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Case 16. — Mrs. G. B. A Jewish woman, thirty-eight years of age, exhibited a generalized eruption consisting of pruritic, infiltrated plaques and numerous painful tumors ranging in size from a pea to a hickory nut. The duration of the disease was three years, during which time the patient had suffered severely, especially with the itehing. X-rays had not been administered. Under the influence of irradiation itching was temporarily relieved and some of the lesions disappeared. In less than a year, however, x-rays ceased to be of benefit and the patient died. Case 17. — Mr. A. C. D. This patient had had mild prefungoid sjrmptoms for an indefinite period. He had never received x-ray treatment. Suddenly there developed numerous, very itehy plaques which were scattered generally over the body. The eruption disappeared under x-ray treatment. Three months later the patient exhibited markedly enlarged axillary, inguinal and cervical glands, and a few infiltrated plaques. Both the adenitis and plaques involuted slowly under x-ray treatment. The patient was asymptomatic for four months. There was then a return of the adenitis and skin manifestations, the eruption consisting of infiltrated plaques and tumors and nodules. X-rays were no longer efficacious and the patient succumbed. Possible Injurious Results of Irradiation. — On several occasions it has been alleged that, as a result of roentgen therapy, the disease, which had been previously relatively benign, assumed a malignant ty^ and death resulted in a few months. White and Burns report a case which began with red, scaly patches in 1902; tumors and ulcers began to appear in 1904. WTiile the eruption was widespread, nevertheless the patient was in good general health up to June 29, 1905, w'hen the ^-rays were first applied. The radiation was first administered tri- weekly in very moderate doses to a group of ulcerated lesions in the pubic region. The temperature w-hich had been practically normaK began to rise on July 3 and reached 103° on the 8th. It then fell rapidly and reached normal on the 11th, only to rise again to 104° on the 13th. The temperature was again normal on the 15th. Dur- ing this period the treatment had been confined to the only ulcerated lesions, which were in the pubic region. From July 15 to August 22 the treatment was applied to all parts of the body. The temperature (luring this ])eriod was as follows: It was practically normal until August 4 when there was a sudden rise to 102° for one day. It was again normal until the 22d when there was a sudden rise to 105°. GRANULOMA FUNGOIDES 433 The evening temperature then ranged from 103° to 105° until Sep- tember 7 when the patient died. There was a gradual improvement in the eruption which entirely disappeared before death. Two blood counts were made: August 18: white cells, 10,000; neutro- philes, 60 per cent.; small lymphocytes, 29 per cent.; large lympho- cytes, 8 per cent.; eosinophils, 2.5 per cent.; basophiles, 0.5 per cent. September 6: white cells, 36,000; neutrophiles, 70 per cent.; small lymphocytes, 23 per cent.; large lymphocytes, 6.5 per cent.; eosinophiles, 0.5 per cent. The autopsy and postmortem bacterio- logical findings revealed a streptococcus septicemia. White considered that death was due to toxemia resulting from the too rapid involution of the lesions under the influence of the J'-rays. In analyzing this case there are several points to be considered. In the first place the tumor stage of the disease was manifested within two years so that it was not a particularly benign type. It required two months of steady treatment to overcome the lesions, which were scattered over the entire body. The J*-ray treatment was given by Dodd who stated that the individual exposures were very moderate in strength, that they were given about every second day and that only small portions of the body surface were treated at a time. In the light of modern experience the length of time allowed for the disappearance of all the lesions was a little short and the treatment, perhaps, was too energetic although, as will be seen later, there are no substantial grounds for criticizing this feature of this particular case. The blood counts are interesting because it might be claimed that the j'-rays lowered the lymphocytic elements and therefore reduced resistance. In this case the total lymphocytic count after two months of treatment was 37 per cent.— perhaps a little above normal. Just before death the lymphocytes fell to 29 per cent.— perhaps a little below normal. At the same time the total count had increased from 16,0(K) to 36,0(X) with a gain of 10 per cent, in the neutrophiles. The blood picture is rather more suggestive of septicemia than of toxemia. As a comparison the author had a case of advanced granu- loma fungoides, the lesions of which consisted of erj^thematous, slightly infiltrated plaques, nodules and fungating and ulcerating tumors. The individual lesions were somewhat recalcitrant and for a few months new lesions appeared almost as fast as the old ones disappeared. It was necesvsary to treat the entire body and daily exposures, gradu- ally increased in amount, were given over a period of seven months before the patient was symptomatically cured. At one time he was receiving as much as H2 S. D. unfiltered in divided doses, in one month, over the entire body surface. In spite of this intensive treat- ment and the enormous number of lesions that under\\'ent involution, the patient never presented the alarming symptoms as seen in White's case and the blood count at the end of the .r-ray treatment w^as as follows: Total white cells, 7200; polymorphonuclears, 78 per cent.; lymphocytes, 22 per cent. 28 434 DISEASES OF THE HEMATOPOIETIC SYSTEM Now to return to \Miite's case. The febrile reaction, also, wi»- s as suggestive of septicemia as of toxemia. Shortly after the institis. ^ion of ar-ray treatment and while the x-rays were being applied to one ulcerative lesion, the temperature reached 102°. Then it retu^^ned to normal in spite of the fact that the treatment was continued ^w that the ulcer was still unhealed. Then, during the next two morB.'tyis, with the exception of two upward excursions of short duration, ^^" while the j--rays were being applied to the entire body, the temi>^^^' ture remained practically normal. It then suddenly assumes: septic curve and a few days later the patient died. Finally autopsy revealed that there was no internal dissemination of disease and the macroscopic and microscopic evidence was tha't: streptococcus septicemia. WTiile it is possible that the deathi^ White's patient was due to toxemia the evidence warranted pertinent remarks of Pollitzer during the discussion of White's pa "Dr. Pollitzer inquired why the death of Dr. WTiite's patient been ascribed to toxemia? The autopsy findings showed stre cocci in the blood, and in view of the quite frequent occurren death in the course of mycosis fungoides from septic infection f without, derived through the skin lesions, the speaker said tha wished to ask why Dr. \Miite presented his case as one of tox^ rather than one of simple streptococcus septicemia?*' Roman reports two interesting examples of granuloma fungo in which .r-rays were employed. The first patient had had ecze=^ like lesions off and on for ten years. These would either disap spontaneously or yield to ointments. Finally nodular masses ulcerating lesions developed which, after resisting ordinary t ment for a year, disappeared as a result of five x-ray exposures, months later a polymorphous eruption, including ulcerating tu suddenly appeared. X-ray treatment was given daily, only small section of the body being exposed on any one day. It necessary to discontinue the use of the x-rays over long intei on account of febrile reactions which Roman states w^ere due to x-rays and the ulcerating tumors. While a few lesions disappe under the influence of the a?-rays, most of them continued to ulc^ and the patient soon died. The blood count before the institi^^ of .r-ray treatment showed a total white cell count of 9500. differential count gave: Polymorphonuclears, 68.5 per cent.; s lymi)h()cytes, 12 per cent.; large lymphocytes, 17 per cent.; tr tionals, 2 j)er cent.; eosinophils, 0.5 per cent. Just before d there was a marked anemia and the total white count inc 27,000. The differential count was not given but the increase sisted mainly of polvmorphonuclears. The autopsy revealed m; scoi>ical and gross changes in the viscera suggestive of granul fungoides. In analyzing this case one seems hardly warranted in placing ^^_ J^ hlanic upon the x-rays. The doses were mild or moderate, there r'-as GRANULOMA FUNGOIDES 435 very little involution of the lesions and there was a great deal of ulceration and sloughing. The febrile reactions were very probably the result of septic absorption and death was most likely due to the disease itself. The author feels that the disease in this particular instance was malignant and its course was practically uninfluenced bv the .r-rays. ft %> The second case was of nine years' duration. The eruption con- sisted mostly of erythematous, slightly infiltrated plaques, a few eroded lesions and non-ulcerating tumors. Soon after the institu- tion of j'-ray treatment there was a febrile reaction and an erythema- tous eruption which began as pinhead to silver-dollar sized, discrete macules which soon became confluent. The eruption was generalized. It disappeared in about two weeks, leaving a pigmented, slightly scaly skin. The j*-ray treatment, which had been discontinued at the onset of the febrile reaction, was again resumed; the patient made an uneventful recovery, the lesions of mycosis fungoides dis- api)earing and there were no more febrile or skin reactions. Blood counts were made at intervals and were found to be practically normal. In commenting upon this case Roman states: "The striking features . . . are the febrile turn and the erythema-like erup- tion, which could not be accounted for by repeated examinations of the internal organs and certainly do not belong to the picture of granuloma fungoides. It seems that an explanation of these must be sought in some form of roentgen toxemia. -Y-ray intoxications are not at all rare ... it is pretty well known that every living cell which absorbs roentgen rays undergoes a pathological change as a result of a chemical dissoci^,tion occurring in its substance analogous to the process in the photographic plate. When the process becomes sufficiently intense the pathological changes manifest themselves microscopically in a degeneration of the cell as evidenced by a granu- lar breaking down of the protoplasm, vacuolization of the nucleus and loss of staining quality of the same. Gradually this leads to a total disappearance of the cell, the products naturally being absorbed. It is, therefore, not unreasonable to suppose that when the absorbed material is in great excess as, for instance, in cases with large sensitive growths and very frequent exposures, especially in a susceptible indi- vidual, these absorbed products acting like toxins should produce a reaction of considerable severity. '* In analyzing this case there is one feature that must not be over- looked. **Six years ago there occurred a violent rash which, among other things, was treated with a--rays and which soon subsided only to return in a very short time." Just what was meant by "violent rash" is not plain. It may have been an acute, generalized, erythe- matous eruption similar to the later attack or it may have been the rather sudden outbreak of prefungoid lesions of granuloma fungoides. As Roman says, the peculiar eruption following the use of the a:-rays in his second case is not a part of the picture of granuloma 4'M} DISEASES OF THE HEMATOPOIETIC SYSTEM fuiifcoides, hut can it l>c said with certainty that the eruption was due, in<lircctly, to the jvrays? The patient received only a few mild appli- cations, and the lesions di<l not disappear quickly, circumstances that wouM militate against the theory of the too sudden absorption <rf hir^e anioinits of toxic material from the involuting lesions. In this connection, it is profitable to c*onsider the effect of the jT'Tnys on other geiieralizwi affections which are often treated with .r-rays ])soriasis, eczema, dermatitis exfoliativa, leukemia, etc. The author has treattnl a large number of cases of generalized ])soriasis, when* it was necessary to apply the rays to the entire body and in which the lesions underwent fairly rapid involution, yet a sudden cutaneous (»ruption associated with febrile disturbance has seldom o<*curred. The siime can be said regarding splenic and spleno- m\'elog<'nous leukemia, when .r-rays have been extensively and rather int(Misively api)li(Ml over long jKTicMls and when the reduction in lymphocytic elements has lurn fairly rapid. However, then* is hardly any doubt but that the too intensive irni< Nation of pathological and even of nomlal tissue may effect sym]>toms of ttixcmia. In some instancies it is possible that even smjill closes might cause more or less toxemia. In the literature, es])e(ijilly that prior to IIMO, there are immerous references to toxic manifestations caused by .r-rays. The fact that we now seldom enctiunter such sym])toms, because of improved technic and cautious and <M)ns<Tvative administration, would set»m to indicate that many of the toxic reactions of formcT years were really causetl by the treat- nuMit. Hricfl\ tlie carlv references are as follows: Ilol/knecht observed febrile reactions and a scarlatiniform derma- titis in s<'vcral ])aticiits alllictcd with ditVerent diseases. The eruption lasted oiilv a week or two and was followed by exfoliation of the eimlerniis. He alsi) noted instances of a pruritic, maculo-papular erni)tion, which was thought to be the result of roentgenization. Kienlxick mentions thn*e similar cases o1)s<tv(mI by him. Kngle writes of a case of leukemia which, after receiving two hundred and eighty minutes of total irradiation suddenly (lev<'lojKMl a severe febrile n»action with syni])t<)ms of toxemia. Death occurred in a few days. Fricke notetl, in a case of leukemia, a febrile reaction, toxic symptoms, an<l an i'xtcnsivc cutaneous eruption of a seborrheic dennatitis or ])snriatic ty])c. S(*haumann observed a generaliziMl, itchy, papular eruption following intensive roentgenization t)f the spliHMi in a case of s])lenic leukemia. K<lwards, while not giving s])ecific details, is convinc(»d that death often results from toxemia as a result of the .r-ray treatment of internal cancer. Sterne reports a case of splenic leukemia in which there develo]HHl a toxemia with s\W])toms simu- lating an acute sei)sis. Kven the micr()sco])ic blood findings indi- cated a se])ticemia. Pusi\v mentions a rash and symptoms of toxemia occurring in a case of lymphadenoma after fiftivn exiK)sures. Allen has observed cutaneous eruptions, febrile reactions -and toxic symj)- GRANULOMA FUNGOIDES 437 toms following the disintegration of large tumor masses under the influence of the or-rays. Gibson calls attention to the fact that in all deep-seated, extensive tumors the x-rays may cause rapid disin- tegration and the dissolved material being thrown into the circulation in large amounts, produces a condition of sepsis. Nielsen, Dock, Haret, Linser, Franklin and Lyle are all quoted by White and Bums as having observed toxic symptoms following the use of the ar-rays in deep-seated cancer, leukemia, etc. Most of these authors ascribed the toxemia to the x-rays, but Dock states that toxic symptoms occur so fre<}uently in leukemia that it is impossible to tell how much influ- ence the radiation has in producing such manifestations. Linser found that x-rays destroyed the leukocytes, especially the circulating lymphocytes. Also, a leukotoxin was produced and when a serum containing this substance was injected into an animal a destruction of leukocytes followed. For further details relative to the action of .r-rays and radium on the lymphocytes see Chapter XIV. Pancoast in his many articles on the x-ray treatment of leukemia has repeatedly called attention to the advisability of employing small oft-repeated doses. The author has seen two cases of granuloma fungoides in which there were phenomena suggesting toxemia during a course of x-ray treatment. One case was very similar to Roman's second patient. The patient had received daily irradiation for a period of four months. The treatments were so arranged that the entire body surface received HJ S. I)., unfiltered, the first month, Hi the second and third months, and H2 the fourth month. The lesions, which consisted of erythema- tous plaques, nodules and ulcerating tumors, undem'ent rather slow involution and new lesions developed as fast as the older ones dis- appeared. Toward the end of the fourth month there gradually appeared an eruption of erj^thematous, non-infiltrated macules and plaques. The individual lesions ranged in size from a pinhead to an adult palm. They developed first on the chest and abdomen and spread rapidly all over the trunk and extremities. The lesions then coalesced to form a fairly generalized eruption. The lesions of gran- uloma fungoides became more pronouncedly red and two of the plaques showed the presence of bullse, but there was no visible change in the tumors. There was edema of both legs, a slight elevation in the temperature and a trace of albumin in the urine. There was no prostration. Irradiation was discontinued and in three weeks the eruption had disappeared leaving a temporary yellowish-brown stain and an exfoliation. Only a few new mvcosis lesions were now devel- oping and the old lesions were disappearing. The x-ray treatment was rec^ommenced and at the end of the sixth month the patient was free of lesions, in good general health, and left for his home in Cuba. A few months later plaques and tumors again developed. At first they were improved by x-ray treatment, but very soon the x-rays ceased to have any effect and the patient died. ■w •• I t f If.-'. .« It-' .« r- .r'« • *"» I ( . I ' i ' I ; I.I r • ji ( .1 I It ' t •• . • • • •. •%• ». • I • , *■ •- ■;- *- - * i ^ . *■ »» t-.^ . - * ' ■ • - ..■• :•• • •:•: ••: ::.»'^f Tuxt-n.:.- . •; : -:■=: ■-'. •:: .= :•::..:••!•!»•'* wi [ ], i^AVi^ n..: • :.••:. *!«;;Tf.: ;:. -j.i^ mai.:.' r witlinut ti:r '••'.: :|,i :i:rrf -\il''- t-n ti-'Tuatini^. intii- :;•.' !»•• .1 -:miIiT;!Ii»'iiii< iiim! r.-itlitT raf)i«| :?;'..'. '.' :!.' I» M.i! ■ i»;itl»i/ •'. iii, liltrrati'.r It'^iuii-* «»fti-n «U'\-fK,|> * !»' I' * jiij.i .ii;i\ ' .!« i.M •.i.i: FjM?,i.i;iM« iiiTn tlif iiittTiial Mnraii^ n<.-i.-a- i"ri.i!i . i.il.i |ii;ui . Tlnif I'nn-. mn- i- hht w jirraiitcil in Marninix Tlu'>t* plMinnnrij.i i,n ilu- .»-r;i; .-. r--|)r»-ijilly uIm-m tIh- f\ iMriur i> ^n liu*a^iT. If i TMii jMi ihli- ili:it tln" |MM-iili;ir nitaiiinU'* maiiitV^tatioii< in KoriMii' |»aii<iit arnl in nm- of tla- antlmr- |)ati<'iit>. iin\ulit liavf in(\ivni\ W till- .r-v:\\ lia<l not iM'i-ri rrii|>lMW<i. It i^ well to hear ill mind. Iii»\\r\«r. that tla-n- i^ n-a^on f<» lu-licxr that thr .r-rav<. nnth-r ccrfain ^•i^•urn-tan^('•^. can jiroihirc niurr up K'>^ t;ra\'r tuxif ih fnrhancf> an<l that thr too intrnsivr I'orntm'in'/ation of thi* l(*^i(»fi> of <!raniilonia fiin;ioi(|f> may hriii;: alnnit nndcsiral)!** r('siilt>. Technic X-rays'. Skin that i^ the >itc of a legion of granuloma fnn;,'oi(l('s is likclv to ln' imu-c *' radio>rn>iti\i'" than i^ thr siirn»un<l- iii^' normal skin. Thcrrfofc, hii'^'c dosc^ aic not indicated. When there are only a fe\N scattered le.-^ion-^. fraetional. semi-inten^^ixc or >ul)intensi\(' treatments irixc excellent results. As a riih*, three or four fractional or one or two semi-intensive or a single siiherytheina doM» will suffice to make any one lesion disappear. ORANVLOMA PVNGOlbMS 43d Fractional treatment is advised especially at the beginning of treatment, in order to avoid the possibility of toxemia. Later, if the eruption is stubborn, and localized, larger doses may be tried. As a rule, however, if small or moderate doses do not prove efficacious larger doses will be equally ineffectual. To insist on the continuation of .r-ray treatment in cases that do not respond is poor policy. Often it is necessary to irradiate all or a greater part of the body surface. For reasons given throughout this chapter it is advisable to begin with very small doses. It is customary to divide the body into from three to six areas, depending upon the distribution of the eruption, and expose each area once weekly. The dose at first is HJ S. D., unfiltered. After two or three weeks the dose may be increased, if necessary, to HJ. It is a good idea to make a differential white cell count about every two weeks. If there is a marked decrease of lymphocytes or if there are any signs of toxemia, irradiation should be discontinued tempo- rarily. If the eruption becomes recalcitrant, ar-ray treatment should be stopped and other methods tried. After a few months' rest it is possible that irradiation will again prove efficacious. Lesions situated in the eyebrows or on the scalp may be treated in the same way as lesions on the glabrous skin, the only exception being that the dose is limited to a total of HJ S. D., unfiltered, in one month. When necessary it is permissible to administer larger doses to hairy regions regardless of the effect on the gro>\i;h of hair. Fiftratiori.— Filtered radiation is indicated when the lesions are more than 3 or 4 cm. in thickness. As a rule filtered radiation is not necessary, excepting in very large tumors, because the lesions of granuloma fungoides yield readily to j*-rays of any quality. The author has never been able to cause the involution of lesions with filtered radiation that failed to yield to unfiltered .r-rays— with the exception of very large tumors. For further technical details the reader is referred to the follow- ing chapters: General Therapeutic Considerations, Filtered -Y-ray Technic, Practical X-ray Technic, Psoriasis. Radium.— Radium may be used advantageously for the treatment of lesions that are more or less inaccessible to ir-rays— mouth, external auditory canal, etc. Also, radium is suitable for circumscribed lesions on any part of the body. Obviously, x-rays are more suitable for extensive surfaces. The usual controversy has arisen relative to the comparative efficacy of radium and x-rays in the treatment of this disease. Bayet, for instance, claims superiority for radium in the treatment of indi- vidual lesions. The author has found no difference in efficacy. He prefers x-ray treatment on account of the latitude and flexibility. Radium, in the author's experience, has not succeeded in causing the involution of a lesion that failed to disappear as a result of x-ray 440 DISEASES OF THE HEMATOPOIETIC SYSTEM treatment. In this connection, Ordway has succeeded in obtaining remissions with radium in cases of leukemia that were resistant to j'-rays. If a lesion is not more than 1 to 2 cm. thick penetrating beta rays may Ih» use<l, the very **soft'* beta rays being eliminated by a thin scn»i»n of aluminium. In the case of a tumor or a very thick patch, only the ganuna rays should Ire employed. For further technical details tlu» HMulcr is rt»fcrriMl to the chapter on radium technic. LEUKEMIA cnns. ^riu» author trt»atcd one case of generalized leukemia cutis with .r-rays. TIktc was some involution of lesions and some relief of the itching. Practically, the treatment was of very little value in this ])articular case*. In several patients with circumscribed eruptions thought to l)c due to leukemia, the itching was arrested and the cruj)tioii disappeared. The author has not found any literature dealing with this subject. However, the good tenijxjrary results obtained in splenic and spleno- niyclogcnous leukemia, lUxlgkin's disease and granuloma fungoides, warrants the Ix^licf that .r-rays should be of value in the treatment of hMikcniia cutis. LYMPHOGRANULOMATOSIS CUTIS. Wise's well-known case of lynii)hogranul()matosis cutis {Lymph- (uhmnsh cuih uuiirrsalis, associated with generalize<l erythrodermia and atroj)hy of the skin) was l)cnefitcd by .r-ray treatment, the j'-rays having Ixmmi administered by Ucmer in Dr. Fordyce's clinic. Itching was relieved and infiltrated j)laqucs and boggy tumors disappeared. HODGKIN'S DISEASE. llodgkin's disease is of interest to the dermatologist and he is often called in consultation to advise relative to diagnosis and treatment. Furthennorc, in rare instances, there are skin nianifestaticms in addi- tion to the cnlarg(Ml lymphatic glands. The literature dealing with .r-ray an<l ra<liuni treatment of Ibnlgkin's disease is quite voluminous and all authors agree that in the majority of cases it is possible to effect a temi)orary clinical cure. Hecurrence is the rule, but patients can \w k(»pt alive and in comfort for many years by the intelligent use of .r-rays or radium combined with proper general medical treat- ment. Ahlerson re])orts a case of Iltnlgkin's disease in which there were two large ulcers dbxlgkin's disease* of the skin) which healed quickly when irradiated. Irradiation of the lymphatic glands demands filtered j"-rays or heavily screened radium. Technical details will l)e found in the following noDOKlX'S DISEASE chapters: Tubercultms Adenitis, General Therapeutic Considerations, Itadiuiii Teflinic, (■'ihered A'-rav Teclinic', i'ractical A'-ray Technic. 442 DISEASES OF THE HEMATOPOIETIC SYSTEM BIBLIOGRAPHY. Alderson, H. E.: Jour. Cutan. Dis., 1917, xzxv, p. 481. Allen, C. W.: Jour. Cutan. Dis., 1904, xxii, p. 281; Radiotherapy and Phototherapy, Philadelphia, 1904, Lea Brothers & Co., p. 258; p. 341. Bayet: Das Radium, Wien. Quoted by Newcomet, W. S., Radium and Radiotherapy, Philadelphia, 1914, Lea & Febigcr, p. 255. Bisseri6. F.: Arch. Roentg. Ray, 1906, xi, p. 142. Carrier, A. E.: Jour. Cutan. Dis., 1904, xxii, p. 73. Dore, S. E.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. Sect. Dermat. 1914, vii, pt. 1, p. 226. Engel, K.: Deutsch. med. Wchnschr., 1907, xxxiii, pt. 1, p. 22. Fricke: Dermat. Zt^chr.. 1907, xiv, p. 417. Galloway, J.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, vii, pt. 1, p. 213. Geher: Quoted by Stel wagon, H. W., Diseases of the Skin, 9th editioo, Philadelphia, 1919, W. B. Saunders Co., p. 954. Gibson, J. D.: Arch. Roentg. Ray, 1904, ix, p. 124. Hall-Edwards, J.: Arch. Roentg. Ray, 1903, viii, p. 46. Holzknecht, G.: Arch. f. Dermat. u. Syph., 1903, Ixvi, p. 71. Hyde, J. N., Montgomery, F. H. and Ormsby, O. S.: Jour. Am. M«d. Assn., 1903, xl, p. 1. Jamieson, W. A.: Brit. Jour. Dermat., 1903, xv, p. 1. KienlxJck, R.: Quoted by Holzknecht, G., Arch. f. Dermat. u. Sj'ph., 1903, Ixvi, p. 74. Kobnor: Quoted by Stelwagon, H. W., Diseases of the Skin, 9th edition. Philadelphia, 1919. \V. B. Saunders Co., p. 954. Little, E. G.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect., Dermat., 1914, \'ii, pt. 1, p. 223. McDonagh, J. E. R.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, vii, pt. 1, p. 207. MarI^M>d, J. M. H.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, \di, pt. 1, p. 226. Marsh, J. P.: Am. Jour. Med. Sc, 1903, cxxvi, p. 314. Morris, M.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, vii, pt. 1, p. 205. Ordway, T.: Boston Med. and Surg. Jour., clxx\n, p. 490. Pcrnet, G.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, vii, pt. 1, p. 221. Pringlo, J. J.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, vii, pt. 1, p. 205. Pusey, W. A.: Jour. Cutan. Dis., 1904, xxii, p. 436; Jour. Advanc. Therap., 1903, xxi, p. 642. Pusey, W. A. and Caldwell, E. W.: Roentgen Rays in Diagnosis and Therapeutics, Philadelphia, 1904, W. B. Saunders Co., p. 610. Riehl: Fortschr. a. d. Geb. d. Rontgenstrahlen, 1903, vii, p. 41. Roman, B.: Jour. Cutan. Di;|., 1910, xx\dii, p. 506. Schaumann, J.: Ann. do dermat. et de syph., 1916, ser. 5, \'i, p. 120. Scholtz, W.: Arch. f. Dermat. u. Syph., 1902. lix. p. 421. Sequeira, J. H.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, vii, pt. 1, p. 190. Stainer: Brit. Jour. Dermat., 1903, xv, p. 137. Sterne, A. E. : Indiana Med. Jour., 1902, xxi, p. 56. Stowers, J. H.: Proc. Koy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, \'ii, pt. 1, p. 216. Walker, N.: Brit. Med. Jour., 1902, ii, p. 1319. Whitfield, A.: Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sect. Dermat., 1914, vii, pt. 1, p. 219. White, C. J. and Burn.s, F. S.: Tr. Am. Dermat. Assn., 1905, p. 76; Jour. Cutan. Dis., 1906, xxiv, p. 195. Wise, F. : Jour. C^utan. Di.s., 1917, xxxv, p. 669. 9. Tuberculides CHAPTER XXIX. DISEASES SlTPaSEDLY DUE DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY TO THE TUBERCLE BACILLUS.^ The entities that will be discussed in this chapter are: 1 . Lupus Vulgaris. 2. Lupus Erythematosus. 3. Tuberculosis Orificialis. 4. Tuberculosis Verrucosa Cutis. 5. Scrofuloderma. 6. Tuberculous Adenitis. 7. Erythema Induratum. 8. Sarcoid. Papulonecrotic Tuberculide. Acnitis. Folliclis. Lichen Scrofulosorum. Pernio. 10. Granuloma Annulare. LUPUS VULGARIS. With the exception of hypertrichosis and cancer, lupus vulgaris was the first cutaneous disease to be treated with o'-ravs. SchifT is reported to have cured a case of this affection as early as 1896. The first men to treat this disease were: In Germany and Austria, Schiff and Freund, Kiimmel, Gocht, Gassmann and Schenkel, Hahn and Albers-Schonberg; in England, Scholefield, Holland, Hall-Edwards and Startin; in France, Belot, Gaston, Vieira and Nicolau, Beclere and Aug6; in the United States, Jones, Knox, Greenleaf, Pusey, Allen and Pfahler. Since these early reports the literature on the subject has become voluminous. At first it was thought that a specific had been found for the disease. A larger percentage of cases were cured then than now, because the early workers did not hesitate to effect a severe radiodermatitis in order to eradicate the disease. Later, when it was found that the sequelae of radiodermatitis were so serious, x-ray treatment was administered in a more conservative manner and the effect on the disease was less spectacular. > For explanation of terms used in this chapter to express dosage see Chapters X and XIX. DISEASES DUE TO TUBERCLE BACILLUS Today there is a difference of opinion relative tn tbe effifacj roentgen therapy in lupuH vulgaris. This differenee of opinion Fin. ISS.—Hj'jicTl mill lie lupus w\\i oCcasionet] partly by a lack of appreciation of the effect of .i-rays different clinical types of the affection. There are ii jrreat many adjectives used to describe the many v«i LUPUS VULGARIS 445 tions in the clinical appearance of lupus vulgaris. For convenience we may combine these many clinical varieties into the following types: 1. Atrophic type. 2. Hypertrophic type. 3. I'lcerative type. 4. Multiple disseminated type. 5. Miscellaneous t>Tpes. Atrophic Lupus Vulgaris.— In this type the skin becomes atrophic and the aflFected area is studded with deep-seated, pinhead to lentil- sized nodules of a yellowish-brown color (apple-jelly nodules). The nodules may project above the niveau of the skin but, as a rule, the surface of the affected area is even although it may be scaly. The author has found the atrophic type of lupus \'ulgaris exceedingly recalcitrant to both x-rays and radium and, as a rule, it is necessary, in order to effect a cure, to support such treatment with tuberculin therap\' or to remove the individual nodules by the method advocated by (t. II. Fox. This consists of digging out the nodule with a dental burr and cauterizing the wound with carbolic acid or trichloracetic acid. The galvanocautery may also be used for this purpose. In early cases, when the lesions are small, and before sclerosis and fibrosis have occurred, or in instances where the nodules are larger and nearer the surface, the results of roentgen therapy are better. The younger the lesion, the smaller the lesion, and the greater the rapidity of evolution, the greater will be the effect of the x-ray treat- ment. Such eruptions may disappear as a result of two or three intensive treatments. Older eruptions associated with atrophy and deep-seated nodules have resisted a year or two of intensive treatment. Recurrences are common after clinical cures. Hypertrophic Lupus Vulgaris.— Here the nodules are larger (lentil to split pea), project above the surface of the skin and are coalesc»ed. The coalesced nodules and hyperplastic skin together form elevated, firm but not hard, brownish-red plaques and tumors of various sizes. Small lesions of this type can be often permanently cured with one intensive treatment. Larger and older lesions are more stubborn, but, as a rule, this type of lupus vulgaris yields more readily than does the atrophic type of the disease, and recurrences are less common. Ulcerative Lupus Vulgaris.— Ulceration may occur in either the atrophic or the hypertrophic type. I'lcers, under .r-ray treatment, usually heal much more rapidly than the neighboring nodules involute. The results of roentgen therapy in ulcerative lupus vulgaris are often si)ectacular, especially when the disease involves the face and the nasal and buccal mucosae. Unfortunately recurrences are common. During treatment the ulcers should be kept clean and free from crusts, and individual nodules destroyed by other methods of treatment. Multiple Disseminated Lupus Vulgaris.— The individual scattered nodules of this type have undergone rapid involution in the few cases treated in the author's laboratories. DISEASES DUE TO TUBERCLE BACILLUS MiseelUneotis TTpes.— The serpigimms type of lupus vi very rebellious if the nodules are Hmall and deeply embet LUPUS VULGARIS tnnirxluies are larger and more superficial tlie iitfectinn h less stiih- '"''■'i. 1/ ult-erated, the uleers will usually ln.'nl iimlcr the idfliieiice L50 I '*^ earl.v literature contains reports of good results ohtaiui^d in *^ tumidus. The author hws treated only one example of this tj'pe. ^*' several nwntlis of intensive filtered treatment there was a very *^«d improvement Imt thi* patient was nut cured, ^**«»pai'atiye Value of RoentKes Treatment.— Unentgen therapy has "■^placed phototherapy in point of efficacy. The Fiiisen treatment IKS litgKASES DUB TO TUBEHCLB BACILLUS litis t;i\vn Ix'tttT rt>siilts timii Imve thus far been obtained with either j^rti\!i or RKliiiiii. ForflmninuT, in a statistical report based on 1200 Km, nil. ■I.ui'iii' viiluiiris inv,.tv[iiB ihi' ii;is.il iiiunwa. before treatment. It wu uiisi'lected oases of liipiis viilgiiris trcatctl at the l-'inseii I.ipUt Insti- tute l)<.'twefn ISSKi and llHKi, gives the following resnlts of the treat- ment: Cures, (H) i)er eent.; under treatment, IS jwr itnt.; treatment (iirtcontiiuu'd, 11 JHT (viit, (721) :Wliar! I.eni fnr fr. Fiu. lfi4.^S],ii„ iN.ii.'i.i disease uiid pnnly lu r-i-a, with the ttaiD givGu iu Chi 45() DISEASES DUE TO TUBERCLE BACILLUS from five to ten years; 306 for from two to five years; and 93 for less than two years. In a further study, the subjects are divided into initial cases and inveterate cases. In the initial cases 76 per cent, were cured, while in the inveterate cases 51 per cent, were cured (Onnshy). The author has not been able to obtain as good results with rtHMitgen therai)y nor has he encountered roentgen or radium statistics that show results in unselected cases of lupus vulgaris that arc the equal of thost* quoted supra. For various reasons the Finsen treatment has been found impracticable in this country and sub- stitute methcMis such as the Kromayer and Alpine lamp treatment have, in most hands, proved disappointing. The Finsen treatment not only cures a high i)ercentage of cases but it does so without pro- ducing injury or st^quehe. Small lesions, suitably situated, can be ablated or curetted and cauterized. Surgical methcxls, however, are necessarily limited to selected castvs. The same is true of tuberculin therapy, refrigeration, fulguration and other methcKls of treatment. It is i)robable that irradiation may in ])oint of efficacy be placed st»c()n<l to phot()thcra])y. It will certainly cure a larger proportion of unsclccttMl cas(»s than will any method other than the Finsen treat- ment. Combined Treatment.- Irradiation may he c^ombined with photo- thcra])y, but it is not wise to ai)i)ly ultraviolet rays and x-rays or ra<liuin at the same time. The two methcnls may alternate or one nu'thod may follow the otlwT. The author has tried this scheme in obstinate cases hut tlu' results have not Invn encouraging. The use of tuberculin an<l Fox's niethcwl (s(»<» suj^ra) has proved of distinct valut" when conil)in("d with irradiation, esj)e('ially in the atrophic typ<'. It is of the utnujst importance, in the ulcerative type, to ])rovi(le drainage and to ktrp the ulcers <lean and free from crusts. A very small aniomit (jf ultraviolet rays may Ih» advantageously ('oinl)innl with irradiation in the treatment of o\Hm ulc»ers. Refrig- eration and caustic and irritating ointments are contra-indicated during irradiation. Lupus Vulgaris, X-rays and Cancer. — St iimpke encountered two cases of lui)us vulgaris that had received fractional .r-ray treatment for many months. Kj)ithelioma (IcvcIoixmI in the scar tissue in both patients. Stumi)ke calls attention to the fact that he has seen 150 cases of luinis vulgaris and he never noted ei)ithelioma in any case that had not received .r-ray treatment. The two patients with e])ithelioma also showiMl .r-ray se(iuela\ MacLeod reports a i)atient with lupus vulgaris who i)re.sented both ,r-ray seciuela* and epithelioma. (Gaucher and others have seen similar cases. The author has seen 3 cases where epithelioma de- vcIoikhI in a scar that was caused partly by the di.sease and partly by a severe radi(Klennatitis. It is a well-known fact that epithelioma occurs as a secpiel in lupus U'FVS yCLGARI.H 451 -ulgaris that has iiiit reifived J-ray treatment. The epithelioma is alwai-^ of the muli^iant, metustati<-. prickh'-cell tjiw. Onnsby states that this se<iiiel (icciirs in frmii 2 to 4 jwr cent, of the cases. Lieberthal, Zeisler. Piisey, .\nthiiiij-, IIy<le and others have seen epitheliiimn devehip hs a se<]nel to lupus \iilg«ris in patients who had not rweived j-ray treatment. There is absolutely no prmif that irradiation hicreases the natural (endeney of epithelioma to develop as a sequel to lupus ^ul^aris Unless irradiation has lieen pusheil to the ]H)iiit of prcMlucinR the s«-ciille(l /-ra\- skin. -V-ray setinehe are likel\' to be the forenumers of cancer, whether such sequela- are or art> not ass»K-iated with hipus ^■"iKaris, 1 )isregardinjr the cases r)f lupus vulgaris in which epithe- ^ *^>a develops hi an j-ray scfinela, tlierc is no evidence in the litera- ^ *? to show that epithelionut as a sc(|ucl to hi])ns vnl^caris is more ^Imon today than before the advcut of roentKen tlicrapy, jj^t-upus vulgaris may cause cdiisiilerahle disfifrurcinent. Tlic usual j^j^tieJa- are scars and atropliy. It not infn-ijucnlly hapiwns that **diation iit blamed for these s<'<|ut'la". ^eehnic. — It in the authttr's cxjiiTiciiir Ihai intensive «)r siihintcn- " *Ve irradiation Is more efticacious m lujius vnlgaris than is fractional ^featment. The nnitiiie is to aduiini-^tcr almui IIJ S. 1). unfiltered, ^■^'erj- four weeks. The dose will vary with tlic location of the alfectiil ?*"ea and the age of the patient. The ilcisc will range from 11?. S. I).. ^UchildKntoHlS. 1). tollj^ S. 1>. in a<lults and ii^fi-d indivi<iual.s. 452 DISEASES DUE TO TUBERCLE BACILLUS While the disease will recover more quickly if the dose is suffic*^^^^ to eflFect a sharp reaction it is preferable to avoid even slight reacti^^^^ .* In many cases of lupus vulgaris it is necessary to continue the t^^^J ment over several months and if each treatment, or if several of treatments result in even a first-degree reaction, the ultimate ^r^^^ come may be serious j'-ray sequelae. The aim should be. theref^^ ^^^' to administer each month as much as the skin will tolerate witl:^^ ^'*^, visibly reacting. It is difficult to determine just how long *"■-* treatment may be continued without serious injury. In obstirm ^^^^ cases it seems advisable to limit the number of monthly treatm^^^ to from eight to twelve. This amount of irradiation is likely pnxluce visible atrophy but no sequela* of a severe nature, skin should l)e carefully inspected at each treatment for evidence^ injury. If an eruption has not disappeared after this amount treatment it is advisable to discontinue irr^iation and depend up' other methods of treatment. Not infrequently, after several tre^ ments the eniption, with the exception of a few nodules, will c appear. It is un>\ise to depend upcm irradiation to cause the inv tion of these remaining nodules. They can be quickly destroyed other methods of treatment. While the principal reason for avoiding severe a^-ray reaction^^ to lessen the danger of serious sequelae there is also another reas^ namely, severe toxic symptoms. Pusey (quoted by White m. Burns) tells of a j)atient afflicted with widespread lupus vulga The affected areas were irradiated until a reaction developed. X reaction was associated with alarming systemic symptoms, simulat i n^ a tuberculin reaction. This occurred on three occasions. The th. reaction i)rove(l fatal. The moral is to use suberythema doses ai not to treat too large an area at one time. Filtration is often indicated in this affection. Especially is t: true when the disease involves the mucosa of the nose, mouth ei throat. In such instances, with filtered radiation, the lesions of "t: mucous membranes will usually disappear under the influence radiation applied to the cutaneous eruption on the face. Pfati^ and the author have reported clinical cures accomplished in t: manner. Whether or not filtration is advisable in all cases of lu vulgaris is an open question — it cannot be answered at the pres^^^ writing. lesions of lupus vulgaris are of various sizes and occur in mr*- parts of the body. The method of handling lesions of different si^ shape and })()siti()n will be found in the chapter on General Tht? peutic Considerations. It is advisable not to shield too close to lesion as the (lis(*ase is likely to extend beyond the visible margin^ Radium. A rcNiew of the work done by Wickham and Degr^^ Simpson, Newcoinet, Finzi and others, together with personal ex]> ence, shows that the results obtained with radium, in the treatrc*. of lupus vul<^aris, arc about the same as those associated with the IS LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS 453 of the .r-rays. The l)est results have followed irradiation of a strength that caused destruction of the nodules by necrosis; also more con- servative irradiation combined with other methods of treatment. In some small, superficial lesions of lupus vulgaris the beta rays have seemed more efficacious than have either o^-rays or gamma rays. The **soft" beta rays should be eliminated by a screen of from i^ to ^ or 1 mm. of aluminium or its filtration equivalent in glass or other substance. Radium is especially indicated when the lesions are situated in inaccessible loc*at ions— nasal and buccal cavities, throat and con- junctiva*. LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. Schiff and Freund were probably the first to treat lupus erythema- tosus with the o'-rays (1898). Their report was soon followed by those of many roentgenologists and dermatologists— Sjogren and Seder- holm. Startin, Jutassy, Lee, Torok and Schein, Beclere, Belot, Hall- Edwards, Pusey and others. At first the results were very promising and were superior to those obtained today, that is, the immediate results. The early workers did not hesitate to produce severe reactions and the immediate thera- peutic effect on the disease was often very strking. Later, when it was ascertained that the brilliant result was but temporary and that very undesirable sequelae often followed radiodermatitis, the treatment was applied more cautiously and the effect on the disease was less si)ectacular. A review of the literature for the last fourteen vears shows that the j--rays have been used less and less in the treatment of the disease. Zeisler, Clark, Schmidt, Hartzell, Montgomery, Winfield and many others record good temporary results without the production of radio- dermatitis. Fordyce, Robinson, Bronson and others reported cases that were made worse, or failed to improve, or improved but little, as a result of the treatment. Value of Roentgen Therapy.— The consensus of opinion today among dermatologists is that roentgen therapy is of little real value in the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Its value is certainly less than that of ultraviolet-ray therapy, refrigeration and other methods. Nevertheless, the j--rays, if properly used in well-selected cases, will occasionally cause involution of lesions that have resisted other methods of treatment. Types of Lupus Erythematosus.— It is important for the roentgen- ologist to know that lupus erythematosus occurs in two general types— discoid or chronic, and disseminated or acute. It is well to remember, also, that the course of the affection is very uncertain. Discoid lesions are likely to persist for many years or they may undergo spontaneous involution only to recur subsequently. The dis- seminate type often disappears spontaneously or as a result of local 4.14 DISEASES! DUE TO TVliEItChB BACILLUS > applications in a few weeks or moiitliH, Itareiy it persists ftiul spreads and the patient dies of tuberculosis; more often uf nephritis and asthenia (Jadassohn). Technic— For the disseminate type, e-'<]>eeiaily when associated with acute inflammatory sjTnptoms, the treatment slinuld he frac- tional or subfractional. The discoid lesions maj' be given subinten- sive treatment. It is advisable to avoid even a first degree reaetisg Fin. 167. — Same paljpnt shoi if possible. A mild j^-ray reaction is likely to cause the disease to spread and may add to the atrophy and telangiectasis occasioned by the affection. It is well to rememlier that while the T-rays may <.'ause involution of a lesion of hipus erythematosus they exert little if any effect on the future course of the disease. I'ViP this reason it is not justifiable to push the treatment to the point of visible cutaneous. injury. Purtliermore, it is not advisable to persist in the roentgen LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS 455 treatment of a stubborn lesion. If the lesion does not disappear as a result of three or four months of fractional or subintensive treatment, experience has shown that it will not be favorably influenced by a continuation of such treatment. The nose is a favorite site for lesions of this disease. Details rela- tive to the method of applying a:-rays to the nose and to convex and concave surfaces, to lesions of various sizes and shapes, to lesions on the eyelids and other locations, etc., will be found in the chapter on General Therapeutic Considerations. There is a difference of opinion relative to the advisability of con- fining the radiation strictly to the lesion or to include a small area of normal skin around the lesion in the field of radiation. With doses sufficient to effect a first-degree reaction the author has seen peripheral spreading of the lesion when the radiation has been confined to the lesion and, also, when the normal skin adjacent to the lesion has been irradiated. While a first-degree reaction will often have a bene- ficial effect on discoid lesions the converse is also true. Quantities that do not effect a reaction rarely if ever make the lesion worse, although such treatment may accomplish little if any good. Scalp lesions may be treated with a full epilating dose (Hi or Hli S. I).). For details relative to the treatment of scalp lesions see chapter on Psoriasis and chapter on Tinea Tonsurans. Comparative experiments with filtered and unfiltered radiation have yielded similar results. Apparently there is nothing to be gained by filtration in the roentgen treatment of this disease. Sequels.— Lupus erythematosus causes atrophy, wrinkling, tel- angiectasia and pehnanent alopecia. The picture at times is sug- gestive of J'-ray sequelae. In cases that have received roentgen-ray treatment it is often impossible to decide how much of the disfigure- ment is due to the disease and how much is due to the treatment.
|
Ryan, J.
These two cases were consolidated for the purpose of hearing and decision. They involve the validity of certain tax exemption certificates issued by the State Tax Commission to Consumers Power Company covering both air pollution and water pollution control facilities located at the Palisades Nuclear Power Plant in Covert Township, Van Burén County.
In 1968, Consumers applied to the tax commission for tax exemption certificates pursuant to MCL 336.1 et seq.; MSA 7.793(1) et seq., hereafter the Air Exemption Act, which provides for the exemption of air pollution control facilities from certain taxes. The application sought exemption for the containment building which houses the nuclear reactor at the power plant, the building's spray system, the building's cooling system and the facility's gaseous radioactive waste (radwaste) system.
In 1972, Consumers applied to the tax commission for tax exemption certificates pursuant to MCL 323.351 et seq.; MSA 7.793(51) et seqhereafter the Water Exemption Act, which provides for the exemption of water pollution control facilities from certain taxes. These applications sought exemption for the power plant's liquid radioactive waste (radwaste) system and water cooling towers.
The commission granted each of the exemptions.
Following this action by the commission, the Covert Township assessor pursued various administrative actions and judicial proceedings, chal lenging the exemptions. The circuit court finally affirmed the commission's grant of the tax exemption certificates. The Court of Appeals affirmed the tax exemption for the air pollution control facilities, but reversed as to the tax exemption for the water pollution control facilities. Covert Twp Assessor v State Tax Commission, 77 Mich App 626; 259 NW2d 164 (1977).
We granted leave to appeal. 402 Mich 882; 262 NW2d 298 (1978). We affirm.
I. Air Pollution Control Facilities
We granted leave to appeal on two specific questions concerning the exemptions for the air pollution control facilities:
"(1) [W]hether tax exemption can be granted pursu ant to 1965 PA 250 as amended [the Air Exemption Act] to nuclear facilities that are not subject to mandatory inspection, review and control by an agency or agencies of the State of Michigan;
"(2) whether the containment building, the containment building spray system, the containment building cooling system and the gaseous radwaste system of Consumers Power Company meet the statutory requirements so as to qualify as tax exempt facilities under 1965 PA 250." 402 Mich 882.
We answer both questions in the affirmative.
A. State Inspection, Review, Control
The Air Exemption Act empowers the tax commission to issue a certificate exempting certain facilities from real and personal property taxes
"[i]f the director of public health finds that the facility is designed and operated primarily for the control, capture and removal of pollutants from the air, and is suitable, reasonably adequate and meets the intent and purpose of the air pollution act, Act No. 348 of the Public Acts of 1965, as amended, being sections 336.11 to 336.36 of the Compiled Laws of 1948, and rules promulgated thereunder ." MCL 336.3; MSA 7.793(3).
At the time application for this exemption was made, a "facility" was defined, for purposes of the Air Exemption Act, to mean;
"machinery, equipment, structures, or any part or accessories thereof, installed or acquired for the primary purpose of controlling or disposing of air pollution which if released would render the air harmful or inimical to the public health or to property within this state. It does not include an air conditioner, dust collec tor, fan or other similar facility for the benefit of personnel or of a business." MCL 336.1; MSA 7.793(1).
The township contends that the Palisades plant's air pollution control facilities cannot qualify for tax exemption unless they are subject to control and continuing inspection and review by a state agency, because such control, inspection and review is necessary to meet the intent and purpose of the Air Pollution Act, and the rules promulgated under that act, as required by MCL 336.3; MSA 7.793(3). Yet, no state control, inspection or review of these facilities is permitted because the Federal government has preempted the regulation of nuclear facilities. Northern States Power Co v Minnesota, 447 F2d 1143 (CA 8, 1971), aff'd without opinion 405 US 1035; 92 S Ct 1307; 31 L Ed 2d 576 (1972). Therefore, the township concludes, no tax exemption can lawfully be granted.
We do not agree. Our review of the Air Pollution Act, MCL 336.11 et seq.; MSA 14.58(1) et seq., compels the conclusion that no state control, inspection or review of air pollution control facilities is required in order for such facilities to meet the intent and purpose of that act. The intent and purpose of the act is manifest in its statutory language. The title to that act provides, in pertinent part, that it is "[a]n act to control air pollution in this state
Air pollution was defined, with certain narrow exceptions not applicable here, to mean:
"[T]he presence in the outdoor atmosphere of air contaminants in quantities, of characteristics and under conditions and circumstances and of a duration which are injurious to human life or property or which unreasonably interfere with the enjoyment of life and property, and which are reasonably detrimental to plant and animal life in this state MCL 336.12; MSA 14.58(2).
Another section of the act provides, in part:
"It is the purpose of this act to provide additional and cumulative remedies to prevent and abate air pollution. Nothing in this act contained shall abridge or alter rights of action or remedies now or hereafter existing, nor shall any provision of this act or anything done by virtue of this act be construed as estopping other governmental units from the exercise of their respective rights to suppress nuisances or to prevent or abate air pollution." MCL 336.34; MSA 14.58(24).
Finally, among its statutory powers, we note that the Air Pollution Control Commission is given the authority to "[cjooperate with the appropriate agencies of the United States with respect to the control of air pollution MCL 336.15(n); MSA 14.58(5)(n).
Contrary to the contention of the township, we find that the intent and purpose of this act is to control air pollution in the state; that the act itself contemplates that Federal agencies or other governmental units may have authority over the control of air pollution in the state; and that the commission need not have control over all activities regulating air pollution but may cooperate with other agencies or governmental units to meet the act's purpose of preventing and abating air pollution.
We agree with the holding of the tax commission below that:
"The intent and purposes of the Air Pollution Act and Rules are to control pollution and thereby to protect the health, welfare and safety of Michigan citizens, the productive capability of the assets of those citizens, and the natural resources of the State. That intent and those purposes are served by pollution control facilities constructed within the State of Michigan whether required by reason of federal or state regulation. Compatibility with intent and purposes is not dependent upon regulation. Such compatibility is established by the ability of a facility to control pollution. It is not regulation that is the quid pro quo for tax exemption. That quid pro quo is the control of pollution and, thereby, the protection of the health, welfare and safety of Michigan citizens and their assets. It is the fact that pollution control is provided that is important and not whether that pollution control is provided in response to state or federal regulation. If the Legislature had wanted to require more, it would have been a simple matter to require that all facilities eligible for exemption be subject to regulation under the air pollution control act and rules ." (Emphasis in original.)
We conclude that tax exemption can lawfully be granted for air pollution control facilities pursuant to the requirements of the Air Exemption Act even though such facilities may not be subject to mandatory inspection, review and control by the state.
B. Qualifying for Tax Exemption
The township next contends that the various facilities for which tax exemption was granted do not qualify under the Air Exemption Act as tax exempt facilities. Specifically, the township contends that these facilities were not installed or acquired for the primary purpose of controlling or disposing of air pollution, MCL 336.1; MSA 7.793(1); that the facilities are not designed and operated primarily for the control, capture and removal of pollutants from the air; that the facilities are not suitable and reasonably adequate for such purposes; and that the facilities do not meet the intent and purposes of the Air Pollution Act and rules promulgated thereunder, MCL 336.3; MSA 7.793(3).
We disagree with each of these contentions.
The first two contentions are based on similar reasoning. It is the position of the township that the containment building and its component systems were not installed or acquired for the primary purpose of controlling or disposing of air pollution, and were not designed and operated primarily for the control, capture and removal of pollutants from the air. Rather, the primary purpose for the installation, acquisition, design and operation of these facilities was to meet the requirements of the Federal government in order to obtain an operating license for the nuclear power plant. Further, the township argues that the use of the word "primary" indicates that tax exempt status may be granted only to those facilities which are installed or acquired for the purpose of capturing and removing air pollutants during normal plant operations. Because the type of facilities installed at the Palisades plant are designed to specifications intended to contain discharges resulting from an accident having a probability of occurrence of 1 in 17,000 per year, the primary purpose of the installation, acquisition, design and operation of these facilities does not comport with the statutory requirement.
Neither of these arguments can be sustained. The use of the words "primary purpose" in § 1, and "operated primarily for" in § 3 of the Air Exemption Act evidences a legislative concern with the primary purpose served by the facility for which exemption is sought. This purpose need not, necessarily, align with the motivation of the persons installing, acquiring or operating the facilities.
As to the township's second argument, we find nothing in the language of the Air Exemption Act drawing a distinction between the control of air pollutants resulting from normal operations of the plant, and those resulting from an accident. We do not agree that the use of the word "primary" indicates a legislative intent to draw such a distinction. Rather, we find the use of the word "primary" in these sections of the act is intended to insure that tax exemption is not granted to facilities that, incidental to their primary purpose, serve to control, prevent or abate air pollution.
Because there is no error in the commission's interpretation of this statutory language, the scope of our review is necessarily limited to a determination whether the commission's decision is supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the whole record, as required by the Administrative Procedures Act, MCL 24.306(1)(d); MSA 3.560(206)(10(d). We conclude that it is.
The township next contends that whether these facilities are "suitable", and "reasonably adequate" under MCL 336.3; MSA 7.793(3) is a matter yet unproved. The township apparently bases this contention on the ground that these statutory requirements can only be met by measuring and ascertaining the effectiveness of the facilities in actual operation. Because the operation of these facilities can only be fully measured in the event of a serious accident which has not yet occurred, the township argues that the facilities' suitability and reasonable adequacy cannot be established so as to qualify for exemption.
Again, we disagree. The suitability and adequacy of many devices and structures to serve a given purpose can be, and are, measured and tested through non-empirical studies based on accepted scientific principles and sound analysis. We agree with Consumers that the resolution of this question is particularly well-suited to the expertise of the administrative agencies charged with assessing the technical suitability and adequacy of facilities for which exemption is sought. Our review of the record indicates that the commission's decision that these facilities are suitable and reasonably adequate was based on competent, material and substantial evidence.
Finally, the township contends that these facilities do not meet the intent and purposes of the Air Pollution Act, as required under MCL 336.3; MSA 7.793(3), for two reasons.
First, in order to meet the intent and purposes of the Air Pollution Act, the township argues that these facilities must be subject to control and continuing inspection and review by a state agency. We have already resolved this argument against the township.
Second, the township argues that the failure to mention radiation in the definition of "air contaminant" in the Air Pollution Act indicates that the intent and purposes of that act were not to control and prevent the type of pollution that may occur at the Palisades plant. The pertinent section of the act provides:
"(b) 'Air contaminant' means a dust, fume, gas, mist, odor, smoke, vapor or any combination thereof." MCL 336.12; MSA 14.58(2).
While our review of the record indicates that radiation per se might not be an air contaminant within this definition, there is competent, material and substantial evidence to support the commission's decision that radioactive materials, of the type controlled or disposed of by these facilities, are air contaminants. _
We conclude that there is competent, material and substantial evidence on the whole record to support the commission's finding that the Palisades containment building, the containment building spray system, the containment building cooling system and the gaseous radwaste system meet the statutory requirements to qualify as tax exempt facilities under the Air Exemption Act.
II. Water Pollution Control Facilities
Leave to appeal was granted in this case limited to the following specific questions concerning the Palisades water pollution control facilities:
"(1) [W]hether the liquid radwaste system and the cooling towers at the Consumers Power Palisades plant are real property and are ineligible for tax exemption under 1966 PA 222 [the Water Exemption Act];
"(2) whether the water pollution control facilities exemption act as construed to exempt from property taxation personal property used for control of water pollution, but not to exempt real property used for the same purpose, violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Michigan and United States Constitutions." 402 Mich 882.
We find the Palisades water pollution facilities are real property and ineligible for tax exemption under the Water Exemption Act for all applicable tax years preceding 1977 PA 282 which amended the act to provide an exemption to qualifying facilities from real property taxes as well as personal property taxes.
Further, we find that our construction of the Water Exemption Act does not violate the Equal Protection Clauses of either the Michigan or the United States Constitution.
A. Real Property Questions
1. Exemption From Personal Property Taxes
The Water Exemption Act, MCL 323.351 et seq.; MSA 7.793(51) et seq., provides for the issuance of certificates by the State Tax Commission which exempt water pollution control facilities from certain taxes. Specifically, § 4 of that act provided, in part, at the time Consumers applied for exemption:
"For the period subsequent to the effective date of the certificate and continuing so long as the certificate is in force, a facility covered thereby is exempt from personal property taxes imposed under Act No. 206 of the Public Acts of 1893, as amended, being sections 211.1 to 211.157 of the Compiled Laws of 1948." MCL 323.354; MSA 7.793(54). (Emphasis supplied.)
By 1977 PA 282, this section of the act was amended to provide that "a facility covered thereby is exempt from real and personal property taxes ". (Emphasis supplied.)
When Consumers Power applied for tax exemption certificates under the Water Exemption Act for the Palisades liquid radwaste system and cooling towers, the State Tax Commission granted the exemptions. In its official order of July 9, 1975, affirming the grants of these exemptions, the commission addressed the question of the real property nature of these facilities and held that read ing the act as a whole and requiring that these facilities meet the other criteria of the act results in these facilities qualifying for the statutory tax exemption.
In reaching this decision the commission adopted the rationale proffered by Consumers Power that a reading of the act as a whole, and specifically the statutory definitions of "facility", "treatment works", and "disposal system", MCL 323.351; MSA 7.793(51), compel the conclusion that the Legislature intended to redefine the term "personal property" for exemption purposes to include within that term various types of immovable plant equipment coming within these definitions and normally used for water pollution control purposes, even though they might be regarded as real property for other purposes. Any other interpretation, according to the commission, would defeat the purpose of the act and would mean thé Legislature wrote a useless law. The circuit court agreed, but the Court of Appeals reversed.
Consumers Power elaborates on this same rationale before this Court. We find its reasoning unpersuasive particularly in light of one very specific amendment to this act while it was in bill form, being considered for enactment into law by our state Legislature.
As originally introduced on January 19, 1966, House Bill No. 3075 (subsequently enacted as the Water Exemption Act), provided in part in § 4, beginning on page 3, line 21:
"(1) For the period subsequent to the effective date of the certificate and continuing so long as the certificate is in force, a facility covered thereby is exempt from real and personal property taxes imposed under Act No. 206 of the Public Acts of 1893, as amended, being sections 211.1 to 211.157 of the Compiled Laws of 1948." (Emphasis supplied.)
This bill was first referred to the Committee on Conservation and Recreation, 1 Michigan House J (1966) 63, which reported it back with recommended amendments. 1 Michigan House J (1966) 650. The amendments were adopted and the bill was referred to the Committee on General Taxation, 1 Michigan House J (1966) 703. The Committee on General Taxation reported the bill back to the full House with recommended amendments, including the specific recommendation to: "4. Amend page 3, line 24, by striking out 'real and.' " 2 Michigan House J (1966) 1468. These amendments were adopted by the full House and the bill was passed. 3 Michigan House J (1966) 2196.
After adopting an additional amendment to the bill as passed by the House, which did not affect § 4(1), the Senate passed the bill. 2 Michigan Senate J (1966) 1947._
The House concurred in the Senate amendment and the bill was sent to the Governor for signature. 4 Michigan House J (1966) 3244. On June 11, 1966, it was approved by the Governor and given immediate eifect as 1966 PA 222.
We find that tracing this legislative history makes clear that the intent of the Legislature in enacting this law was to provide exemption to qualifying water pollution facilities from personal property taxes only. We have no supporting documentation in the legislative history to provide an insight into the reason for striking the reference to exemption from real property taxes.
Mere conjecture suggests that there may have been strong opposition to the bill as originally drafted by local units of government who could foresee the exemption of large water pollution control facilities from real property taxes as an erosion of their property tax base. Or the Legislature might simply have decided to proceed cautiously in granting these exemptions to determine whether granting exemptions from personal property taxes alone would provide adequate incentive for the acquisition and operation of socially desirable water pollution control facilities.
But whatever the unpreserved legislative intent was in 1966, we can only conclude that the Legislature as a whole, and particularly the members of the House Committee on General Taxation, adopted this amendment to the bill as introduced deliberately and with a purpose. While the act's definitions of facilities, treatment works and disposal systems which may qualify for exemption appear to include many facilities that might normally be classified as real property, we do not read these definitions as an indication that the Legislature redefined personal property for purposes of the act. We do not think the brief legislative history of this bill warrants such a conclusion.
We also disagree with Consumers Power's contention that the amendment to § 4 made by 1977 PA 282, to provide for exemption for water pollution facilities from real and personal property taxes was simply intended to clarify the purposes of the act.
We hold that, prior to the effective date of 1977 PA 282, qualifying water pollution control facilities were eligible for exemption from personal property taxes only under MCL 323.354(1); MSA 7.793(54)(1), and the Legislature did not redefine the term "personal property" for purposes of tax exemption under the act.
2. The Liquid Radwaste System and the Cooling Towers are Real Property
In the first issue on which leave to appeal was granted, we asked the parties in this case to address the question of whether the Palisades plant's liquid radwaste system and cooling towers are real property. In its brief, Consumers Power argued that these facilities are not real property for purpose of exemption under the act because the act contemplated a definition of personal property that included these facilities. We have decided this argument against Consumers.
Next, Consumers contended that if common-law principles or the General Property Tax Act are determined to be material to a definition of real and personal property for purposes of this suit, then this matter should be remanded to the State Tax Commission for the development of a record as to the nature of these facilities.
While we acknowledge that the commission's decision below appeared to render it unnecessary to decide whether these facilities were real or personal property for purpose of eligibility for exemption under the act, we find there is adequate evidence in the record for determining that these facilities are real property. Further, because this Court specifically invited the parties to address this issue, Consumers had the opportunity to refute the eyidence we find in the record to support this conclusion, yet failed to do so.
The most compelling evidence we find in the record to support the conclusion that these facilities are real property is found in Consumers Power's admitted failure to report any portion of these facilities on its personal property tax statements for 1974 and 1975. The personal property statement which Consumers properly filed, pursuant to MCL 211.18; MSA 7.18, specifically requests the reporting of the following information on page 2:
"3. Air Pollution Control Facilities and Water Pollution Control Facilities certified exempt by the Michigan State Tax Commission. Use cost installed. Attach rider giving certificate number, year of acquisition and cost by year of acquisition."
At the hearing before the commission, counsel for Consumers stipulated that Consumers reported nothing in this provision in either its 1974 or 1975 personal property statement.
In addition to this failure of Consumers to report any part of the water pollution control facilities as exempt personal property, the following unchallenged testimony of the Covert Township assessor (Mr. Sarno) supports the conclusion that these facilities are real property.
"Q. Mr. Sarno, in 1973, did Consumers Power Company furnish you the estimated cost of the partial construction of the liquid radwaste system and cooling towers?
"A. They did.
"Q. What was the amount furnished you by Consumers Power?
"A. $10,880,258.
"Q. Was that represented to you to be real property?
"A. It was included in the real [property] report.
"Q. Furnished to you by Consumers Power?
"A. That is correct.
"Q. Did you place the partially constructed facility on the real property roll for the year 1973?
'A. I did as work in progress.
"Q. Approximately what amount?
"A. On the assessed valuation approximately $1,250,-000.
"Q. Did Consumers Power Company appear at the Board of Review?
'A. Yes.
"Q. Were they aware of the fact it was on the real property roll?
"A. I would assume they were.
"Q. Did Consumers Power Company furnish you with a personal property statement for the year 1973?
'A. Yes.
"Q. Either the cooling tower, a portion of it or rad-waste system, any portion of it included in the personal property statement?
"A. It was not.
"Q. In 1974 did Consumers Power Company furnish you a statement of the value of the completed and partially completed cooling towers and radwaste system?
"A. Yes.
"Q. Was that furnished in the statement form?
"A. Yes.
"Q. Represented to you to be real property?
"A. Yes, sir.
"Q. Did Consumers Power furnish you a personal property statement for the year 1974?
"A. Yes.
"Q. Did that statement include all or any portion of the cooling towers, all or any portion of the liquid radwaste system?
"A. It did not.
"Q. Did Consumers Power Company furnish you a personal property statement for 1975?
"A. Yes.
"Mr. Tracy: Mr. Chairman, didn't we go through all of this yesterday?
"Chairman Purnell: I think we did this yesterday.
"Mr. Reed: As I look through the record at one point it became colloquy, four-way colloquy.
"Chairman Purnell: This colloquy was going along. I realize what went on yesterday. What we finally ended up saying is that you agreed that you would refer to that report and introduce a blank personal property statement, you both stipulated that it was not reported on the personal property statement."
Any argument that part or all of the Palisades plant's liquid radwaste system or cooling towers should not properly be classified as real property for the purpose of this suit is foreclosed by Consumers' failure to challenge this record evidence. We conclude that these facilities are real property and were not eligible for tax exemption under the Water Exemption Act prior to the 1977 amendment.
B. Equal Protection Question
One question remains for resolution. Having construed the Water Exemption Act to exempt water pollution control facilities from personal property taxes but not from real property taxes (prior to the 1977 amendment), we must determine whether the statute, as so construed, violates the Equal Protection Clauses of the Michigan and United States Constitutions. Const 1963, art 1, § 2; US Const, Am XIV. We find no violation of either clause.
Consumers' contention that the construction we have given this statute violates equal protection guarantees is bottomed on the argument that distinguishing between classifications of property bears no reasonable relationship to the purposes of the act when property in both classifications achieves the object of the legislation, i.e., to prohibit pollution of the state's waters. We do not agree.
The cases which have resolved challenges to state legislative classifications under the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution are legion.
In several cases, particularly pertinent to the challenge brought today, the United States Supreme Court has upheld the classification of property for taxation, and exemption from taxation, by state legislatures.
In Citizens' Telephone Co of Grand Rapids v Fuller, 229 US 322; 33 S Ct 833; 57 L Ed 1206 (1913), the Court upheld a Michigan statute which provided a property tax exemption to telephone and telegraph companies whose receipts in Michigan did not exceed $500 per year. The statute was challenged as a violation of the Equal Protection Clause. In reaching its decision the Court said:
"The power of exemption would seem to imply the power of discrimination, and in taxation, as in other matters of legislation, classification is within the competency of the legislature." 229 US at 329.
And, after citing numerous cases in which that Court had upheld state tax statutes which had variously classified the objects of taxation, the Court went on to say:
"[These cases] illustrate the power of the legislature of the State over the subjects of taxation, and the range of discrimination which may be exercised in classifying those subjects when not obviously exercised in a spirit of prejudice or favoritism. Granting the power of classification, we must grant Government the right to select the differences upon which the classification shall be based, and they need not be great or conspicuous. Keeney v New York, 222 US 525, 536 [32 S Ct 105; 56 L Ed 299 (1912)]. The State is not bound by any rigid equality. This is the rule; — its limitation is that it must not be exercised in 'clear and hostile discriminations between particular persons and classes.' See [Quong Wing v Kirkendall], 223 US 59, 62, 63 [32 S Ct 192; 56 L Ed 350-352 (1912)]. Thus defined and thus limited, it is a vital principle, giving to the Government freedom to meet its exigencies, not binding its actions by rigid formulas but apportioning its burdens, and permitting it to make those 'discriminations which the best interests of society require.' " 229 US at 331.
We find no prohibited spirit of prejudice or favoritism here. Indeed, as we noted in our discussion, supra, the Legislature may reasonably have decided that exempting water pollution control facilities from personal property taxes but not real property taxes would accomplish the act's purpose of encouraging investments in those facilities which the Legislature deemed to be in the public interest.
Further support for our conclusion can be found in Nashville, C & SL R Co v Browning, 310 US 362, 368-369; 60 S Ct 968; 84 L Ed 1254 (1940), where in the context of an equal protection challenge to a property tax assessed against a railroad, the United States Supreme Court said:
"That the states may classify property for taxation; may set up different modes of assessment, valuation and collection, may tax some kinds of property at higher rates than others; and in making all these differentiations may treat railroads and other utilities with that separateness which their distinctive characteristics and functions in society make appropriate— these are among the commonplaces of taxation and of constitutional law. [Cases cited.] Since, so far as the Federal Constitution is concerned, a state can put railroad property into one pigeonhole and other property into another, the only question relevant for us is whether the state has done so. If the discrimination of which the Railway complains had been formally written into the statutes of Tennessee, challenge to its constitutionality would be frivolous." (Emphasis supplied.)
And finally, in an early case challenging a personal property tax levied against cattle grazing on tax exempt land, the United States Supreme Court said, without specifically citing the Equal Protection Clause:
"[I]t is the usual course in tax laws to treat personal property as one class and real estate as another, and it has never been supposed that such classification created an illegal discrimination, because there might be some persons who owned only personal property, and others who owned property of both classes." Thomas v Gay, 169 US 264, 281; 18 S Ct 340; 42 L Ed 740 (1898).
Viewing the challenged classification before us in light of this authority, we find no violation of the United States constitutional guarantee of equal protection.
Similarly, we find no violation of our state constitutional guarantee of equal protection. Consumers Power does not contend that a more stringent equal protection test than that required under the United States Constitution should be applied under our state constitution, in the instant case, nor do we perceive any reason for applying a more stringent test. Furthermore, in the face of an equal protection challenge under the United States Constitution, this Court has recognized that tax statutes may discriminate among classifications of properties, businesses, trades, callings or occupations so long as the discrimination is not arbitrary but is based upon a reasonable distinction or if any state of facts can reasonably be conceived to sustain it. W S Butterfield Theatres, Inc v Dep't of Revenue, 353 Mich 345, 353; 91 NW2d 269 (1958). We have found such reasonableness in the classification made by the Legislature here.
We have also held that a legislative classification will be upheld in the face of an equal protection challenge under our state constitution if it rationally furthers the object of the legislation and involves neither a suspect class nor fundamental rights. In re Kasuba Estate, 401 Mich 560, 569; 258 NW2d 731 (1977). We find that the instant classification involves no suspect class or fundamental right and rationally furthers the object of the legislation.
III. Conclusion
The judgment of the Court of Appeals is affirmed.
No costs.
Coleman, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, and Fitzgerald, JJ., concurred with Ryan, J.
The total exemption granted for the air pollution control facilities was less than the amount claimed exempt by Consumers Power. The commission deducted an amount from that claimed by Consumers which represented the cost of a conventional building that would simply have provided weather housing for the reactor, as well as the cost that would have been saved had Consumers placed certain radiation shielding closer to the reactor. In the opinion of the Division of Air Pollution Control of the Public Health Department, these costs did not qualify for the statutory exemption.
This litigation has an involved history that is not necessarily pertinent to the issues addressed today, but which is briefly recounted for purposes of clarifying the background of these cases.
In May, 1968, Consumers Power Company applied for an exemption for the Palisades plant's containment building as well as the building's spray system, the building's cooling system and the facility's gaseous radwaste system. The original application was denied, but an amended application was approved in January, 1972. The Covert Township assessor then sought leave to appeal this decision in the Court of Appeals. In May, 1974, the Court of Appeals decided that appellate jurisdiction over this matter was vested in the circuit court and remanded the appeal to the Thirty-Sixth Judicial Circuit for consideration on the merits. Covert Twp Assessor v State Tax Commission, 53 Mich App 300; 218 NW2d 807 (1974).
In the fall of 1972, Consumers Power filed two applications for tax exemption under the Water Exemption Act for the liquid radwaste system and the cooling towers located at the Palisades plant. Both of these applications were granted in September, 1973. The Covert Township assessor appealed this decision to the Court of Appeals and that court determined that appellate jurisdiction was vested in circuit court and remanded to the Thirty-Sixth Judicial Circuit on the authority of the Air Exemption Act case, on September 9, 1974.
Thereafter, Consumers Power, the assessor and the State Tax Commission stipulated in circuit court for entry of an order remanding both of these cases to the State Tax Commission for determination of certain stipulated issues concerning the tax exemption certificates issued for both the air pollution and water pollution control facilities at the Palisades plant. On the same day, orders for partial summary judgment were entered by the circuit court which provided, in part, that the final determination of this proceeding would determine the validity and effect of the air and water pollution control facilities exemption certificates for the tax year 1974 and all subsequent years in which the facts and the law remained unchanged.
On July 9, 1975, the State Tax Commission issued its order affirming both the air pollution control exemption certificate and the water pollution control exemption certificate. This decision was affirmed by the circuit court in an order filed July 30, 1976, following a written opinion filed June 23, 1976.
The Court of Appeals affirmed the tax exemption for the air pollution control facilities but reversed as to the tax exemption for the water pollution control facilities. Covert Twp Assessor v State Tax Commission, 77 Mich App 626; 259 NW2d 164 (1977).
MCL 336.4; MSA 7.793(4).
MCL 336.1; MSA 7.793(1) and MCL 336.3; MSA 7.793(3).
At the commission hearing, witness Keeley, at that time the Director of Quality Assurance Services for Consumers Power Company, described the function of the containment building:
"The principal purpose [of the containment building], as far as I'm concerned, is to, number one, contain the fission products that result from various postulated conditions, these being accidents of various severity, and also to contain fission products that are released from the nuclear steam supply system during normal operation, and under the worst assumed accident condition, to contain the water-steam mixture that occurs when the design basis accident occurs and the fission products that occur after this design basis accident."
Witness Keeley further testified that the purpose of the containment building's spray and cooling systems was to assure the integrity of the containment building through reduction of temperature and pressure in the event of an accident. Finally, witness Keeley testified that the gaseous radwaste system contained waste gases resulting from the operation of the reactor in "hold-up" tanks until the radioactivity being emitted by the fission gases decayed to a point at which the gases could safely be released into the environment.
The testimony of Covert Township's witness Lapp, an energy consultant with primary emphasis on nuclear power systems, was in accord with witness Keeley's testimony. Concerning the containment building, witness Lapp said, "The primary purpose of the containment building is to prevent the release of radioactive material to the environment in the event of an accident." His testimony concerning the building's spray and cooling systems as well as the gaseous radwaste system were similarly in agreement with the testimony of witness Keeley.
Illustrative of the testimony concerning the suitability and reasonable adequacy of these facilities was the following statement of witness Lapp:
"In the event of an accident of this kind, a loss of cooling accident, and a failure of emergency core cooling, you would have these [sic] pressurization of the atmosphere within containment. It would get hot and it would raise in pressure. The reactor at the Palisades is sized to, I believe, sustain 55 pounds per square inch of pressure and 285 degrees Fahrenheit temperature.
"We have had accidents in which containment has been pressurized, in which pressures have gone up to 20 pounds per square inch and temperatures have gone up to over 300 degrees Fahrenheit.
"Containment has been tested and it works. There is no doubt about that." (Emphasis added.)
Witness Keeley's testimony was that the design of the containment building involved the assumption of the most severe accident (a full core meltdown) and that the containment structure is necessary to meet limitations on radioactive emissions under either normal operating or accident conditions.
In a memo admitted into evidence at the commission hearing, from the Air Pollution Control Division of the Department of Natural Resources to the State Tax Commission, the Division stated:
"It is the opinion of the Air Pollution Control Division, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, that the definition of air contaminants includes radioactive materials such as gases and particulates but does not include radiation itself."
Consumers Senior Health Physicist, witness Sinderman, testified on direct examination before the commission:
"Q. Would you look at page 76 of the record?
"A. Yes.
"Q. What does that show?
"A. That shows — that is table 11-4, and it is entitled, 'Activity in Coolant and Gaseous Waste.' It essentially shows the seven krypton and xenon radio nuclid[es] and their concentration in various portions of the gaseous radwaste system.
"Q. Are those all radioactive gases?
'A. Yes.
"Q. All right. If they were permitted to get outside the containment into the environment, would they all contribute to a radiation dose to an individual who might be at the site boundary?
"A. If these materials are released to the environment, because they are radioactive, they emit radiation, and as a result would contribute to the exposure or dose to a person in the vicinity of those gases, yes.
"Q. All right. If you were operating with the amount of failed fuel that you license — excuse me — the Palisades Plant operating license permitted you to operate with, assuming no holdup in the gaseous radioactive waste system, would you release radioactive materials to the environment?
"A. Yes.
"Q. All right. What nature? Would they — would they all be gases?
"A. May I ask you a question? Are we speaking specifically of gaseous radwaste system at this point?
"Q. Yes.
"A. No, they would not. They would be the gases, and the operation of the plant to date has shown there would be particulates, some of the other fission products that are not gases, and even some of these gases decay to what are called daughter products that are also radioactive and are particulate in nature.
"Q. Are those particulates respirable?
"A. Yes.
"Q. What is your deñnition of respirable?
"A. My deñnition of respirable is a particle that is sufficiently small to enter the respiratory tract, but sufficiently large so it is retained in the tract and not exhaled. And I believe that is essentially the definition given to this Commission by Mr. Jager." (Emphasis added.) See, also, Appendix, pp 910a-924a.
Portions of witness Lapp's testimony could also support a finding by the commission that the radioactive materials controlled and disposed of by these facilities constituted air contaminants (Appendix, pp 614a-629a).
The following definitions were found in § 1 of House Bill 3075, as introduced:
"Sec. 1. As used in this act:
"(a) 'Facility' means any disposal system, including disposal wells, or any treatment works, pretreatment works, appliance, equipment, machinery or installation constructed, used or placed in operation primarily for the purpose of reducing, controlling or eliminating water pollution caused by industrial waste including the real property upon which any of the preceding is located.
"(b) 'Industrial waste' means any liquid, gaseous or solid waste substance resulting from any process of industry, manufacture, trade or business, or from the development, processing or recovery of any natural resource which is capable of polluting the waters of the state.
"(c) 'Treatment works' means any plant, disposal field, lagoon, dam, pumping station, incinerator or other works or reservoir used for the purpose of treating, stabilizing, isolating or holding industrial waste: "(d) 'Disposal system' means system for disposing of or isolating industrial waste and includes pipelines or conduits, pumping stations and force mains, and all other constructions, devices, appurtenances and facilities used for collecting or conducting water borne industrial waste to a point of disposal, treatment or isolation."
December 23, 1977..
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Chucking machine
Dec. 14, 1937. G. o. GRIDLEY ET Al.
- CHUCKING MACHINE Original Filed July 16, 193] 4 Sheets-Sheet l ATTORNEYS Dec. 14, 1937- G. o. GRIDLEY ET Al.
CHUCKI NG MACHINE Original Filed July 16, 193] 4 Sheets-Sheet 2 www@ INVENTO R s GEORGE 0. @Av/@LEY 00A/11.0 H. Mo/vrGo/wfnr BEARL WHEELER ATTO R N EYS Dec. 1'4, 1937.
G. o. GRIDLEY ET A1. 2,102,412
GHUCKING MACHINE Original Filed July 16, 1.93] 4 Sheets-Sheet 3 INVENTORS 4afolc-IE QGR/DLEY 00A/ALD /f-MONTGDMERY EARL H. WHEELER M A ToRNEYs De 14, 1937 G. o. GRIDLEY ET AL 2,102,412
CHUCKING4 MACHINE original Filed July 16, 1931 4 sheets-sheet 4 GEORGE 0. R/DLE/ NHLD H. MONTGOMERY EARL 'v WHEELER ATTORNEYS Patented Dec. 14, 1937 UNITED STATES CHUCKING MACHINE George O. Gridley, New Britain, Donald H. Montgomery, Hartford, and Earl E. Wheeler, New Britain, Conn., assigner,- by meme aneignmenta, to The New Britain Machine Company, New Britain, Conn., a corporation of Connecticut Original application July 18, 1931, Serial N0.
551,136. ber 22, 1936.
Patent No. 2,055,435, dated Septem- Divided and this application May Z9, 1936, Serial No. 82,424. Renewed July 30,
15 Claims.
Our invention relates to a chucking machine and this application is a division of our application, Serial No. 551,136, flied July 16, 1931.
It is a general object of the invention to provide a machine of the character indicated, having improved chucking and clutching means interrelated and acting in a manner to make for high speed production, ease of operation, and safety.
It is `another object to provide in a chucking machine interrelated fluid pressure actuated clutching and chucking means under a single control.
It is another object to provide in a machine of the character indicated fluid pressure clutching and chucking means, together with means for assuring a proper sequence of chucking', clutching, unclutching. ami,- unchucking work pieces.
Another object is to provide improved fluid' pressure actuated chucking and/or clutching mechanism.
Other objects and various features of novelty and improvement will be hereinafter pointed out or will become apparent upon a reading of the specification.
'I'he invention in its preferred form is embodied in a multiple spindle chucking machine, only those parts necessary to an understanding of the invention of this application being shown herein. Other features, such as the frame, driving means, and other general features are disclosed fully in the aforesaid application of which this application is a. division and to which reference is hereby made for a lfuller disclosure of all features of the machine.
In the drawings which show, for illustrative purposes only, a preferred form of the invention- Fig. 1 is an axial rear end view of a chucking machine, partly broken away and parts shown in section and illustrating features of the invention;
Fig. 2 is a sectional view taken substantially in the plane of the line 2-2 of Fig. 1;
Fig. 3 is a sectional view taken substantially in the plane of the line 3-3 of Fig. 1;
Fig. 4 is a sectional view taken substantially in the plane of the line 4 4 of Fig. 3;
Fig. 5 is a sectional view taken substantially in the plane of the line 5-5 of Fig. 3;
Fig. 6 is a fragmentary top plan view inv partial section of clutch and 'chuck controlling means, also shown in part in Fig. 1;
Fig.- I `is a view in section of parts shown in Fig. 6 but seen from the side, the section being taken substantially in the plane of the line 1 1 of Fig. l;
Fig. 8 is a more or less diagrammatic or illustrative view of our improved uid pressure actuated chucking and clutching mechanism, together with fluid pressure generator and controls.
So much of the drawings of the aforesaid patent application as are necessary for an understanding of the present invention are included herein, but for a fuller description of the entire machine reference is made to the aforesaid application.
Each chucking spindle 250 may be supported in the indexible spindle carrier 98 in substantially the same manner and on anti-friction bearings as has been described inconnection with the screw machine disclosed in the parent application above identified, and the advantages there noted are, of course, inherent in a chucking machine as well as in the screw machine. In the form shown, and referring particularly to Fig. 2, it will be noted that the main spindle drive gear |82 drives a ring gear 25| rotatably carried on each spindle as by means of a double row bearing 252. The inner ring of the bearing is preferably rigidly carried directly on the spindle 250 while the outerring is rigidly carried in a recess or bore of the ring gear 25|. An advantage of an anti-friction bearing at this point is that when the spindle is unclutched from the drive gear and the drive gear continues to rotate, there is practically no tendency for the spindle to be dragged along with the drive gear, and stopping of the spindle is thus greatly facilitated. We have devised a most advantageous type of clutch device l by means of which thespindle'is positively driven and yetno difilculty is experienced in engaging the. positive clutch regardless of the normal speed of the driving portion thereof. Our improved clutch is disclosed in the present application merely by way of example as a satisfactory clutch for use in the present combination. In the embodiment of the invention herein-disclosed, we employ a positive type of bump or toothed clutch for positively driving the spindle during its normal and working rotation, and in order to permit such a desirable and positive type of clutch to be employed at the high speeds at which we desire to employ it, we provide a friction pick-up which initiates the rotation of the spindle and brings it to such a speed, that is, a speed approaching the speed ofthe driving portion of the positive clutch, that the positive clutch may be engaged without dimculty. In the forml illustrated, the ring gear 25| or any part which rotates therewith is provided with a driving clutch part 256, having positive clutch teeth 254 thereon. 'Ihe spindle carries a coact`\ ing clutch part, inthis case in the form of a sliding sleeve 255, having clutch teeth 256 to engage with the teeth 254. VThe positive clutch sleeve 255 is provided with a bell-,mouthed opening 266, so that when the clutch sleeve 255 is in its left-hand position as viewed in Fig. 2, the balls 265 may-move radially outwardly to permit disengagement of the friction clutch device 264.
Now, when the sleeve 255 is moved toward the right, the balls 265 will be moved radially inwardly by the tapered or bell-mouthed opening of the clutch sleeve 255, and thus the friction clutch device 264 will be engaged and the spindle 25|) will be rotated thereby. .Within the-sleeve 255 is a cylindrical opening 261 to maintain the balls in their radially inward position. When the spindle 250 has picked up speed, whether it bethe same speed as the drive gear 25| or slightly less, the positive clutch sleeve 255 may be moved farther towards the right, so as to cause the enlargement 266 in the clutch sleeve opening or counterbore to be positioned over the balls, and the balls are thus permitted to move radially outwardly and to disengage the friction clutch device 264. Further movement of the positive clutch sleeve 255 will cause the positive clutch teeth 254-256 to be engaged with eachother, and since the friction clutch device has already initiated the rotative movement of the spindle 255, there will be no dimculty incausing the positive clutch teeth which are now rotating to engage with each other without clashing or grinding of teeth. When it is desired to stop the spindle, the clutch sleeve 255 is merely moved toward the left, which action first causes `the positiv clutch teeth to become disengaged and which incidentally in 'the form shown causes the friction clutch device to be engaged and immediately thereafter causes the friction clutch means to be disengaged by the radially outward movement of the balls 265 when they enter the tapering or bell-mouthed 'opening of the sleeve.
Adjustment of the friction clutch pick-up means is readily eected by turning up the adjusting nut 252 so as to bring the two abutment sleeves closer together. Wear in the friction clutch device is thus compensated for. It will be seen that by means of our improved clutch device the spindles may be rotated at exceedingly high rates of speed and by a positive clutch. 'I'he friction clutch portion of our device acts only as a spindle speed pick-up device and does not, in the preferred form, drive the spindle at times when work carried by the spindle is being acted upon by the tools. At such times, the spindle is being driven by the positive clutch with all the attendant advantages of such a clutch.
It might be here stated that in the preferred form each spindle clutch is provided with its independent fork device 26| (Fig. 1) which may be slidably mounted upon the studs 221 described in the aforesaid application and employed in the screw machine for supporting the chucking slide. Each fork device 26| is also provided with a finger 269 which may be engaged with a track or slide shoe portion 210 (Figs. 1, 6), which is fluid pressure actuated as will be later described. Each fork 26|, or, rather, the finger portion 269 thereof of each spindle in other than the chucking position, may be engaged and held against endwise unchucking movement by a track ring 21| 'on the frame.
The chucks of the chucking machine are uid pressure actuated. 'I'he chucks may be of any desired type, and we have illustrated (Fig. 2) a rather well-known type of two-jaw chuck which is actuated to close the same by a rearward movement of the draw rod and to be opened by a forward movement thereof.
In the preferred form we employ a cylinder and piston for each chuck, and the cylinders are preferably so arranged as to be non-rotatable even though the spindles themselves are rotatable at high speed. A rear portion of each spindle may be provided with an dditional anti-friction bearing 216, and at the eratreme rearend of the spindle is an anti-friction bearing 214, which supports the non-rotatable cylinder unit 215 of desired form. The cylinder unit 215 is provided with fluid pressure inlet and. outlet ports or passages 216-211 at opposite sides of the piston 216. The piston has projecting gudgeons 216-260, which project respectively at the rear and forward ends of the cylinder and which may fit relatively tightly. Stufilng boxes may, if desired, be provided, but, generally speaking, a relatively tight t will serve to retain the pressure fluid in the cylinder, and if oil, for example, is the pressure fluid, a slight leakage of oil is rather advantageous for lubricating various bearings and parts adjacent to the leaks. Mounted on the piston gudgeon 219 is an anti-friction bearing 26 'which supports a frame or yoke device 262, which is rigidly but adjustably secured to the rear end of the draw rod 2 12, as by means of a screw threaded connection and a lock nut 263. It will be seen that, with the cylinder 215 held stationary, the spindle 250 may rotate relatively thereto by reason of the bearing 214. Likewise, the draw rod 212, by reason of the.
bearing 28|, may rotate relatively to the piston. The piston 218 may rotate to some extent in the cylinder, but under normal conditions the principal rotation will-be between the draw rod 212 and the piston. l
For the purpose of actuating the spindle clutch through the fork device 26| and the shoe or track actuator 210 weemploy a uid pressure piston and cylinder. may be in the form of a -bracket device slidably mounted upon the rods 2|1 and 2|8 on the frame of the machine. A piston rod 284 may be adjustably secured to the bracket 210 and be actuated by a fluid pressure piston 285 in a cylinder 286, fixed on the frame or rods 2|1-2I8, to be described more in detail. The ilow of fluid pressure to opposite ends of the cylinder 286 is controlled by a piston valve 281 in a valve casing 288,
which piston valve may be manually actuated through its rod 289, link 290 and crank 29| on shaft 292, which may be manually rocked by a handle at any convenient position on the machine:
The fluid pressure connections and the flow of fluid may be traced best by reference to the diagrammatic showing of Fig. 8. In the present embodiment the device is arranged so that all of the chucking cylinders in positions other than the loading position are maintained in chuck-closing position by direct pump pressure, while the cylinder of the spindle in loading position is initially actuated by uid from an accumulator, thepressure on the actuated piston being thereafter maintained constant by the pump after the accumulator pressure has caused it to operate. In the form shown we employ a pump, such as a gear or other positive type pump, 293, one branch 294 of the discharge side of which communicates with a passage 295 in the accumulator valve housing. A spring pressed valve 296 acts as a pressure regulat-ing valve, to permit the entry of high pressure fluid from the line 294 into the accumulator bell 291. The setting of the Valve 296 determines the limit below which the pump discharge pressure may not fall during normal operation. A differential relief valve 298 is provided which is forced to the position indicated in Fig. 8 by the pump pressure iluid. We may employ a valve 300 urged upwardly by a spring 302. This valve normally closes the discharge from the accumulator, and pump pressure iiuid may flow through port 30|, beneath the valve skirt, and through ports in skirt to cylinder line 303 to maintain the piston 218 in chucking position in its extreme position. When the chucking lever is actuated to shift the valve 281 as above described, there will be a quick ilow of pump fluid through cylinder line 303, port 304, etc., thus momentarily reducing the pump pressure below the valve 300, and the accumulator. pressure, being momentarily greater, will `shift the valve 300 to cause the skirt of the valve to cut oi the port 30| to thus maintain pump: pressure on the The track actuator 210' cylinders in working positions` (through line 300) and the accumulator will discharge through cylinder line 303 to shift the piston 218 in` loading station.v When the pressure in the accumulator drops, the spring 302 moves-the valve 300 to again close the accumulator discharge to line 303 and again permit direct pump pressure to enter cylinder line 303 to either complete movement of the piston 218 in-chucking position, or, if its movement is completed, to maintain the sam'e under static pump pressure. Thus the large volume of accumulator pressure fluid is available for shifting the chucking piston in loading position and direct pump pressure is available for completing the piston shifting and maintaining the same under static pump pressure. An operation may then be performed on a work piece chucked in loading position.
'Ihe other branch 305 from the discharge side of the pump communicates with an inlet passage 306 in the distributor sleeve 301, which is secured to the frame. Within the sleeve and normally in iixed rotative position is a distributor plug 308, and an annular passage 309 is provided, preferably in the'plug itself, so that there is a constant communication between the pump inlet passage 306 and such annular passage. Communicating with the annular passage 309 is a ,longitudinal passage 3|0 in the plug which communicates at the forward end of the latter through a side outlet 3H with an interrupted annular groove passage 3|2 in the plug. The groove 3|2 extends circumferentially about three-quarters of the way around the'plug.
'I'he spindle carrier itself or some part indexible with the chucking cylinders 215 carries a sleeve 3|3, fitting but indexible with the cylinders about thenormally fixed plug 308.- The sleeve 3|3 in the plane of the line 5-5 (Fig. 3) is provided with four outlet passages 3|4, 3|5, 3|6, 3|1, each of which passages is connected, as by means of a pipe 3|8, 3|9, 320, 32|, respectively, with the tail end of the chucking cylinders 215. Pressure exerted on said tail end serves to draw each draw-rod 212 in the chucking direction. Thus it will be seen that with the plug 308 and sleeve 3|3 in the position shown in Fig. 5, the tail ends of three of the cylinders will be in communication with the interrupted annular groove 3|2. and consequently in communication with the longitudinal passage 3|0, annular groove 309 in the plug, inlet passage 306-in the frame sleeve 301, and the discharge side 305 of the pump. Consequently, the three chucks in the positions other than loading position will be constantly held closed by high pressure fluid directly from the discharge side of the pump.
The distributor sleeve 3|3 is provided in the plane of the line 4-4 (Fig. 3) with passages 322, 323, 324 and 325, which are in communication, respectively, through pipes 326, 321, 328 and 329 with the head ends of all of the chucking cylinders. The plug 308 is provided in the plane of the line 4-4 of Fig. 3 with an interrupted annular groove 330, with which the passages 323, 324, 325 are in open communication, as shown in Fig. 4, so that the head ends of each of the cylinders, other than the one in the loading position, are in open communication with such interrupted annular groove. Communicating with that groove 330 is a longitudinal passage 33|, which communicates with an exhaust opening 332` (Figs. 3, 8), for example, with the space between the two sleeves on the plug. Thus, the
head end of each of the cylinders, other than the '15 The plug su is provided wima longitudinal passage 333 in constant communication with anannular ygroove 334 in the plug. Passage 333 is in 'communication at one end through a plug radial' passage 335 (Fig. 5) with'the port or passage 3|.1 communicating through the pipe 32| with the tail end of the cylinder in loading position. The plug 303 is provided with another longitudinal passage 338, which communicates with an annular groove 331 in the plug, and at its opposite end communicates throughs radial passage 322 (Fig. 4)-, pipe conection 322 in sleeve 3|3, and through pipe 328 with the head 'end of the cylinder in loading position, that is, the upper cylinder in Fig. 8.
Ihe annular plug passage 334 which, as stated, communicates with the tail end of the cylinder in loading position, is connected through pipe connection 338 and pipe 333 with the top pipe connection 340 in theA clutch cylinder 286.
The annular plug passage 331 which, as stated, is' in communication with the head end of the cylinder in loading position, communicates through the pipe connection 34| and pipe 342 with an end passage 343 in the control valve casing 283.
The operation'is as follows:
With the parts in substantially the `position shown in the drawings, and referring particularly to Figs. 3 to 8, it will be seen that the three chucks in working position are closed and held closed by high pressure fluid directly from the discharge side of the pump. The fluid pressure actuated spindle clutches heretofore described are likewise closed, so that the three spindles in working positions will be rotating with the chucks closed and held closed by direct pump pressure. The spindle in loading position, that is, the upper position in Fig.'8, has the spindle drive clutch thrown out, so that the spindle is stationary, and the chucking piston is in its forward position, so that the chuck is open. The control valve handle has been thrown over to the right to the position indicated as "1st (Fig. 8).
It may then be seen that the spindle clutch has been thrown out by accumulator pressure fluid which has passed from the accumulator through pipe 303, pipe connection 304, into the annular space between' the ends of the spool valve 281, and then through the passage 344 and into the tail end of the cylinder 288, thus maintaining the spindle clutch piston 285 in the left-hand position as viewed in Figs. 7 and 8.` At the same time the tail end of the chuck cylinder in loading position will be in communication through the pipe 32|, e 3|1 (Fig. 5). passages 335 and 333, annular passage 334, pipe connection 338, pipe 333 and pipe connection 340 in the clutch cylinder.288, the annular piston groove 345 in the clutch piston 285, and through thepassage 348 in the control valve cylinder, with the exhaust passage 341.
Pressure fluid is free to flow from the space between'the pistons of the control valve through port 343, pipe 342, pipe connection 34| and longitudinal plug passage 338, passage 322 (Figl'4), pipe connection 322 and pipe connection 328 to the head end of the cylindervin loading position, and thus cause the chucking piston ofthe cylinder in loading position to remain forward and the chuck openlw' l f Av newpiece of work maynow befinserted in the chuck. -The manual valve control handle lis then shifted to the'positlon indicated- 2nd i!!l Fig. 8, which moves the end 349 of spool valve `exhaust passage 341, and pressure iluid may pass through pipe 303,.pipe connection 304, passage 348, annular passage 345, pipe connection 340 and pipe 333, and eventually to the tail end of the cylinder in loading position, so as to-close the chuck. The spindle will still be unclutched but the work will now be chucked.
In order to close the spindle clutch the manual control valve handle is thrown toward the left to the position indicated "3rd in Fig. 8. 'Ihis movement will place the control valve 281 in the extreme left-hand position. It will be seen that pressure iluid through the pipe 303 and central connection 304 may still pass momentarily through passages 348, 345 to pipe 339, to the tail end of the cylinder in loading position, so as to maintain the work chucked. but at the same time the tail end of the cylinder 288 is in communication through the passage 344 and to the right of the right-hand piston 35| o f the control valve with the exhaust passage 341 and the head end space 352 of the clutch cylinder 288 will then be in communicationwith the source of pressure between the two heads of the piston valve, and the clutch piston 285 will be moved toward the right.,
so as to throw the spindle clutch in, and the spindle rotation will then be started. After the shift of the clutch piston 285 to the right to close;v the clutch pressure fluid may still reach the tail end of chucking cylinder in loading position by passing by the head end of cylinder 288 and through pipe 333, etc., to maintain that chuck closed.
After the turret or spindle carrier has indexed, another spindle will then arrive in loading position, and it will be in the same condition that the spindle which just left the loading position was in, that is to say, the spindle will be rotating and the rwork will be chucked. 'I'he manual control valve handle is then shifted to the right, back to the position indicated 2nd. Then, through the pipe connections heretofore described, the tall end of the clutch vcylinder 288 will be put in communication with pressure fluid and the head end 352 of that cylinder will be put in communication with the exhaust, so that the clutch piston 285 will be shifted toward the left and will again occupy the position shown'in Figs. '7 and 8, and the spindle clutch will be thrown out but the work will still be clutched. 'Ihe manual control valve handle would then be shifted farther toward the right, to the position designated lst, which is the position in which the' parts arein Figs. 7 and 8. This further shifting of the control valve to its extreme right hand position will still permit pressure fluid to maintain the clutch piston 285 in its left hand position, so as to maintain the clutch open, but
through the pipe connections heretofore described the tail end of the cylinder in chucking position will be opened to the atmosphere, and
the head end will be opened to accumulator pressure, to open the chuck, so as to discharge the nished work piece and permit the insertion of a new work piece.
. Thus briefly, with the parts in the position shown in Figs. 7 and 8, the first shift of the manual control handle to the 2nd or intermediate position will cause work to beychucked. Further movement of the handle to the extreme left or 3rd position will cause the spindle to be clutched, and thereafter the spindle carrier indexes. Another spindle then reaches the loading position. Movement of the manual control `handle toward the right to the 2nd position will cause the spindle to be unclutched, and further movement of the control valve handle back to the extreme right, or "1st position, as shown in the drawings, will cause the work to be unchucked. Thus the cycle is completed.
It is often desirable in a machine of this character to permit a chuck in any position to be opened, for example so that a faulty piece oi' work may be removed. With that end in View We have provided means for rotating the distributor plug 308 from its normal position, as shown in the drawings, so as to place the various passages heretofore described into communication with the various cylinders.- For example, it will be clearA that with the holding or detent lug device 353 withdrawn to the position shown in Fig. 3, the handle 354 may be moved so as to rotate the distributor plug 308 to any'position desired, so as to cause the passages now in communication with a particular cylinder to be placed in communication with any of the other cylinders. In fact, if it were desired, the loading position of the machine could be almost instantly changed merely by shifting the distributor plug 308 to the appropriate position.
While we have disclosed many features of novelty having structural or functional utility, it is to be noted that we have disclosed only a pre ferred form and that many changes, modica tions, fadditions, and omissions may be made within the scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.
We claim:
l. In a chucking machine, a rotatable spindle, a chuck carried thereby, a fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said chuck, means for driving said spindle, a clutch controlling the same, a fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said clutch, and a single valve for controlling the flow of pressure fluid for both said fluid pressure actuated means.
2. In a chucking machine, a frame, a rotatable spindle, a chuck carried thereby, fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said chuck, means for driving said spindle, a clutch controlling the same, a fluid pressure actuated means carried by said frame and positioned for coaction with said clutch, and a single valve for controlling both of said fluid pressure actuated means.
3. In a chucking machine, a rotatable spindle, a chuck carried thereby, fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said chuck, means for driving said spindle, a clutch for controlling said driving means, fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said clutch, meansfor conducting pressure fluid to both said fluid pressure actuated means, and a single valve movable to one position to control the flow of fluid pressure for said clutch actuating means and movable to another position to control said chuck fluid pressure actuated means.
4. In a chucking machine, a rotatable spindle, a chuck carried thereby, fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said chuck, means for driving said spindle, a clutch for controlling the same,
fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said clutch, and means controlled from a single point for controlling the flow of pressure fluid to said clutch actuating means for disengaging said clutch and for thereafter controlling the flow of pressure fluid to said chuck actuating means for opening said chuck.
5. In a chucking machine, a frame, a rotatable spindle, a chuck carried thereby, fluid pressure means for actuating said chuck, means for driving spaid spindle, a clutch for controlling the same, a fluid pressure cylinder carried by said frame, a piston therein, means forming a coacting means between said piston and clutch for actuating the latter by said piston, and fluid passage means through said cylinder and leading to said fluid pressure actuated means for said chuck for actuating the latter.
6. In a chucking machine, a rotatable spindle, a chuck carried thereby, fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said chuck, means for driving said spindle, a clutch for controlling the same, fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said clutch, and a single control means for first controlling the flow of fluid to one of said fluid pressure actuated means to actuate the same, and thereafter controlling the flow of pressure fluid to the other of said fluid pressure actuated means for actuating the latter.
7. In a chucking machine, a rotatable spindle, a chuck carried thereby, uid pressure actuated means for actuating said chuck, means for driving said spindle, a clutch for controlling the same, fluid pressure actuated means for actuating said clutch, and control means movable to one position for controlling the flow of fluid pressure to one of said uid pressure actuated means and movable to another position for controlling the flow of fluid pressure to the other of said iluid pressure actuated means, for the purpose described.
8. In a chucking machine, a spindle carrier, means for indexing the same from station to station, a plurality of rotatable spindles carried by said spindle carrier, means for driving said spindies, clutch means for connecting said driving means to each of said spindles, a chuck carried by each of said spindles, fluid pressure actuated means for actuating the chuck of each of said spindles in loading station, and a single control valve for controlling the flow of pressure fluid to each of said fluid pressure actuated means.
9. In a chucking machine, a frame, an indexible spindle carrier carried thereby, a plurality of rotatable spindles carried by said spindle carrier,
means for indexing said spindle carrier, a chuck carried by each of said spindles, fluid pressure actuated chucking means carried by each of said spindles for actuating the chucks thereof, means for driving said spindles, a spindle clutch for clutching and unclutching each spindle from said vdriving means, fluid pressure actuated means cardexible spindle carrier thereon,l a plurality o! rotatable spindles carried by said spindle carrier, means for indexing saidv spindle carrier, a chuck carried by eachsaid spindle, means for driving said spindles, m'eans for disengaging each'said spindle from; lts driving means including'a duid .pressure actuated means, `a duid pressure actuated means tor actuating each o! said chucks in loading station, and a single control valve for controlling the dow voi' pressure duid to each of said duid4 pressure actuated means. for the purpose described.
11. In a chucking machine. a ira'me, an indexible spindle carrier thereon, a plurality of rotatable spindles carried by said spindle carrier, means for driving said' spindles, duid pressure actuated means for disengaging each of said spindles from said'driving means, a\chuck carried by each spindle, duid pressure actuated means for actuating said chucks, and a single valve movable to one position to control the dow "ated piston for actuating said yspindle drive disengaging means, a duid pressure operated piston for actuating the chuck ot each said spindle" when in loading station, and a single duid pressure control means for controlling the dow of duid pressure to said two duid pressure means.
13. In a machine -oi' the character indicated, a frame, an indexible spindle carrier thereon, a plurality of rotatable spindles carried by said spindle carrier, a. chuck carried by each said spindle, driving mea's'for said spindles, means i'or disengaging eachvot said spindles from its driving means including a slide mounted on said frame, a iluid pressure piston and cylinder for moving said slide i'or engins and disengaging said driving means with at least one of said spindles, duid pressure actuated means for actuating said chucks, duid passage means including controllingthe dow of duid pressure Vi'or disengaging said spindle from its drive means and movable to another position to open said chuck while said spindle is disengaged and movable to another position to cause said chuck to close and movable to another position to cause said spindle to again engage with its drive means.
15. In a chucking machine, a rotatable spindle, a chuck carried thereby, a duid pressure cylinder and piston for actuating said chuck, said cylinder being normally rotatable relatively to said spindle and being rotatably carried by the rear end thereof, valve means for controlling the dow of pressure duid to and from said cylinder, and means i'or starting and stopping rotation oi said spindle,
GEORGE O. GRIDLEY. DONALD H. MONTGOMERY. EARL H. WHEELER.
|
// Node Routes
export const enum NetworkMessageType {
getpeers = 'getpeers',
stop = 'stop',
// sendrawtransaction = 'sendrawtransaction',
}
|
<?php
namespace DedexBundle\Entity\Ern411;
/**
* Class representing TitleDisplayInformationType
*
* A Composite containing information on how a RecordCompany wishes Artist information to be presented to Consumers as part of the Title (and in addition to displaying the DisplayArtist information).
* XSD Type: TitleDisplayInformation
*/
class TitleDisplayInformationType
{
/**
* The Language and script of the Information as defined in IETF RfC 5646. The default is the same as indicated for the containing composite. Language and Script are provided as lang[-script][-region][-variant]. This is represented in an XML schema as an XML Attribute.
*
* @var string $languageAndScriptCode
*/
private $languageAndScriptCode = null;
/**
* A number indicating the order of the display artist name in a group of display artist names, to allow sequencing different display artists. This is represented in an XML schema as an XML Attribute.
*
* @var int $sequenceNumber
*/
private $sequenceNumber = null;
/**
* A Flag indicating whether the information is displayed in the Title of a Resource (=true) or not (=false).
*
* @var bool $isDisplayedInTitle
*/
private $isDisplayedInTitle = null;
/**
* A Descriptor that precedes the display artist name when multiple display artist names are given.
*
* @var \DedexBundle\Entity\Ern411\PrefixType[] $prefix
*/
private $prefix = [
];
/**
* Gets as languageAndScriptCode
*
* The Language and script of the Information as defined in IETF RfC 5646. The default is the same as indicated for the containing composite. Language and Script are provided as lang[-script][-region][-variant]. This is represented in an XML schema as an XML Attribute.
*
* @return string
*/
public function getLanguageAndScriptCode()
{
return $this->languageAndScriptCode;
}
/**
* Sets a new languageAndScriptCode
*
* The Language and script of the Information as defined in IETF RfC 5646. The default is the same as indicated for the containing composite. Language and Script are provided as lang[-script][-region][-variant]. This is represented in an XML schema as an XML Attribute.
*
* @param string $languageAndScriptCode
* @return self
*/
public function setLanguageAndScriptCode($languageAndScriptCode)
{
$this->languageAndScriptCode = $languageAndScriptCode;
return $this;
}
/**
* Gets as sequenceNumber
*
* A number indicating the order of the display artist name in a group of display artist names, to allow sequencing different display artists. This is represented in an XML schema as an XML Attribute.
*
* @return int
*/
public function getSequenceNumber()
{
return $this->sequenceNumber;
}
/**
* Sets a new sequenceNumber
*
* A number indicating the order of the display artist name in a group of display artist names, to allow sequencing different display artists. This is represented in an XML schema as an XML Attribute.
*
* @param int $sequenceNumber
* @return self
*/
public function setSequenceNumber($sequenceNumber)
{
$this->sequenceNumber = $sequenceNumber;
return $this;
}
/**
* Gets as isDisplayedInTitle
*
* A Flag indicating whether the information is displayed in the Title of a Resource (=true) or not (=false).
*
* @return bool
*/
public function getIsDisplayedInTitle()
{
return $this->isDisplayedInTitle;
}
/**
* Sets a new isDisplayedInTitle
*
* A Flag indicating whether the information is displayed in the Title of a Resource (=true) or not (=false).
*
* @param bool $isDisplayedInTitle
* @return self
*/
public function setIsDisplayedInTitle($isDisplayedInTitle)
{
$this->isDisplayedInTitle = $isDisplayedInTitle;
return $this;
}
/**
* Adds as prefix
*
* A Descriptor that precedes the display artist name when multiple display artist names are given.
*
* @return self
* @param \DedexBundle\Entity\Ern411\PrefixType $prefix
*/
public function addToPrefix(\DedexBundle\Entity\Ern411\PrefixType $prefix)
{
$this->prefix[] = $prefix;
return $this;
}
/**
* isset prefix
*
* A Descriptor that precedes the display artist name when multiple display artist names are given.
*
* @param int|string $index
* @return bool
*/
public function issetPrefix($index)
{
return isset($this->prefix[$index]);
}
/**
* unset prefix
*
* A Descriptor that precedes the display artist name when multiple display artist names are given.
*
* @param int|string $index
* @return void
*/
public function unsetPrefix($index)
{
unset($this->prefix[$index]);
}
/**
* Gets as prefix
*
* A Descriptor that precedes the display artist name when multiple display artist names are given.
*
* @return \DedexBundle\Entity\Ern411\PrefixType[]
*/
public function getPrefix()
{
return $this->prefix;
}
/**
* Sets a new prefix
*
* A Descriptor that precedes the display artist name when multiple display artist names are given.
*
* @param \DedexBundle\Entity\Ern411\PrefixType[] $prefix
* @return self
*/
public function setPrefix(array $prefix)
{
$this->prefix = $prefix;
return $this;
}
}
|
<?php
/**
* CodeIgniter
*
* An open source application development framework for PHP
*
* This content is released under the MIT License (MIT)
*
* Copyright (c) 2014 - 2015, British Columbia Institute of Technology
*
* Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
* of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
* in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
* to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
* copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
* furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
*
* The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
* all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
*
* THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
* IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
* FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
* AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
* LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
* OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
* THE SOFTWARE.
*
* @package CodeIgniter
* @author EllisLab Dev Team
* @copyright Copyright (c) 2008 - 2014, EllisLab, Inc. (http://ellislab.com/)
* @copyright Copyright (c) 2014 - 2015, British Columbia Institute of Technology (http://bcit.ca/)
* @license http://opensource.org/licenses/MIT MIT License
* @link http://codeigniter.com
* @since Version 1.0.0
* @filesource
*/
defined('BASEPATH') OR exit('No direct script access allowed');
/**
* Bundle Hooks Class
*
* Extends CI_Hooks class for implement a Modular Environment.
*
* @package CodeIgniter
* @subpackage Libraries
* @category Hooks
* @author David Sosa Valdes
* @link https://github.com/davidsosavaldes/Codeigniter-Bundle
*/
class Bundle_Hooks extends CI_Hooks
{
/**
* Add new hooks anytime from anywhere
*
* @param string $path Absolute path (according to CI standards)
*/
public function add($path = '')
{
if (config_item('enable_hooks') !== FALSE)
{
$path = rtrim($path, '/');
if (file_exists($path.'/config/hooks.php'))
{
include($path.'/config/hooks.php');
}
if (file_exists($path.'/config/'.ENVIRONMENT.'/hooks.php'))
{
include($path.'/config/'.ENVIRONMENT.'/hooks.php');
}
// If there are no hooks, we're done.
if ( ! isset($hook) OR ! is_array($hook))
{
return;
}
// Name collisions
$this->hooks = array_merge_recursive($hook, $this->hooks);
return $this->enabled = TRUE;
}
return FALSE;
}
/**
* Run Hook
*
* Runs a particular hook
*
* @param array $data Hook details
* @return bool TRUE on success or FALSE on failure
*/
protected function _run_hook($data)
{
if (is_array($data))
{
$a_path = APPPATH.trim($data['filepath'],'/').'/'.$data['filename'];
if (! file_exists($a_path))
{
// Let's try to load a hook outside
$repeater = rtrim(str_repeat('../', substr_count(APPPATH, '/')),'/');
$b_path = $repeater.'/'.trim($data['filepath'],'/');
if (realpath(APPPATH.$b_path))
{
$data['filepath'] = rtrim($b_path,'/').'/';
}
}
}
return parent::_run_hook($data);
}
}
/* End of file Bundle_Hooks.php */
/* Location: ./application/core/Bundle_Hooks.php */
|
#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
# Copyright 2011-2014, Nigel Small
#
# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
# You may obtain a copy of the License at
#
# http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
#
# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
# limitations under the License.
from py2neo.batch.core import *
from py2neo.batch.pull import *
from py2neo.batch.push import *
from py2neo.batch.read import *
from py2neo.batch.write import *
__all__ = [
"BatchResource",
"Batch",
"WriteBatch",
"PullBatch",
"PushBatch",
"ReadBatch",
"Job",
"JobResult",
"Target",
"AddNodeLabelsJob",
"CreateNodeJob",
"CreatePathJob",
"CreateRelationshipJob",
"CreateUniquePathJob",
"CypherJob",
"DeleteEntityJob",
"DeletePropertiesJob",
"DeletePropertyJob",
"PullNodeLabelsJob",
"PullPropertiesJob",
"PullRelationshipJob",
"PushNodeLabelsJob",
"PushPropertiesJob",
"PushPropertyJob",
"RemoveNodeLabelJob",
"BatchError",
]
|
Get character followed by new line item using regex
I am trying to get the character on a new line after a specific letter using regex. My raw data looks like the below:
Total current charges (please see Current account details) $38,414.69
ID Number
1001166UNBEB
ACCOUNT SUMMARY
SVL0
BALANCE OVERDUE - PLEASE PAY IMMEDIATELY $42,814.80
I want to get the ID Number
My attempt is here:
ID_num = re.compile(r'[^ID Number[\r\n]+([^\r\n]+)]{12}')
The length of ID num is always 12, and always after ID Number which is why I am specifying the length in my expression and trying to detect the elements after that.
But this is not working as desired.
Would anyone help me, please?
Are the quote characters in the raw data?
Maybe you can use m = re.search(r"ID Number',\s*'(\w+)'", text) and then print(m.group(1)). See https://regex101.com/r/MXnf00/1
You clearly know that square brackets are for characters sets because you wrote [\r\n] to match either of those characters. So why do you have [ before ^ID Number?
The regexp doesn't match the quotes and comma after ID Number
If this is part of the output of print(somelist), you could use ast.literal_eval() to parse it into a list, then search the list instead of using a clumsy regexp.
@Barmar No, it is from a PDF file and I am splitting the strings using a new line, and it is an output from python. The quote character is not part of the raw data.
Then use (?m)^ID Number\s*(\w+) - https://regex101.com/r/MXnf00/2, but make sure you apply it to a string. Not a list of strings. And if it is a list of strings, use https://ideone.com/RTNAgr
So this is a list of strings, not a single string?
Not a list of strings, characters from pdf, and used 'line.split('\n')' to be able to loop through each line of characters.
Right, do not do that if you want to use m = re.search(r"^ID Number\s*(\w+)", text, re.M). Or, if you split, you will be able to use https://ideone.com/RTNAgr
If the id is alway 12 characters ^\s([A-Z0-9]{12})
@Cooper This is working but also getting another string, so I have to tell regex that I only need the one that is below ID Number.
I work in Javascript so I use String.match() method. With that method using /gm it returns all of the results and in this case I would use String.match(/^\s([A-Z0-9]{12})/gm)[0]; So if you know it's always going to be the first one then that might work. Other wise you might need to know more about the two strings and take advantage of their differences or similarities. BTW both Barmar and Wiktor know a lot more about this than I do.
Your regex is not working because of the use of [ ] at the beginning of the pattern, these are used for character sets.
So replace it with ( ).
Your pattern would look like: r'^ID Number[\r\n]+([^\r\n]+){12}'
But you can simplify your pattern to: ID Number[\s]+(\w+)
\r\n will be matched in \s and numbers and alpha chars in \w.
import re
s = """
Total current charges (please see Current account details) $38,414.69
ID Number
1001166UNBEB
ACCOUNT SUMMARY
SVL0
BALANCE OVERDUE - PLEASE PAY IMMEDIATELY $42,814.80
"""
print(re.findall(r"ID Number[\s]+(\w+)", s))
# ['1001166UNBEB']
|
How can I extend the paperjs's static constructors?
PaperJS has many static constructors (like Rectangle) on their base constructor functions such as Shape. I'd like to extend one of those static constructors like this,
class Rect extends paper.Shape.Rectangle {
constructor() {
super(...arguments);
}
customMethod() {}
}
const A = new Rect();
But what I get in variable A is an instance of class "Shape" which doesn't have the "customMethod".
What is a solution?
Paper.js don't seem to use standard ecmascript
classes; their class system is based on
straps.js.
You can see it in action
in the source code of Rectangle.js,
that is the class available as paper.Rectangle.
If you wanted to extend Rectangle, you could
use its method .extend, like this:
const Rect = paper.Rectangle.extend({
customMove(dx, dy){
this.x += dx;
this.y += dy;
}
});
const rect = new Rect(10, 10, 100, 100);
rect.customMove(30, 10);
As for Shape.Rectangle it can't
be properly extended, since it is just
a method of the class Shape - see
the source code.
You could extend Shape itself to add a new static
method:
const Shape1 = paper.Shape.extend({
statics:{
Rect(){
//... access to this.Rectangle
}
}
});
And in some cases, it is feasible to just add
a new method directly to Shape:
paper.Shape.Rect = function(){
//... access this.Rectangle, or paper.Shape.Rectangle)
}
|
.c.o: $*.h
gcc -c $*.c
.cpp.o: $*.h
g++ -c $*.cpp
all: BST
BST: BST.o cBinarySearchTree.o cNode.o
g++ -o $@ $^
clean:
rm *.o BST
|
The Australian Naval Experience, 1901-2010
David Stevens
Effectivement entourée de trois grands océans, l’Australie est sans aucun
doute une nation maritime dont l’histoire ne peut être envisagée qu’en se
référant constamment à la mer. Pourtant, tout au long de leur histoire
européenne, les australiens ont rarement apprécié en détail la puissance
navale, ni reconnu la place unique qu’occupe leur marine nationale
dans leur société. En effet, la nature de l’expérience militaire
australienne en général, et l’histoire navale en particulier, a fait que le
rôle de la marine a toujours été négligé ou limité à la reconnaissance de
brèves batailles navales. Cet article examine le support variable que
l’Australie a fournit à sa marine, et ceci dans un contexte
d’opportunisme politique et de besoins et souhaits disputés au niveau
national. Il tracera le progrès de la marine australienne en partant
d’une collection hétéroclite de vedettes armées et autres torpilleurs en
obsolescence jusqu’à la force nationale indépendante maintenue
aujourd’hui, le but étant d’offrir une base de comparaison et de
contraste avec l’histoire de la marine canadienne.
With an ice free coastline more than 47,000 km long and, at 14 million km 2, one
of the largest offshore jurisdictions in the world, Australia has been christened a potential
maritime super power. Notwithstanding this vision, for much of its European history
Australia’s maritime power has remained underexploited and incomplete. Brought up to
embrace the rural traditions of the bush, Australians may enjoy a beach lifestyle but most
prefer to think of their cultural ancestors as pioneers rather than seafarers.
Not only have Australians failed to appreciate the value of their three surrounding
oceans, but they have routinely attempted to gain maritime security on the cheap,
generally through alliances with great and powerful friends. For the first century and a
half after European settlement in 1788 this friend was Britain. Yet even with the world’s
greatest naval power as protector, and a British Squadron based in Sydney from1859,
there were regular rumblings that policies formulated in Whitehall might not place the
outer reaches of the Empire as first priority.
Determined to take practical steps to protect their own ports, in the late
nineteenth century several of the Australian colonies made tentative steps to develop their
own local naval forces. After the initial burst of patriotism these were rarely well
resourced, but they did at least provide a focus for naval interest. The 1887 Brassey’s
The Northern Mariner/Le marin du nord XXIV, Nos. 3 & 4 (Jul. & Oct. 2014), 60-74
Canadian Military History 23, Nos. 3 & 4 (Summer & Autumn 2014), 60-74
The Australian Naval Experience, 1901-2010
61
Naval Annual even described the Victorian Navy as “quite a formidable flotilla.” 1
Economic depression and rapid technological change ensured that this comment
was never repeated, and following Federation of the colonies on 1 January 1901 the new
national administration inherited an obsolescent collection of gun and torpedo boats from
the four surviving local navies. Inexperienced in security matters and with no money for
new investment, most politicians thereafter remained only too happy to leave Australia’s
ultimate security to the Royal Navy.
Some financial contribution was nevertheless expected, and under the provisions
of the Naval Agreement Acts 1902-03, Australia and New Zealand accepted an obligation
to contribute to the maintenance of the Royal Navy in the western Pacific for a further ten
years. Yet as control rested solely with the British Admiralty, some of the more maritimeminded locals well appreciated that the nominally “Australian” Squadron might remove
elsewhere in times of crisis, leaving their trade and harbours at the mercy of raiding
enemy cruisers. Moreover, the squadron was hardly a credible deterrent. As a visiting
US naval officer commented in 1908, “Among the British Officers this is known as the
Society Station and by tacit consent little work is done.” 2
The Fleet Unit
The idea of an independent Australian Navy, locally manned and under
Australian direction, gathered increasing popular support. Most saw this navy as
providing coastal defence, still leaving the high seas to the British, but all this changed in
1909 when in the wake of the Dreadnought crisis, representatives of the self-governing
dominions were invited to London to discuss the whole question of naval defence. Here
the dominions were surprised to learn that the Royal Navy could no longer guarantee
supremacy at sea. By 1915, foreign fleets, and in particular the Japanese and German
would be formidable, and the position of Australia, isolated and remote from imperial
naval strength, “might be one of some danger.” 3 It was Admiral Sir John Fisher, the
outspoken First Sea Lord, who proposed that the dominions take on the responsibility for
the Pacific’s naval defence for themselves. “We manage the job in Europe,” he later
declared, rather pejoratively to modern ears, “They’ll manage it against the Yankees,
Japs, and Chinese, as occasion requires out there.” 4
Fisher’s successful promotion of a self-contained ‘fleet unit’, consisting of a
1
2
3
4
Cited in D.M. Stevens (ed), The Royal Australian Navy (Melbourne: Oxford University
Press, 2001), 8.
Letter, Lieutenant-Commander McLean to William S. Sims, 20 September 1908, cited in J.R.
Reckner, “‘A Sea of Troubles’: The Great White Fleet’s 1908 War Plans for Australia and
New Zealand”, in D.M. Stevens & J. Reeve (eds), Southern Trident: Strategy, History and
the Rise of Australian Naval Power (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2001), 191.
United Kingdom National Archives (UKNA): ADM116/1100, Admiralty Conference, 10
August 1909, 520.
Letter, Fisher to Esher, 13 September 1909, cited in A.J. Marder (ed), Fear God and Dread
Nought: Correspondence of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fisher, vol II (London: Jonathan Cape,
1956), 266.
62
The Northern Mariner/Le marin du nord and Canadian Military History
battlecruiser, three light cruisers and supporting destroyers and submarines, certainly
seemed to fit Australian requirements. Australia’s Director of Naval Forces, Captain
William Creswell, declared that with such a fleet, “The bombardment of our ports or the
possibility of their being held to ransom… will be so remote as to be hardly worth
considering.”5
More than this, however, Australian politicians recognised the potential for an
indirect return on their investment. When it arrived on 4 October 1913, the fleet unit was
hailed as Australia’s voice on the world’s stage, a tool by which the nation could take up a
leading role in the collective defence of the Pacific, and guide the British Empire’s
regional diplomatic manoeuvres. Claimed one Australian Senator:
It is the destiny of the dominions to uphold the trident in the Pacific, and
Australia has pointed out to her sister dominions their duties and
responsibilities. It is only a question of time and statesmanship when the
dominions on this question will have a common policy.6
The messages offered by the remainder of the Empire added confidence to
Australia’s belief that with the advent of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) it had
embarked on a great national and imperial endeavour. New Zealand congratulated
Australia for this “substantial mark of nationhood….” Canada announced that she stood
“shoulder to shoulder with Australia and the other overseas dominions in the firm resolve
to safeguard our common heritage.” 7 That the other dominions did not in fact follow
Australia’s lead was an eventual source of frustration, but it did not dampen Australian
enthusiasm for collective security.
Empire Defence
Some historians maintain the view that the RAN was less a national institution
and more a local manifestation of its parent. This argument holds that the relationship
tied Australia too closely to imperial policies, encouraged the retention of outdated ‘bluewater’ strategical theories, and that the service itself might equally be titled the RNA, or
the Royal Navy in Australia. 8 This description is both unfair and simplistic. The RAN
was undoubtedly modelled directly on the Royal Navy. Agreement to the full interchange
of personnel had been reached as early as 1908, 9 the only uniform items allowed to differ
5
6
7
8
9
“Captain Creswell’s views on result of Imperial Conference, 16 November 1909,” in G.L.
Macandie (ed), The Genesis of the Royal Australian Navy (Sydney: Government Printer,
1949), 252.
Senator Pearce in Sydney Morning Herald, 6 October 1913.
Sydney Morning Herald, 6 October 1913.
See for example, J. McCarthy, Australian and Imperial Defence 1918-39: A Study in Sea and
Air Power (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1976) and T. Frame, Pacific Partners:
a History of Australian-American Naval Relations (Melbourne: Hodder & Stoughton, 1992),
19.
See N. Lambert, Australia’s Naval Inheritance: Imperial Maritime Strategy and the Australia
Station 1880-1909, Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs No. 6, (Canberra: Sea Power
Centre – Australia (SPC-A), 1998), 19.
The Australian Naval Experience, 1901-2010
63
were buttons, and even the specifications for grey paint were matched. But the
relationship flowed both ways, and there was always far more to it than simple
subservience. As early as July 1913, several months before the fleet unit’s arrival, the
members of the Australian Commonwealth Naval Board were contemplating how best to
employ their fleet independently of Whitehall. The Admiralty, unused to such openness,
declined to divulge its Pacific policy, 10 but at least some of the Board’s members
recognised that a Mahanian clash of fleets did not suit the local situation. Rather, they
felt that a Corbettian strategy, incorporating joint and combined operations and threats to
an enemy’s sea communications, might better deter an attack on Australasian interests. 11
The onset of the First World War changed the developmental path that might
have followed from this assessment, but echoes remained. Hence in 1914 the RAN may
have come immediately under Admiralty control, and operated in waters all around the
globe – including Canada – as if they were imperial units, but they retained a distinctly
Australian character. Indeed, the experience reinforced the belief that the Empire’s naval
forces in the Pacific would have been far better controlled from a naval staff based in
Melbourne. Particularly frustrating was the Admiralty’s determination to retain the
RAN’s flagship, the battlecruiser His Majesty’s Australian Ship (HMAS) Australia, in the
western Pacific to escort a succession of expeditions to seize German possessions, rather
than pursue and eliminate Vice-Admiral Graf von Spee’s East Asiatic Cruiser Squadron.
“Much the same,” one RAN staff officer later lamented, “as if a squadron at Malta
operating against an enemy in the Eastern Mediterranean, were ordered to escort an
expedition from the north of Scotland to Halifax.”12
Not surprisingly, Australia, like Canada, rejected British proposals for a
Whitehall-controlled “Empire Navy” in 1918, but plans for close cooperation had
remained under development during the war and were brought out in a revised form for
the visit by Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa in 1919. Again as in
Canada,13 Jellicoe’s subsequent report on Pacific naval policy reflected not only the
Admiral’s thinking, but also the work already undertaken by the local naval staff. 14 Yet
plans for a large combined Eastern Fleet, involving Britain and all the Pacific dominions
and equal to projected Japanese strength, had no chance of making headway in a world
weary of war. In Australia as elsewhere, naval investment sharply declined. In 1920, the
RAN’s fleet peaked at a battlecruiser, four light cruisers, twelve destroyers, four sloops,
six submarines and numerous auxiliaries. Just a year later, the Australian Naval Board
declared that a credible naval defence was no longer possible. 15 The best that might be
10
11
12
13
14
15
SPC-A, Canberra, Diaries of Sir George King-Hall, 21 July 1913.
See D. Stevens, “Australian Naval Defence: Selections from the papers and correspondence
of Captain W.H.C.S. Thring, 1913-34,” in S. Rose (ed), The Naval Miscellany, Vol. VII
(Aldershot: Ashgate for The Navy Records Society, 2008).
London, Daily Telegraph, 4 November 1936.
Roger Sarty, The Maritime Defence of Canada (Toronto: The Canadian Institute of Strategic
Studies, 1996), 82-3.
Stevens, “Thring: Australian Naval Defence, 1913-34,” 415.
SPC-A, Canberra, “Report on Naval Estimates 1920/21.”
64
The Northern Mariner/Le marin du nord and Canadian Military History
done was to keep three cruisers in commission to maintain a naval nucleus, and hope that
the Royal Navy would come to Australia’s aid in an emergency.
For its part, the Admiralty recognised that an increasing proportion of the one
power standard of naval strength might need to be provided by the dominions, and
worried that RAN personnel would become stale without exposure to larger operations. 16
The Admiralty offered specialist training for selected Australians and, to address the
larger issue of maintaining interoperability, proposed that an RAN cruiser should be
regularly attached to a British fleet for periods of between six and twelve months. Thus
began the interwar exchange program which saw six Australian cruisers operate overseas
between 1924 and 1936.
Exchange Cruisers
To the extent that the RAN cruisers achieved an excellent professional reputation
the exchanges were undoubtedly successful. But though Australia readily admitted that it
again depended on the Royal Navy for its ultimate security, some politicians were less
convinced about providing support in the opposite direction, expressing their concern that
Australian ships could be drawn into imperialist intrigues. HMAS Brisbane’s experience
during local riots on the China Station in 1925 soon illustrated this dilemma. When it
appeared that Brisbane’s crew might become directly involved in keeping the peace, the
opposition Labour Party went immediately on to the offensive, declaring that the RAN
had been created for the sole purpose of defending Australia, and god forbid it should be
used to help foreign capitalists crush the Chinese proletariat. 17 Thereafter, the Australian
government requested assurances that in a crisis their cruisers “should not be employed
unless absolutely necessary in order to protect lives and property of British subjects.” 18
Notwithstanding the uncertainty over their employment, the exchange ensured
the Australian cruisers were seen around the world, and other minds perceived the
benefits to both Australia’s international reputation and collective defence. As the First
Naval Member, Vice-Admiral A.F. Everett, pointed out when first arguing for the
exchange:
The display of the Flag of the Australian Commonwealth by a Cruiser
named after one of the State Capitals, built in Australia and manned by
Australians in the ports of other Dominions who do not yet contribute
appreciably to Empire Defence will be a unique gesture, and may possibly
tend to induce the people of those Dominions to be more favourably
16
17
18
National Archives of Australia (NAA): MP1049/5, 2026/3/31, “Memorandum of Interchange
of RN and RAN Light Cruisers,” August 1924; see J.C. Mitcham, “Defense by Cooperation:
The Admiralty and the Postwar Role of the Dominion Navies” (paper presented at the 2007
Annapolis Naval History Seminar), 20-21.
Commonwealth Parliament, House of Representatives Debate, 25 June 1925, 463-67.
NAA: MP1049/5, 2026/3/44, Cable, Governor-General to Secretary of State for the
Colonies, 27 June 1925.
The Australian Naval Experience, 1901-2010
65
disposed (by touching their pride) towards naval defence and expansion.19
Canada was clearly a primary target of this charm offensive, and in the wake of
HMAS Adelaide’s 1924 visit to Vancouver with the Special Service Squadron, Australian
authorities were no doubt pleased to hear that the cruiser’s presence, “…carrying the
message of Empire co-operation in Naval defense,” 20 had not gone unnoticed by the
Canadian press. Four years later, an Australian journalist sea-riding in HMAS Canberra
during her brief sojourn with the Atlantic Fleet made the point explicitly. The success of
the interchange scheme had proved that Australia had got it right. The other dominions
must follow if the Empire was to remain “self-contained, self-supporting and selfprotecting.”21
Despite this enthusiasm, once more the other dominions failed to follow, and the
effects of the Great Depression likewise ensured a further narrowing of Australia’s
already restricted horizons. In 1925 the RAN had two new 10,000-ton cruisers, HMA
Ships Australia (II) and Canberra, building in British shipyards. But between 1926 and
1932 naval expenditure fell from £5 million to less than £1.5 million, and personnel
strength reduced from 5000 to 3500. At one point the RAN could maintain just one
destroyer and the two new cruisers in commission. The Naval Board tried to argue that
the 1930 London Treaty had included these two in the fifteen heavy cruisers allowed to
the British Empire, and therefore that Australia retained a wider responsibility, but
government austerity prevailed. Declared policy might hold that the RAN would be
maintained as “an effective and contribution to Empire Naval Defence,” 22 but in practice
it never received resources sufficient for such an undertaking. Even the exchange
program was judged too expensive to continue.
The Admiralty and the Naval Board grew increasingly concerned. The RAN
could neither maintain the efficiency of its existing assets, nor afford replacements for the
two elderly light cruisers it retained in reserve. Rather than attempting to build new
ships, Vice-Admiral Sir Francis Hyde, the RAN’s new Chief of Naval Staff, proposed
that Australia use any available funds to operate additional cruisers paid for by the Royal
Navy.23 The idea was similar to a suggestion already made by the Admiralty to Canada,
but British altruism had its limits. The caveats Australia had placed on the employment
of its exchange cruisers had highlighted the practical limits of collective defence, and the
implications were freely discussed in the British press:
19
20
21
22
23
NAA: MP1049/5, 2026/3/31, Letter, 1st Naval Member to Prime Minister, 26 October 1923.
At sea there was little to distinguish an Australian cruiser from a British (or any other
Commonwealth for that matter), as all at this time flew the White Ensign, but alongside the
Commonwealth flag would be worn as a jack at the bow.
V.C. Scott O’Connor, The Empire Cruise (London: privately printed, 1925), 246.
T. Smith, Fleet Moments (London: Selwyn & Blount, 1928), 14.
NAA: MP1587/1, 218AO, “Statement by the Prime Minister on Commonwealth
Government’s defence policy in light of the Imperial Conference,” 24 August 1937.
J. Goldrick, “The naval professional: Admiral Sir Francis Hyde, KCB, CVO, CBE, RAN,” in
D. Stevens and J. Reeve (eds), The Navy and the Nation: the influence of the Navy on
modern Australia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2005), 340.
66
The Northern Mariner/Le marin du nord and Canadian Military History
[British] naval authorities must reckon with the fact that the cruisers …are
entirely Australian, and are liable to be diverted by Australian political
crosscurrents of which we have no knowledge… Those who would cut down
British cruiser construction because the Dominions are building, and advise
us to rely on our brethren overseas for assistance, lose sight of this sort of
thing. If the operations of Australian ships are to be tied down by local
political considerations, things would be in a sad way with the British navy
and commerce.24
The Admiralty had no intention of losing operational control of tonnage paid for
by the British taxpayer, but it did arrange for a compromise. This allowed Australian
payment for a new light cruiser – the modified Leander class, HMAS Sydney (II) – to be
staggered over several years. The Admiralty also pushed for the restoration of the
exchange cruiser scheme, but Canberra continued to resist any attempts to increase
expenditure. Indeed, the catalyst for the scheme’s resurrection was not a desire to
maintain naval efficiency, but rather the visit of the Duke of Gloucester for the Victorian
centenary celebrations in 1934. If a British cruiser was making the outward voyage as
royal escort, then the government considered that an Australian cruiser should be used for
the return. The Naval Board had not been consulted, but on hearing the announcement
expressed its “pleased surprise” with the decision. 25
The cruiser chosen for the exchange, Australia (II), joined the First Cruiser
Squadron in the Mediterranean in May 1935 and was still there in August when the
worsening crisis between Italy and Abyssinia threatened to drag Britain into war.
Evidently impressed by the seriousness of the situation, the Australian government not
only agreed to extend the cruiser’s deployment, but agreed to make available the newly
commissioned Sydney (II), at the time on her delivery voyage to Australia. Both RAN
cruisers were fully integrated into the British sanctions campaign and in planning for
attacks on the Italian Navy. The crisis eased without the need for offensive action but,
commenting on Australia’s ready cooperation, a British journal made much of this
reminder to the world of the “unity of British Empire sea-power,” noting particularly that
the material contribution, although substantial, shrank “into relative insignificance as
alongside the moral effect of the step.”26
With the return of Australia (II) and Sydney (II) to home waters in August 1936
the exchange scheme finally came to an end, although it is not clear whether this was a
deliberate decision or simply a result of the outbreak of war. It is noteworthy, however,
that despite the recent successful integration of the two Australian cruisers the Admiralty
remained mistrustful of Australian politicians. In the event of an approaching war with
Japan, the Admiralty had previously intended to use the most modern of the RAN’s
cruisers to exchange with the old cruisers accompanying the main fleet when it arrived in
24
25
26
The Journal of Commerce, cited in the Melbourne Herald, 4 July 1925.
The Argus, 18 January 1934.
“Naval and Military Record”, cited in The Navy, Army, Air & Munitions Journal, 1 January
1936, 17.
The Australian Naval Experience, 1901-2010
67
far eastern waters.27 However in 1938, apparently prompted by continuing uncertainty as
to when, or if, Australian warships would be released for use in times of crisis, the
Admiralty chose to remove the uncertainty. Instead of providing reinforcement for the
Royal Navy, the RAN’s object became solely the defence of trade in Australian waters. 28
This relegation was not necessarily unwelcome in Australia. Although issues of
local defence were never entirely ignored, the RAN’s focus on the imperial connection
had at times diverted its attention from threats arising closer to home. So long as the
Royal Navy could spare a credible fleet to engage the main enemy force in the Pacific,
the RAN believed it could manage the risks of stray submarines and surface raiders. But
the fact that the political situation was deteriorating simultaneously in both Europe and
Asia brought this assurance into question. What Britain called the ‘far east’ was to
Australia the ‘near north’, and by the late-1930s the Naval Board’s greatest worry was
that Japan might take advantage of a European war to move south in strength. Thus for
Australians, ‘local defence’ increasingly meant the security of immediate national
interests.
The Second World War
It has been said that the Canadian Navy invented itself during the Second World
War, starting with 1700 men but expanding by 4250 per cent. By comparison, the RAN
began with 5200 men but expanded only 535 per cent to reach 33,000 in 1944. 29 The
RAN’s tactical performance was probably no better or worse than other Commonwealth
navies, and obviously improved with experience. Yet, at no stage was the RAN
operationally or strategically effective as an independent force. Australian politicians
were initially loathe to release units from the Australia Station, but while the war
remained distant the naval staff recognised the need for a global view of the threat to sea
communications. Once again, operational control of the RAN’s major units readily
passed to the Admiralty, and for much of the time Australian ships operated widely
dispersed and fully integrated into British or later US naval formations.
Like everyone else, the RAN found itself critically short of small escorts at the
beginning of the war. Requisitioning of civil hulls provided some short-term relief, but
the first orders for a locally built multi-purpose corvette, the Bathurst class were only
made in September 1939. Not until June 1940, when Britain officially admitted that it
could not divert major naval forces from the Mediterranean to the Far East, did the Naval
Board begin more urgent attempts to acquire additional anti-submarine and
minesweeping vessels. Eventually Australia built 56 corvettes, half a dozen frigates and
three destroyers for its own use, but progress remained slow and only three of the new
corvettes were available when Japan entered the war in December 1941. With intensive
attacks expected against Australian sea communications, no help expected from the UK,
27
28
29
NAA: MP1049/9, 2026/3/81, Letter, Admiralty to Naval Board, 11 September 1936.
D. Stevens, “The Royal Australian Navy and the Strategy for Australia’s Defence” in D.
Stevens (ed), In Search of a Maritime Strategy (Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies
Centre, 1997), 81.
SPC-A, Canberra, File 202, “Royal Canadian Navy”.
68
The Northern Mariner/Le marin du nord and Canadian Military History
and American forces likely to have their own priorities, the Australian Chiefs of Staff
examined other options. In January 1942 a request to the Canadian prime minister asked
if any anti-submarine craft might be made available. 30 Facing the immediate crisis of Uboats on their doorstep, the Canadians could identify only six minesweepers under
construction for the Admiralty on the Pacific coast. 31 These had insufficient endurance
and were not taken up. Fortunately, the United States recognised Australia’s usefulness
as a principal supply base and graciously took over responsibility for national defence.
For Australia, the wartime relationship with the United States was a matter of mutual
convenience, one that achieved a high degree of friendship and cooperation, but was only
ever an adjunct to, rather than a replacement for, Empire cooperation. John Curtin,
Australia’s wartime prime minister, claimed in December 1941 that Australians had turned
towards the United States “free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the
United Kingdom,”32 but in 1944 he just as quickly turned back, and enthusiastically
welcomed the prospect of hosting the British Pacific Fleet. 33 Notwithstanding Britain’s most
recent “inexcusable betrayal,”34 as Australian authorities looked towards post-war planning,
they remained convinced that the policy of cooperation in empire defence remained sound.
Yet, echoing earlier disappointments, they recognised the dangers of over-centralisation and
supported greater devolution of planning responsibility based on a regional framework.35 As
early as 1944 Australia and New Zealand signed an agreement declaring their intention to
establish their own regional zone of defence.36
Australia’s views were reiterated at the 1946 Commonwealth Prime Ministers
Conference, when Curtin’s successor, Joseph “Ben” Chifley, reminded the delegates that the
Commonwealth’s widely differing geographical circumstances and diverging interests made
any attempt to maintain centralised control and direction unworkable. Agreement was
eventually reached that cooperation should develop on a regional basis with each nation
accepting responsibility for the development of its own area and the strategic zone around it.
Between these areas, the protection of sea lines of communication would be a joint
responsibility, but with British forces still likely to play the largest part.
Regardless of such strategic justification, the future role of Australia’s Navy
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
See D. Stevens, A Critical Vulnerability: The impact of the submarine threat on Australia’s
maritime defence 1915-1954 (Canberra: Sea Power Centre – Australia, 2005), 186-7.
LAC, RG 24, vol 3830, 1037-1-20, Vol 1, Joint Planning Sub-Committee Memorandum, 28
February 1942.
Cited in K. Hack, Defence and Decolonisation in Southeast Asia: Britain, Malaya and
Singapore 1941-68 (Richmond: Curzon, 2001), 74.
See D. Stevens, “The British Naval Role East of Suez: An Australian Perspective,” in G.
Kennedy (ed), British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000: Influences and actions
(London: Frank Cass, 2005), 222-3.
D. Day, The Great Betrayal: Britain, Australia and the Pacific War, 1939-42 (North Ryde:
Angus & Robertson, 1988), 1-17.
Day, The Great Betrayal, 223-4.
A. Watt, Australian Defence Policy 1951-1963: Major International Aspects (Canberra:
Australian National University, 1964), 2.
The Australian Naval Experience, 1901-2010
69
remained in the balance. In 1945 the RAN was larger than it had ever been, but wartime
losses had been heavy and there were few major units on which to base a post-war fleet.
When combined with ageing hulls, the expected dominance of ‘push-button’ warfare, and the
absence of any threatening maritime competitor, there seemed every possibility that the RAN
would be relegated to obscurity. Guiding the RAN through this uncertainty was the last
British officer to hold the appointment as Chief of Naval Staff, Admiral Sir Louis Hamilton.
Despite his conviction that the foundation of Australia’s “defence problem was the protection
of the merchant ship,”37 he worried that the government seemed to be pinning its faith on air
power and new weapons, and that maritime affairs might yet be entirely consigned to either
the Royal or US navies.
A shrewd and diplomatic man, Hamilton’s behind the scenes manoeuvring was
essential to what happened next.38 When Australia’s post-war defence policy was finally
announced in June 1947, Defence Minister John Dedman confirmed that the British
Commonwealth remained a maritime empire, and quoted extensively from Admiral Sir
Herbert Richmond’s book Statesmen and Seapower.39 The RAN was allotted the largest
proportion of the defence budget and received approval to acquire two light fleet carriers
from the Royal Navy. The stated aim was to build a balanced fleet capable of operating either
as an independent force for the direct defence of Australia or as a contribution to the wartime
sea power of the British Commonwealth. In the latter case, the RAN was still expected to
operate under the Admiralty’s strategic direction, but this would be one of the last official
statements to include such guidance. Close personal contact remained a feature of the RAN’s
relationship with the Royal Navy, and for his part Hamilton advised the First Sea Lord that
for the first time in its history Australia was “going to take a real share in Imperial Defence on
a planned basis.”40
Cold War
Subsequent government guidance allowed the RAN to proceed with planning in
connection with the delineation of a zone in which Australia would assume both the
initiative for defence planning in peacetime and responsibility for the “defence of vital
sea communications” in the event of global war. 41 The boundary of the proposed zone
included Australia, New Zealand, and certain sections of the Far East Station, including
Singapore, and soon became known as the ANZAM (Australia, New Zealand and
37
38
39
40
41
UKNA: ADM 205/74, Letter, Hamilton to Sir John Cunningham (First Sea Lord), 18 March
1947.
J. Goldrick, “Selections from the Memoirs and Correspondence of Captain James Bernard
Foley, CBE, RAN (1896-1974),” in The Naval Miscellany, Vol. V (London: George Allen &
Unwin for The Naval Records Society, 1984), 521.
Commonwealth of Australia, “Post-war Defence Policy,” statement to Parliament by The
Hon. John J. Dedman, MP, Minister for Defence (Melbourne: Government Printer, 4 June
1947), 7.
Letter, Hamilton to Cunningham, 17 June 1947.
NAA: MP 1185/8, 1846/4/336, Minute, Captain G. Gatacre (Deputy Chief of Naval Staff) to
Collins, 30 March 1949.
70
The Northern Mariner/Le marin du nord and Canadian Military History
Malaya) Region. ANZAM marked a firm step towards gaining formal recognition of the
primacy of Australia and New Zealand in their own areas of strategic interest. Although
not expecting a Soviet attack on anything like the scale envisaged in the North Atlantic,
assuming responsibility for the naval defence of a wide area in the Indian and Pacific
oceans was no small task. In late 1950 Commonwealth staff officers began writing the
“Plan for the defence of sea communications in the ANZAM region,” 42 and had it
approved by May 1952.
This triumph for an Australian maritime strategy, if such it was, was short-lived.
The first post-war decade regularly witnessed resources overcommitted and expenditure
underestimated. Within months the plan for a two carrier navy began unravelling as the
Admiralty advised on the need to modernise the two vessels on offer and the costs of
acquiring a Fleet Air Arm appeared to spiral out of control. In the end the RAN agreed to
accept one carrier, HMAS Sydney (III), in an un-modernised state and another, HMAS
Vengeance, on loan, until the second carrier, HMAS Melbourne (II), could be
modernised. Finally delivered in 1955, Melbourne (II) included all the latest carrier
developments, but the high cost ensured that Sydney (III) would not receive the same
treatment. After a brief stint as a training carrier, she paid off into reserve in 1958.
In the intervening years the strategic situation had also clarified. The Korean
War briefly brought guidance that Australia’s Defence Forces must be ready for global
war by 1953,43 but a succession of regional conflicts within the context of a prolonged
Cold War soon seemed more likely. The turning point came in April 1954, when a new
Defence Minister announced that Australian defence policy had been transformed, from
preparedness by a critical date, to the capacity to maintain defence for the “Long Haul.” 44
The revised policy still placed some importance on the protection of sea communications,
but highlighted the need to hold Southeast Asia against communism, any failure of which
would expose Australia to the risk of enemy strategic bombing. Although, endorsed as a
balanced approach, in practice the policy placed far greater emphasis on local air defence,
and funds to the army and navy were cut specifically to allow for the air force build-up.
The change was evident not just in the budgetary allocation, but also in the tasks expected
of the RAN. Like many other western navies, its prime role thereafter became antisubmarine warfare rather than power projection, and this priority would continue to
influence force structure decisions until the early-1980s.
In the post-Second World War era Australia’s allies periodically attempted to get
the nation to do more for regional security. Australia, by contrast, sought to ensure that its
allies did not do less. As such, it was not surprising that the ‘Long-Haul’ policy reduced the
strength and efficiency of all three services, leaving Australia still dependent on external
assistance should its interests be seriously threatened. Increasingly, the RAN sought this
assistance directly or indirectly from the US Navy. Already, a 1951 agreement between the
42
43
44
NAA: MP1185/10, 5202/21/17, Letter, UK Service Liaison Staff to British Defence
Coordination Committee, 5 March 1952.
R. O’Neill, Strategy and Diplomacy, Australia in the Korean War 1950-53, Vol. I (Canberra:
Australian War Memorial and AGPS, 1981), 101-4.
Defence Policy and the Programme (Melbourne: Government Printer, 1954), 1.
The Australian Naval Experience, 1901-2010
71
two navies had acknowledged the existence of the ANZAM area, and delineated national
areas of responsibility for control of shipping. 45 It gave Australia no greater influence in
American planning, but it had allotted a clearly enunciated wartime role for the RAN, one
which was relevant to its continuing peacetime presence in Southeast Asia and encouraged
the development of closer links with the US Navy on a variety of operational and technical
levels.
The signing of the ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) Treaty in 1951
likewise reinforced the move towards the United States and finally gave Australia the formal
defence alliance it had always sought for the Pacific. ANZUS had less immediate practical
reality than ANZAM, but it symbolised Australia’s willingness to act independently of the
Commonwealth if necessary. Australia’s contribution to collective security thereafter
progressed through a number of arrangements with varying levels of success. 46 The South
East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), for instance, did arouse American interest in the
Southeast Asian area – which previously had been sporadic – and went some way towards
achieving Australia’s aim of bringing Britain and the United States together in the region, yet
it did not provide a context for joint action.47 Whatever the contingency planning, Britain
was never prepared to contribute directly to the defence of Indo-China, nor the United States
to the defence of Malaya.48 Australia tended to be left standing in the middle, attempting to
make a sufficient contribution to each major partner to preserve a sense of obligation without
arousing resentment or suspicion in the other.
Thus, to accord with its Commonwealth responsibilities in the region, between 1955
and 1974 the RAN provided ships to the Far East Strategic Reserve49 and its successor the
ANZUK (Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom) Force. These ships operated as an
integral part of what was in all but name a Commonwealth Eastern Fleet, keeping
professional standards acceptable and relationships alive. Moreover, in addition to the
ongoing demonstration of Commonwealth resolve, on occasion the commitment took a more
active turn, with both the Malayan Emergency (1948-60) and Indonesian Confrontation
(1963-66) requiring the use of deadly force.
But in the background, Australian planners had also been examining possible force
contributions to the American military presence in Vietnam, and it was in this context that
something of a ‘two-navy syndrome’ became evident. Although the RAN now had a long
history of working with the US Navy, the logistic problems of supporting British-pattern
ships in a prolonged American-run operation posed problems. As a result, a direct combat
45
46
47
48
49
J. Goldrick, “The Role of the Royal Australian Navy in Australian Defence Policy, 1945-85”
(unpublished paper, SPC-A, Canberra, n.d.), 9.
D. Lee, “Australia and Allied Strategy in the Far East, 1952-1957,” in Journal of Strategic
Studies, December 1993, 551-38.
G. Modelski (ed), SEATO: Six Studies (Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire, 1962), 4-5.
T.B. Millar, Australia in Peace and War: External Relations Since 1788 (Botany, NSW:
Australian National University Press, 1991), 143.
The FESR’s primary role was “to provide a deterrent to, and be available at short notice to
assist in countering, further communist aggression in South-East Asia”; NAA: A4905, Letter,
McBride to Menzies, 16 May 1955.
72
The Northern Mariner/Le marin du nord and Canadian Military History
role was delayed until after the delivery of the first of the RAN’s new Charles F. Adams-class
guided missile destroyers (DDG) in 1966. Farther and faster than any previous development,
the purchase of these American-built ships pushed the RAN down the path of becoming a
uniquely Australian service. All three DDGs served multiple tours in Vietnam between 1967
and 1971, as also did one of the RAN’s three Daring-class destroyers. The latter deployment
at least in part was intended to demonstrate that the remainder of the fleet was not being
operationally sidelined. Noting that all these ships were operating under the control of the US
Commander Seventh Fleet, and that the British were not involved, there was also a need to
ensure that the RAN was distinctly identifiable as Australian, and a unique Australian White
Ensign was introduced on 1 March 1967.
Against this background of piecemeal naval commitments, the broader issue was
whether Australia should be attempting to provide a balanced navy – essentially a scaleddown version of the British or American fleets – or instead try to fill specific niche
capabilities within an Allied force.50 The arguments ebbed and flowed, but by the end of the
1960s Australia had little choice in the matter. In July 1967, the British announced that they
intended to withdraw their local military forces as part of a revised “East of Suez” policy.
Then in 1969, US President Nixon’s less interventionist “Guam Doctrine” emphasised “selfhelp” in security matters by those regional nations expecting American support.
Australian Defence Minister Malcolm Fraser summed up these developments on 10
March 1970, when he noted that Australia was entering a new era. The British withdrawal
and American re-appraisal meant that Australia was required to put forth a greater effort
embodying “greater independence.”51 This did not yet signal a complete Commonwealth
withdrawal from regional commitment, however. Britain and its four regional partners,
Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia and Singapore, put in place the Five Power Defence
Arrangements (FPDA), which provided for consultation in the event of any threat to Malaysia
or Singapore, and has since proved remarkably resilient.52 Nevertheless, for the RAN these
changes implied an enlargement of its responsibilities and operating areas without the
prospect of immediate allied assistance in the event of conflict. Even in peacetime, the loss
of regular access to the afloat support services of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary would place real
constraints on the reach of deployed forces.53
Plans were subsequently advanced to improve Australia’s “maritime capability in the
waters around Australia, the Pacific and Indian Oceans and the seas to our north,”54 Practical
measures included the further development of naval infrastructure in Western Australia, a
50
51
52
53
54
H. Donohue, “The Evolution of Australian Strategic Defense Thinking,” in D. Alves (ed),
Evolving Pacific Basin Strategies: The 1989 Pacific Symposium (Washington DC: National
Defense University, 1990), 269.
“Speech by The Hon Malcolm Fraser, MP, on Defence” (Canberra: Government Printer, 10
March 1970), 1-2.
Commonwealth of Australia, Defence 2000: Our Future Defence Force (Canberra, Defence
Publishing Service, 2000), 40.
It should be noted that RAN ships deploying to Vietnam were at times refuelled by RFA
tankers.
“Speech by The Hon Malcolm Fraser, MP, on Defence,” 11.
The Australian Naval Experience, 1901-2010
73
gradual reorientation away from anti-submarine warfare, and towards more general maritime
warfare and the eventual acquisition of a second fleet tanker. Strategic policy planning,
meanwhile, began to emphasise “Defence of Australia” over forward defence, and by the
1980s envisioned the Australian Defence Force’s (ADF) primary task as providing defencein-depth for the Australian mainland.
From Defence of Australia to Expeditionary Operations
The Defence of Australia policy focused on control of the nation’s sea and air
approaches in high-level conflict. Outside the innate capabilities of naval units there was
little capacity for a substantial military deployment away from Australian bases. Yet, as
Australia moved into the uncertainties of the post-Cold War era the limitations of this
policy became manifest. The first wake-up call came in 1987 when a military coup in the
Pacific island nation of Fiji removed the elected civilian government. Fortunately the
crisis passed without the need to evacuate Australian citizens, but the crisis highlighted
many weaknesses in Australia’s sealift and regional intervention capabilities. At the time
government policy rejected an amphibious capability as inappropriate due to its
“essentially offensive nature,”55 but in the wake of other crises in Vanuatu, the Solomons,
Bougainville and Indonesia, political attitudes began to change. Appropriate maritime
capabilities gradually followed.
In terms of impact on the future ADF, the most important of these crises took
place in 1999, when the international community agreed to intervene in the former
Indonesian province of East Timor. The aim was to restore peace and provide a secure
environment in which the United Nations (UN) could conduct humanitarian assistance
and nation building. Most noteworthy, instead of acting in its traditional role of junior
partner in either a British or American-led coalition, Australia found itself acting as chief
contributor and lead nation of the International Force East Timor (INTERFET).
What followed was the largest-single deployment of Australian forces overseas
since the Second World War. In historical terms, the insertion and sustainment was by no
means an enormous undertaking, but providing a small division-sized expeditionary force
only some 400 miles from the Australian mainland stretched the ADF to breaking point.
No matter how well led and implemented, the operation was only successful because the
distance was just within ADF capabilities, there were no attempts to disrupt the
Coalition’s supply lines, and Australia’s friends (including Britain, Canada, New Zealand
and the United States) proved willing to fill the gaps in maritime capability. Without
doubt, multinational seapower provided the essential foundation that allowed the
remainder of INTERFET to function as a credible military force. 56
The East Timor operation was a watershed. It demonstrated the willingness of
the Australian government to employ the ADF offshore in a manner that few defence
analysts or policy-makers had expected. Furthermore, it encouraged some major changes
55
56
“Response by Kim Beazley (Minister for Defence),” in G. Cheeseman (ed), The New
Australian Militarism (Leichhardt, NSW: Pluto Press, 1990), 21.
D. Stevens, Strength Through Diversity: The Combined Naval Role in Operation Stabilise
(Canberra: SPC-A, 2007), 4.
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