Russians), to go through a naturalization process.
In the election held on 5 October 2002, the party was part of the For Human Rights in United Latvia () coalition that won 19.0% of the popular vote and 25 out of 100 seats, 5 of those seats went to Socialist Party. The party was a member of this alliance of predominantly Russian-speaking parties from 1998 to 2003.
Today, the party's platform is centered on anti-corruption and promoting an independent Latvia that is free from European Union centralized power. In 2005, the LSP entered the Harmony Centre coalition, which won 17 seats in the 2006 election. Four of these 17 parliament members were representatives of the Socialist Party. In 2011, HC won 31 seats, with the Socialists receiving three seats (Artūrs Rubiks, Raimonds Rubiks and Igors Zujevs). The party did not contest the 2014 parliamentary election, however, all three of its outgoing MPs were placed on the SDPS list and were members of the "12th Saeima" (2014–2018). The same strategy was used in the 2018 election, but only Artūrs Rubiks was elected. The party gained a seat within the Harmony list for the 2020 Riga City Council election, with Artūrs Rubiks' older brother Raimonds Rubiks being elected.
Election results
Legislative elections
European Parliament elections
References
External links
Official website
Communist parties in Latvia
Political parties established in 1994
1994 establishments in Latvia
Far-left political parties
International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties |
356655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape%20Henlopen%20State%20Park | Cape Henlopen State Park | Cape Henlopen State Park is a Delaware state park on on Cape Henlopen in Sussex County, Delaware, in the United States. William Penn made the beaches of Cape Henlopen one of the first public lands established in what has become the United States in 1682 with the declaration that Cape Henlopen would be for "the usage of the citizens of Lewes and Sussex County." Cape Henlopen State Park has a 24-hour and year-round fishing pier as well as campgrounds. The remainder of the park is only open from sunrise to sunset, and includes a bathhouse on the Atlantic Ocean, an area for surf-fishing, a disc golf course, and bicycle and walking paths. The beach at Herring Point is a popular surfing spot. The park is a stop on Delaware's Coastal Heritage Greenway.
History
Cape Henlopen, on Delaware Bay, has long been a public use area although it did not officially become a Delaware state park until 1964. William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania and early leader of Delaware, decreed that Cape Henlopen and its natural resources be set aside for the use and enjoyment of the citizens of the Delaware Colony. Penn's decree established Cape Henlopen as one of the first public use parcels of land in the Thirteen Colonies.
The cape was an important strategic location for the U.S. Navy and Army during the American Revolution, War of 1812, Civil War, World War I, and World War II. Cape Henlopen Light, the sixth lighthouse built on the Atlantic Coast, was constructed from 1767-1769. This lighthouse was in operation until 1924 when it was abandoned after it was extensively damaged in 1920 by a storm. The lighthouse now rests at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, after falling into the water on April 13, 1926.
A small gun platform was built by 1918 near the present site of Point Comfort parking lot. It was abandoned and removed prior to construction of Fort Miles.
During World War II, the U.S. Army built Fort Miles at Cape Henlopen. Numerous bunkers, concrete observation towers and the pier built to accommodate the laying of mines on the harbor floor remain today. Within the park grounds are a handful of fire control towers from that era, as well as underground gun batteries (bunkers) which were to be used in conjunction with the towers against the eventuality of air attack.
Off the coast on the bay side are two lighthouses: the Harbor of Refuge Light and the Delaware Breakwater East End Light.
Wildlife
Cape Henlopen State Park is home to a vast array of wildlife, notably several species of shorebird. The black skimmer, least tern, and piping plover are all endangered species that are abundant within the park. Horseshoe crabs are also very common, especially in the Delaware Bay.
Recreation
The beach at Cape Henlopen State Park is open year-round. There are two beaches that are open to swimming at the park with lifeguard patrols between the Memorial and Labor Day weekends. A modern bath house with showers, changing rooms and a snack bar is located at the northern beach. North Shore Beach, the southern beach at Cape Henlopen State Park, is a popular beach among lesbian women.
Cape Henlopen State Park has two facilities that are rented out for large group gatherings, a pavilion for picnics and the "Officer's Club" a remnant of the Fort Miles days. The 18 hole disc golf course and basketball courts are open year-round. Hunting is permitted during Delaware's designated hunting seasons in some parts of the park. Hunters are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the Delaware Division of Fish and Wildlife.
Cape Henlopen State Park is a popular fishing destination. Anglers may fish from the beach or from the fishing pier on Delaware Bay. A concessionaire operates the Cape Henlopen Fishing Center, a bait and tackle shop at the pier. It is open seven days a week May 15 - October 1. Visitors to the park may drive onto the beach for surf fishing after receiving a permit from the park authorities. Access over the dunes is open to pedestrians at all times.
The pine covered dunes of Cape Henlopen State Park are open to camping in some areas with over 150 campsite available. Most sites have running water. They are available from family camping March 1 - November 30. Reservations are required. A primitive campground is available for use by youth groups.
There are a variety of marked nature and hiking trails at the park, ranging from a beach to pine forests. Bicycles are another popular way to explore the park, and rentals are available during part of the year.
Cape Henlopen State Park is the eastern terminus of the American Discovery Trail, which is the only transcontinental trail in the United States.
Seaside Nature Center
The park's Seaside Nature Center features marine aquariums and natural history exhibits about the park. Environmental education programs are offered year-round. The nature center also contains an auditorium and a gift shop.
Programs offered include hayrides, guided nature walks and hikes, birding trips, preschool programs, school programs and children's vacation workshops.
Nearby state parks
The following state parks are within of Cape Henlopen State Park:
Cape May Point State Park (New Jersey)
Delaware Seashore State Park (Sussex County)
Fenwick Island State Park (Sussex County)
Holts Landing State Park (Sussex County)
Killens Pond State Park (Kent County)
Trap Pond State Park (Sussex County)
See also
Junction and Breakwater Trail
References
External links
Cape Henlopen spit: A late Holocene sand accretion complex at the mouth of Delaware Bay, Delaware
Official Website
Beaches of Delaware
Parks in Sussex County, Delaware
State parks of Delaware
Nature centers in Delaware
Protected areas established in 1964
Disc golf courses in Delaware
Landforms of Sussex County, Delaware
1964 establishments in Delaware
IUCN Category IV |
356670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We%20the%20Living | We the Living | We the Living is the debut novel of the Russian American novelist Ayn Rand. It is a story of life in post-revolutionary Russia and was Rand's first statement against communism. Rand observes in the foreword that We the Living was the closest she would ever come to writing an autobiography. Rand finished writing the novel in 1934, but it was rejected by several publishers before being released by Macmillan Publishing in 1936. It has since sold more than three million copies.
Plot
The story takes place from 1922 to 1925, in post-revolutionary Russia. Kira Argounova, the protagonist of the story, is the younger daughter of a bourgeois family. An independent spirit with a will to match, she rejects any attempt by her family or the nascent Soviet state to cast her into a mold. At the beginning of the story, Kira returns to Petrograd with her family, after a prolonged exile due to the assault of the Bolshevik revolutionaries. Kira's father had been the owner of a textile factory, which was seized and nationalized. Having given up all hopes of regaining their past possessions after the victories of the Red Army, the family returns to the city in search of livelihood. They find that their home has also been seized and converted to living quarters for several families.
Kira's family eventually manages to find living quarters, and Kira's father gets a license to open a textile shop, an establishment that is but a shadow of his old firm. Life is excruciatingly difficult in these times; living standards are poor, and weary citizens wait in long queues for meager rations of food and fuel. With some effort, Kira manages to obtain her Labor Book, which permits her to study and work. Kira also manages to enroll in the Technological Institute, where she aspires to fulfill her dream of becoming an engineer. At the Institute, Kira meets fellow student Andrei Taganov, an idealistic Communist and an officer in the GPU (the Soviet secret police). The two share a mutual respect and admiration for each other in spite of their differing political beliefs, and become friends.
In a chance encounter, Kira meets Leo Kovalensky, an attractive man with a free spirit. It is love at first sight for Kira, and she throws herself at Leo, who initially takes her to be a prostitute. He is also strongly attracted to her and promises to meet her again. Kira and Leo are shown to be united by their desperate lives and their beliefs that run counter to what is being thrust on them by the state. After a couple of meetings, when they share their deep contempt for the state of their lives, the two plan to escape the country together.
Kira and Leo are caught while attempting to flee the country, but escape imprisonment with the help of a GPU officer who knew Leo's father before the revolution. Kira leaves her parents' apartment and moves into Leo's. She is expelled from the Technological Institute as the result of a purge of all students connected to the bourgeoisie, and she loses her job as well. The relationship between Kira and Leo, intense and passionate in the beginning, begins to deteriorate under the weight of their hardships and their different reactions. Kira keeps her ideas and aspirations alive, but decides to go along with the system until she feels powerful enough to challenge it. Leo, in contrast, sinks slowly into indifference and depression. He contracts tuberculosis and is prescribed treatment in a sanatorium. Kira's efforts to finance his treatment fail, and her appeals to the authorities to get state help fall on deaf ears.
As Kira's relationship with Leo evolves, so does her relationship with Andrei. Despite their political differences, she finds Andrei to be the one person with whom she could discuss her most intimate thoughts and views. Andrei's affection and respect for Kira slowly turns into love. When he confesses his love to Kira, she is dismayed but also desperate, so she feigns love for Andrei and agrees to become his mistress. She uses money from Andrei to fund Leo's treatment.
Leo returns cured of tuberculosis and healthy, but a changed man. He opens a food store that is a front for black market trade, bribing a GPU officer to look the other way. Andrei, who is concerned that corruption is damaging the communist state, starts investigating the store. He arrests Leo and in the process discovers that Kira has secretly been living with Leo. Disillusioned about both his personal relationship and his political ideals, Andrei secures Leo's release and shortly thereafter commits suicide. Kira, perhaps the only genuine mourner at his state funeral, wonders if she has killed him. Having lost any moral sense that he may have left, Leo leaves Kira to begin a new life as a gigolo. After Leo's departure, Kira makes a final attempt to cross the border. Almost in sight of freedom, she is shot by a border guard and dies.
Publication history
Initial publication
The novel was first completed in 1934, under the working title Airtight. Despite support from H. L. Mencken, who deemed it "a really excellent piece of work", it was rejected by several publishers until September 1935, when George Platt Brett of Macmillan Publishing agreed to publish it. Brett's decision was not without controversy within Macmillan. Associate editor Granville Hicks, then a member of the American Communist Party, was strongly opposed to publishing Rand's novel. Rand later said that Brett was unsure whether the novel would turn a profit, but he thought it was a book that ought to be published. The first edition was issued on April 7, 1936.
The initial American publication of We the Living was not a commercial success. Macmillan did not expect the novel to sell and did little marketing. Initial sales were slow and although they picked up later, Macmillan destroyed the plates before the first printing of 3000 copies sold out. Eighteen months after its release, the novel was out of print. Rand's royalties from the first American edition amounted to $100.
There was also a British publication by Cassell in January 1937, and editions were published in Denmark and Italy. These did considerably better than the American release, remaining in print into the 1940s.
Revised edition
In 1957, Rand's novel Atlas Shrugged became a best-seller for Random House. Its success motivated them to republish We the Living in 1959. In preparation for the new edition, Rand made some changes to the text. In her foreword to the revised edition, Rand declared that "In brief, all the changes are merely editorial line changes." Rand's description notwithstanding, some of the changes have been taken to have philosophical significance. In the first edition, Kira said to Andrei, "I loathe your ideals. I admire your methods." In the second edition, this became simply "I loathe your ideals." A few pages later, Kira said to Andrei, "What are your masses but mud to be ground underfoot, fuel to be burned for those who deserve it?" Rand's revision deleted this sentence.
The significance of these and other revisions has been debated. Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein commented, "She claims that the revision was minimal. Some readers of both editions have questioned her definition of 'minimal'." According to Ronald Merrill, Kira in the first edition "adopts in the most explicit terms possible the ethical position of Friedrich Nietzsche." Rand had made her break with Nietzsche by the time she published The Fountainhead. Canadian writer Barbara Branden said that "Some of her readers were disturbed when they discovered this and similar changes", but insisted that "unlike Nietzsche, she rejected as unforgivably immoral any suggestion that the superior man had the right to use physical force as a means to his end." Robert Mayhew cautioned that "We should not conclude too quickly that these passages are strong evidence of an earlier Nietzschean phase in Ayn Rand's development, because such language can be strictly metaphorical (even if the result of an early interest in Nietzsche)". Susan Love Brown countered that "Mayhew becomes an apologist for Rand's denials of change and smooths over the fact that Rand herself saw the error of her ways and corrected them."
Nearly everyone who reads We the Living today reads the second edition. The first is a rare book; the second has sold over three million copies.
Release details
1936, Macmillan, hardback
1937, Cassell, hardback
1959, revised edition, Random House, hardback
1960, revised edition, New American Library, paperback
1996, 60th Anniversary edition, New American Library , paperback
2011, 75th Anniversary edition, Signet, paperback
Reception and influence
Rand believed that We the Living was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner says "it was the most reviewed of any of her works", with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were mixed, but more positive than the reviews she received for her later work. In The New York Times, reviewer Harold Strauss said Rand had "a good deal of narrative skill", but the novel was "slavishly warped to the dictates of propaganda" against the Soviets. Kirkus Reviews called it a "first rate" representation of the realities of life in Soviet Russia. In his syndicated "A Book a Day" column, Bruce Catton called it "a tragic story" about the harmful impact of revolution on the middle class. Ethel Lockwood recommended it as a realistic look at the impact of Soviet policies, but warned it was not for the "squeamish" or those unaccustomed to "the continental viewpoint toward sex relationships".
When the book was released in Australia, it received several positive reviews. In the Australian Women's Weekly, news editor Leslie Haylen described the novel as "very vivid, human, and wholly satisfying", saying it described Russian life without taking sides. The Barrier Miner said it was "entertaining" and "intensely moving", and not at all propaganda. The Wodonga and Towong Sentinel called it a "vivid story" that showed Russia "dispassionately, without once imposing any preconceived ideas on the reader".
Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein compared it to two of her later novels, saying, "While it does not have the power of The Fountainhead or the majestic sweep of Atlas Shrugged, We the Living is still a compelling story about interesting characters." Historian James Baker said it was "preachy" and "indoctrinated without entertaining".
Adaptations
Play
Shortly after the novel was published, Rand began negotiations with Broadway producer Jerome Mayer to do a theatrical adaptation. Rand wrote the script, but Mayer's financing fell through. Several years later, she was able to interest George Abbott in producing the play. Helen Craig took the lead role as Kira, alongside John Emery as Leo and Dean Jagger as Andrei. It opened under the title The Unconquered at the Biltmore Theatre on February 13, 1940, but closed just five days later after scathing reviews.
The play was not published during Rand's lifetime. In 2014, Palgrave Macmillan published a volume with both the final script and an earlier version, edited by Robert Mayhew.
Film
We the Living was published in an Italian translation in 1937. Without Rand's permission, it was adapted in 1942 as an Italian film, released in two parts, titled Noi Vivi (We the Living) and Addio Kira (Goodbye Kira). The films were directed by Goffredo Alessandrini for Scalera Films of Rome, and starred Alida Valli as Kira, Fosco Giachetti as Andrei, and Rossano Brazzi as Leo. Prior to their release, the films were nearly censored by Mussolini's government, but they were permitted because the story itself was set in Soviet Russia and was directly critical of that regime. The films were successful, and the public easily realized that they were as much against fascism as communism. After several weeks, German authorities, who were allied with the Italian government, insisted that the film be pulled from distribution because of its anti-Fascist themes.
Rediscovered in the 1960s through the efforts of Rand's lawyers, Erika Holzer and Henry Mark Holzer, these films were re-edited into a new version with English subtitles composed by Erika Holzer and revision co-producer Duncan Scott. This version, approved by Rand and her estate, was re-released as We the Living in 1986.
References
Works cited
External links
1936 American novels
American novels adapted into films
American autobiographical novels
Books critical of religion
Novels about communism
English-language novels
Macmillan Publishers books
American novels adapted into plays
Novels by Ayn Rand
Novels set in Russia
American philosophical novels
Russian-American novels
1936 debut novels |
356672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipa | Pipa | The pipa, pípá, or p'i-p'a () is a traditional Chinese musical instrument, belonging to the plucked category of instruments. Sometimes called the "Chinese lute“, the instrument has a pear-shaped wooden body with a varying number of frets ranging from 12 to 31. Another Chinese four-string plucked lute is the liuqin, which looks like a smaller version of the pipa. The pear-shaped instrument may have existed in China as early as the Han dynasty, and although historically the term pipa was once used to refer to a variety of plucked chordophones, its usage since the Song dynasty refers exclusively to the pear-shaped instrument.
The pipa is one of the most popular Chinese instruments and has been played for almost two thousand years in China. Several related instruments are derived from the pipa, including the Japanese biwa and Korean bipa in East Asia, and the Vietnamese đàn tỳ bà in Southeast Asia. The Korean instrument is the only one of the three that is no longer widely used.
History
There are some confusion and disagreements about the origin of pipa. This may be due to the fact that the word pipa was used in ancient texts to describe a variety of plucked chordophones from the Qin to the Tang dynasty, including the long-necked spiked lute and the short-necked lute, as well as the differing accounts given in these ancient texts. Traditional Chinese narrative prefers the story of the Han Chinese Princess Liu Xijun sent to marry a barbarian Wusun king during the Han dynasty, with the pipa being invented so she could play music on horseback to soothe her longings. Modern researchers such as Laurence Picken, Shigeo Kishibe, and John Myers suggested a non-Chinese origin.
The earliest mention of pipa in Chinese texts appeared late in the Han Dynasty around the 2nd century AD. According to Liu Xi's Eastern Han Dynasty Dictionary of Names, the word pipa may have an onomatopoeic origin (the word being similar to the sounds the instrument makes), although modern scholarship suggests a possible derivation from the Persian word "barbat", the two theories however are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Liu Xi also stated that the instrument called pipa, though written differently ( or ) in the earliest texts, originated from amongst the Hu people (a general term for non-Han people living to the north and west of ancient China). Another Han Dynasty text, Fengsu Tongyi, also indicates that, at that time, pipa was a recent arrival, although later 3rd-century texts from the Jin dynasty suggest that pipa existed in China as early as the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC). An instrument called xiantao (弦鼗), made by stretching strings over a small drum with handle, was said to have been played by labourers who constructed the Great Wall of China during the late Qin Dynasty. This may have given rise to the Qin pipa, an instrument with a straight neck and a round sound box, and evolved into ruan, an instrument named after Ruan Xian, one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove and known for playing similar instrument. Yet another term used in ancient text was Qinhanzi (秦漢子), perhaps similar to Qin pipa with a straight neck and a round body, but modern opinions differ on its precise form.
The pear-shaped pipa is likely to have been introduced to China from Central Asia, Gandhara, and/or India. Pear-shaped lutes have been depicted in Kusana sculptures from the 1st century AD. The pear-shaped pipa may have been introduced during the Han dynasty and was referred to as Han pipa. However, depictions of the pear-shaped pipas in China only appeared after the Han dynasty during the Jin dynasty in the late 4th to early 5th century. Pipa acquired a number of Chinese symbolisms during the Han dynasty - the instrument length of three feet five inches represents the three realms (heaven, earth, and man) and the five elements, while the four strings represent the four seasons.
Depictions of the pear-shaped pipas appeared in abundance from the Southern and Northern Dynasties onwards, and pipas from this time to the Tang Dynasty were given various names, such as Hu pipa (胡琵琶), bent-neck pipa (曲項琵琶, quxiang pipa), some of these terms however may refer to the same pipa. Apart from the four-stringed pipa, other pear-shaped instruments introduced include the five-stringed, straight-necked, wuxian pipa (五弦琵琶, also known as Kuchean pipa (龜茲琵琶)), a six-stringed version, as well as the two-stringed hulei (忽雷). From the 3rd century onwards, through the Sui and Tang Dynasty, the pear-shaped pipas became increasingly popular in China. By the Song dynasty the word pipa was used to refer exclusively to the four-stringed pear-shaped instrument.
The pipa reached a height of popularity during the Tang Dynasty, and was a principal musical instrument in the imperial court. It may be played as a solo instrument or as part of the imperial orchestra for use in productions such as daqu (大曲, grand suites), an elaborate music and dance performance. During this time Persian and Kuchan performers and teachers were in demand in the capital, Chang'an (which had a large Persian community). Some delicately carved pipas with beautiful inlaid patterns date from this period, with particularly fine examples preserved in the Shosoin Museum in Japan. It had close association with Buddhism and often appeared in mural and sculptural representations of musicians in Buddhist contexts. For example, masses of pipa-playing Buddhist semi-deities are depicted in the wall paintings of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. The four and five-stringed pipas were especially popular during the Tang Dynasty, and these instruments were introduced into Japan during the Tang Dynasty as well as into other regions such as Korea and Vietnam. The five-stringed pipa however had fallen from use by the Song Dynasty, although attempts have been made to revive this instrument in the early 21st century with a modernized five-string pipa modeled on the Tang Dynasty instrument.
During the Song Dynasty, pipa fell from favour in the imperial court, perhaps a result of the influence of neo-Confucian nativism as pipa had foreign associations. However, it continued to be played as a folk instrument that also gained the interest of the literati. The pipa underwent a number of changes over the centuries. By the Ming dynasty, fingers replaced plectrum as the popular technique for playing pipa, although finger-playing techniques existed as early as Tang. Extra frets were added; the early instrument had 4 frets (相, xiāng) on the neck, but during the early Ming Dynasty extra bamboo frets (品, pǐn) were affixed onto the soundboard, increasing the number of frets to around 10 and therefore the range of the instrument. The short neck of the Tang pipa also became more elongated.
In the subsequent periods, the number of frets gradually increased, from around 10 to 14 or 16 during the Qing Dynasty, then to 19, 24, 29, and 30 in the 20th century. The 4 wedge-shaped frets on the neck became 6 during the 20th century. The 14- or 16-fret pipa had frets arranged in approximately equivalent to the western tone and semitone, starting at the nut, the intervals were T-S-S-S-T-S-S-S-T-T-3/4-3/4-T-T-3/4-3/4, (some frets produced a 3/4 tone or "neutral tone"). In the 1920s and 1930s, the number of frets was increased to 24, based on the 12 tone equal temperament scale, with all the intervals being semitones. The traditional 16-fret pipa became less common, although it is still used in some regional styles such as the pipa in the southern genre of nanguan/nanyin. The horizontal playing position became the vertical (or near-vertical) position by the Qing Dynasty, although in some regional genres such as nanguan the pipa is still held guitar fashion. During the 1950s, the use of metal strings in place of the traditional silk ones also resulted in a change in the sound of the pipa which became brighter and stronger.
In Chinese literature
Early literary tradition in China, for example in a 3rd-century description by Fu Xuan, Ode to Pipa, associates the Han pipa with the northern frontier, Wang Zhaojun and other princesses who were married to nomad rulers of the Wusun and Xiongnu peoples in what is now Mongolia, northern Xinjiang and Kazakhstan. Wang Zhaojun in particular is frequently referenced with pipa in later literary works and lyrics, for example Ma Zhiyuan's play Autumn in the Palace of Han (漢宮秋), especially since the Song dynasty (although her story is often conflated with other women including Liu Xijun), as well as in music pieces such as Zhaojun's Lament (昭君怨, also the title of a poem), and in paintings where she is often depicted holding a pipa.
There are many references to pipa in Tang literary works, for example, in A Music Conservatory Miscellany Duan Anjie related many anecdotes associated with pipa. The pipa is mentioned frequently in Tang Dynasty poetry, where it is often praised for its expressiveness, refinement and delicacy of tone, with poems dedicated to well-known players describing their performances. A famous poem by Bai Juyi, "Pipa xing" (琵琶行), contains a description of a pipa performance during a chance encounter with a female pipa player on the Yangtze River:
{|
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大絃嘈嘈如急雨
小絃切切如私語
嘈嘈切切錯雜彈
大珠小珠落玉盤
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Thick strings clatter like splattering rain,
Fine strings murmur like whispered words,
Clattering and murmuring, meshing jumbled sounds,
Like pearls, big and small, falling on a platter of jade.
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The encounter also inspired a poem by Yuan Zhen, Song of Pipa (琵琶歌). Another excerpt of figurative descriptions of a pipa music may be found in a eulogy for a pipa player, Lament for Shancai by Li Shen:
{|
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銜花金鳳當承撥
轉腕攏弦促揮抹
花翻鳳嘯天上來
裴回滿殿飛春雪
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On the plectrum, figure of a golden phoenix with flowers in its beak,
With turned wrist, he gathered the strings to pluck and strum faster.
The flowers fluttered, and from Heaven the phoenix trilled,
Lingering, filling the palace hall, spring snow flew.
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During the Song dynasty, many of the literati and poets wrote ci verses, a form of poetry meant to be sung and accompanied by instruments such as pipa. They included Ouyang Xiu, Wang Anshi, and Su Shi. During the Yuan dynasty, the playwright Gao Ming wrote a play for nanxi opera called Pipa ji (琵琶記, or "Story of the Pipa"), a tale about an abandoned wife who set out to find her husband, surviving by playing the pipa. It is one of the most enduring work in Chinese theatre, and one that became a model for Ming dynasty drama as it was the favorite opera of the first Ming emperor. The Ming collection of supernatural tales Fengshen Yanyi tells the story of Pipa Jing, a pipa spirit, but ghost stories involving pipa existed as early as the Jin dynasty, for example in the 4th century collection of tales Soushen Ji. Novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties such as Jin Ping Mei showed pipa performance to be a normal aspect of life in these periods at home (where the characters in the novels may be proficient in the instrument) as well as outside on the street or in pleasure houses.
Playing and performance
The name "pipa" is made up of two Chinese syllables, "pí" (琵) and "pá" (琶). These, according to the Han dynasty text by Liu Xi, refer to the way the instrument is played – "pí" is to strike outward with the right hand, and "pá" is to pluck inward towards the palm of the hand. The strings were played using a large plectrum in the Tang dynasty, a technique still used now for the Japanese biwa. It has however been suggested that the long plectrum depicted in ancient paintings may have been used as a friction stick like a bow. The plectrum has now been largely replaced by the fingernails of the right hand. The most basic technique, tantiao (彈挑), involves just the index finger and thumb (tan is striking with the index finger, tiao with the thumb). The fingers normally strike the strings of pipa in the opposite direction to the way a guitar is usually played, i.e. the fingers and thumb flick outward, unlike the guitar where the fingers and thumb normally pluck inward towards the palm of the hand. Plucking in the opposite direction to tan and tiao are called mo (抹) and gou (勾) respectively. When two strings are plucked at the same time with the index finger and thumb (i.e. the finger and thumb separate in one action), it is called fen (分), the reverse motion is called zhi (摭). A rapid strum is called sao (掃), and strumming in the reverse direction is called fu (拂). A distinctive sound of pipa is the tremolo produced by the lunzhi (輪指) technique which involves all the fingers and thumb of the right hand. It is however possible to produce the tremolo with just one or more fingers.
The left hand techniques are important for the expressiveness of pipa music. Techniques that produce vibrato, portamento, glissando, pizzicato, harmonics or artificial harmonics found in violin or guitar are also found in pipa. String-bending for example may be used to produce a glissando or portamento. Note however that the frets on all Chinese lutes are high so that the fingers and strings never touch the fingerboard in between the frets, this is different from many Western fretted instruments and allows for dramatic vibrato and other pitch changing effects.
In addition, there are a number of techniques that produce sound effects rather than musical notes, for example, striking the board of the pipa for a percussive sound, or strings-twisting while playing that produces a cymbal-like effect.
The strings are usually tuned to although there are various other ways of tuning. Since the revolutions in Chinese instrument-making during the 20th century, the softer twisted silk strings of earlier times have been exchanged for nylon-wound steel strings, which are far too strong for human fingernails, so false nails are now used, constructed of plastic or tortoise-shell, and affixed to the fingertips with the player's choice of elastic tape. However, false nails made of horn existed as early as the Ming period when finger-picking became the popular technique for playing pipa.
The pipa is held in a vertical or near-vertical position during performance, although in the early periods the instrument was held in the horizontal position or near-horizontal with the neck pointing slightly downwards, or upside down. Starting about the 10th century, players began to hold the instrument "more upright", as the fingernail style became more important. Through time, the neck was raised and by the Qing Dynasty the instrument was mostly played upright.
Repertoire
Pipa has been played solo, or as part of a large ensemble or small group since the early times. Few pieces for pipa survived from the early periods, some however are preserved in Japan as part of togaku (Tang music) tradition. In the early 20th century, twenty-five pieces were found amongst 10th-century manuscripts in the Mogao caves near Dunhuang, most of these pieces however may have originated from the Tang dynasty. The scores were written in tablature form with no information on tuning given, there are therefore uncertainties in the reconstruction of the music as well as deciphering other symbols in the score. Three Ming dynasty pieces were discovered in the High River Flows East (高河江東, Gaohe Jiangdong) collection dating from 1528 which are very similar to those performed today, such as "The Moon on High" (月兒高, Yue-er Gao). During the Qing dynasty, scores for pipa were collected in Thirteen Pieces for Strings. During the Qing dynasty there originally two major schools of pipa — the Northern and Southern schools, and music scores for these two traditions were collected and published in the first mass-produced edition of solo pieces for pipa, now commonly known as the Hua Collection (華氏譜). The collection was edited by Hua Qiuping (華秋萍, 1784–1859) and published in 1819 in three volumes. The first volume contains 13 pieces from the Northern school, the second and third volumes contain 54 pieces from the Southern school. Famous pieces such as "Ambushed from Ten Sides", "The Warlord Takes Off His Armour", and "Flute and Drum at Sunset" were first described in this collection. The earliest-known piece in the collection may be "Eagle Seizing a Crane" (海青挐鶴) which was mentioned in a Yuan dynasty text. Other collections from the Qing Dynasty were compiled by Li Fangyuan (李芳園) and Ju Shilin (鞠士林), each representing different schools, and many of the pieces currently popular were described in these Qing collections. Further important collections were published in the 20th century.
The pipa pieces in the common repertoire can be categorized as wen (文, civil) or wu (武, martial), and da (大, large or suite) or xiao (小, small). The wen style is more lyrical and slower in tempo, with softer dynamic and subtler colour, and such pieces typically describe love, sorrow, and scenes of nature. Pieces in the Wu style are generally more rhythmic and faster, and often depict scenes of battles and are played in a vigorous fashion employing a variety of techniques and sound effects. The wu style was associated more with the Northern school while the wen style was more the Southern school. The da and xiao categories refer to the size of the piece – xiao pieces are small pieces normally containing only one section, while da pieces are large and usually contain multiple sections. The traditional pieces however often have a standard metrical length of 68 measures or beat, and these may be joined together to form the larger pieces dagu.
Famous solo pieces now performed include:
Most of the above are traditional compositions dating to the Qing Dynasty or early 20th century, new pieces however are constantly being composed, and most of them follow a more Western structure. Examples of popular modern works composed after the 1950s are "Dance of the Yi People" and "Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland" (草原英雄小姐妹). Non-traditional themes may be used in these new compositions and some may reflect the political landscape and demands at the time of composition, for example "Dance of the Yi People" which is based on traditional melodies of the Yi people, may be seen as part of the drive for national unity, while "Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland" extols the virtue of those who served as model of exemplary behaviour in the People's commune.
Schools
There are a number of different traditions with different styles of playing pipa in various regions of China, some of which then developed into schools. In the narrative traditions where the pipa is used as an accompaniment to narrative singing, there are the Suzhou tanci (蘇州彈詞), Sichuan qingyin (四川清音), and Northern quyi (北方曲藝) genres. Pipa is also an important component of regional chamber ensemble traditions such as Jiangnan sizhu, Teochew string music and Nanguan ensemble. In Nanguan music, the pipa is still held in the near-horizontal position or guitar-fashion in the ancient manner instead of the vertical position normally used for solo playing in the present day.
There were originally two major schools of pipa during the Qing Dynasty — the Northern (Zhili, 直隸派) and Southern (Zhejiang, 浙江派) schools, and from these emerged the five main schools associated with the solo tradition. Each school is associated with one or more collections of pipa music and named after its place of origin –
Wuxi school (無錫派) – associated with the Hua Collection by Hua Qiuping, who studied with Wang Junxi (王君錫) of the Northern school and Chen Mufu (陳牧夫) of the Southern school, and may be considered a synthesis of these two schools of the Qing Dynasty. As the first published collection, the Hua Collection had considerable influence on later pipa players.
Pudong school (浦東派) – associated with the Ju Collection (鞠氏譜) which is based on an 18th-century handwritten manuscript, Xianxu Youyin (閑敘幽音), by Ju Shilin.
Pinghu school (平湖派) – associated with the Li Collection (李氏譜) first published in 1895; it was compiled by Li Fangyuan who came from a family of many generations of pipa players.
Chongming school (崇明派) – associated with Old Melodies of Yingzhou (瀛洲古調) compiled by Shen Zhaozhou (沈肇州, 1859–1930) in 1916.
Shanghai or Wang school (汪派) – named after Wang Yuting (汪昱庭) who created this style of playing. It may be considered a synthesis of the other four schools especially the Pudong and Pinghu schools. Wang did not publish his notation book in his lifetime, although handwritten copies were passed on to his students.
These schools of the solo tradition emerged by students learning playing the pipa from a master, and each school has its own style, performance aesthetics, notation system, and may differ in their playing techniques. Different schools have different repertoire in their music collection, and even though these schools share many of the same pieces in their repertoire, a same piece of music from the different schools may differ in their content. For example, a piece like "The Warlord Takes off His Armour" is made up of many sections, some of them metered and some with free meter, and greater freedom in interpretation is possible in the free meter sections. Different schools however can have sections added or removed, and may differ in the number of sections with free meter. The music collections from the 19th century also used the gongche notation which provides only a skeletal melody and approximate rhythms sometimes with the occasional playing instructions given (such as tremolo or string-bending), and how this basic framework can become fully fleshed out during a performance may only be learnt by the students from the master. The same piece of music can therefore differ significantly when performed by students of different schools, with striking differences in interpretation, phrasing, tempo, dynamics, playing techniques, and ornamentations.
In more recent times, many pipa players, especially the younger ones, no longer identify themselves with any specific school. Modern notation systems, new compositions as well as recordings are now widely available and it is no longer crucial for a pipa players to learn from the master of any particular school to know how to play a score.
Performers
Historical
Pipa is commonly associated with Princess Liu Xijun and Wang Zhaojun of the Han dynasty, although the form of pipa they played in that period is unlikely to be pear-shaped as they are now usually depicted. Other early known players of pipa include General Xie Shang from the Jin Dynasty who was described to have performed it with his leg raised. The introduction of pipa from Central Asia also brought with it virtuoso performers from that region, for example Sujiva (蘇祇婆, Sujipo) from the Kingdom of Kucha during the Northern Zhou dynasty, Kang Kunlun (康崑崙) from Kangju, and Pei Luoer (裴洛兒) from Shule. Pei Luoer was known for pioneering finger-playing techniques, while Sujiva was noted for the "Seven modes and seven tones", a musical modal theory from India. (The heptatonic scale was used for a time afterwards in the imperial court due to Sujiva's influence until it was later abandoned). These players had considerable influence on the development of pipa playing in China. Of particular fame were the family of pipa players founded by Cao Poluomen (曹婆羅門) and who were active for many generations from the Northern Wei to Tang dynasty.
Texts from Tang dynasty mentioned many renowned pipa players such as He Huaizhi (賀懷智), Lei Haiqing (雷海清), Li Guaner (李管兒), and Pei Xingnu (裴興奴). Duan Anjie described the duel between the famous pipa player Kang Kunlun and the monk Duan Shanben (段善本) who was disguised as a girl, and told the story of Yang Zhi (楊志) who learned how to play the pipa secretly by listening to his aunt playing at night. Celebrated performers of the Tang Dynasty included three generations of the Cao family — Cao Bao (曹保), Cao Shancai (曹善才) and Cao Gang (曹剛), whose performances were noted in literary works.
During the Song Dynasty, players mentioned in literary texts include Du Bin (杜彬). From the Ming dynasty, famous pipa players include Zhong Xiuzhi (鍾秀之), Zhang Xiong (張雄, known for his playing of "Eagle Seizing Swan"), the blind Li Jinlou (李近樓), and Tang Yingzeng (湯應曾) who was known to have played a piece that may be an early version of "Ambushed from Ten Sides".
In Qing dynasty, apart from those of the various schools previously mentioned, there was Chen Zijing (陳子敬), a student of Ju Shilin and known as a noted player during late Qing dynasty.
Modern era
In the 20th century, two of the most prominent pipa players were Sun Yude (孙裕德; 1904–1981) and Li Tingsong (李廷松; 1906–1976). Both were pupils of Wang Yuting (1872–1951), and both were active in establishing and promoting Guoyue ("national music"), which is a combination of traditional regional music and Western musical practices. Sun performed in the United States, Asia, and Europe, and in 1956 became deputy director of the Shanghai Chinese Orchestra. As well as being one of the leading pipa players of his generation, Li held many academic positions and also carried out research on pipa scales and temperament. Wei Zhongle (卫仲乐; 1903－1997) played many instruments, including the guqin. In the early 1950s, he founded the traditional instruments department at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. Players from the Wang and Pudong schools were the most active in performance and recording during the 20th century, less active was the Pinghu school whose players include Fan Boyan (樊伯炎). Other noted players of the early 20th century include Liu Tianhua, a student of Shen Zhaozhou of the Chongming school and who increased the number of frets on the pipa and changed to an equal-tempered tuning, and the blind player Abing from Wuxi.
Lin Shicheng (林石城; 1922–2006), born in Shanghai, began learning music under his father and was taught by Shen Haochu (沈浩初; 1899–1953), a leading player in the Pudong school style of pipa playing. He also qualified as a doctor of Chinese medicine. In 1956, after working for some years in Shanghai, Lin accepted a position at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu Dehai (1937–2020), also born in Shanghai, was a student of Lin Shicheng and in 1961 graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu also studied with other musicians and has developed a style that combines elements from several different schools. Ye Xuran (叶绪然), a student of Lin Shicheng and Wei Zhongle, was the Pipa Professor at the first Musical Conservatory of China, the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. He premiered the oldest Dunhuang Pipa Manuscript (the first interpretation made by Ye Dong) in Shanghai in the early 1980s.
Other prominent students of Lin Shicheng at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing include Liu Guilian (刘桂莲, born 1961), Gao Hong and Wu Man. Wu Man is probably the best known pipa player internationally, received the first-ever master's degree in pipa and won China's first National Academic Competition for Chinese Instruments. She lives in San Diego, California and works extensively with Chinese, cross-cultural, new music, and jazz groups. Shanghai-born Liu Guilian graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and became the director of the Shanghai Pipa Society, and a member of the Chinese Musicians Association and Chinese National Orchestral Society, before immigrating to Canada. She now performs with Red Chamber and the Vancouver Chinese Music Ensemble. Gao Hong graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and was the first to do a joint tour with Lin Shicheng in North America. They recorded the critically acclaimed CD "Eagle Seizing Swan" together.
Noted contemporary pipa players who work internationally include Min Xiao-Fen, Yang Jin(杨瑾), Zhou Yi, Qiu Xia He, Liu Fang, Cheng Yu, Jie Ma, Yang Jing, Yang Wei (杨惟), Guan Yadong (管亚东), Jiang Ting (蔣婷), Tang Liangxing (湯良興), and Lui Pui-Yuen (呂培原, brother of Lui Tsun-Yuen). Some other notable pipa players in China include Yu Jia (俞嘉), Wu Yu Xia (吳玉霞), Fang Jinlung (方錦龍) and Zhao Cong (赵聪).
Use in contemporary classical music
In the late 20th century, largely through the efforts of Wu Man (in USA), Min Xiao-Fen (in USA), composer Yang Jing (in Europe) and other performers, Chinese and Western contemporary composers began to create new works for the pipa (both solo and in combination with chamber ensembles and orchestra). Most prominent among these are Minoru Miki, Thüring Bräm, YANG Jing, Terry Riley, Donald Reid Womack, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Tan Dun, Bright Sheng, Chen Yi, Zhou Long, Bun-Ching Lam, and Carl Stone.
Cheng Yu researched the old Tang Dynasty five-stringed pipa in the early 2000s and developed a modern version of it for contemporary use. It is very much the same as the modern pipa in construction save for being a bit wider to allow for the extra string and the reintroduction of the soundholes at the front. It has not caught on in China but in Korea (where she also did some of her research) the bipa was revived since then and the current versions are based on Chinese pipa, including one with five-strings. The 5 String Pipa is tuned like a Standard Pipa with the addition of an Extra Bass String tuned to an E2 (Same as the Guitar) which broadens the range (Tuning is E2, A2, D3, E3, A3). Jiaju Shen from The Either also plays an Electric 5 String Pipa/Guitar hybrid that has the Hardware from an Electric Guitar combined with the Pipa, built by an instrument maker named Tim Sway called "Electric Pipa 2.0".
Use in other genres
The pipa has also been used in rock music; the California-based band Incubus featured one, borrowed from guitarist Steve Vai, in their 2001 song "Aqueous Transmission," as played by the group's guitarist, Mike Einziger. The Shanghai progressive/folk-rock band Cold Fairyland, which was formed in 2001, also use pipa (played by Lin Di), sometimes multi-tracking it in their recordings. Australian dark rock band The Eternal use the pipa in their song "Blood" as played by singer/guitarist Mark Kelson on their album Kartika. The artist Yang Jing plays pipa with a variety of groups. The instrument is also played by musician Min Xiaofen in "I See Who You Are", a song from Björk's album Volta. Western performers of pipa include French musician Djang San, who integrated jazz and rock concepts to the instrument such as power chords and walking bass.
Electric pipa
The electric pipa was first developed in the late 20th century by adding electric guitar–style magnetic pickups to a regular acoustic pipa, allowing the instrument to be amplified through an instrument amplifier or PA system.
A number of Western pipa players have experimented with amplified pipa. Brian Grimm placed the contact mic pickup on the face of the pipa and wedged under the bridge so he is able to plug into pedalboards, live computer performance rigs, and direct input (DI) to an audio interface for studio tracking. In 2014, French zhongruan player and composer Djang San, created his own electric pipa and recorded an experimental album that puts the electric pipa at the center of music. He was also the first musician to add a strap to the instrument, as he did for the zhongruan, allowing him to play the pipa and the zhongruan like a guitar.
In 2014, an industrial designer residing in the United States Xi Zheng (郑玺) designed and crafted an electric pipa – "E-pa" in New York. In 2015, pipa player Jiaju Shen (沈嘉琚) released a mini album composed and produced by Li Zong (宗立), with E-pa music that has a strong Chinese flavor within a modern Western pop music mould.
Gallery
See also
List of Chinese musical instruments
Lute
Jiangnan sizhu
Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)
References
Bibliography
External links
The Pipa on the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Chinese musical instruments
Necked bowl lutes
da:Biwa
ja:琵琶#中国琵琶 |
356678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive%20Party%20of%20Working%20People | Progressive Party of Working People | The Progressive Party of Working People (, ; abbr. , AKEL; ) is a Marxist–Leninist communist party in Cyprus.
AKEL is one of the two major parties in Cyprus, and it supports an independent, demilitarized, and non-aligned Cyprus, and a federal solution of the internal aspect of the Cyprus problem. It places particular emphasis on rapprochement with the Turkish Cypriots. It supported entry into the European Union with certain reservations. Initially supportive of the Annan Plan in 2004, the AKEL ultimately opposed the plan because the UN Security Council did not provide guarantees on post-reunification security.
As a strong supporter of welfare benefits and nationalization, AKEL successfully put into practice several social measures to support the economic welfare of Cypriots during the late-2000s financial crisis, such as increasing low pensions by 30% and strengthening the welfare benefits given to university students to €12 million per year. Overall, €1.2 billion were spent on welfare benefits during the first three years that AKEL was in power, with various improvements made in social welfare provision. The party is now in opposition following the 2013 election. The party's candidate was defeated in the 2018 presidential election against the incumbent president.
History
It was founded in 1926 with the name Communist Party of Cyprus (CPC). The communist party set as its aim not only the struggle against exploitation, but also the independence of Cyprus from British rule. The party became illegal in 1931 when the British colonial government-imposed restrictions on civil rights following a nationalist riot. In 1941, leading members of the underground communist party and others founded AKEL. In the first municipal elections in 1943 (before that mayors were appointed) AKEL candidates became mayors of Limassol (Ploutis Servas) and Famagusta (Adam Adamantos).
List of general secretaries:
1936–1945 Ploutis Servas
1945–1949 Fifis Ioannou
1949–1988 Ezekias Papaioannou
1988–2009 Dimitris Christofias (6th President of the Republic of Cyprus)
2009–2021 Andros Kyprianou
2021-today Stefanos Stefanou
Unlike its predecessor, AKEL was not against Enosis. Instead, AKEL supported a gradual process, starting off with a constitution and self-government, while Cyprus would remain a colony, leading to self-determination and Enosis. After the failure of the consultative assembly in 1949 to grant a constitution acceptable to the Cypriot members, AKEL changed line, supporting immediate Enosis with no intermediate stages.
During the late 1950s, AKEL was opposed to the violent tactics followed by the anti-British resistance movement of EOKA. EOKA accused AKEL of being collaborators with the British, even though AKEL had also been illegal since 1955. Several AKEL members were assassinated by EOKA at the time for being "traitors", including AKEL supporter Savas Menikou, who was stoned to death. AKEL denounced EOKA's leadership as being anti-communist, as its leader George Grivas had fought against the communist side during the Greek Civil War. Grivas later founded EOKA B, which supported the 1974 coup d'état following his death.
About 1958, the Turkish Cypriot nationalist organization TMT started forcing Turkish Cypriots members of AKEL to leave. Editor of a workers' newspaper Fazıl Önder was killed and the head of the Turkish bureau of PEO (AKEL's trade union) Ahmet Sadi moved to the UK to save his life.
In the first presidential elections for independent Cyprus, AKEL backed Ioannis Kliridis (father of Glafkos Klerides) against Makarios III. The last Turkish Cypriot to be a member of the central committee of AKEL, Derviş Ali Kavazoğlu, was killed by TMT in 1965.
In the mid 1960s the U.S. State Department estimated the party membership to be approximately 10,000 (3.25% of the working age population).
Recent history
At the legislative elections on 27 May 2001, the party won 34.7% of the popular vote and 20 out of 56 seats. After this election, AKEL's General Secretary, Dimitris Christofias, was elected as President of the House of Representatives, serving in that post until 2006. His election was supported by AKEL, Movement for Social Democracy (EDEK), and the Democratic Party (DIKO).
AKEL is a member of the European United Left - Nordic Green Left political group in the European Parliament, and it is considered to be moderately eurosceptic. Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, and in the 2004 European parliament election, AKEL elected two members (Adamos Adamou and Kyriacos Triantaphyllides).
AKEL remained the largest political party in the 2006 legislative elections; however, the party lost two seats, winning 18 seats with 31.31% of the vote.
In the second round presidential election held on 24 February 2008, Dimitris Christofias, General Secretary of AKEL, was elected President of Cyprus. Christofias won 53.36% of the vote against his right-wing opponent Ioannis Kasoulidis' 46.64%.
On 21 January 2009, Andros Kyprianou was elected general secretary of the party with 54.3% in the central committee election.
In the 2009 election to the European Parliament, AKEL received 34.9% of the votes, and again elected two out of Cyprus' six members (Kyriacos Triantaphyllides and Takis Hadjigeorgiou). In the 2014 election, they held their two seats with a reduced 27% of the vote.
In the 22 May 2011 legislative election AKEL received 32.67% of the votes, and elected 19 out of the 56 members of parliament.
In an interview with Athens News Agency, party leader Andros Kyprianou said that AKEL was considering Cyprus' exit from the eurozone, saying, "It is an option on the table", but that it will require "study and planning".
In the 2013 presidential election, Stavros Malas, who was supported by AKEL lost by a margin of 42.52% to 57.48%. In the 2018 presidential election, conservative president Nicos Anastasiades won a second five-year term with 56 percent of the vote. The AKEL-backed independent candidate, Stavros Malas, lost the election with 44 percent.
In 2016 legislative election AKEL was the second largest party with 25.7 percent of the vote, 7 percent less than the previous election.
Niyazi Kızılyürek was elected to the European Parliament in 2019 for AKEL, making him the first Turkish-Cypriot to enter the European Parliament and thus breaking what was considered a taboo on the island. AKEL advocates the creation of a federal state in which Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots would live together.
Youth
The party's youth wing is the United Democratic Youth Organisation, which was founded in 1959.
Election results
Parliament
European Parliament
AKEL MPs
2011–present Adamos Adamou
2007–2011 Dina Akkelidou
2006–2011 Aristos Aristotelous
2011–present Irene Charalambides
1991–2008 Dimitris Christofias
2011–present Aristos Damianou
2004–present Stella Demetriou Misiaouli
1981–1991 Pavlos Diglis
2001–present Stavros Evagorou
2006–present Andreas Fakontis
1970–1991 Andreas Fantis
2008–present Yiannakis Gavriel
1991–2011 Aristophanes Georgiou
2011–2019 Giorgos K. Georgiou
1996–2009 Takis Hadjigeorgiou
2003–2011 Dinos Hadjinicolas
2011–present Christakis Jovanis
1991–present Nicos Katsourides
2011–present Andreas Kafkalias
2011–present Kostas Kosta
2008–present Skevi Koukouma Koutra
2001–present Andros Kyprianou
2006–2011 Pambis Kiritsis
2001–present Yiannos Lamaris
1996–2003 Giorgos Lillikas
2011–present Giorgos Loucaides
2008-2011 Klavdios Mavrohannas
2001–2006 Eleni Mavrou
2011–present Christos Mesis
2006–2011 Andreas Mouskalis
2011–2016 Pambos Papageorgiou
1960–1988 Ezekias Papaioannou
1985–1991 Michalis Papapetrou
1970–1991 Georgios Savvides
2006–present Panikkos Stavrianos
1996–2011 Yannakis Thoma
1960–1991 Andreas Ziartides
AKEL MEPs
2004–2009 Adamos Adamou
2004–2014 Kyriacos Triantaphyllides
2009–2019 Takis Hadjigeorgiou
2014–2019 Neoklis Sylikiotis
2019–present Niyazi Kızılyürek
2019–present Giorgos K. Georgiou
References
Citations
Sources
Panayiotou, A. (2006) "Lenin in the Coffee-Shop: The Communist Alternative and Forms of non-Western Modernity", Postcolonial Studies, 9, 3, pp. 267–280.
Adams (1971) AKEL: The Communist Party of Cyprus. California: Hoover Press
Lefkis, G. (1984) Roots (Limassol).
Fantis (2005) The Cypriot Trade Union Movement During the Period of British Colonialism (Nicosia)
Servas (1985, 1991) Responsibilities (Athens, Grammi).
Peristianis (2006) "The Rise of the Left and Intra-Ethnic Cleavages" in Faustmann, H. and Peristianis, N. (ed.), Britain in Cyprus, Colonialism and Post-colonialism 1878-2006. Mannheim, Bibliopolis.
Philippou, Lambros (2010) "The Cypriot Paradox: The Communist Way Towards Political Liberalism", Cyprus Review, 22, 1, pp. 129–149.
Δίγκλης, Παύλος (2010) ΑΚΕΛ. Με τόλμη και παρρησία: Προσωπικές μαρτυρίες. Εκδόσεις Επιφανίου.
External links
AKEL's website in English (also available in Greek and Turkish)
1926 establishments in Cyprus
Cyprus
Communist parties in Cyprus
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Party of the European Left observer parties
Political parties established in 1926
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International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties |
356688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thixendale | Thixendale | Thixendale is a village and civil parish in the Ryedale district of North Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the East Riding of Yorkshire, it is located in the Yorkshire Wolds about 20 miles east of York.
The place-name 'Thixendale' is first attested in the Domesday Book of 1086, where it appears as Sixtendale and Xistendale. The name means 'Sigstein's dale or valley'. The name 'Sigstein' is also the source for the name of Sysonby in Leicestershire.
The population of the parish (which includes Wharram-le-Street) was 270 at the 2001 census, rising to 293 at the 2011 census. In 2015, North Yorkshire County Council estimated the population of Thixendale to be 180, and that of Wharram to be 130.
The only pub, the Cross Keys, is a regular winner of local CAMRA awards.
The Yorkshire Wolds Way National Trail, a long distance footpath passes to the east end of the village.
The church of St Mary, Thixendale is one of a group of village buildings constructed to designs by George Edmund Street in 1868–70. It was designated in 1966 by English Heritage as a Grade II* listed building. It is on the Sykes Churches Trail devised by the East Yorkshire Historic Churches Group.
For many years until the late 1990s, television signals were blocked by the surrounding hills until a small transmitter was built, providing the village with terrestrial television for the first time. The transmitter ceased operation in the early 2000s, with villagers now relying on satellite TV and, since 2017, fast broadband.
References
External links
The Village of Thixendale information about the village, where to stay, interesting walks in the area, pictures and other local information,
A requiem to Thixendale's Youth Hostel
Villages in North Yorkshire
Civil parishes in North Yorkshire |
356690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Legend%20of%20Zelda%3A%20Link%27s%20Awakening | The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening | The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening is a 1993 action-adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy. It is the fourth installment in the Legend of Zelda series and the first for a handheld game console. Link's Awakening is one of the few Zelda games not to take place in the land of Hyrule, and it does not feature Princess Zelda or the Triforce relic. Instead, the protagonist Link begins the game stranded on Koholint Island, a place guarded by a whale-like deity called the Wind Fish. Assuming the role of Link, the player fights monsters and solves puzzles while searching for eight musical instruments that will awaken the sleeping Wind Fish and allow him to escape from the island.
Development began as an effort to port the Super Nintendo Entertainment System game The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past to the Game Boy, developed after-hours by Nintendo staff. It grew into an original project under the direction of Takashi Tezuka, with a story and script created by Yoshiaki Koizumi and Kensuke Tanabe. The majority of the Link to the Past team reassembled for Link's Awakening, and Tezuka wanted the game world to feel like the television series Twin Peaks. After a development period of one and a half years, Link's Awakening was released in Japan in June 1993 and worldwide later in the year.
Link's Awakening was critically and commercially successful. Critics praised the game's depth and number of features; complaints focused on its control scheme and monochrome graphics. An updated rerelease, The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening DX, was released for the Game Boy Color in 1998 featuring color graphics, compatibility with the Game Boy Printer, and an exclusive color-based dungeon. Together, the two versions of the game have sold more than six million units worldwide, and have appeared on multiple game publications' lists of the best video games of all time. A high-definition remake for the Nintendo Switch was developed by Grezzo and released worldwide in 2019.
Gameplay
Like most games in The Legend of Zelda series, Link's Awakening is an action-adventure game focused on exploration and combat. The majority of the game takes place from an overhead perspective. The player traverses the overworld of Koholint Island while fighting monsters and exploring underground dungeons. Dungeons steadily become larger and more difficult, and feature "Nightmare" boss characters that the player must defeat, taking different forms in each dungeon, and getting harder to defeat each time. Success earns the player heart containers, which increase the amount of damage the player character can survive; when all of the player's heart containers have been emptied, the game restarts at the last doorway entered by the character. Defeating a Nightmare also earns the player one of the eight instruments necessary to complete the game.
Link's Awakening was the first overhead-perspective Zelda game to allow Link to jump; this enables sidescrolling sequences similar to those in the earlier Zelda II: The Adventure of Link. Players can expand their abilities with items, which are discovered in dungeons and through character interactions. Certain items grant access to previously inaccessible areas and are needed to enter and complete dungeons. The player may steal items from the game's shop, but doing so changes the player character's name to "THIEF" for the rest of the game and causes the shopkeeper to knock out the character upon re-entry of the shop.
In addition to the main quest, Link's Awakening contains side-missions and diversions. Collectible "secret seashells" are hidden throughout the game; when twenty of these are found, the player can receive a powerful sword that fires energy beams when the player character is at full health, similar to the sword in the original The Legend of Zelda. Link's Awakening is the first Zelda game to include a trading sequence minigame: the player may give a certain item to a character, who in turn gives the player another item to trade with someone else. It is also the first game in the Zelda series in which the A and B buttons may be assigned to different items, which enables more varied puzzles and item combinations. Other series elements originating in Link's Awakening include fishing, and learning special songs on an ocarina; the latter mechanic is central to the next Zelda game released, Ocarina of Time.
Synopsis
Setting and characters
Unlike most The Legend of Zelda titles, Link's Awakening is set outside the kingdom of Hyrule. It omits locations and characters from previous games, aside from protagonist Link and a passing mention of Princess Zelda. Instead, the game takes place entirely on Koholint Island, an isolated landmass cut off from the rest of the world. The island, though small, contains a large number of secrets and interconnected pathways. Within the Zelda timeline, Link's Awakening takes place after Ocarina of Time and A Link to the Past, but before Oracle of Seasons and Ages.
In Link's Awakening, the player is given advice and directions by non-player characters such as Ulrira, a shy old man who communicates with Link exclusively by telephone. The game contains cameo appearances by characters from other Nintendo titles, such as Wart, Yoshi, Kirby, Dr. Wright (renamed Mr. Write) from the Super NES version of SimCity, and the exiled prince Richard from The Frog for Whom the Bell Tolls. Chomp, an enemy from the Mario series, was included after a programmer gave Link the ability to grab the creature and take it for a walk. Enemies from Super Mario Bros. such as Goombas and Piranha Plants also appear in underground side-scrolling sections; Link may land on top of them much as with Super Mario Bros., or he can attack them in the usual way: the two methods yield different bonuses. Director Takashi Tezuka said that the game's "freewheeling" development made Link's Awakening seem like a parody of The Legend of Zelda series. Certain characters in the game break the fourth wall; for example, little children inform the player of game mechanics such as saving, but admit that they do not understand the advice they are giving.
Plot
After the events of A Link to the Past, the hero Link travels by ship to other countries to train for further threats. A storm destroys his boat at sea, and he washes ashore on Koholint Island, where he is taken to the house of Tarin by his daughter Marin. She is fascinated by Link and the outside world, and tells Link wishfully that, if she were a seagull, she would leave and travel across the sea. After Link recovers his sword, a mysterious owl tells him that he must wake the Wind Fish, Koholint's guardian, in order to return home. The Wind Fish lies dreaming in a giant egg on top of Mt. Tamaranch, and can only be awakened by the eight Instruments of the Sirens.
Link proceeds to explore a series of dungeons in order to recover the eight instruments. During his search for the sixth instrument, Link goes to the Ancient Ruins. There he finds a mural that details the reality of the island: that it is merely a dream world created by the Wind Fish. After this revelation, the owl tells Link that this is only a rumor, and only the Wind Fish knows for certain whether it is true. Throughout Koholint Island, nightmare creatures attempt to obstruct Link's quest for the instruments, as they wish to rule the Wind Fish's dreamworld.
After collecting all eight instruments from the eight dungeons across Koholint, Link climbs to the top of Mt. Tamaranch and plays the Ballad of the Wind Fish. This breaks open the egg in which the Wind Fish sleeps; Link enters and confronts the last evil being, a Nightmare that takes the form of Ganon and other enemies from Link's past. Its final transformation is "DethI", a cyclopean, dual-tentacled Shadow. After Link defeats DethI, the owl reveals itself to be the Wind Fish's spirit, and the Wind Fish confirms that Koholint is all his dream. When Link plays the Ballad of the Wind Fish again, he and the Wind Fish awaken; Koholint Island and all its inhabitants slowly disappear. Link finds himself lying on his ship's driftwood in the middle of the ocean, with the Wind Fish flying overhead. If the player did not lose any lives during the game, Marin is shown flying after the ending credits finish.
Development
Link's Awakening began as an unsanctioned side project; programmer Kazuaki Morita created a Zelda-like game with one of the first Game Boy development kits, and he used it to experiment with the platform's capabilities. Other staff members of the Nintendo Entertainment Analysis & Development division joined him after-hours and worked on the game in what seemed to them like an "afterschool club". The results of these experiments with the Game Boy started to look promising. Following the 1991 release of the Super NES video game The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past, director Takashi Tezuka asked for permission to develop a handheld Zelda title; he intended it to be a port of A Link to the Past, but it evolved into an original game. The majority of the team that had created A Link to the Past was reassembled to advance this new project. Altogether, it took them one and a half years to develop Link's Awakening.
Tezuka recalled that the early free-form development of Link's Awakening resulted in the game's "unrestrained" contents, such as the unauthorized cameo appearances of characters from the Mario and Kirby series. A Link to the Past script writer Kensuke Tanabe joined the team early on and came up with the basis of the story. Tezuka sought to make Link's Awakening a spin-off, and he gave Tanabe instructions to omit common series elements such as Princess Zelda, the Triforce relic, and the setting Hyrule. As a consequence, Tanabe proposed his game world idea of an island with an egg on top of a mountain. Tezuka recalled that it felt as though they were making a "parody of The Legend of Zelda" rather than an actual Zelda game.
Later on, Yoshiaki Koizumi, who had previously helped with the plot of A Link to the Past, was brought into the team. Koizumi was responsible for the main story of Link's Awakening, provided the idea of the island in a dream, and conceived the interactions with the villagers. Link's Awakening was described by series producer Eiji Aonuma as the first Zelda game with a proper plot, which he attributed to Koizumi's romanticism. Tezuka intended the game's world to have a similar feeling to the American television series Twin Peaks, which, like Link's Awakening, features characters in a small town. He suggested that the characters of Link's Awakening be written as "suspicious types", akin to those in Twin Peaks—a theme which carried over into later Zelda titles. Tanabe created these "odd" characters; he was placed in charge of the subevents of the story and wrote almost all of the character dialog, with the exception of the owl's and the Wind Fish's lines. Tanabe implemented a previous idea of the world ending when a massive egg breaks on top of a mountain; this idea was originally meant for A Link to the Past. Tanabe really wanted to see this idea in a game and was able to implement it in Link's Awakening as the basic concept.
Masanao Arimoto and Shigefumi Hino designed the game's characters, while Yoichi Kotabe served as illustrator. Save for the opening and the ending, all pictures in the game were drawn by Arimoto. Yasahisa Yamamura designed the dungeons, which included the conception of rooms and routes, as well as the placement of enemies. Shigeru Miyamoto, who served as the producer of Link's Awakening, did not provide creative input to the staff members. However, he participated as game tester, and his opinions greatly influenced the latter half of the development.
The music for Link's Awakening was composed by Minako Hamano, Kozue Ishikawa, for whom it was their first game project, and Kazumi Totaka, who also was responsible for the sound programming and all sound effects. As with most Zelda games, Link's Awakening includes a variation of the recurring overworld music; The staff credits theme, "Yume o Miru Shima e" was later arranged for orchestra by Yuka Tsujiyoko and performed at the Orchestral Game Music Concert 3 in 1993. Super Smash Bros. Brawl includes a remix of the game's "Tal Tal Heights" theme, which has since returned in subsequent Super Smash Bros. titles.
In an interview about the evolution of the Zelda series, Aonuma called Link's Awakening the "quintessential isometric Zelda game". At another time, he stated that, had the game not come after A Link to the Past, Ocarina of Time would have been very different. Tezuka stated that he prefers the game over A Link to the Past, as he enjoyed the challenge of making a similar game on lower-specced hardware. Several elements from Link's Awakening were re-used in later Zelda titles; for example, programmer Morita created a fishing minigame that reappeared in Ocarina of Time, among others. Tanabe implemented a trading sequence; Tezuka compared it to the Japanese Straw Millionaire folktale, in which someone trades up from a piece of straw to something of greater value. This concept also appeared in most sequels.
Release
To support the North American release of Link's Awakening, Nintendo sponsored a crosscountry train competition called the Zelda Whistle Stop Tour. The event, which lasted three days, allowed select players to test Link's Awakening in a timed race to complete the game. The event was meant not only to showcase the game, but also the Game Boy's superior battery life and portability, the latter of which was critical to the accessibility of a portable Zelda title. The company-owned magazine Nintendo Power published a guide to the game's first three areas in its July 1993 issue.
In 1998, to promote the launch of the Game Boy Color, Nintendo re-released Link's Awakening as The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening DX. It features fully colorized graphics and is backward compatible with the original Game Boy. Link's Awakening DX contains a new optional dungeon, with unique enemies and puzzles based on color (due to this, the dungeon cannot be accessed on the earlier non-color Game Boy models). After completing the dungeon, the player may choose to receive either a red or blue tunic, which increase attack and defense, respectively. The DX version also allows players to take photos after the player visits a camera shop, its owner will appear in certain locations throughout the game. A total of twelve photos can be taken, which may be viewed at the shop, or printed with the Game Boy Printer accessory. For Link's Awakening DX, Tezuka returned as project supervisor, with Yoshinori Tsuchiyama as the new director. Nobuo Matsumiya collaborated with Tsuchiyama on applying changes to the original script; for example, hint messages were added to the boss battles. For the new dungeon, Yuichi Ozaki created a musical piece based on Kondo's dungeon theme from the original The Legend of Zelda.
In 2010, Nintendo announced that the DX version would be re-released on the Virtual Console of the Nintendo 3DS, and became available June 2011. In July 2013, Link's Awakening DX was offered as one of several Virtual Console games which "elite status" members of the North America Club Nintendo could redeem as a free gift. A high-definition remake was developed by Grezzo and released for the Nintendo Switch on September 20, 2019.
In Nintendo's E3 2021 Direct, it was announced that Link's Awakwening would be included in a Zelda-themed Game & Watch console alongside The Legend of Zelda and Zelda II: The Adventure of Link. It was released on November 12, 2021.
Reception
Sales
In Japan, the game topped the Famitsu sales chart in June 1993. In North America, it was the top-selling Game Boy game in August 1993. Link's Awakening sold well and helped boost Game Boy sales 13 percent in 1993—making it one of Nintendo's most profitable years in North America up to that time. The game remained on bestseller lists for more than 90 months after release, and went on to sell 3.83 million units by 2004. The DX version sold another 2.22 million units. The Virtual Console release of Link's Awakening DX was the top-selling downloadable Nintendo 3DS game of 2011, selling over 338,700 units, or an estimated in gross revenue.
Reviews
Link's Awakening was critically acclaimed, and holds an average score of 90% on aggregate site GameRankings. In a retrospective article, Electronic Gaming Monthly writer Jeremy Parish called Link's Awakening the "best Game Boy game ever, an adventure so engrossing and epic that we can even forgive the whole thing for being one of those 'It's all a dream!' fakeouts". Game Informers Ben Reeves called it the third best Game Boy game and called it influential. The Washington Posts Chip Carter declared that Nintendo had created a "legend that fits in the palm of your hand", and praised its portability and depth. An Jōkiri of ITMedia echoed similar comments. A writer for the Mainichi Shimbun enjoyed the game's music and story. Multiple sources touted it as an excellent portable adventure for those without the time for more sophisticated games.
Complaints about the game included its control scheme and monochrome graphics; certain critics believed that they made it difficult to discern the screen's contents, and wished that the game was in color. Critic William Burrill dismissed the game's visuals as "Dim Boy graphics [that are] nothing to write home about". Both Carter and the Ottawa Citizens Bill Provick found the two-button control scheme awkward, as they needed to switch items on almost every screen. The Vancouver Suns Katherine Monk called the dialogue "stilted", but considered the rest of the game to be "ever-surprising".
Link's Awakening DX also received positive reviews with multiple critics highlighting the color graphics as an improvement; based on ten media outlets, it holds an average score of 91% on Game Rankings. IGN Adam Cleveland awarded the game a perfect score, and noted that "throughout the color-enhanced version of Zelda DX, it can easily be inferred that Nintendo has reworked its magic to fit new standards", by adding new content while keeping the original game intact. Cameron Davis of GameSpot applauded the game's camera support and attention to detail in coloration and style, while reviewers for the Courier Mail believed that the camera added gameplay depth and allowed players to show off trophies. The Daily Telegraphs Samantha Amjadali wrote that the addition of color made the game easier by reducing deaths caused by indistinct graphics. Total Games noted that the new content added little to the game, but found it addictive to play nonetheless.
Accolades
The game won several awards. At the Golden Joystick Awards, it won two awards, for Game of the Year (handheld) and Best Advert of the Year. It also won the Game Boy categories for Graphics and Sound, Challenge, Theme and Fun, Play Control and Best Overall in the reader-chosen 1993 Nintendo Power Awards. It was awarded Best Game Boy Game of 1993 by Electronic Gaming Monthly. In 1997 Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked the Game Boy version the 28th best console video game of all time, saying it ended up "beating out the Super NES Zelda in both size and scope." They also lauded its humorous dialogue, hefty challenge, and incorporation of the best gameplay mechanics of its predecessors. Nintendo Power later named it the fifty-sixth best Nintendo game, and, in August 2008, listed the DX version as the second best Game Boy or Game Boy Color game. IGN's readers ranked it as the 40th best game of all time, while the staff placed it at 78th; the staff believed that, "while handheld spin-offs are generally considered the low point for game franchises, Link's Awakening proves that they can offer just as rich a gameplay experience as their console counterparts".
References
Citations
Notes
External links
1993 video games
Video games about nightmares
Game Boy Color games
Game Boy games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Single-player video games
Link's Awakening
Top-down video games
Video games developed in Japan
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS
Video games about dreams
Video games directed by Takashi Tezuka
Video games scored by Kazumi Totaka
Video games set on fictional islands |
356696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicester%20%28disambiguation%29 | Leicester (disambiguation) | Leicester is a city in England.
Leicester may also refer to:
Places
United States
Leicester, Massachusetts
Leicester, New York, a town
Leicester (village), New York, within the town of Leicester
Leicester, North Carolina
Leicester, Vermont
Leicester Township, Clay County, Nebraska
Elsewhere
Leicester, Alberta, Canada
Leicester (islet), Cook Islands
Leicester, Sierra Leone
Administrative divisions
Leicester (European Parliament constituency)
Leicester (UK Parliament constituency)
County of Leicester, England
People
Surname
George Leicester (disambiguation)
Jon Leicester (born 1979), American baseball player
Margot Leicester (born 1949), British actor
Robert Leicester (disambiguation)
Given name
Leicester Devereux, 7th Viscount Hereford (1674–1683), British peer
Leicester Hemingway (1915–1982), American writer
Leicester Smyth (1829–1891), British Army officer and Governor of Gibraltar
Titles
Earl of Leicester, a peerage of the United Kingdom
Countess of Leicester (disambiguation)
Leicester baronets, including a list of people who have held the title
Schools, universities and colleges
Leicester Academy, Massachusetts
Leicester College, a further education college in England
University of Leicester, England
Sports teams
Leicester City F.C., an English football club
Leicester Riders, a British basketball team
Leicester Tigers, an English rugby union team
Other uses
Leicester (HM Prison)
Leicester cheese
Leicester, a breed of sheep also known as Leicester Longwool
Leicester railway station, England
SS Leicester (1891), a passenger and cargo vessel
See also
Leicester House (disambiguation)
Lester (disambiguation)
Leinster (disambiguation) |
356699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vale | Vale | A vale is a type of valley.
Vale may also refer to:
Places
Australia
Moss Vale, New South Wales
Georgia
Vale, Georgia, a town in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region
Norway
Våle, a historic municipality
Portugal
Vale (Santa Maria da Feira), a former civil parish in the municipality of Santa Maria da Feira
Vale, a civil parish in the municipality of Alfândega de Fé
Romania
Vale, a village in Aluniş Commune, Cluj County
Vale, a village in Topliţa city, Harghita County
Vale (), a village in Săliște town, Sibiu County
United Kingdom
Vale, Guernsey, a parish in Guernsey
Vale of Glamorgan, a county borough in South Wales, commonly referred to as "The Vale"
Merthyr Vale, a village in the county borough of Merthyr Tydfil
Ebbw Vale, a town in the county borough of Blaenau Gwent
The Vale Academy, a school in North Lincolnshire
Vale of White Horse, a district in Oxfordshire, named for the Uffington White Horse
Vale of York, a large area of flat land surrounding the city of York.
Vale of Mowbray, a stretch of low-lying land between the North York Moors and the Yorkshire Dales.
Vale of Pickering, a former post glacial lake bed south of the Yorkshire Moors in North Yorkshire.
Vale of Leven, an area of West Dunbartonshire, Scotland, in the valley of the River Leven.
Aylesbury Vale, is a geographical region in Buckinghamshire, England.
Calder Vale, an English village, located on the edge of the Forest of Bowland in Lancashire.
Vale of Clwyd, a tract of low-lying ground in the county of Denbighshire in northeast Wales.
Vale of Evesham, a flood plain of the River Avon around the market town of Evesham in Worcestershire.
Severn Vale, a flood plain of the river Severn in Gloucestershire.
United States
Vale, Avery County, North Carolina
Vail, Colorado
Vale, Lincoln County, North Carolina
Vale, Oregon
Vale, South Dakota
Vale, West Virginia
Vale Summit, Maryland
Vale Township, Butte County, South Dakota
Vale Tunnel, Raytown, Missouri
Lyman Estate, known as "The Vale", Waltham, Massachusetts
Languages
Vale language, a minor Sudanic language
Vale languages or "Ruto-Vale", a group of languages
Central Vale language, a minor Central Sudanic language
Vale, Latin for farewell in the Latin phrase Ave atque vale
People
Vale (surname), including a list of people with the name
Vale P. Thielman, American politician
Short form of the Italian given name Valentina
Transportation
HNoMS Vale, warships of the Royal Norwegian Navy
Vale Special, a British sports car
Other uses
Vale (album), a January Black Veil Brides album
Vale, a 2008 Orden Ogan album
Vale (company), a Brazilian mining company
Vale Limited, a subsidiary mining company in Canada
Vale gas field, a North Sea gas field
The Vale of Arryn, a fictional region in George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series
The home town for the protagonists in the Nintendo game series Golden Sun
Vale, the primary setting of the RoosterTeeth animated aeries RWBY
See also
Val (disambiguation)
Vail (disambiguation)
Vallier
Vallières (disambiguation)
Veil (disambiguation) |
356700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Barry%20Jr. | Charles Barry Jr. | Charles Barry Jr. (1823–1900) was an English architect of the mid-late 19th century, and eldest son of Sir Charles Barry. Like his younger brother and fellow architect Edward Middleton Barry, Charles Jr. designed numerous buildings in London. He is particularly associated with works in the south London suburb of Dulwich.
Charles Jr. worked extensively on projects in London and East Anglia with fellow architect Robert Richardson Banks (1812–72), working from an office in Sackville Street, and then collaborated with his shorter-lived brother Edward on several schemes.
Projects
Charles Sr. had been architect and surveyor to Dulwich College, designing the Grammar School, among other buildings. Charles Jr. then succeeded his father in the role. He designed the New College (1866–70) – a building of red brick and white stone, designed in a hybrid of Palladian and Gothic styles.
His other projects include:
The Cliff Town Estate, Southend, Essex (with Banks)
Bylaugh Hall, Norfolk (1849–1852, with Banks)
The Pump House in the Italian Gardens, Hyde Park/Kensington Gardens, (1860, with Banks)
St Saviour's Church, Harome (1861-1862)
The Crystal Palace (High Level) railway station (1863-1865, demolished 1961) and the surviving Crystal Palace Subway
The forecourt of Burlington House (home of the Royal Academy), in Piccadilly, including the apartments of the Geological Society of London, Linnean Society of London, Royal Astronomical Society, Royal Society of Chemistry, and Society of Antiquaries of London (1869–73, with Banks).
St Stephen's Church, south Dulwich (1867–75)
Stevenstone House, Devon (1868–72)
Mausoleum of Wynn Ellis, Whitstable (1872)
All Saints Church, Whitstable, rebuilding (1875-76)
Clumber Park, Nottinghamshire, (1879)
Chancel and pulpit of St Peter's Church, Kensington Park Road, London (1879)
New chambers at Inner Temple, London (1879; with Edward)
Great Eastern Hotel, Liverpool Street station, London (1884; the design was a collaboration with his brother Edward who died in 1880 before it was finished)
Dulwich Park (1884)
Charles Jr. was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1876, and was a member of the Society's Council in 1878. He was President of the Royal Institute of British Architects from 1876-79. He was also awarded the prestigious RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1877. His pupils included Sir Aston Webb (himself a later President of the RIBA and winner of the Royal Gold Medal).
Family
He lived in a large villa "Lapsewood" in Sydenham Hill. His son was Lt Col Arthur John Barry CBE, TD, MICE (b. 21 November 1859), civil engineer and architect. A. J. Barry collaborated on major international engineering projects with his uncle, Charles Jr.'s brother John Wolfe-Barry, and Bradford Leslie and was the author of "Railway Expansion in China and the Influence of Foreign Powers in its Development" [London, 1910].
References
1823 births
1900 deaths
Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal
Presidents of the Royal Institute of British Architects
19th-century English architects
Charles Jr. |
356701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashville | Ashville | Ashville or Asheville may refer to:
Places
United States
Ashville, Alabama
Ashville, Louisville, Kentucky
Ashville, New York
Asheville, North Carolina
Asheville metropolitan area
Asheville School
Asheville High School
Asheville Regional Airport
Ashville, Ohio
Ashville Depot, a former train station
Ashville, Pennsylvania
Elsewhere
Ashville, South Australia, Australia
Ashville, Manitoba, Canada
Ashville Formation, a geological formation in Canada
Ashville College, in Harrogate, England
Ships
Asheville-class gunboat
Asheville-class gunboat (1917)
, the name of several U.S. Navy ships
Other uses
See also
Ashville Historic District (disambiguation) |
356702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%20Schuster | Rudolf Schuster | Rudolf Schuster (born 4 January 1934) served as the second president of Slovakia, his term of office ran from 1999 to 2004. He was elected on 29 May 1999 and inaugurated on 15 June. In the presidential elections of April 2004, in which he sought re-election, Schuster was defeated. He received only 7.4% of the vote, with three other candidates (Ivan Gašparovič, Vladimír Mečiar and Eduard Kukan) receiving more than that. He was succeeded by Ivan Gašparovič.
Life and career
Schuster was born in Košice. From 1964 to 1990, he was a member of the Communist Party of Slovakia. Before becoming president, he was Mayor (Slovak: primátor) of Košice in 1983–1986 and 1994–1999 respectively. He was also the last Communist president of the Slovak National Council (1989–1990), Ambassador of Czechoslovakia to Canada (1990–1992) and a leader of the Party of Civic Understanding (SOP – Strana občianskeho porozumenia, 1998–1999).
He speaks Slovak, Czech, German (including Mantak dialect), Russian, English, and Hungarian fluently.
Schuster's father's family is of Carpathian German origin, while his mother's family is of Hungarian origin. Rudolf Schuster was married in 1961 to Irena Trojáková (died 2008) and he has two children (son Peter and daughter Ingrid) and two granddaughters. In his private life, he is a sports fan, a traveller and a writer. He is also a camera fan.
In 1998 he founded the centre-left Party of Civic Understanding (SOP – Strana občianskeho porozumenia).
In 1999 he received honorary citizenship from Miskolc, as recognition of the good cooperation between the city and Košice during his mayorship.
In 2004, Schuster sought re-election in the 2004 presidential election and received 7.4% of the votes.
Honours and awards
: Order of the Redeemer (2000)
: Order of the Star of Romania (2000)
: Knight Grand Cross of the Grand Order of King Tomislav ("For outstanding contribution to the promotion of friendship and development co-operation between the Republic of Croatia and the Slovak Republic." – Zagreb, 2 October 2001)
: Order of Merit (2001)
: Knight Grand Cross with Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (28 June 2002)
: Order of Isabella the Catholic (1 July 2002)
: Royal Order of the Seraphim (2002)
: Order of the White Eagle (2002)
: Hungarian Order of Merit (2003)
: Order of the Athir (2003)
: Order of the White Lion (2019)
See also
List of presidents of Slovakia
Slovakia presidential election, 1999
2004 Slovakia presidential election
List of leaders of Slovak parliaments
List of political parties in Slovakia
References
External links
President Rudolf Schuster‘s official webpage
|-
1934 births
Living people
Politicians from Košice
Slovak communists
Presidents of Slovakia
People of Hungarian German descent
Slovak people of German descent
Grand Crosses with Chain of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (civil)
Recipients of the Order of the Star of Romania
Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Communist Party of Czechoslovakia politicians
Ambassadors of Czechoslovakia to Canada
Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Recipients of the Order of the White Lion
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class |
356703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meirionnydd | Meirionnydd | Meirionnydd is a coastal and mountainous region of Wales. It has been a kingdom, a cantref, a district and, as Merionethshire, a county.
Kingdom
Meirionnydd (Meirion, with -ydd as a Welsh suffix of land, literally Land adjoined to Meirion) was a sub-kingdom of Gwynedd, founded according to legend by Meirion (derived from the Latin name Mariānus), a grandson of Cunedda, a warrior-prince who brought his family to Wales from the 'Old North' (northern England and southern Scotland today), probably in the early 5th century. His dynasty seems to have ruled there for the next four hundred years. The kingdom lay between the River Mawddach and the River Dovey, spreading in a north-easterly direction.
Cantref
The ancient name of the cantref was Cantref Orddwy (or "the cantref of the Ordovices"). The familiar name coming from Meiron's kingdom.
The cantref of Meirionnydd held the presumed boundaries of the previous kingdom but now as a fief of the Kingdom of Gwynedd where it continued to enjoy long spells of relative independence. It was divided into the commotes of Ystumanner (administered from Castell y Bere at Llanfihangel-y-Pennant) and Talybont (possibly centred on Llanegryn where there is a mound). It was abolished in 1284 following the Statute of Rhuddlan and reorganised with the addition of some neighbouring cantrefi to form the county of Merionethshire.
County
The borders of Meirionnydd were expanded as a county (both historic and administrative) to include the old cantrefi of Penllyn and Ardudwy (shown as Dunoding in the map of medieval cantrefi). It took the name Merionethshire under English Law. In 1974 the administrative county was merged with those of Caernarfon and Anglesey to create a new Gwynedd.
District
Meirionnydd was one of five districts of Gwynedd from 1974 to 1996. The district comprised the majority of the administrative county of Merionethshire and reverted to the Welsh spelling of the county's name.
The district was created by the Local Government Act 1972, and replaced the following local government areas of Merionethshire:
The urban districts of Bala, Barmouth, Dolgellau, Blaenau Ffestiniog and Tywyn
The rural districts of Deudraeth, Dolgellau and Penllyn
Meirionnydd District was abolished in 1996 by the Local Government (Wales) Act 1994, becoming part of the unitary authority of 'Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire', which was immediately renamed Gwynedd as the first act of the new council. An area committee of Gwynedd Council now covers the area.
References
Cantrefs
Districts of Gwynedd
Kingdoms of Wales
History of Gwynedd
Merionethshire
States and territories established in 1974
1974 establishments in Wales |
356704 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qenna | Qenna | Qenna was the name of a merchant in Ancient Egypt. Qenna's tomb contained the Papyrus of Qenna, a part of the Book of the Dead.
The papyrus is in the collection of the Royal Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, and is about 50 ft long. The papyrus includes spell 151, which refers to embalming.
References
Ancient Egyptians
Ancient businesspeople |
356705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewer%27s%20Dictionary%20of%20Phrase%20and%20Fable | Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable | Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, sometimes referred to simply as Brewer's, is a reference work containing definitions and explanations of many famous phrases, allusions, and figures, whether historical or mythical.
The "New Edition revised, corrected, and enlarged" from 1895 is now in the public domain, and Web-based versions are available online.
The most recent version is the 20th edition, published in November 2018 by Chambers Harrap Publishers.
History
Originally published in 1870 by the Reverend E. Cobham Brewer, it was aimed at the growing number of people who did not have a university education, but wanted to understand the origins of phrases and historical or literary allusions. The 'phrase' part of the title refers mainly to the explanation of various idioms and proverbs, while the "fable" part might more accurately be labelled "folklore" and ranges from classical mythology to relatively recent literature. On top of this, Brewer added notes on important historical figures and events, and other things which he thought would be of interest, such as Roman numerals.
Although intended as a comprehensive reference work, early editions of Brewer's are highly idiosyncratic, with certain editorial decisions suggestive of the author's personal bias. For instance, a list under the entry for John purported to show the bad luck associated with that name, ending "Certainly a disastrous list of Popes" despite several being described merely as "nonentities". Some entries seem so trivial as to be hardly worth including, and others are almost definitely apocryphal.
Despite this inconsistency, however, the book was a huge success, providing information often not included in more traditional dictionaries and encyclopedias. A "New Edition revised, corrected, and enlarged" of 1440 pages was published by the author in 1895, not long before he died. Since then, it has been continually republished, often in anastatic reprint, with the 15th edition being the first to make truly wide-scale changes to the content.
Editions
1st (1870): E. Cobham Brewer
(Several times reprinted, mostly with no date)
"New Edition revised, corrected, and enlarged" (1895): E. Cobham Brewer
(Reprints: 1896, 1897, 1898, 1900, 1901, 1902, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1909, and others with no date)
2nd (1953)
3rd (1954)
4th (1956)
5th (1959)
6th (1962)
7th (1963)
8th (1963)
9th (1965): John Freeman
10th (1968)
11th "Centenary Edition" (1970), revised by Ivor H. Evans.
14th (1989)
15th (1995): Adrian Room.
16th "Millenium Edition" (1999) : Adrian Room.
17th (2005): John Ayto.
18th (2009): Camilla Rockwood.
19th (2012): Susie Dent.
20th (2018): Susie Dent.
Brewer's Dictionary of Modern Phrase and Fable
This retitled and updated version, initially edited by Adrian Room, was first published in 2000 (). A second edition (), edited by Ian Crofton and John Ayto, was published on 30 November 2010. While this title is based on the structure of Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, it contains entries from 1900 onwards and exists alongside its parent volume as a separate work.
Other special editions
A variety of spin-off editions has been published in the past, some straying quite far from the theme of 'phrase and fable', such as Brewer's Dictionary of Cinema (1997) and William Donaldson's A–Z of 'roguish Britons', Brewer's Rogues, Villains and Eccentrics (2002). Brewer's Dictionary of London Phrase and Fable was published in 2009 and Brewer's Dictionary of Irish Phrase and Fable was reissued at the same time.
See also
Brewer's Dictionary of Irish Phrase and Fable
Chambers Harrap Publishers
A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar – also by Ebenezer Cobham Brewer
References
External links
Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (Philadelphia: Henry Altemus Company, 1898) "New Edition, Revised, Corrected and Enlarged": searchable web-format at Bartleby.com
Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953?) "Revised and Enlarged" edition: page scans at the Internet Archive
1870 books
Reference works in the public domain
English dictionaries |
356707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Bohemia%20and%20Moravia | Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia | The Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (, KSČM) is a communist party in the Czech Republic. As of 2021, KSČM has a membership of 28,715, and is a member party of The Left in the European Parliament – GUE/NGL in the European Parliament, and an observer member of the European Left Party. Sources variously describe the party as either left wing or far left on the political spectrum. It is one of the few former ruling parties in post-Communist Central Eastern Europe to have not dropped the Communist title from its name, although it has changed its party program to adhere to laws adopted after 1989.
For most of the first two decades after the Velvet Revolution, the party was politically isolated and accused of extremism, but it has moved closer to the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD). After the 2012 Czech regional elections, KSČM began governing in coalition with the ČSSD in 10 regions. It has never been part of a governing coalition in the executive branch but provided parliamentary support to Andrej Babiš' Second Cabinet until April 2021. The party's youth organisation was banned from 2006 to 2010, and there have been calls from other parties to outlaw the main party. Until 2013, it was the only political party in the Czech Republic printing its own newspaper, called Haló noviny. The party's two cherry logo comes from the song Le Temps des cerises, a revolutionary song associated with the Paris Commune.
History
The party was formed in 1989 by a congress of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), which decided to create a party for the territories of Bohemia and Moravia (including Czech Silesia), the areas that were to become the Czech Republic. The new party's organization was significantly more democratic and decentralized than the previous party, and gave local district branches of the party significant autonomy.
In 1990, KSČ was reorganized as a federation of KSČM and the Communist Party of Slovakia (KSS). Later, KSS changed its name to the Party of the Democratic Left, and the federation dissolved in 1992. During the party's first congress, held in Olomouc in October 1990, party leader Jiří Svoboda attempted to reform the party into a democratic socialist one, proposing a democratic socialist program and changing the name to the transitional Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia: Party of Democratic Socialism. Svoboda had to balance the criticisms of older, conservative communists, who made up a majority of the party's members, with the demands of an increasingly large and moderate bloc of members, led primarily by a group of young KSČM parliamentarians called the Democratic Left, who demanded the immediate social democratization of the party. Delegates approved the new program but rejected the name change.
During 1991 and 1992, factional tensions increased, with the party's conservative, anti-revisionist wing increasingly vocal in criticizing Svoboda. There was an increase in popularity of the anti-revisionist Marxist–Leninist clubs amongst rank-and-file party members. On the party's other wing, the Democratic Left became increasingly critical of the slow pace of the reforms and began demanding a referendum of members to change the name. In December 1991, the Democratic Left split off and formed the short-lived Party of Democratic Labour. The referendum on changing the name was held in 1992, with 75.94% voting not to change the name.
The party's second congress, held in Kladno in December 1992, showed the increasing popularity of the party's anti-revisionist wing. It passed resolutions reinterpreting the 1990 program as a "starting point" for KSČM, rather than a definitive statement of a post-communist program. Svoboda, who was hospitalized due to an attack by an anti-communist, could not attend the congress but was nevertheless overwhelmingly re-elected. After the party's second congress in 1992, several groups split away. A group of post-communist delegates split off and merged with the Party of Democratic Labour to form the Party of the Democratic Left (SDL). Several independent left-wing members who had participated with KSČM in the 1992 electoral pact, which was called the Left Bloc, left the party to form the Left Bloc Party. Both groups eventually merged into the Party of Democratic Socialism, which does some joint work, and co-operates with KSČM.
In 1993, Svoboda attempted to expel the members of the "For Socialism" platform, a group in the party that wanted a restoration of the pre-1989 Communist regime; however, with only the lukewarm support of KSČM's central committee, he briefly resigned. He withdrew his resignation after the central committee agreed to move the party's next congress forward to June 1993 to resolve the issues of its name and ideology. At the 1993 congress, held in Prostějov, Svoboda's proposals were overwhelmingly rejected by two-thirds majorities. Svoboda did not seek re-election as chairman, and neocommunist Miroslav Grebeníček was elected chairman. Grebeníček and his supporters were critical of what they termed the inadequacies of the pre-1989 regime but supported the retention of the party's communist character and program. The members of the "For Socialism" platform were expelled at the congress, with the existence of platforms in the party being banned altogether, on the grounds that they gave too much influence to minority groups. Svoboda left the party.
The expelled members of "For Socialism" formed the Party of Czechoslovak Communists, later renamed the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, which was led by Miroslav Štěpán. KSČM refuses to work with this group. The party was left on the sidelines for most of the first decade of the Czech Republic's existence. Václav Havel suspected KSČM was still an unreconstructed neo-Stalinist party and prevented it from having any influence during his presidency; however, the party provided the one-vote margin that elected Havel's successor Václav Klaus as president. After a long-running battle with the Ministry of the Interior, the Communist Youth Union led by Milan Krajča, was dissolved in 2006 for allegedly endorsing in its program the replacement of private with collective ownership of the means of production. The decision met with international protests.
In November 2008, the Czech Senate asked the Supreme Administrative Court to dissolve KSČM because of its political program, which the Senate argued contradicted the Constitution of the Czech Republic. 30 out of the 38 senators who were present agreed to this request, and expressed the view that the party's program did not reject violence as a means of attaining power and adopted The Communist Manifesto of Karl Marx; however, this was only a symbolic gesture, as according to the constitution only the cabinet may file a petition to the Supreme Administrative Court to dissolve a political party. For the first two decades after the end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia, the party was politically isolated. After the 2012 Czech regional elections, it started participating in coalitions with the Czech Social Democratic Party, forming part of the ruling coalition in 10 out of 13 regions. From 2018 to 2021, KSČM provided parliamentary support to Andrej Babiš' Second Cabinet.
After the party's poor performance in the 2021 Czech legislative election, in which KSČM failed to reach the 5% voting threshold and was excluded from representation in parliament for the first time in its history, Filip resigned as leader of the party. On 23 October 2021, Member of European Parliament Kateřina Konečná was elected as leader.
Ideology
As a communist party and the successor of the former ruling Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, its party platform promotes anti-capitalism and socialism through a Marxist lens. It holds Eurosceptic views in regards to the European Union.
Leaders
Electoral results
KSČM's strongest bases of support are in the regions hit by deindustrialization, particularly in the Karlovy Vary and Ústí nad Labem regions. In 2012, the party won a regional election for the first time in Ústí nad Labem. Its regional leader Oldřich Bubeníček subsequently became the first communist regional governor in the history of Czech Republic. The party is stronger among older than younger voters, with the majority of its membership over 60. The party is also stronger in small and medium-sized towns than in big cities, with Prague consistently being the party's weakest region.
Parliament
Chamber of Deputies
Notes
Senate
European Parliament
Local councils
Regional councils
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
KSČM website
Communist Youth Union website
1989 establishments in Czechoslovakia
Anti-capitalist political parties
Communist parties in the Czech Republic
Eurosceptic parties in the Czech Republic
Left-wing parties in the Czech Republic
Far-left politics in the Czech Republic
Marxist parties
Parties represented in the European Parliament
Party of the European Left observer parties
Political parties established in 1989
Political parties in Czechoslovakia
International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties |
356714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod%20Antipas | Herod Antipas | Herod Antipas (, Hērǭdēs Antipas; born before 20 BC – died after 39 AD), was a 1st-century ruler of Galilee and Perea, who bore the title of tetrarch ("ruler of a quarter") and is referred to as both "Herod the Tetrarch" and "King Herod" in the New Testament, although he never held the title of king. He was a son of Herod the Great and a grandson of Antipater the Idumaean. He is widely known today for accounts in the New Testament of his role in events that led to the executions of John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth. ()
Following the death of his father in 4 BC, Herod Antipas was recognized as tetrarch by Caesar Augustus, and subsequently by his own brother, the ethnarch Herod Archelaus. Antipas officially ruled Galilee and Perea as a client state of the Roman Empire. He was responsible for building projects at Sepphoris and Betharamphtha, and for the construction of his capital Tiberias on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. Named in honour of his patron, the emperor Tiberius, the city later became a centre of rabbinic learning after the Jewish-Roman wars (66-135 AD).
Antipas divorced his first wife Phasaelis, the daughter of King Aretas IV of Nabatea, in favour of Herodias, who had formerly been married to his half-brother Herod II. (Antipas was Herod the Great's son by Malthace, while Herod II was his son by Mariamne II.) According to the New Testament Gospels, it was John the Baptist's condemnation of this arrangement that led Antipas to have him arrested; John was subsequently put to death in Machaerus. Besides provoking his conflict with John the Baptist, the tetrarch's divorce added a personal grievance to previous disputes with Aretas over territory on the border of Perea and Nabatea. The result was a war that proved disastrous for Antipas; a Roman counter-offensive was ordered by Tiberius, but abandoned upon that emperor's death in 37 AD. In 39 AD Antipas was accused by his nephew Agrippa I of conspiracy against the Roman emperor Caligula, who sent him into exile in Spain, according to Josephus. Accompanied there by Herodias, he died at an unknown date.
The Gospel of Luke states that Jesus was first brought before Pontius Pilate for trial, since Pilate was the governor of Roman Judea, which encompassed Jerusalem where Jesus was arrested. Pilate initially handed him over to Antipas, in whose territory Jesus had been most active, but Antipas sent him back to Pilate's court.
Biography
Early life
Antipas was a son of Herod the Great, who had become king of Judea, and Malthace, who was from Samaria. His date of birth is unknown but was before 20 BC. Antipas, his full brother Archelaus and his half-brother Philip, were educated in Rome.
Antipas was not Herod's first choice of heir. That honour fell to Aristobulus and Alexander, Herod's sons by the Hasmonean princess Mariamne. It was only after they were executed (c. 7 BC), and Herod's oldest son Antipater was convicted of trying to poison his father (5 BC), that the now elderly Herod fell back on his youngest son Antipas, revising his will to make him heir. During his illness in 4 BC, Herod had yet another change of heart about the succession. According to the final version of his will, Antipas' elder brother Archelaus was now to become king of Judea, Idumea and Samaria, while Antipas would rule Galilee and Perea with the lesser title of tetrarch. Philip was to receive Gaulanitis (the Golan Heights), Batanaea (southern Syria), Trachonitis and Auranitis (Hauran).
Because of Judea's status as a Roman client kingdom, Herod's plans for the succession had to be ratified by Augustus. The three heirs therefore travelled to Rome to make their claims, Antipas arguing he ought to inherit the whole kingdom and the others maintaining that Herod's final will ought to be honoured. Despite qualified support for Antipas from Herodian family members in Rome, who favoured direct Roman rule of Judea but considered Antipas preferable to his brother, Augustus largely confirmed the division of territory set out by Herod in his final will. Archelaus had, however, to be content with the title of ethnarch rather than king.
Reign
4 BC to c. 39 AD
After the death of Herod the Great in 4 BC, Augustus confirmed the testament of the dead king by making Antipas tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, a region he would rule for the next forty-two years. The two territories were separated by the region of the Decapolis, with Galilee to the north and Perea to the south (see map). Threats to stability in both areas would have been clear to Antipas when he took office. While he had been making his case to Augustus in Rome, dissidents led by Judas, son of Hezekiah, had attacked the palace of Sepphoris in Galilee, seizing money as well as weapons which they used to terrorize the area. In a counterattack ordered by Quinctilius Varus, Roman governor of Syria, Sepphoris was destroyed by fire and its inhabitants sold as slaves. Perea, meanwhile, bordered on the kingdom of Nabatea, which had long had uneasy relations with Romans and Jews.
Part of Antipas' solution was to follow in his father's footsteps as a builder. He rebuilt and fortified Sepphoris, while also adding a wall to Betharamphtha in Perea. The latter city was renamed Livias after Augustus' wife Livia, and later Julias after his daughter. However, the tetrarch's most noted construction was his capital on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, Tiberias, so named to honour his patron Tiberius, who had succeeded Augustus as emperor in 14 AD. Residents could bathe nearby at the warm springs of Emmaus, and by the time of the First Jewish-Roman War the city's buildings included a stadium, a royal palace and a sanctuary for prayer. It gave its name to the sea and later became a centre of rabbinic learning after the Jewish-Roman wars. However, pious Jews at first refused to live in it because it was built atop a graveyard and therefore a source of ritual impurity. Antipas had to colonize it with a mixture of foreigners, forced migrants, poor people, and freed slaves.
At other times Antipas was more sensitive to Jewish tradition. His coins carried no images, which would have violated Jewish prescriptions against idolatry. When Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea from 26 AD to 36 AD, caused offence by placing votive shields in the Antonia palace at Jerusalem, Antipas and his brothers successfully petitioned for their removal.
John the Baptist and Jesus
Marriage to Herodias
Early in his reign, Antipas had married the daughter of King Aretas IV of Nabatea. However, on a visit to Rome he stayed with his half-brother Herod II and there he fell in love with his wife, Herodias, granddaughter of Herod the Great and Mariamne I, and the two agreed to marry after Herod Antipas had divorced his wife. Aretas' daughter learned of the plan and asked permission to travel to the frontier fortress of Machaerus, whence Nabatean forces escorted her to her father. With his daughter safe in his custody, Aretas now could declare war on Herod.
It is generally agreed that the war, in which Herod was defeated, occurred in 36 AD, a year before the death of the emperor Tiberius. A point of contention today is how long before this date Herod's marriage to Herodias took place. Some surmise that the marriage of Antipas and Herodias took place shortly before the war in about 34 AD, after the death of Philip, but others have pointed to Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews (Book 18, chapter 5, paragraph 4) comment that Herodias "divorced herself from her husband while he was alive" to argue that it took place before Herod II's death, in about 27 AD, thus making it possible for Jesus to have been born in the reign of Herod the Great (as indicated by the Gospel of Matthew) and to have died in his early 30s (as indicated by the Gospel of Luke).
John's ministry and execution
Antipas faced more immediate problems in his own tetrarchy after John the Baptist, in 28/29 AD according to the Gospel of Luke (or 27 AD, if the co-regency of Augustus and Tiberius is included in Luke's reckoning of time, for which there is some evidence), began a ministry of preaching and baptism by the Jordan River, which marked the western edge of Antipas' territory of Perea. The Gospels state that John attacked the tetrarch's marriage as contrary to Jewish law (it was incestuous, as Herodias was also Antipas' niece, but also John criticized the fact that she was his brother's wife (), (lending credence to the belief that Antipas and Herodias married while Herod II was still alive), while Josephus says that John's public influence made Antipas fearful of rebellion. John was imprisoned in Machaerus and executed. According to Matthew and Mark, Herod was reluctant to order John's death but was compelled by Herodias' daughter (unnamed in the text but named by Josephus as Salome), to whom he had promised any reward, up to half his kingdom, she chose as a result of her dancing for guests at his birthday banquet.
Jesus' ministry and trial
Among those baptized by John was Jesus of Nazareth, who began his own ministry in Galilee, causing Antipas, according to Matthew and Mark, to fear that John had been raised from the dead. Luke alone among the Gospels states that a group of Pharisees warned Jesus that Antipas was plotting his death, whereupon Jesus denounced the tetrarch as a "fox" and declared that he, Jesus, would not fall victim to such a plot because "it cannot be that a prophet should perish away from Jerusalem". Luke also credits the tetrarch with a role in Jesus' trial. According to Luke, Pilate, on learning that Jesus was a Galilean and therefore under Herod's jurisdiction, sent him to Antipas, who was also in Jerusalem at the time. Initially, Antipas was pleased to see Jesus, hoping to see him perform a miracle, but when Jesus remained silent in the face of questioning, Antipas mocked him and sent him back to Pilate. Luke says that these events improved relations between Pilate and Herod despite their earlier enmity.
Legal aspects
The reason for Antipas' involvement has been debated. Theodor Mommsen argued that the normal legal procedure of the early Roman empire was for defendants to be tried by the authorities of their home provinces. A. N. Sherwin-White re-examined the relevant legal texts and concluded that trials were generally based on the location of the alleged crimes, but that there was a possibility of referral to a province of origin in special cases. If Pilate was not required to send Jesus to Antipas, he may have been making a show of courtesy to the tetrarch and trying to avoid the need to deal with the Jewish authorities himself. When Jesus was sent back, Pilate could still have represented Antipas' failure to convict as support for his own view (according to Luke) that Jesus was not guilty of a capital offence, thus allowing him to avoid responsibility for Jesus' crucifixion.
Historicity of Gospel narrative
Due to the lack of historical evidence, it has been suggested that Jesus' trial by Herod Antipas is unhistorical. For example, Robin Lane Fox, an English historian, alleges that the story was invented based on Psalm 2, in which "the kings of the earth" are described as opposing the Lord's "anointed", and also served to show that the authorities failed to find grounds for convicting Jesus.
Later reign
Between 34 and 36 AD the conflict with Aretas of Nabatea, caused by Antipas' divorce from Aretas' daughter and the rulers' disagreement over territory, developed into open war. Antipas' army suffered a devastating defeat after fugitives from the former tetrarchy of Philip sided with the Nabateans, and Antipas was forced to appeal to Tiberius for help. The emperor ordered Lucius Vitellius, governor of Syria, to march against Aretas and ensure that he was captured or killed. Vitellius obediently mobilized two legions, sending them on a detour around Judea while he joined Antipas in attending a festival at Jerusalem. While staying there he learned of the death of Tiberius (16 March 37 AD), concluded he lacked the authority to go to war, and recalled his troops.
Josephus implies that Vitellius was unwilling to cooperate with the tetrarch because of a grudge he bore from an earlier incident. According to his account, Antipas provided hospitality at a conference on the Euphrates between Vitellius and King Artabanus III of Parthia, and after Vitellius' diplomatic success anticipated the governor in sending a report to Tiberius. However, other sources place the meeting between Vitellius and Artabanus under Tiberius' successor Caligula, leading some historians to think that Josephus misdated it to the reign of Tiberius or conflated it with an earlier diplomatic meeting involving Antipas and Vitellius.
Exile and death
Antipas' fall from power was due to Caligula and to his own nephew Agrippa, brother of Herodias. When Agrippa fell into debt during the reign of Tiberius despite his connections with the imperial family, Herodias persuaded Antipas to provide for him, but the two men quarrelled and Agrippa departed. After Agrippa was heard expressing to his friend Caligula his eagerness for Tiberius to die and leave room for Caligula to succeed him, he was imprisoned. When Caligula finally became emperor in 37 AD, he not only released his friend but granted him rule of Philip's former tetrarchy (slightly extended), with the title of king.
Josephus relates that Herodias, jealous at Agrippa's success, persuaded Antipas to ask Caligula for the title of king for himself. However, Agrippa simultaneously presented the emperor with a list of charges against the tetrarch: allegedly, he had conspired against Tiberius with Sejanus (executed in 31 AD) and was now plotting against Caligula with Artabanus. As evidence, Agrippa noted that Antipas had a stockpile of weapons sufficient for 70,000 men. Hearing Antipas' admission to this last charge, Caligula decided to believe the allegations of conspiracy. In the summer of 39 AD, Antipas' money and territory were turned over to Agrippa, while Antipas was exiled. Lugdunum, identified with Lugdunum Convenarum, now Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges, was the place of his exile, as recorded by Josephus in Antiquities. Caligula offered to allow Herodias, as Agrippa's sister, to retain her property. However, she chose instead to join her husband in exile.
Antipas died in exile. The 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio seems to imply that Caligula had him killed, but this is usually treated with skepticism by modern historians.
Legacy
Among the followers of Jesus and members of the early Christian movement mentioned in the New Testament are Joanna, the wife of one of Antipas' stewards, and Manaen, a "foster-brother" or "companion" of Antipas (both translations are possible for the Greek ). It has been conjectured that these were sources for early Christian knowledge of Antipas and his court. In any case, Antipas featured prominently in the New Testament in connection with the deaths of John the Baptist and Jesus. The pseudepigraphical Gospel of Peter went further, stating that it was Antipas rather than Pilate who ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. In line with the work's anti-Judaic theme, it pointedly remarked that Herod and "the Jews", unlike Pilate, refused to "wash their hands" of responsibility for the death.
Antipas has appeared in a large number of representations of the passion of Jesus – most notably portrayed by Frank Thring in King of Kings (1961), José Ferrer in The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965), and Christopher Plummer in Jesus of Nazareth (1977). Often, as in the films Jesus Christ Superstar (1973) and The Passion of the Christ (2004), Antipas is portrayed as effeminate (Antipas was played in those films by Joshua Mostel and Luca De Dominicis respectively); the origin of this tradition may have been Antipas' manipulation by his wife Herodias, as well as Christ's description of him as a "fox" in Luke 13:32, using a feminine word in the original Greek. In Salome (1953), he is portrayed by Charles Laughton, opposite Dame Judith Anderson as Herodias and Rita Hayworth in the title role. He features in Salomé (1923) by Mitchell Lewis. He also features in The Secret Magdalene by Ki Longfellow. In Longfellow's view, he was not effeminate so much as rash, ineffective, and when backed into a corner by his furious ex-father-in-law, willing to do anything to save himself.
In Gustave Flaubert's "Herodias" (1877), Herodias uses her long-concealed daughter, Salome, to manipulate Herod sexually for her own political purposes. This conceit (original with Flaubert) inspired Oscar Wilde's play "Salome" (1891), the first version of the legend to show Salome with a will of her own, opposing her mother and lusting after John the Baptist herself. Naive and puzzled by her stepfather's lascivious attentions, the young girl arouses Herod in order to avenge herself on the prophet who has refused her advances. Flaubert's novella was turned into an opera by Jules Massenet (1881) in which Salome, ignorant of her royal parentage, becomes a disciple of the Baptist, who is then executed by the lustful and jealous Herod (a baritone). In Richard Strauss's operatic setting of Wilde's play (1905), Herod, one of the most difficult tenor roles in the repertory, is depicted as befuddled by both drink and lust, and in bitter conflict with his wife (as in Flaubert). At the end of the opera (as in Wilde's play), disgusted with Salome's behavior with the head of John, he orders her execution.
Flaubert's novella was also, very roughly, the basis of the 1953 film "Salome," a Rita Hayworth vehicle directed by William Dieterle, in which the girl is implausibly unaware that her dancing will be used by her mother (Judith Anderson) to secure Herod's (Charles Laughton) consent to the execution of John the Baptist (Alan Badel).
Family tree
See also
Herodian dynasty
Herodian kingdom
List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources
Notes
References
Ancient
The Bible: ; ; ; , , , , , ; John ; , .
Dio 59.8.2, 59.27.2–3.
Josephus, Antiquities 17–18, War 1–2.
Gospel of Peter 1.
Philo, On the Embassy to Gaius 299–305.
Suetonius, Caligula 14.3.
Modern
2nd rev. ed. (Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2010) Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2.Reihe (WUNT II), 215.
External links
Galilee under Antipas and Antipas entries in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
1st-century BC births
1st-century deaths
1st-century BC Herodian rulers
1st-century Herodian rulers
Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire
Herodian dynasty
People in the canonical gospels
Jesus and history
Roman client rulers
1st-century BC rulers in Asia
1st-century monarchs in the Middle East
1st-century BCE Jews
1st-century Jews |
356715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosice | Kosice | Kosice or Košice may refer to:
Košice, the second-largest city in Slovakia
Kosice, Poland
Several locations in the Czech Republic:
Košice (Kutná Hora District), a village in Central Bohemian Region
Košice (Tábor District), a village in South Bohemian Region
Kosice (Hradec Králové Region), a village in Hradec Králové Region
Gyula Kosice (1924–2016), Argentinian sculptor
Košice Self-governing Region
See also
cs:Košice (rozcestník)
de:Košice (Begriffsklärung)
eo:Košice (apartigilo)
it:Košice (disambigua)
ro:Districtul Košice |
356716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasha | Yasha | Yasha may refer to:
People with the name
Gu Yasha (born 1990), Chinese footballer
Nidhi Yasha (born 1983), Indian costume designer
Yasha Asley (born 2003), British mathematics child prodigy
Yasha Khalili (born 1988), Iranian footballer
Yasha Levine, Russian-American investigative journalist and author
Yasha Malekzad (born 1984), English music video director and producer
Yasha Manasherov (born 1980), Israeli Greco-Roman amateur wrestler
Arts and entertainment
Anime and manga
Yasha (manga), a Japanese manga series by Akimi Yoshida
Yasha Gozen, a Japanese one-shot manga by Ryoko Yamagishi
Yashahime: Princess Half-Demon, a Japanese anime series and the sequel to Inuyasha
Fictional characters
Yasha, in the 1904 Russian play The Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov
Yasha, in the 1990 Soviet adventure film Passport
Yasha, in the 1993 Japanese anime film Yu Yu Hakusho: The Movie
Yasha, in the 2012 Japanese action video game Asura's Wrath
Yasha Nydoorin, in the American D&D web series Critical Role
Yasha-ō, in the Japanese manga series RG Veda
Other uses
Yasha or yaksha, nature-spirits in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, sometimes depicted as demonic warriors
See also
Yash (disambiguation)
Yaksha (disambiguation)
Yeshua (disambiguation) |
356717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror%20Business | Horror Business | "Horror Business" is the third single released by the American horror punk band Misfits. It was released on June 26, 1979 through vocalist Glenn Danzig's own label, Plan 9 Records, and is commonly said to have been inspired by the unsolved murder of Nancy Spungen. The B-side of the single features the songs "Teenagers from Mars" and "Children in Heat".
The single's cover artwork features a skeletal figure inspired by the titular character from the 1946 film serial The Crimson Ghost. The figure became a mascot for the band, and its skull image would serve as the Misfits' logo for the rest of their career.
Background and recording
On October 12, 1978, the body of Nancy Spungen was discovered in the bathroom of her room at Hotel Chelsea in Manhattan, New York City. Spungen had been living at the hotel with her boyfriend, Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious. Her body was found with a fatal stab wound in her abdomen, and Vicious purportedly owned the knife that made the wound. Vicious was arrested and charged with second degree murder, and after pleading not guilty, he was released on bail, awaiting trial. On the evening of February 1, 1979, a small group of Vicious's friends, including Misfits bassist Jerry Only, gathered to celebrate Vicious having made bail at his new girlfriend Michelle Robinson's Greenwich Village apartment. Vicious had undergone a detoxification program during his time in jail at Rikers Island, but at the dinner gathering, Vicious had English photographer Peter "Kodick" Gravelle deliver him heroin. Vicious died of an overdose at some point during the night, and was discovered by his mother, Anne Beverley, and Robinson the following morning.
Prior to Vicious's death, the Misfits were rumored to potentially back Vicious on his proposed debut solo album. After learning of his death, Only helped Beverley collect Vicious's possessions, and invited her to attend a Misfits recording session. "Horror Business", "Teenagers from Mars", and "Children in Heat" were recorded from January 26 to February 5, 1979 at C.I. Studios in New York, where the band had recorded their proposed debut album Static Age a year prior. Beverley attended at least one of the sessions. Writer and vocalist Glenn Danzig insisted that the band record as many tracks as possible during their allotted time in the studio in an effort to save money.
The title track, "Horror Business", contains lyrics such as "You don't go in the bathroom with me" and "I'll put a knife right in you". Because of such lyrics, along with the connections between the Misfits and Vicious, the song is commonly said to have been based on the unsolved murder of Spungen. However, the song's lyrics have also been noted as possible references to the 1960 film Psycho, which features a scene involving a character being stabbed to death in a bathroom. The line "Psycho '78", which also appears in the song, has been interpreted as transposing the year in which the film was released (as well as when the film's narrative takes place) to the year that the song was recorded.
Release
The songs "Horror Business" and "Teenagers from Mars" were considered for inclusion in a 1979 12" record which would have also featured the song "Who Killed Marilyn?". An acetate disc of this proposed release was pressed, but completing a run of 12" records for the release was deemed to be too expensive, and so the release was scrapped.
The first pressing of the "Horror Business" single, issued by Danzig's own label Plan 9 Records on June 26, 1979, consisted of 25 sleeveless black 7" vinyl copies. The second pressing, from August 1979, consisted of 2,000 copies on yellow vinyl. Due to a pressing error, approximately 20 copies had the track "Horror Business" on both sides, rather than "Horror Business" on the A-side and "Teenagers from Mars" and "Children in Heat" on the B-side. Many copies contained an insert with a fabricated story claiming that the band had recorded the single in an abandoned haunted house in New Jersey, and that, when later mixing the tapes at a recording studio in New York City, they heard strange voices and noises in the background of the recordings. According to a 1993 interview with Jerry Only:
What happened was, there was a weird sound on there, and we didn't know where the hell it came from. So we said, "What are we gonna do? Are we gonna remix it?" I said, "Well, I don't got no more money. This is it. You gotta like what you got." We thought about it, and we thought, we don't want everybody to think we're a bunch of jerks. So I think I mentioned it, "Let's just say it was recorded in a haunted house. Everybody'll love that!"
The songs "Horror Business", "Teenagers from Mars", and "Children in Heat" have been re-released multiple times since the single was first issued. In 1980, the songs were included on the Misfits' EP Beware. In 1986, "Horror Business" and "Teenagers from Mars" were included as tracks on the compilation album Misfits, also known as Collection I. A live version of "Horror Business" was included on the EP and album Evilive, released in 1982 and 1987, respectively. "Children in Heat" was re-issued in 1995 on the compilation album Collection II. These releases were all included in the 1996 boxed set The Misfits. "Teenagers from Mars" was also included on the album Static Age, which was part of the boxed set and which received a standalone release in 1997.
Cover artwork
The single's cover artwork features an image of the eponymous character from the 1946 film serial The Crimson Ghost. The Misfits had first made use of the character's likeness in a flyer promoting one of their gigs on March 28, 1979 at Max's Kansas City, after Danzig and Only came across a picture of the Crimson Ghost while searching for images to silkscreen on T-shirts.
The "Horror Business" single marks the first time that the Misfits had incorporated the character's likeness into the cover artwork of one of their releases, and the character's skull-like visage would become a recognizable mascot and logo for the band throughout their career. The back cover of the single features black-and-white portraits of the individual band members, along with a rendering of Lon Chaney as the Phantom from the 1925 film The Phantom of the Opera.
Critical reception
In his book This Music Leaves Stains: The Complete Story of the Misfits, author James Greene Jr. writes of the single as a whole: "While more muddled production-wise than 'Bullet', 'Horror Business' is just as arresting as its predecessor [...] 'Horror Business' was greeted by the growing Misfits fan base as an instant classic." He goes on to note that the title track "offers a bluesy feel at times, almost as if nothing more is at stake than the melody."
Dan Ozzi of Diffuser.fm ranked "Horror Business" #7 on his list of the 10 best Misfits songs, and noted the "vague" nature of the track's lyrics. Eduardo Rivadavia of Ultimate Classic Rock also ranked the song #7 on his list of the top 10 Misfits songs, comparing the track's "knuckle-scraping riffs" and Danzig's "distinctively punchy pronunciation" to the music of the Ramones. Aaron Lariviere of Stereogum ranked the track #9 on his list of the best Misfits songs, calling it an example of a Misfits song with lyrics that are "just awesome".
Personnel
The Misfits
Glenn Danzig – vocals
Bobby Steele – guitar
Jerry Only – bass guitar
Joey Image – drums
Production
Dave Achelis – producer
Rich Flores – mastering
See also
Misfits discography
References
Further reading
Songs about crime
Misfits (band) songs
Horror punk songs
Songs written by Glenn Danzig
1979 singles |
356718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock%20therapy%20%28economics%29 | Shock therapy (economics) | In economics, shock therapy is the sudden release of price and currency controls (economic liberalization), withdrawal of state subsidies, and immediate trade liberalization within a country, usually also including large-scale privatization of previously public-owned assets.
Overview
Shock therapy is an economic program intended to transition a planned economy or developmentalist economy to a free market economy through sudden and dramatic neoliberal reform. Shock therapy policies generally include ending price controls, stopping government subsidies, moving state owned industries to the private sector and tighter fiscal policies, such as higher tax rates and lowered government spending.
The term was popularized by Naomi Klein. In her 2007 book The Shock Doctrine, she argues that neoliberal free market policies (as advocated by the economist Milton Friedman) have risen to prominence globally because of a strategy of "shock therapy". She argues these policies are often unpopular, result in greater inequality and are accompanied by political and social "shocks" such as military coups, state sponsored terror, sudden unemployment and the suppression of labor. Johan Norberg of the Cato Institute criticized the book, saying that the concept of shock therapy is falsely attributed to Friedman. According to Norberg, Friedman's quote ("Only a crisis—actual or perceived—produces real change") is taken out of context and misinterpreted. Klein's response argues that Norberg is "vastly inflating the role I attribute to Milton Friedman."
The economist Jeffrey Sachs (sometimes credited with coining the term) says he never picked the term "shock therapy", does not much like it, and asserts that the term "was something that was overlaid by journalism and public discussion" and that the term "sounds a lot more painful in a way than what it is". Sachs' ideas on what has been referred by non-economists as "shock therapy" were based on studying historic periods of monetary and economic crisis and noting that a decisive stroke could end monetary chaos, often in a day.
The first instance of shock therapy was the neoliberal reforms of Chile in 1975, carried out after the military coup by Augusto Pinochet. The reforms were based on the liberal economic ideas centered on the University of Chicago.
The term is also applied to Bolivia's case. Bolivia successfully tackled hyperinflation in 1985 under President Victor Paz Estenssoro and Minister of Planning Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, using Sachs' ideas. In particular, Sachs and Sanchez de Lozada cited West Germany as inspiration where, during 1947–48, price controls and government support were withdrawn over a very short period, kick-starting the German economy and completing its transition from an authoritarian post-War state.
Economic liberalism rose to prominence after the 1970s and liberal shock therapy became increasingly used as a response to economic crises, for example by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Liberal shock therapy became very controversial, with its proponents arguing that it helped to end economic crises, stabilise economies and pave the way for economic growth, while its critics (like Joseph Stiglitz) believed that it helped deepen them unnecessarily and created unnecessary social suffering.
In Russia and other post-Communist states, neoliberal reforms based on the Washington Consensus resulted in a surge in excess mortality and decreasing life expectancy, along with rising economic inequality and poverty. The Gini ratio increased by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. Some countries that used shock therapy (e.g., Poland, Czech Republic) did better than those that did not. The average post-communist country had returned to 1989 levels of per-capita GDP by 2005, although some are still far behind that. To further cloud understanding, China made its highly successful transition in a gradualist fashion. According to William Easterly, successful market economies rest on a framework of law, regulation, and established practice that cannot be instantaneously created in a society that was formerly authoritarian, heavily centralised, and subject to state ownership of assets. German historian Philipp Ther asserted that the imposition of shock therapy had little to do with future economic growth.
History
West Germany 1948
Background
Germany ended the European Theatre of World War II with its unconditional surrender on the 8 May 1945. It faced war damage to its economy and the problems of mass migration due to the expulsion of ethnic Germans from areas east of the Oder-Neisse Line.
April 1945 to July 1947 saw the Allied occupation of Germany implement Joint Chiefs of Staff directive 1067 (JCS 1067). This directive aimed to transfer Germany's economy from one centred on heavy industry to a pastoral one to prevent Germany from having the capacity for war. Civilian industries that might have military potential, which in the modern era of "total war" included virtually all, were severely restricted. The restriction of the latter was set to Germany's approved peacetime needs, which were set on the average European standard. To achieve this, each type of industry was subsequently reviewed to see how many factories Germany required under these minimum level of industry requirements. In May 1946, the first plan stated that German heavy industry must be lowered to 50% of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed manufacturing plants. Restrictions on steel followed.
It soon became obvious that this policy was not sustainable. Germany could not grow enough food for itself and malnutrition was becoming increasingly common. The European post-war economic recovery did not materialise and it became increasingly obvious that the European economy had depended on German industry.
In July 1947, President Harry S. Truman rescinded on "national security grounds" the punitive JCS 1067, which had directed the U.S. forces of occupation in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."
By 1948, Germany suffered from rampant hyperinflation. The currency of the time (the Reichsmark) had no public confidence, and thanks to that and price controls, black market trading boomed and bartering proliferated. Banks were over their heads in debt and surplus currency abounded.
However, thanks to the introduction of JCS 1779 and the first Allied attempts to set up German governance, something could be done about this. Ludwig Erhard, an economist, who had spent much time working on the problem of post war recovery, had worked his way up the administration created by the occupying American forces until he became the Director of Economics in the Bizonal Economic Council in the joint British and American occupied zones (which later, with the addition of the French occupied territory, became the basis for West Germany). He was placed in charge of currency reform and became a central figure in events that were to follow.
Economic reforms
In spring of 1948, the Allies decided to reform the currency. In preparation for this, a new central bank system was established in West Germany with independent Land Central Banks and the Bank deutscher Länder with headquarters in Frankfurt am Main.
Currency reform took effect on June 20, 1948, through the introduction of the Deutsche Mark to replace the Reichsmark and by transferring to the Bank deutscher Länder the sole right to print money. Each person received a per capita allowance of 60 DM, payable in two installments (40 DM and 20 DM) and business quota of 60 DM per employee.
Under the German Currency Conversion Law on 27 June, private non-bank credit balances were converted at a rate of 10 RM to 1 DM, with half remaining in a frozen bank account. Although the money stock was very small in terms of national product, the adjustment in the price structure immediately led to sharp price increases, fuelled by the high velocity of money through the system. As a result, on 4 October, the military governments wiped out 70% of the remaining frozen balances, resulting in an effective exchange of 10:0.65. Holders of financial assets (including many small-time savers) were dispossessed and the banks' debt in Reichsmarks was eliminated, transferred instead into claims on the Lander and later the Federal Government. Wages, rents, pensions and other recurring liabilities were transferred at 1:1.
On the day of the currency reform, Ludwig Erhard announced, despite the reservations of the Allies, that rationing would be considerably relaxed and price controls abolished.
Results
In the short term, the currency reforms and abolition of price controls helped end hyperinflation. The new currency enjoyed considerable confidence and was accepted by the public as a medium of payment. The currency reforms had ensured that money was once more scarce, and the relaxation of price controls created incentives for production, sales and earning this money. The removal of price controls also meant shops filled up with goods again, which was a huge psychological factor in the adoption of the new currency.
In the long term, these reforms helped set the stage for the Wirtschaftswunder (German for economic miracle) in the 1950s.
Chile 1975
Economic reforms
The government welcomed foreign investment and eliminated protectionist trade barriers, forcing Chilean businesses to compete with imports on an equal footing, or else go out of business. The main copper company, Codelco, remained in government hands due to the nationalization of copper completed by Salvador Allende, however, private companies were allowed to explore and develop new mines. Copper resources were, however, declared "inalienable" by the 1980 Constitution.
In the short term, the reforms stabilized the economy.
In the long term, Chile has had higher GDP growth than its neighboring countries, but with a noticeable increase of income inequality.
Bolivia 1985
The term shock therapy originates from Bolivia's tackling of hyper-inflation in 1985, and was thought to have been coined by the media. On 29 August, just three weeks after the election of Víctor Paz Estenssoro as President, and the appointment of Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, the architect of shock therapy, as Planning Minister, Decree 21060 was passed. This decree tackled all aspects of the Bolivian economy and ended the hyper-inflation.
Background
Between 1979 and 1982, Bolivia was ruled by a series of coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments, including the notorious dictatorship of Luis García Meza Tejada. This period of political instability set the stage for the hyperinflation that later crippled the country. In October 1982, the military convened a Congress elected in 1980 to lead choose a new Chief Executive. The country elected Hernán Siles Zuazo, under whose term the galloping hyperinflationary process started. Zuazo received scant support from the political parties or members of congress, most of whom were eager to flex their newly acquired political muscles after so many years of authoritarianism. Zuazo refused to take extra-constitutional powers (as previous military governments had done in similar crises) and concentrated on preserving the democracy instead, shortening his term by one year in response to his unpopularity and the crisis racking his country. On 6 August 1985, President Víctor Paz Estenssoro was elected. He appointed his President of the Senate, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, as Planning Minister with a mandate to fix the economy.
Prelude to Decree 21060
Decree 21060 was the famous decree that covered all aspects of the Bolivian economy, later referred to as shock therapy. In the run-up to the decree, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada recalls what the new government set out to do:
In the three weeks between the inauguration of the President and decree 21060, he notes:
Once they had decided to act, de Lozada recalls that
It is notable that de Lozada viewed shock therapy as an issue of political credibility, and less an economic issue as Sachs, its economic pioneer, did. Like Sachs, he was strongly influenced by the German government in 1947, but noted that they, like the new Bolivian government of Victor Paz, were a new government that acted decisively in the first 100 days, resolving the economic situation.
Decree 21060
Decree 21060 included the following measures:
Allowing the peso to float.
Ending price controls and eliminating subsidies to the public sector.
Laying off two-thirds of the employees of the state oil and tin companies, and freezing the pay of the remaining employees and public sector workers.
Liberalising import tariffs by imposing a uniform 20% tariff.
Stopping the payment of foreign debt under a deal negotiated with the IMF.
Results
In the short term, the decree smothered hyperinflation. Within a few months, inflation had dropped to between 10 and 20 percent. The crash of the tin market in October of the same year and the so-called reforms led to an estimated unemployment rate of 21.5 percent by 1987 (the unemployment rate had risen steadily from 5.5 percent in 1978 to 10.9 percent in 1982, 15.5 percent in 1984, and 20 percent in 1986).
Post-Communist states
The next important chapter in the history of shock therapy was the collapse of communism in Europe in 1989. This left many post-communist states in central and eastern Europe with centralised authoritarian economies that had to transition to decentralised, market-orientated capitalist economies.
Inspired by Bolivia's example, and advised by institutions like the International Monetary Fund and individuals like Jeffrey Sachs, many countries chose shock therapy to shake off the economic lethargy of the communist era and transition to the capitalist systems. These transitions provide an interesting and important view into shock therapy and its consequences, especially when contrasted with China, which began a gradualist transition (the opposite of the shock therapy approach) in 1978 under Deng Xiaoping.
Advocates of shock therapy view Poland as the success story of shock therapy in the post-communist states and point out that shock therapy was not applied appropriately in Russia, while critics point out that Poland's reforms were the most gradualist of all the countries and compare China's reforms with those of Russia and their vastly different effects.
Background in Poland
After the failure of the Communist government in the elections of June 4, 1989, it became clear that the previous regime was no longer legitimate. The unofficial talks at Magdalenka and then the Polish Round Table talks of 1989 allowed for a peaceful transition of power to the democratically elected government.
The economic situation was that inflation was high, peaking at around 600%, and the majority of state-owned monopolies and holdings were largely ineffective and completely obsolete in terms of technology. Although there was practically no unemployment in Poland, wages were low and the shortage economy led to a lack of even the most basic foodstuffs in the shops. Unlike the other post-communist countries, however, Poland did have some experience with a capitalist economy, as there was still private property in agriculture and food was still sold in farmers' markets.
In September 1989 a commission of experts was formed under the presidency of Leszek Balcerowicz, Poland's leading economist, Minister of Finance and deputy Premier of Poland. Among the members of the commission were Jeffrey Sachs, Stanisław Gomułka, Stefan Kawalec and Wojciech Misiąg.
Balcerowicz Plan
On October 6 the program was presented on public television and in December the Sejm passed a packet of 11 acts, all of which were signed by the president on December 31, 1989. These were:
Act on Financial Economy Within State-owned Companies, which allowed for state-owned businesses to declare bankruptcy and ended the fiction by which companies were able to exist even if their effectiveness and accountability was close to none.
Act on Banking Law, which forbade financing the state budget deficit by the national central bank and forbade the issue of new currency.
Act on Credits, which abolished the preferential laws on credits for state-owned companies and tied interest rates to inflation.
Act on Taxation of Excessive Wage Rise, introducing the so-called popiwek tax limiting the wage increase in state-owned companies in order to limit hyperinflation.
Act on New Rules of Taxation, introducing common taxation for all companies and abolishing special taxes that could previously have been applied to private companies through means of administrative decision.
Act on Economic Activity of Foreign Investors, allowing foreign companies and private people to invest in Poland and export their profits abroad.
Act on Foreign Currencies, introducing internal exchangeability of the złoty and abolishing the state monopoly in international trade.
Act on Customs Law, creating a uniform customs rate for all companies.
Act on Employment, regulating the duties of unemployment agencies.
Act on Special Circumstances Under Which a Worker Could be Laid Off, protecting the workers of state firms from being fired in large numbers and guaranteeing unemployment grants and severance pay.
Privatization of companies was left until later.
Results in Poland
In the short term, the reforms smothered the building hyperinflation before it reached high levels, ended food shortages, restored goods on the shelves of shops and halved the absence of employees in the work place. However, the reforms also caused many state companies to close at once, leaving their workers unemployed, and government statistics show this change as unemployment rose from 0.3% in January 1990 (just after the reforms) to 6.5% by the end of that year, and a shrinking in the GDP for the next two consecutive years by 9.78% in the first and 7.02% (see main article).
In the long term, the reforms paved the way for economic recovery, with the GDP growing steadily to about 6–7% between 1995–7, falling to a low of 1.2% in 2001 before rising back up to the 6–7% region by 2007, often led by small service businesses, long suppressed by the Communist government. However, despite GDP indicating prosperity for Poland, the unemployment rate continued to rise steadily, peaking at 16.9% in July 1994 before steadily falling down to a low of 9.5% in August 1998 before rising once more to a high of 20.7% in February 2003, from which it had fallen until the year 2008. During the early years, the unemployment rate is thought to have been lower due to many of those claiming unemployment working in the grey (informal) economy, although this can account for no more than 5% of the unemployment rate.
The long-term results of shock therapy point to both a rise and a fall in living standards. Ownership of consumables (cars, TVs, VCRs, washing machines, refrigerators, personal computers, etc.) boomed, as did consumption of fruit and vegetables, meat and fish. However, the huge economic adjustment Poland underwent created massive anxiety.
Applications
This section records all known applications of shock therapy in the world not mentioned under the history section above.
New Zealand
The economic reforms of New Zealand's 1984 Labour government, collectively known as Rogernomics (after New Zealand Finance Minister Roger Douglas), constitute an example of shock therapy. In this case, the previous economic direction and management of Rob Muldoon was portrayed as leading the country into a desperate fiscal crisis, and this crisis was the continued reason given for the necessity of economic shock policies. The 'shock' element of the New Zealand experiment, can be considered as such, because the Labour Party initially complied with its policies, not withdrawing its support until later in Roger's term.
Post-Soviet
Since the USSR's dissolution, the post-Soviet states faced many problems. Poverty in the region had increased more than tenfold. The economic crisis that struck all post-Soviet countries in the 1990s was twice as intense as the Great Depression in the countries of Western Europe and the United States in the 1930s.
However, it has not been established whether these adverse outcomes were due to the general collapse of the Soviet economy (which began before 1989) or the policies subsequently implemented or a combination of both. Some research suggests that the very fast pace of 'shock therapy' privatization mattered, and had a particularly harsh effect on the death rate in Russia. Sachs himself resigned from his post as advisor, after stating that he felt his advice was unheeded and his policy recommendations were not actually put into practice. In addition to his criticism of the way in which Russian authorities handled the reforms, Sachs has also criticized the U.S. and the IMF for not providing large-scale financial aid to Russia, which he felt was integral to the success of the reforms.
Poland
Poland has been cited by some as an example of the successful use of shock therapy, though this is disputed. When economic liberalism came to this nation, the government took Sachs' advice and immediately withdrew regulations, price controls and subsidies to state-owned industries. However, with respect to the privatization of the state sector (which may or may not be considered as part of shock therapy depending on the definition being used) the change was much more gradualist. Whereas many economic factors were immediately applied, privatization of state-owned enterprises was delayed until society could safely handle the divestiture, as contrasted with the 'robber baron' state of affairs in Russia.
Productivity increased although at the same time unemployment rates rose as well. As of 2008, the GNP was 77% higher than in 1989. Moreover, inequality in Poland actually decreased right after the economic reforms were implemented, although it rose back up again in later years. Today, although Poland is confronted with a variety of economic problems, it still has a higher GDP than during communist times, and a gradually developing economy. Poland was converging towards the EU in regards to income level in 1993–2004.
According to Financial Times, Poland's shock therapy paved the way for entrepreneurs and helped to build an economy that was less vulnerable to external shock than Poland’s neighbours. In 2009, while the rest of Europe was in recession, Poland continued to grow, without a single quarter of negative growth. Countries in the region saw their economies sink as foreign direct investment dried up and export markets atrophied; Poland, by contrast, could rely on its robust domestic market for growth.
Theory
This section presents the various theories that are used to explain shock therapy and its effects.
Hyperinflation
Jeffrey Sachs first proposed shock therapy when he noticed that most periods of hyperinflation had been ended in a decisive stroke, often in a day. Therefore, it is important to look at the theoretical basis for hyperinflation to understand why Sachs noticed shock therapy proved so successful in fighting it.
There are two main models used to explain hyperinflation, the confidence model and the monetary model. Hyperinflations see a rapid increase in the money supply and the velocity of money. Either one, or both of these together, is the root cause of hyperinflation and in both models, one follows from the other.
In the confidence model, some event, or series of events, such as defeats in battle, or a run on stocks of the specie that back a currency, removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent—whether a bank or a government. Because people do not want to hold notes that may become valueless, they want to spend them in preference to holding notes that will lose value. Sellers, realizing that there is a higher risk for the currency, demand a greater and greater premium over the original value. War is one commonly cited cause of crisis of confidence, particularly losing in a war, as occurred during Napoleonic Vienna, and capital flight, sometimes because of "contagion" is another. In this view, the increase in the circulating medium is the result of the government attempting to buy time without coming to terms with the root cause of the lack of confidence itself. A crisis of confidence is particularly damaging to a fiat currency (i.e. most modern currencies), a currency whose value is unrelated to any physical quantity, as fiat money is typically backed by future tax revenues and its (typically exclusive) acceptability to the government for payment of taxes and charges.
In the monetary model, hyperinflation is a positive feedback cycle of rapid monetary expansion. It has the same cause as all other inflation: money-issuing bodies, central or otherwise, produce currency to pay spiraling costs, often from lax fiscal policy, or the mounting costs of warfare. When businesspeople perceive that the issuer is committed to a policy of rapid currency expansion, they mark up prices to cover the expected decay in the currency's value. The issuer must then accelerate its expansion to cover these prices, which pushes the currency value down even faster than before. According to this model the issuer cannot "win" and the only solution is to abruptly stop expanding the currency. Unfortunately, the end of expansion can cause a severe financial shock to those using the currency as expectations are suddenly adjusted. This policy, combined with reductions of pensions, wages, and government outlays, formed part of the Washington Consensus of the 1990s.
Ending hyperinflation depends on which model is the main cause. In the confidence model, the method of ending hyperinflation is to change the backing of the currency—often by issuing a completely new one. Also, if possible, any action that restores confidence in the government can help end the hyperinflation (e.g. the psychological effect of food in the shops after shortages in most hyperinflations, the election of a new government both capable of and dedicated to tackling the problem). In the monetary model, the issuer of the currency must stop expanding the currency.
Shock therapy as an artificial economic shock
A shock in economics is defined as an unexpected or unpredictable event that affects an economy, either positively or negatively. Recessions are often modelled as negative economic shocks in which the current state of the economy is untenable and the economy tries to restore itself to a new equilibrium position. In the short-run, as the economy adjusts to the shock but before it reaches the new equilibrium, the shock often causes productivity to fall, unemployment rise, and closure of firms that are now non-viable in the new environment. The new environment enables new kinds of businesses and people must learn new skills and exploit new opportunities to achieve long-run equilibrium.
Shock therapy can be largely understood by thinking of it as an artificial shock imposed by government policies. Neoclassical theory provides a very useful tool in trying to describe an artificial shock theoretically, in that neoclassical theory provides an idealised view of an economy based on certain assumptions, most of which are made true through market institutions (often but not necessarily provided by the government), law, culture or historical practise, and is very useful in explaining most situations (especially in modern Westernised economies). Even when some of the assumptions required for neoclassical theory are not in place resulting in an imperfect market and the results of neoclassical theory becoming distorted or failing, comparing the result with neoclassical theory can prove useful. Other, slightly different formulations of economic thought strive to describe shocks, the most important of which is economic liberalism.
Neoclassical shocks
In neoclassical theory, large negative shocks cause unemployment in the short run, and the larger the shock, the larger the unemployment. As a result, large shocks can lead to grave social problems, political unrest and, in the worst cases revolution. However, the market is already adjusting itself to return to the new equilibrium, causing job creation and opportunities. If there is no interference to prevent the markets adjusting to the new equilibrium, the markets immediately correct themselves with new firms and full employment, providing workers can acquire the new skills to exploit these new jobs, or are able to move to areas where they can find new employment.
In response to a shock created by bad government policies, sudden market liberalisation can allow the free markets to reach the equilibrium that the bad government policies prevented them reaching. If the response originates in the markets or other external factors, government intervention slows the free market's path to optimal recovery and liberalisation of the economy speed recovery. However, if the shock is large—causing social and political conditions that destroy or prevent the recovery (e.g., revolution)—government intervention to slow the recovery using gradualist policies and spreading the pain is justifiable.
Imperfect market shocks
The most important type of nearly neoclassical shock is due to market failure and imperfect markets. Sudden free market liberalisation in the absence of free market institutions (as was the case in post-Communist states) or in which a Western-style economy is unnecessarily liberalised (e.g. cutting police budgets, removing regulation) are both examples of imperfect market shocks.
The nature of the imperfect market shock depends on what assumption of the perfect market is voided. The most important assumption for all markets is the idea of property rights. The free market doesn't just depend on the exchange of commodities, but on the rights to use them in particular ways for particular amounts of time. Markets are institutions that organize the exchange of control of commodities, where the nature of the control is defined by the property rights attached to the commodities. Property rights are the most important because they can have the most dramatic effect on the results, and are thought to be behind the most important causes of market failure.
Another important assumption is perfect competition, which has many smaller assumptions tied to it. These include perfect information, no barriers to entry and many competitors. Again, there are different imperfect markets depending on what assumption is relaxed.
Many competitors assumes that there is more than one firm producing any commodity. In the event of large-scale privatisation of a state-owned company as part of shock therapy, privatising such a company without waiting for a competitor creates a monopoly where the company can use its pre-eminent position to create barriers to entry, control prices and maintain its monopoly. Also, in post-authoritarian systems with fragile legal and democratic systems, such pre-eminent companies can also influence the government and the legal system to help maintain its monopoly.
Perfect information assumes that prices and product quality is known to all consumers and producers. The idea of imperfect information (most commonly called information asymmetry) has many ramifications for markets. The most important one concerning shock therapy is international trade and financial liberalisation. Because international banks possess better information about other international firms than they do about local firms in a country (and local banks possess better information about other local firms), liberalisation of trade and finance never leads to an even playing field for local firms if international investment is high. Hernando de Soto Polar also notes that in conjunction with imperfect property rights, local firms may not be able to access foreign capital when borrowing against their own capital, which may have imperfect property rights (his so-called dead capital), while local lenders know more about the conditions under which something is owned and can be borrowed against.
Imperfect market failure in Russia
Prominent economist Joseph Stiglitz ties all these ideas together to explain the reason why shock therapy failed in Russia. Through the idea of property rights, Stiglitz uses the idea of Adam Smith's invisible hand to explain that, in the presence of severe corruption, a lack of institutionalized law and order and artificially depressed exchange rates, the free market created by shock therapy in Russia created a race to the bottom to asset strip the country and remove the capital abroad, rather than the mutually beneficial race to control the market in commodities that would otherwise happen. Competition meant that if the nominal owner of the capital didn't asset strip the capital first, someone else would. Likewise, with the previously large Soviet nationalised industries being privatised quickly created a situation where major markets operated in a monopoly owned by a few individuals (the Russian oligarchs) who had links with the government of Boris Yeltsin.
Illusionary shock
Illusion therapy refers to the imposition of shock economic policies on economy in a way that the society doesn't feel the shock or assumes that the dramatic change in policies is not as shocking or radical as it is in the real world. The situation of "illusion" can be created using a wide range of sociopolitical tools and techniques including information blackout on national statistics, imposing repeated false news shocks before the final shock (to decrease the social sensitivity or to habituate the people to the future shock), spreading misinformation, rewarding the society with interim exogenous rents and promoting them as the benefits of the shock, etc. Illusion therapy is used to soften or elude the potential social backlash during the shock. The first experience of illusion therapy has been documented after the implementation of Iran's subsidy reform project.
People
Ludwig Erhard, architect of the West German post-War recovery
Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, architect of shock therapy in Bolivia
Jeffrey Sachs, chief economic proponent of shock therapy
Leszek Balcerowicz, architect of Balcerowicz Plan for shock therapy in Poland
Yegor Gaidar, architect of shock therapy in Russia
Joseph Stiglitz, a critic of shock therapy, increasing the prominence of corruption through Oligarchs Russia
Economic plans
Bolivian Decree 21060, the original shock therapy reforms in Bolivia
Economy and Free Market reforms in Chile under Pinochet, a.k.a. the Miracle of Chile
Balcerowicz Plan
Russia under Yeltsin and the History of post-Soviet Russia
Fujishock, reform in Peru during the presidency of Alberto Fujimori
Reaganomics
Rogernomics
See also
Political economy
References
External links
Mongolia
Mongolia Human Development Report 1997 , UNDP Mongolia Communications Office, 1997
Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists, University of California Press, April 2005
Poland
Poland. Incidence of crime, Crime and Society: a comparative criminology tour of the world, San Diego State University, republished from CIA World Factbook, October 1992
Poland: Country Specific Information – travel information, Bureau of Consular Affairs, US Department of State
Poland's Corruption Record, The Voice of Warsaw, October 16, 2003
Shock therapy
PBS – Commanding Heights: Shock therapy. PDF.
Economic liberalization
Economics of regulation
Privatization |
356726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbeltown%20Airport | Campbeltown Airport | Campbeltown Airport () is located at Machrihanish, west of Campbeltown, near the tip of the Kintyre peninsula in Argyll and Bute on the west coast of Scotland.
The airport was formerly known as RAF Machrihanish (after the village of Machrihanish) and hosted squadrons of the Royal Air Force and other NATO air forces as well as the United States Marine Corps. The airport is at a strategic point near the Irish Sea, and was used to guard the entrance to the Firth of Clyde where US nuclear submarines were based at Holy Loch and where Royal Navy Trident missile submarines are still based at HMNB Clyde (Faslane Naval Base).
The United States Navy handed the airfield back to the MoD on 30 June 1995, marking the end of its service as a NATO facility since 1960. The airbase was sold to Machrihanish Airbase Community Company (MACC) in May 2012, and two thirds of the runway is leased to Highlands and Islands Airports for Campbeltown Airport.
At , the original runway 11/29 at Campbeltown Airport is the longest of any public airport in Scotland. It was built between 1960 and 1962 as part of a major reconstruction for the airport's role in NATO.
Campbeltown Aerodrome has a CAA Ordinary Licence (Number P808) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Highlands & Islands Airports Limited)
Airlines and destinations
Statistics
Incidents and accidents
On 15 March 2005, a Britten-Norman Islander air ambulance flying an approach into Campbeltown in low clouds crashed into the sea 7.7 miles from the Campbeltown airport, killing both occupants, the pilot and the paramedic. The air ambulance had been sent to Campbeltown to transport a patient to Glasgow for surgery.
References
External links
http://www.hial.co.uk/campbeltown-airport/ Official website
Airports in Scotland
Transport in Argyll and Bute
Highlands and Islands Airports
Campbeltown |
356728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appenzell%20%28disambiguation%29 | Appenzell (disambiguation) | Appenzell is a former Swiss canton.
Appenzell or Appenzeller may also refer to:
Places in Switzerland
Appenzell (village), a village in Switzerland and the capital of Appenzell Innerrhoden
Appenzell Ausserrhoden (Appenzell Outer-Rhodes), a canton
Appenzell Innerrhoden (Appenzell Inner-Rhodes), a canton
Appenzell District, the district and municipality of Appenzell
Appenzellerland, the geographical and cultural territory covered by Appenzell Ausserrhoden and Appenzell Innerrhoden
Animals
Appenzeller Spitzhauben, a breed of chicken
Appenzell goat, a breed of goat
Appenzeller Sennenhund, a breed of dog
Other
the people of Appenzell
Appenzeller (cheese)
Appenzell Creek, a tributary of McMichael Creek in Pennsylvania, U.S.
"Appenzeller", a yodeling standard; see Appenzeller string music
Benedictus Appenzeller, composer of the Renaissance
See also |
356729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing%20factor%20family | Corticotropin-releasing factor family | Corticotropin-releasing factor family, CRF family is a family of related neuropeptides in vertebrates. This family includes corticotropin-releasing hormone (also known as CRF), urotensin-I, urocortin, and sauvagine. The family can be grouped into 2 separate paralogous lineages, with urotensin-I, urocortin and sauvagine in one group and CRH forming the other group. Urocortin and sauvagine appear to represent orthologues of fish urotensin-I in mammals and amphibians, respectively. The peptides have a variety of physiological effects on stress and anxiety, vasoregulation, thermoregulation, growth and metabolism, metamorphosis and reproduction in various species, and are all released as prohormones.
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is a releasing hormone found mainly in the paraventricular nucleus of the mammalian hypothalamus that regulates the release of corticotropin (ACTH) from the pituitary gland. The paraventricular nucleus transports CRH to the anterior pituitary, stimulating adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release via CRH type 1 receptors, thereby activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and, thus, glucocorticoid release.
CRH is evolutionary-related to a number of other active peptides. Urocortin acts in vitro to stimulate the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Urotensin is found in the teleost caudal neurosecretory system and may play a role in osmoregulation and as a corticotropin-releasing factor. Urotensin-I is released from the urophysis of fish, and produces ACTH and subsequent cortisol release in vivo. The nonhormonal portion of the prohormone is thought to be the urotensin binding protein (urophysin). Sauvagine, isolated from frog skin, has a potent hypotensive and antidiuretic effect.
Subfamilies
Urocortin
Human proteins from this family
CRH; UCN;
References
Protein domains
Hormones |
356730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman%20%28disambiguation%29 | Brahman (disambiguation) | Brahman is a term in Hinduism for the metaphysical ultimate reality, the highest unchanging Universal Principle in the universe.
Brahman may also refer to:
Brahman languages, a hypothetical Trans–New Guinea family of languages spoken in Madang Province in Papua New Guinea
Brahman (band), a Japanese indie rock band
Brahman (cattle) is a breed of cattle descended from the Bos indicus
See also
Brahmin, a priestly varna/caste
Brahmana, an important layer of Hindu canonical text that is part of each of the Vedas
Bramman, a 2014 Indian film directed by Socrates
Para Brahman
Brahm (disambiguation)
Brahma (disambiguation)
Brahmin (disambiguation) |
356732 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Military%20Academy%2C%20Woolwich | Royal Military Academy, Woolwich | The Royal Military Academy (RMA) at Woolwich, in south-east London, was a British Army military academy for the training of commissioned officers of the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers. It later also trained officers of the Royal Corps of Signals and other technical corps. RMA Woolwich was commonly known as "The Shop" because its first building was a converted workshop of the Woolwich Arsenal.
History
Origins in the Royal Arsenal
An attempt had been made by the Board of Ordnance in 1720 to set up an academy within its Arsenal (then known as the Warren) to provide training and education for prospective officers of its new Regiment of Artillery and Corps of Engineers (both of which had been established there in 1716). A new building was being constructed in readiness for the Academy and funds had been secured, seemingly, through investment in the South Sea Company; but the latter's collapse led to plans for the Academy being placed on hold.
After this false start, the Academy was opened by authority of a Royal Warrant in 1741: it was intended, in the words of its first charter, to produce "good officers of Artillery and perfect Engineers". Its 'gentlemen cadets' initially ranged in age from 10 to 30. To begin with they were attached to the marching companies of the Royal Artillery, but in 1744 they were formed into their own company, forty in number (enlarged to forty-eight, two years later) overseen by a Captain-Lieutenant. To begin with the cadets were accommodated in lodgings in the town of Woolwich, but this arrangement was deemed unsatisfactory (the cadets gained a reputation for riotousness) so in 1751 a Cadets' Barracks was built just within the south boundary wall of the Warren and the cadets had to adjust to a more strict military discipline. (The Cadets' Barracks was demolished in the 1980s for road widening.)
Education in the Academy focused at first on mathematics and the scientific principles of gunnery and fortification; French was also taught, for a small fee. In addition to their theoretical studies, the cadets shared (with all ranks of the Artillery) in what was called 'the Practice' of gunnery, bridge building, magazine technique and artillery work. While an Artillery officer attended each class to keep order, teaching in the Academy was provided by civilians: a First Master (later called Professor of Fortification and Gunnery), a Second Master (later Professor of Mathematics) and additional tutors in French, Arithmetic, Classics and Drawing. In 1764 the Royal Academy (as it had been known) had the word 'Military' added to its title, and at the same time a senior officer was appointed to serve as Lieutenant-Governor (de facto head of the institution). Moreover, the institution was split: younger cadets entered the Lower Academy, where they were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, Latin, French and drawing. If they performed well in examinations they were allowed to proceed to the Upper Academy, where they learned military skills and sciences (as well as fencing and dancing – required skills for prospective officers).
Relocation to Woolwich Common
The possibility of moving the Royal Military Academy out of the Warren was mooted as early as 1783, as it was fast outgrowing the available accommodation. At first costs precluded this possibility, but (with the Academy continuing to grow) James Wyatt, the Board of Ordnance Architect, was commissioned to design a new complex of buildings to stand, on a site facing the Royal Artillery Barracks, at the southern edge of Woolwich Common; it was built between 1796 and 1805 and opened for use the following year.
Wyatt's Academy was built of yellow brick in the Tudor Gothic style. It consisted of a central block (reminiscent of the Ordnance Board's headquarters in the Tower of London) flanked by a pair of accommodation blocks, linked by arcaded walkways. The central block contained classrooms, a library and offices; the accommodation blocks housed officers in the three-storey central sections and cadets in the two-storey wings. Behind the central block Wyatt placed a large dining hall flanked by spacious quadrangles having service buildings around the sides.
128 cadets moved to the new Academy: these comprised the four senior years. Of the younger cadets, sixty were kept at the Warren (by then renamed the Royal Arsenal) and another sixty were sent to a new college for junior cadets at Great Marlow. Practical teaching continued to be given in the working context of the Arsenal. In 1810, military cadets of the East India Company, who had previously been educated at the Academy, were moved to a new college at Addiscombe.
During the years that followed the status of the cadets changed: rather than being considered (albeit junior) military personnel, as had previously been the case, they were removed from the muster roll and they (or their parents) began to be charged fees for attendance. In this way the Academy took on something of the ethos of an English public school. In 1844 the Academy was described by Edward Mogg as accommodating:
"about one hundred and thirty young gentlemen, the sons of military men, and the more respectable classes, who are here instructed in mathematics, land-surveying, with mapping, fortification, engineering, the use of the musket and sword exercise, and field-pieces; and for whose use twelve brass cannon, three-pounders, are placed in front of the building, practising with which they acquire a knowledge of their application in the field of battle. This department is under the direction of a lieutenant-general, an instructor, a professor of mathematics, and a professor of fortification; in addition to which there are French, German, and drawing masters".
Following the demise of the Board of Ordnance in the wake of the Crimean War the Academy was inspected by a commission which recommended changes: the minimum age for cadets was raised to fifteen and more specialist training was added. As part of these reforms the Academy complex was enlarged in the 1860s, with a view to accommodating all cadets on the same site (although some would remain in the Arsenal through to the 1880s): the frontage was extended with the addition of new pavilions at either end, in similar style to Wyatt's work but in red brick rather than yellow; William Jervois was the architect. These contained new classrooms, with accommodation provided in similar new blocks behind. Sports facilities were also added along with gun batteries for training. In 1873 Wyatt's central block had to be entirely rebuilt following a devastating fire.
Gallery
Closure and aftermath
Following the demise of the Board of Ordnance, Parliament had explored the possibility of a merger between the Royal Military Academy and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst (which only trained officers for the Infantry and Cavalry); although senior Army officers rejected the idea at the time it persisted into the twentieth century. Arguments in favour of a merger gained momentum in the 1920s when the specialist and scientific training which had been Woolwich's preserve began to be outsourced to other locations. In 1936 it was decided that the merger should take place; but the Second World War intervened and in 1939 both institutions closed as their cadets were called up for active service.
The Royal Military Academy Woolwich closed in 1939 and in 1947 the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst was formed on the site of the former Royal Military College with the objective of providing officer training for all arms and services.
Thereafter, the old Academy site became part of Woolwich Garrison, housing troops of various types in the years that followed. The central block was taken over by the Royal Artillery Institution and housed a museum, archives and offices. The chapel (commissioned in 1902 by Commandant Richard Henry Jelf, commemorated by a brass plaque in the chapel) became the Garrison Church (replacing the bombed out Garrison Church of St George). In this way the old Academy continued in military use through the 20th century, but with the number of personnel based in Woolwich having steadily decreased, the site was in 2002 declared surplus to requirements. It closed the following year; two stained glass windows from the chapel – one by Christopher Whall, an Arts & Crafts artist – were moved to the Garrison Church of St Alban the Martyr at Larkhill, where they are displayed in lightboxes.
Sale and redevelopment
Durkan Group bought the Woolwich site by public tender in 2006 and redevelopment started in 2008. The Woolwich buildings, several of which are grade II listed, were converted and extended into 334 houses and apartments, including 150 for a housing association. In 2017 the scaffolding around the main facade was removed as refurbishment neared completion. Since 2013 the RMA cricket field, one of the oldest in the UK, has been used by the 3rd and 4th teams of Blackheath Cricket Club.
Legacy
Education and training
Until 1870 prospective officers in the British Army had for the most part to purchase their commissions, and education or training was not seen as a requirement for the rôle. The Board of Ordnance's establishment of a Military Academy represented a very different approach, whereby training and education were obligatory for aspiring officers of its corps, and promotion was offered according to merit (those with highest achievement in their exams being given the first choice of opportunities).
Architecture
The main Academy buildings are described by Historic England as "an outstanding example of Wyatt's Gothick style, and one of the most important pieces of military architecture in the country".
Slang
A phrase said to have entered common parlance from the Academy is "talking shop" (meaning "to discuss subjects not understood by others").
The name of the cue game "snooker" (reputedly invented by a former cadet of the Academy) is said to derive from a slang term for newly arrived cadets: the French term "les neux", which was later corrupted into "snooks".
Commandants
Commandants have included:
1846–1851 Major-General John Boteler Parker, CB (Lieutenant-Governor)
1887–1901 Major-General Francis Thomas Lloyd, CB (Governor and Commandant)
1901–1912 Major-General Richard Henry Jelf, CMG (Governor and Commandant)
1912–1914 Brigadier-General Arthur Holland
1914–1918 Major-General William Cleeve
1918–1920 Major-General Geoffrey White
1920–1924 Major-General Webb Gillman
1924–1926 Major-General Ronald Charles
1926–1930 Major-General Hugo de Pree
1930–1934 Major-General Cyril Wagstaff
1934–1938 Major-General Arthur Goschen
1938–1939 Major-General Philip Neame
Notable teachers
Notable teachers at Woolwich include (in alphabetical order by surname):
Sir Frederick Abel, appointed lecturer in chemistry in 1852
Peter Barlow, appointed assistant mathematics master in 1801 and who retained this post until 1847
Francis Bashforth, professor of applied mathematics
John Bonnycastle, professor of mathematics, 1807–1821
Charles Booth Brackenbury, assistant instructor in artillery (1860), assistant director of artillery studies (1864), director of artillery studies (1887)
Samuel Hunter Christie was mathematical assistant in 1806 and professor of mathematics, 1838–1854
Adair Crawford, professor of chemistry in the late 18th century
Morgan Crofton, an Irish mathematician, was professor of mathematics from 1870 to 1884
William Cruickshank, assistant to Adair Crawford (qv) and later professor of chemistry c.1795–1804.
The Reverend Lewis Evans, mathematics master 1799–1820.
Thomas Simpson Evans, mathematics assistant 1802–1810
Michael Faraday, professor in chemistry 1829–52
Thales Fielding, drawing master, 1828–1837.
Sir George Greenhill was professor of mathematics from 1876 to 1908
Olinthus Gregory, mathematics master from 1802, professor of mathematics 1821–1838.
Charles Hutton, professor of mathematics from 1773 to 1807.
James Marsh, chemist, assistant to Michael Faraday (qv) 1829–1846
Major-General Richard Clement Moody, professor of fortifications from July 1838 to October 1841
William Rutherford, assistant master of mathematics, 1838–1865
Paul Sandby was chief drawing master from 1768 to 1799
Henry Young Darracott Scott, assistant instructor in field works, 1848 to 1851, senior instructor, 1851 to 1855
Thomas Simpson, assistant to the chief master of mathematics from 1743 to 1761.
James Joseph Sylvester, professor of mathematics from 1855 to 1870.
See also
:Category:Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
References
Sources
Woolwich
Woolwich
Education in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
History of the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Military history of London
Housing in London
1741 establishments in Great Britain
Buildings and structures completed in 1805
James Wyatt buildings
Gothic Revival architecture in London
Grade II* listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Grade II listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Military units and formations in Woolwich |
356737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Austin%20%28disambiguation%29 | Steve Austin (disambiguation) | "Stone Cold" Steve Austin (born 1964) is an American actor and retired professional wrestler.
Stephen, Steven, or Steve Austin may also refer to:
Stephen F. Austin (1793–1836), the "Father of Texas"
Steve Austin (dog trainer), Australian dog trainer
Steve Austin (character), the title character from Cyborg and The Six Million Dollar Man
Steve Austin (musician) (born 1966), member of the rock band Today is the Day
Steve Austin (band), German hardcore band
Steve Austin (athlete) (born 1951), Australian long distance runner
Steven Kent Austin, American actor, movie producer and movie director
Stephen Austin (American football), former NFL executive
Steven Austin (footballer) (born 1990), Anguillan footballer
See also
Austin Stevens (born 1950), South African-born Australian naturalist, documentarian and author |
356740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties%20of%20England | Counties of England | The counties of England are areas used for different purposes, which include administrative, geographical, cultural and political demarcation. The term 'county' is defined in several ways and can apply to similar or the same areas used by each of these demarcation structures. These different types of county each have a more formal name but are commonly referred to just as 'counties'. The current arrangement is the result of incremental reform.
The original county structure has its origins in the Middle Ages. These counties are often referred to as the historic, traditional or former counties.
The Local Government Act 1888 created new areas for organising local government that it called administrative counties and county boroughs. These administrative areas adopted the names of, and closely resembled the areas of, the traditional counties. Later legislative changes to the new local government structure led to greater distinction between the traditional and the administrative counties.
The Local Government Act 1972 abolished the 1888 act, its administrative counties and county boroughs. In their place, the 1972 Act created new areas for handling local government that were also called administrative counties. The 1972 administrative counties differed distinctly in area from the 1888 administrative counties, that had now been abolished, and from the traditional counties, that had still not been abolished. Many of the names of the traditional counties were still being used now for the 1972 administrative counties. Later legislation created yet further area differences between the 1972 administrative counties and the traditional counties. As of 2020, for the purpose of administration, England outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly is divided into 82 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties.
The Lieutenancies Act 1997 created areas to be used for the purpose of the Lieutenancies Act. These newly created areas are called ceremonial counties and are based on, but not always the same as, the areas of the 1972 administrative counties.
For the purpose of sorting and delivering mail, England was divided into 48 postal counties until 1996; they were then abandoned by Royal Mail in favour of postcodes.
The term 'county', relating to any of its meanings, is used as the geographical basis for a number of institutions such as police and fire services, sports clubs and other non-government organisations.
Scope and structure
Local government
Cumbria, Hertfordshire, Norfolk, Oxfordshire, Suffolk, Surrey, Warwickshire, West Sussex and Worcestershire are non-metropolitan counties of multiple districts with a county council. In these counties most services are provided by the county council and the district councils have a more limited role. Their areas each correspond exactly to ceremonial counties.
There are six metropolitan counties which are based on the major English conurbations; and they also correspond exactly to a ceremonial county and have multiple districts (commonly referred to as metropolitan boroughs), but do not have county councils. They are Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands and West Yorkshire. In these counties the district councils provide the majority of services.
Similarly, Berkshire is a non-metropolitan county with no county council and multiple districts. It maps directly to the ceremonial county of Berkshire.
Bristol, Herefordshire, Isle of Wight, Northumberland and Rutland are ceremonial counties consisting of a non-metropolitan county of a single district, and are known as unitary authorities.
Cambridgeshire, Derbyshire, Devon, East Sussex, Essex, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Kent, Lancashire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, North Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Somerset and Staffordshire are non-metropolitan counties with multiple districts and a county council, where one or more districts have been split off to form unitary authorities. The effect is that the corresponding ceremonial county is larger than the non-metropolitan county of the same name and the county council is responsible for providing services in only part of the county.
In Buckinghamshire, Cornwall, Dorset, Durham, East Riding of Yorkshire, Shropshire and Wiltshire the bulk of the area is a unitary authority which shares the name of the ceremonial county, and the rest of county is part of one or more other unitary authorities.
In total, there are 39 unitary authorities that do not have the same name as any of the ceremonial counties. Bedfordshire, Cheshire and Northamptonshire are counties that consist of a number of unitary authorities, none of which has the same name as the ceremonial county.
The City of London and Greater London are anomalous as ceremonial counties that do not correspond to any metropolitan or non-metropolitan counties, and pre-date their creation.
Institutions
The metropolitan counties have passenger transport executives to manage public transport, a role undertaken by the local authorities of non-metropolitan counties and Transport for London in Greater London.
Large ceremonial counties often correspond to a single police force. For example, the four unitary authorities which make up Cheshire correspond to the same area as the Cheshire Constabulary. Some counties are grouped together for this purpose, such as Northumberland with Tyne and Wear to form the Northumbria Police area. In other areas a group of unitary authorities in several counties are grouped together to form police force areas, such as the Cleveland Police and Humberside Police. Greater London and the City of London each have their own police forces, the Metropolitan Police Service and the City of London Police.
The fire service is operated on a similar county basis, and the ambulance service is organised by the regions of England.
Most ceremonial counties form part of a single region, although Lincolnshire and North Yorkshire are divided between regions. Economic development is delivered using the regions, as is strategic planning.
Comparative areas and populations
As of 2009, the largest county by area is North Yorkshire and the smallest is the City of London. The smallest county with multiple districts is Tyne and Wear and the smallest non-metropolitan county with a county council is Buckinghamshire. The county with the highest population is Greater London and the lowest is the City of London.
Greater London and the metropolitan counties are all in the 15 largest by population and the 15 smallest by area. Greater London has the highest population density, while the lowest is found in Northumberland. By area, the largest ceremonial county consisting of a single-district non-metropolitan county is Northumberland and the smallest is Bristol. By population the largest such county is Bristol and the smallest is Rutland.
Slough is the smallest unitary authority by area that is not also a ceremonial county and Cheshire East is the largest. Hartlepool is the smallest such unitary authority by population and Cheshire West and Chester is the largest. The sui generis Isles of Scilly is smaller both in terms of area and population. The highest population density of any metropolitan or non-metropolitan county is found in Portsmouth and the lowest is found in Northumberland.
History
Origins
Most English counties were established in the Middle Ages sometime between the 7th and 11th centuries. The early divisions form most of the current counties, albeit with adapted boundaries. Counties were used for the administration of justice, the organisation of the military, local government and parliamentary representation. Some larger counties were divided early on for many purposes, including Yorkshire (into Ridings), Lincolnshire (into Parts) and Sussex (into East and West). In 1832, the Great Reform Act divided larger counties for parliamentary purposes. Changes in the administration of the Poor Law in 1832 and later the implementation of sanitary authorities caused the use of traditional divisions for civil administration to wane. The like-named and broadly similarly shaped registration counties existed for these purposes from 1851 and were used for census reporting from 1851 to 1911. Their boundaries differed from existing counties as they were formed from the combined areas of smaller registration districts, which crossed historic county boundaries.
By the late nineteenth century, there was increasing pressure to reform the structure of English counties. A boundary commission was appointed in 1887 to review all English and Welsh counties, and a Local Government Bill was introduced to parliament in the following year. The resulting Local Government Act 1888 divided the counties into administrative counties, controlled by county councils and independent areas known as county boroughs.
The county councils took over many of the functions of the Quarter Sessions courts, as well as being given further powers over the years. The County of London was created from parts of Kent, Middlesex and Surrey. Each county borough was technically an administrative county of a single district, whilst a number of counties were divided into more than one administrative county; they were Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Suffolk, Sussex and Yorkshire.
The counties used for purposes other than local government, such as lieutenancy, also changed, being either a single administrative county or a grouping of administrative counties and associated county boroughs. The one exception was the City of London, which alone among counties corporate retained a separate lieutenancy and although part of the administrative County of London was also a county of itself for all other purposes. In legislation after 1888 the unqualified use of the term "county" refers to these entities, although the informal term "geographical county" was also used to distinguish them from administrative counties. They were shown on Ordnance Survey maps of the time under both titles, and are equivalent to the modern ceremonial counties.
There were considerable boundary changes between the counties over the years, with areas being exchanged and suburban areas in one county being annexed by county boroughs in another. A major realignment came in 1931, when the boundaries between Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire were adjusted by the Provisional Order Confirmation (Gloucestershire, Warwickshire and Worcestershire) Act which transferred 26 parishes between the three counties, largely to eliminate exclaves.
Proposals and reform
A Local Government Boundary Commission was set up in 1945 with the power to merge, create or divide all existing administrative counties and county boroughs. If the commission's recommendations had been carried out the county map of England would have been completely redrawn. The review process was instead abandoned after the 1950 general election. A Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London was established in 1957 and a Local Government Commission for England in 1958 to recommend new local government structures.
The major outcomes of the work of the commissions came in 1965: The original County of London was abolished and was replaced by the Greater London administrative area, which also included most of the remaining part of Middlesex and areas formerly part of Surrey, Kent, Essex and Hertfordshire; Huntingdonshire was merged with the Soke of Peterborough to form Huntingdon and Peterborough, and the original Cambridgeshire was merged with the Isle of Ely to form Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely. A Royal Commission on Local Government in England was set up in 1966 and reported in 1969, and broadly recommended the complete redrawing of local government areas in England, abandoning the existing counties. Due to a change in government, the report did not translate into legislation.
On 1 April 1974, the Local Government Act 1972 came into force. This abolished the existing local government structure of administrative counties and county boroughs in England and Wales outside Greater London, replacing it with a new entirely 'two-tier' system. It created a new set of 45 counties, six of which were metropolitan and 39 of which were non-metropolitan. The historic county boundaries were retained wherever it was practicable.
However, some of the counties established by the Act were entirely new, such as Avon, Cleveland, Cumbria, Hereford and Worcester, and Humberside, along with the new metropolitan counties of Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands and West Yorkshire; based on the major conurbations. The counties of Cumberland, Herefordshire, Rutland, Westmorland, Huntingdon & Peterborough and Worcestershire were disestablished. The abolition of the county boroughs resulted in the distinction made between the counties for lieutenancy and those for county councils becoming unnecessary. Section 216 of the Act adopted the new counties for ceremonial and judicial purposes, replacing the previous non-administrative counties.
The Royal Mail was unable to follow the changes to county boundaries in 1965 and 1974 due to cost constraints and because several new counties had names that were too similar to post towns. The main differences were that Hereford and Worcester, Greater Manchester and Greater London could not be adopted and that Humberside had to be split into North Humberside and South Humberside.
Additionally, a number of anomalies were created where villages with a post town in another county took the county of the post town for postal addressing purposes. This meant that for directing the mail, England was divided into a somewhat different set of county boundaries from those established in the reforms. There was also a series of official county name abbreviations sanctioned for use. The use of these postal counties was abandoned by the Royal Mail in 1996.
Further changes
The metropolitan counties ceased to have county councils in 1986 and a further reform in the 1990s allowed the creation of non-metropolitan counties of a single district. These became known as unitary authorities and effectively re-established county boroughs. The reform caused the geographic counties to be defined separately once again, and they became known as ceremonial counties.
As well as unitary authorities covering large towns, some small counties such as Rutland and Herefordshire were re-established as unitary authorities. In 2009 unitary authorities were created to replace each of the county councils of Cornwall, County Durham, Northumberland, Shropshire and Wiltshire. Bedfordshire and Cheshire were thus abolished as non-metropolitan counties but are retained as ceremonial counties, divided between their unitary authorities.
From 2019, further structural changes have been made or are planned.
Culture
There is no well-established series of official symbols or flags covering all the counties. From 1889 the newly created county councils could apply to the College of Arms for coats of arms, often incorporating traditional symbols associated with the county. This practice continued as new county councils were created in 1965 and 1974. However these armorial bearings belong to the incorporated body of the county council and not to the geographic area of the counties themselves. As county councils have been abolished, and unitary authorities have been carved out, some of these symbols have become obsolete or effectively no longer represent the whole ceremonial county. A recent series of flags, with varying levels of official adoption, have been established in many of the counties by competition or public poll. County days are a recent innovation in some areas.
There are 17 first-class men's county cricket teams that are based on historical English counties. These compete in the County Championship and in the other top-level domestic competitions organised by the England and Wales Cricket Board along with the 18th first-class cricket county - Glamorgan in Wales. There are also 19 English minor county teams which, along with a Wales Minor Counties side, compete for the Minor Counties Championship. The County Football Associations are roughly based on English counties, with exceptions such as the combinations of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire and Leicestershire and Rutland.
See also
List of English counties
List of ceremonial counties of England by population
List of two-tier counties of England by population
List of county councils in England
List of historic counties of England
Toponymical list of English counties
List of the most populated settlements by county
References
Politics of England |
356741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposed-piston%20engine | Opposed-piston engine | An opposed-piston engine is a piston engine in which each cylinder has a piston at both ends, and no cylinder head. Petrol and diesel opposed-piston engines have been used mostly in large-scale applications such as ships, military tanks, and factories. Current manufacturers of opposed-piston engines include Fairbanks-Morse, Cummins and Achates Power.
Design
Compared to contemporary two-stroke engines, which used a conventional design of one piston per cylinder, the advantages of the opposed-piston engine have been recognized as:
Eliminating the cylinder head and valvetrain, which reduces weight, complexity, cost, heat loss, and friction loss of the engine.
Creating a uniflow-scavenged movement of gas through the combustion chamber, which avoided the drawbacks associated with the contemporary crossflow-scavenged designs (however later advancements have provided methods for achieving uniflow scavenging in conventional piston engine designs).
A reduced height of the engine
The main drawback was that the power from the two opposing pistons have to be geared together. This added weight and complexity when compared to conventional piston engines, which use a single crankshaft as the power output.
The most common layout was two crankshafts, with the crankshafts geared together (in either the same direction or opposing directions). The Koreyvo, Jumo, and Napier Deltic engines used one piston per cylinder to expose an intake port, and the other to expose an exhaust port. Each piston is referred to as either an intake piston or an exhaust piston, depending on its function in this regard. This layout gives superior scavenging, as gas flow through the cylinder is axial rather than radial, and simplifies design of the piston crowns. In the Jumo 205 and its variants, the upper crankshaft serves the exhaust pistons, and the lower crankshaft the intake pistons. In designs using multiple cylinder banks, each big end bearing serves one inlet and one exhaust piston, using a forked connecting rod for the exhaust piston.
History
1880s to 1930s
One of the first opposed-piston engines was the 1882 Atkinson differential engine, which has a power stroke on every rotation of the crankshaft (compared with every second rotation for the contemporary Otto cycle engine), but it was not a commercial success.
In 1898, an Oechelhäuser two-stroke opposed-piston engine producing was installed at the Hoerde ironworks. This design of engine was also produced under licence by manufacturers including Deutsche Kraftgas Gesellschaft in Germany and William Beardmore & Sons in the United Kingdom.
In 1901, the Kansas City Lightning Balanced Gas and Gasoline Engines were gasoline engines producing .
An early opposed-piston car engine was produced by the French company Gobron-Brillié around 1900. In April 1904, a Gobron-Brillié car powered by the opposed-piston engine was the first car ever to exceed 150 km/h with a "World's Record Speed" of . On 17 July 1904, the Gobron-Brillié car became the first to exceed for the flying kilometre. The engine used a single crankshaft at one end of the cylinders and a crosshead for the opposing piston.
Another early opposed piston car engine was in the Scottish Arrol-Johnston car, which appears to have been first installed in their 10 hp buckboard c1900. The engine was described and illustrated in some detail in the account of their 12-15 hp car exhibited at the 1905 Olympia Motor-Show. The engine was a 4-stroke with two cylinders (with opposed pistons in each) with the crankshaft underneath and the pistons connected by lever arms to the two-throw crankshaft.
The first diesel engine with opposed pistons was a prototype built at Kolomna Locomotive Works in Russia. The designer, Raymond A. Koreyvo, patented the engine in France on 6 November 1907 and displayed the engine at international exhibitions, but it did not reach production. The Kolomna design used a typical layout of two crankshafts connected by gearing.
In 1914, the Simpson's Balanced Two-Stroke motorcycle engine was another opposed-piston engine using a single crankshaft beneath the centre of the cylinders with both pistons connected by levers. This engine was a crankcase compression design, with one piston used to uncover the transfer port, and the other to open the exhaust port. The advantage of this design was to avoid the deflector crowns for pistons used by most two-stroke engines at that time.
Doxford Engine Works in the United Kingdom built large opposed-piston engines for marine use, with the first Doxford engine being installed in a ship in 1921. This diesel engine used a single crankshaft at one end of the cylinders and a crosshead for the opposing piston. After World War I, these engines were produced in a number of models, such as the P and J series, with outputs as high as . Production of Doxford engines in the UK ceased in 1980.
Later opposed-piston diesel engines include the 1932 Junkers Jumo 205 aircraft engine built in Germany, which had one crankshaft, using a design similar to the 1900–1922 Gobron-Brillié engines.
1940s to present
The Fairbanks Morse 38 8-1/8 diesel engine, originally designed in Germany in the 1930s, was used in U.S. submarines in the 1940s and 1950s, and in boats from the 1930s-present. It was also used in locomotives from 1944.
The latest (November 2021) version of the Fairbanks-Morse 38 8-1/8 is known as the FM 38D 8-1/8 Diesel and Dual Fuel. This two-stroke opposed-piston engine retains the same extra-heavy-duty design and has a rated in-service lifespan of more than 40 years, but now the optional capability of burning dual fuels (gaseous and liquid fuels, with automatic switchover to full diesel if the gas supply runs out) is available.
The Commer TS3 three-cylinder diesel truck engines, released in 1954, have a single crankshaft beneath the centre of the cylinders with both pistons connected by levers.
Also released in 1954 was the Napier Deltic engine for military boats. It uses three crankshafts, one at each corner, to form the three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle. The Deltic engine was used in British Rail Class 55 and British Rail Class 23 locomotives and to power fast patrol boats and Royal Navy mine sweepers. Beginning in 1962, Gibbs invited Mack Trucks to take part in designing FDNY’s super pumper and its companion tender. DeLaval Turbine was commissioned to design a multistage centrifugal pump with a Napier-Deltic T18-37C diesel to power the pumps.
In 1959, the Leyland L60 six-cylinder diesel engine was introduced. The L60 was produced in the United Kingdom for use in the Chieftain tank. The Soviet T-64 tank, produced from 1963-1987, also used an opposed-piston diesel engine.
Volvo filed for a patent in 2017.
The Diesel Air Dair 100 is a two-cylinder diesel aircraft engine, designed and produced by Diesel Air Ltd of Olney, Buckinghamshire for use in airships, home-built kitplanes, and light aircraft.
In July 2021, Cummins was awarded an $87M contract by the United States Army to complete development of the Advanced Combat Engine (ACE), a modular and scalable diesel engine solution that uses opposed-piston technology.
Free-piston engine
A variation of the opposed-piston design is the free-piston engine, which was first patented in 1934. Free piston engines have no crankshaft, and the pistons are returned after each firing stroke by compression and expansion of air in a separate cylinder. Early applications were for use as an air compressor or as a gas generator for a gas turbine.
See also
Junk head
Michel engine
Split-single engine
References
Locomotive parts
Two-stroke diesel engines
Opposed piston engines
Piston ported engines
Piston engine configurations |
356748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelzer%20engine | Stelzer engine | The Stelzer engine is a two-stroke opposing-piston free-piston engine design proposed by Frank Stelzer. It uses conjoined pistons in a push-pull arrangement which allows for fewer moving parts and simplified manufacturing. An engine of the same design appeared on the cover of the February 1969 issue of Mechanix Illustrated magazine.
Operation
There are two combustion chambers and a central precompression chamber. Control of the air flow between the precompression chamber and the combustion chambers is made by stepped piston rods.
Applications
Applications envisaged for the engine include driving:
An air compressor
A hydraulic pump
A linear generator
Prototypes
A prototype engine was demonstrated in Frankfurt in 1983 and Opel was reported to be interested in it. In 1982, the Government of Ireland agreed to pay half the cost of a factory at Shannon Airport to manufacture the engines. A prototype car with a Stelzer engine and electric transmission was shown at a German motor show in 1983.
See also
Linear alternator
References
External links
-- Two-Stroke Internal Combustion Engine 1983
Diagrams of Stelzer engine and linear alternator
Proposed engines
Free-piston engines |
356751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredric%20Jameson | Fredric Jameson | Fredric Jameson (born April 14, 1934) is an American literary critic, philosopher and Marxist political theorist. He is best known for his analysis of contemporary cultural trends, particularly his analysis of postmodernity and capitalism. Jameson's best-known books include Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1991) and The Political Unconscious (1981).
Jameson is currently Knut Schmidt-Nielsen Professor of Comparative Literature and Romance Studies (French) and the director of the Center for Critical Theory at Duke University. In 2012, the Modern Language Association gave Jameson its sixth Award for Lifetime Scholarly Achievement.
Life and works
Jameson was born in Cleveland, Ohio, and graduated in 1950 from Moorestown Friends School.
After graduating in 1954 from Haverford College, where his professors included Wayne Booth, he briefly traveled to Europe, studying at Aix-en-Provence, Munich, and Berlin, where he learned of new developments in continental philosophy, including the rise of structuralism. He returned to America the following year to pursue a doctoral degree at Yale University, where he studied under Erich Auerbach.
Early works
Auerbach would prove to be a lasting influence on Jameson's thought. This was already apparent in Jameson's doctoral dissertation, published in 1961 as Sartre: the Origins of a Style. Auerbach's concerns were rooted in the German philological tradition; his works on the history of style analyzed literary form within social history. Jameson would follow in these steps, examining the articulation of poetry, history, philology, and philosophy in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre.
Jameson's work focused on the relation between the style of Sartre's writings and the political and ethical positions of his existentialist philosophy. The occasional Marxian aspects of Sartre's work were glossed over in this book; Jameson would return to them in the following decade.
Jameson's dissertation, though it drew on a long tradition of European cultural analysis, differed markedly from the prevailing trends of Anglo-American academia (which were empiricism and logical positivism in philosophy and linguistics, and New Critical formalism in literary criticism). It nevertheless earned Jameson a position at Harvard University, where he taught during the first half of the 1960s.
Research into Marxism
His interest in Sartre led Jameson to intense study of Marxist literary theory. Even though Karl Marx was becoming an important influence in American social science, partly through the influence of the many European intellectuals who had sought refuge from the Second World War in the United States, such as Theodor Adorno, the literary and critical work of the Western Marxists was still largely unknown in American academia in the late-1950s and early-1960s.
Jameson's shift toward Marxism was also driven by his increasing political connection with the New Left and pacifist movements, as well as by the Cuban Revolution, which Jameson took as a sign that "Marxism was alive and well as a collective movement and a culturally productive force". His research focused on critical theory: thinkers of, and influenced by, the Frankfurt School, such as Kenneth Burke, György Lukács, Ernst Bloch, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse, Louis Althusser, and Sartre, who viewed cultural criticism as an integral feature of Marxist theory. In 1969, Jameson co-founded the Marxist Literary Group with a number of his graduate students at the University of California, San Diego.
While the Orthodox Marxist view of ideology held that the cultural "superstructure" was completely determined by the economic "base", the Western Marxists critically analyzed culture as a historical and social phenomenon alongside economic production and distribution or political power relationships. They held that culture must be studied using the Hegelian concept of immanent critique: the theory that adequate description and criticism of a philosophical or cultural text must be carried out in the same terms that text itself employs, in order to develop its internal inconsistencies in a manner that allows intellectual advancement. Marx highlighted immanent critique in his early writings, derived from Hegel's development of a new form of dialectical thinking that would attempt, as Jameson comments, "to lift itself mightily up by its own bootstraps".
Narrative and history
History came to play an increasingly central role in Jameson's interpretation of both the reading (consumption) and writing (production) of literary texts. Jameson marked his full-fledged commitment to Hegelian-Marxist philosophy with the publication of The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act, the opening slogan of which is "always historicize" (1981). The Political Unconscious takes as its object not the literary text itself, but rather the interpretive frameworks by which it is now constructed. It emerges as a manifesto for new activity concerning literary narrative.
The book's argument emphasized history as the "ultimate horizon" of literary and cultural analysis. It borrowed notions from the structuralist tradition and from Raymond Williams's work in cultural studies, and joined them to a largely Marxist view of labor (whether blue-collar or intellectual) as the focal point of analysis. Jameson's readings exploited both the explicit formal and thematic choices of the writer and the unconscious framework guiding these. Artistic choices that were ordinarily viewed in purely aesthetic terms were recast in terms of historical literary practices and norms, in an attempt to develop a systematic inventory of the constraints they imposed on the artist as an individual creative subject. To further this meta-commentary, Jameson described the ideologeme, or "the smallest intelligible unit of the essentially antagonistic collective discourses of social classes", the smallest legible residue of the real-life, ongoing struggles occurring between social classes. (The term "ideologeme" was first used by Mikhail Bakhtin and Pavel Nikolaevich Medvedev in their work The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship and was later popularised by Julia Kristeva. Kristeva defined it as "the intersection of a given textual arrangement ... with the utterances ... that it either assimilates into its own space or to which it refers in the space of exterior texts ...".)
Jameson's establishment of history as the only pertinent factor in this analysis, which derived the categories governing artistic production from their historical framework, was paired with a bold theoretical claim. His book claimed to establish Marxian literary criticism, centered in the notion of an artistic mode of production, as the most all-inclusive and comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding literature. According to Vincent B. Leitch, the publication of The Political Unconscious "rendered Jameson the leading Marxist literary critic in America."
Critique of postmodernism
In 1984, during his tenure as Professor of Literature and History of Consciousness at the University of California, Santa Cruz, Jameson published an article titled "Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism" in the journal New Left Review. This controversial article, which Jameson later expanded into a book, was part of a series of analyses of postmodernism from the dialectical perspective Jameson had developed in his earlier work on narrative. Jameson viewed the postmodern "skepticism towards metanarratives" as a "mode of experience" stemming from the conditions of intellectual labor imposed by the late capitalist mode of production.
Postmodernists claimed that the complex differentiation between "spheres" or fields of life (such as the political, the social, the cultural, the commercial), and between distinct social classes and roles within each field, had been overcome by the crisis of foundationalism and the consequent relativization of truth-claims. Jameson argued against this, asserting that these phenomena had or could have been understood successfully within a modernist framework; the postmodern failure to achieve this understanding implied an abrupt break in the dialectical refinement of thought.
In his view, postmodernity's merging of all discourse into an undifferentiated whole was the result of the colonization of the cultural sphere, which had retained at least partial autonomy during the prior modernist era, by a newly organized corporate capitalism. Following Adorno and Horkheimer's analysis of the culture industry, Jameson discussed this phenomenon in his critical discussion of architecture, film, narrative, and visual arts, as well as in his strictly philosophical work.
Two of Jameson's best-known claims from Postmodernism are that postmodernity is characterized by pastiche and a crisis in historicity. Jameson argued that parody (which implies a moral judgment or a comparison with societal norms) was replaced by pastiche (collage and other forms of juxtaposition without a normative grounding). Relatedly, Jameson argued that the postmodern era suffers from a crisis in historicity: "there no longer does seem to be any organic relationship between the American history we learn from schoolbooks and the lived experience of the current, multinational, high-rise, stagflated city of the newspapers and of our own everyday life".
Jameson's analysis of postmodernism attempted to view it as historically grounded; he therefore explicitly rejected any moralistic opposition to postmodernity as a cultural phenomenon, and continued to insist upon a Hegelian immanent critique that would "think the cultural evolution of late capitalism dialectically, as catastrophe and progress all together". His refusal to simply dismiss postmodernism from the onset, however, was misinterpreted by some Marxist intellectuals as an implicit endorsement of postmodern views.
Recent work
Jameson's later writings include Archaeologies of the Future, a study of utopia and science fiction, launched at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, in December 2005, and The Modernist Papers (2007), a collection of essays on modernism that is meant to accompany the theoretical A Singular Modernity (2002) as a "source-book". These books, along with Postmodernism and The Antinomies of Realism (2013), form part of an ongoing study entitled The Poetics of Social Forms, which attempts, in Sara Danius's words, to "provide a general history of aesthetic forms, at the same time seeking to show how this history can be read in tandem with a history of social and economic formations". As of 2010, Jameson intends to supplement the already published volumes of The Poetics of Social Forms with a study of allegory entitled Overtones: The Harmonics of Allegory. The Antinomies of Realism won the 2014 Truman Capote Award for Literary Criticism.
Alongside this continuing project, he has recently published three related studies of dialectical theory: Valences of the Dialectic (2009), which includes Jameson's critical responses to Slavoj Žižek, Gilles Deleuze, and other contemporary theorists; The Hegel Variations (2010), a commentary on Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit; and Representing Capital: A Reading of Volume One (2011), an analysis of Marx's Das Kapital.
An overview of Jameson's work, Fredric Jameson: Live Theory, by Ian Buchanan, was published in 2007.
Holberg International Memorial Prize
In 2008, Jameson was awarded the annual Holberg International Memorial Prize in recognition of his career-long research "on the relation between social formations and cultural forms". The prize, which was worth (approximately $648,000), was presented to Jameson by Tora Aasland, Norwegian Minister of Education and Research, in Bergen, Norway, on 26 November 2008.
Lyman Tower Sargent Distinguished Scholar Award
In 2009, Jameson was awarded the Lyman Tower Sargent Distinguished Scholar Award by the North American Society for Utopian Studies.
Influence in China
Jameson has had influence, on the theorization of the postmodern in China. In mid-1985, shortly after the beginning of the cultural fever (early 1985 to June Fourth, 1989)—a period in Chinese intellectual history characterized in part by intense interest in Western critical theory, literary theory, and related disciplines—Jameson discussed the idea of postmodernism in China in lectures at Peking University and the newly founded Shenzhen University. Jameson's ideas as presented at Peking University had an impact on some students, including Zhang Yiwu and Zhang Xudong, scholars whose work would come to play an important role in the analysis of postmodernity in China. In 1987 Jameson published a book entitled Postmodernism and Cultural Theories (), translated into Chinese by Tang Xiaobing. Although the Chinese intelligentsia's engagement with postmodernism would not begin in earnest until the nineties, Postmodernism and Cultural Theories was to become a keystone text in that engagement; as scholar Wang Ning writes, its influence on Chinese thinkers would be impossible to overestimate. Its popularity may be partially due to the facts that it was not written in a dense style and that, because of Jameson's writing style, it was possible to use the text to support either praise or criticism of the Chinese manifestation of postmodernity. In Wang Chaohua's interpretation of events, Jameson's work was mostly used to support praise, in what amounted to a fundamental misreading of Jameson:
The caustic edge of Jameson's theory, which had described postmodernism as "the cultural logic of late capitalism," was abandoned for a contented or even enthusiastic endorsement of mass culture, which [a certain group of Chinese critics] saw as a new space of popular freedom. According to these critics, intellectuals, who conceived of themselves as the bearers of modernity, were reacting with shock and anxiety at their loss of control with the arrival of postmodern consumer society, uttering cries of "quixotic hysteria," panic-stricken by the realization of what they had once called for during the eighties.
The debate fueled by Jameson, and specifically Postmodernism and Cultural Theories, over postmodernism was at its most intense from 1994 to 1997, carried on by Chinese intellectuals both inside and outside the mainland; particularly important contributions came from Zhao Yiheng in London, Xu Ben in the United States, and Zhang Xudong, also in the United States, who had gone on to study under Jameson as a doctoral student at Duke.
Publications
for more info see:
Reissued: 2008 (Verso)
Postmodernism and Cultural Theories (). Tr. Tang Xiaobing. Xi'an: Shaanxi Normal University Press. 1987.
Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature. Derry: Field Day, 1988. A collection of three Field Day Pamphlets by Fredric Jameson, Terry Eagleton and Edward Said.
Reissued: 2011 (Verso)
Reissued: 2009 (Verso)
The Jameson Reader. Ed. Michael Hardt and Kathi Weeks. Oxford: Blackwell. 2000.
Jameson on Jameson: Conversations on Cultural Marxism. Ed. Ian Buchanan. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 2007.
(One-volume edition, with additional essays)
An American Utopia: Dual Power and the Universal Army. Ed. Slavoj Žižek. London and New York: Verso. 2016.
Raymond Chandler: The Detections of Totality. London and New York: Verso. 2016.
Allegory and Ideology. London and New York: Verso. 2019.
The Benjamin Files. London and New York: Verso. 2020.
See also
Dialectic
Dialectical materialism
Hegel
Late capitalism
Literary realism
Literary theory
Marx
Marxism
Marxist theorists
Modernism
Political consciousness
Postmodernism
Psychoanalytic sociology
Utopia
References
Further reading
Ahmad, Aijaz. "Jameson's Rhetoric of Otherness and the 'National Allegory'". In In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. London and New York: Verso. 1992. 95–122.
Anderson, Perry. The Origins of Postmodernity. London and New York: Verso. 1998.
Arac, Jonathan. "Frederic Jameson and Marxism." In Critical Genealogies: Historical Situations for Postmodern Literary Studies. New York: Columbia University Press. 1987. 261–279.
Buchanan, Ian. Fredric Jameson: Live Theory. London and New York: Continuum. 2006.
Burnham, Clint. The Jamesonian Unconscious: The Aesthetics of Marxist Theory. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 1995.
Carp, Alex. "On Fredric Jameson." Jacobin (magazine) (March 5, 2014).
Day, Gail. Dialectical Passions: Negation in Postwar Art Theory. New York: Columbia University Press. 2011.
Dowling, William C. Jameson, Althusser, Marx: an Introduction to the Political Unconscious. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1984.
Eagleton, Terry. "Fredric Jameson: the Politics of Style." In Against the Grain: Selected Essays 1975–1985. London: Verso, 1986. 65–78.
Gatto, Marco. Fredric Jameson: neomarxismo, dialettica e teoria della letteratura. Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino. 2008.
Helmling, Stephen. The Success and Failure of Fredric Jameson: Writing, the Sublime, and the Dialectic of Critique. Albany: State University of New York Press. 2001.
Homer, Sean. Fredric Jameson: Marxism, Hermeneutics, Postmodernism. New York: Routledge. 1998.
Hullot-Kentor, Robert. "Suggested Reading: Jameson on Adorno". In Things Beyond Resemblance: Collected Essays on Theodor W. Adorno. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. 220–233.
Irr, Caren and Ian Buchanan, eds. On Jameson: From Postmodernism to Globalization. Albany: State University of New York Press. 2005.
Kellner, Douglas, ed. Jameson/Postmodernism/Critique. Washington, DC: Maisonneuve Press. 1989.
Kellner, Douglas, and Sean Homer, eds. Fredric Jameson: a Critical Reader. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2004.
Kunkel, Benjamin. "Into the Big Tent". London Review of Books 32.8 (April 22, 2010). 12–16.
LaCapra, Dominick. "Marxism in the Textual Maelstrom: Fredric Jameson's The Political Unconscious." In Rethinking Intellectual History. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1983. 234–267.
Link, Alex. "The Mysteries of Postmodernism, or, Fredric Jameson's Gothic Plots." Theorising the Gothic. Eds. Jerrold E. Hogle and Andrew Smith. Special issue of Gothic Studies 11.1 (2009): 70–85.
Millay, Thomas J. "Always Historicize! On Fredric Jameson, the Tea Party, and Theological Pragmatics." The Other Journal 22 (2013).
Osborne, Peter. "A Marxism for the Postmodern? Jameson's Adorno". New German Critique 56 (1992): 171–192.
Roberts, Adam. Fredric Jameson. New York: Routledge, 2000.
Iona Singh (2004) Vermeer, materialism, and the transcendental in art, Rethinking Marxism, 16:2, 155–171, DOI: 10.1080/08935690410001676212
Tally, Robert T. Fredric Jameson: The Project of Dialectical Criticism. London: Pluto, 2014.
Tally, Robert T. "Jameson's Project of Cognitive Mapping." In Social Cartography: Mapping Ways of Seeing Social and Educational Change. Ed. Rolland G. Paulston. New York: Garland, 1996. 399–416.
Weber, Samuel. "Capitalising History: Notes on The Political Unconscious." In The Politics of Theory. Ed. Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, Margaret Iversen, and Diana Loxley. Colchester: University of Essex Press. 1983. 248–264.
West, Cornel. "Fredric Jameson's Marxist Hermeneutics." Boundary 2 11.1–2 (1982–83). 177–200.
White, Hayden. "Getting Out of History: Jameson's Redemption of Narrative." In The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1987. 142–168.
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