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1bizkp
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Why don't hairballs (trichobezoars) pass through the gastro-intestinal system when they're small? And why aren't they digestible?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c977xo0"
],
"text": [
"Hair is primarily made of keratin proteins, which [have very low digestibility in mammals (rats in this case)](_URL_2_). There are enzymes produced by bacteria which can break bonds in keratin strands - [here's a patent approval for using these keratinases to increase digestible protein in pet foods.](_URL_4_)\n\nAs for the size issue, most hairballs are small, but hairs do clump together and form distinct masses in the stomach. Small clumps can fit through the sphincter to exit the stomach, but there is a critical mass beyond which they won't be able to squeeze through. [When a clump reaches sufficient size the animal can't eat effectively any more](_URL_1_), so it must remove it via *barf*. Any non-digestible material can go through this process (to varying degrees) - owls and raptors produce [pellets/castings](_URL_0_), cows get [hardware disease](_URL_3_), and sharks and crocodiles get stomachs full of shoes and license plates."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellet_(ornithology)",
"http://www.live.ac.uk/documents/baillie/Goat_Hairballs.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7510493",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_disease",
"http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/publications/bitstream/1840.2/1909/1/Method_and_composition_for_maintaining_a.pdf"
]
}
|
Why don't hairballs (trichobezoars) pass through the gastro-intestinal system when they're small? And why aren't they digestible?
|
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xk9sb
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[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what would you do to change the way science was done?
|
This is the eleventh installment of the weekly discussion thread and this weeks topic comes to us from the suggestion thread (linked below).
Topic: What is one thing you would change about the way science is done (wherever it is that you are)?
Here is last weeks thread: _URL_1_
Here is the suggestion thread: _URL_0_
If you want to become a panelist: _URL_2_
Have fun!
|
askscience
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"I would decrease the dependence on grad students as cheap labor. This leads to too many students for not enough permanent jobs, and grad students staying in school for 6-8 years instead of the 4-5 that used to be standard.",
"I know it is starting to gain some traction, but increased publishing of negative results, or \"all results\", or however you want to define them. Sometimes knowing something didn't work is just as good if not more valuable than reading about positive result",
"More dedicated resources to support scientific mentorship across the board.",
"I would honestly remove tenure and give people 5 year contracts instead. Tenure is a great idea in theory but there are two problems with it that I think hurt science more than it helps. For one the pressure to get tenure is so high that people end up doing bad science just to look like they are doing more stuff. The second issue is that some professors who get it just end up doing nothing at all because they can get paid. I can see the advantage for people who research unpopular things but I'm not sure the cost is worth it.",
"Honestly more money all across the board. I know that's not possible in this current economic climate but in America (where I've received my training and work) Obama has said he wants to make STEM (Science, Technology, engineering, and mathematics) more important but simply there's no money. A lot of graduate students come from outside the US, receive their training and then depart back to their home country taking all the money spent on their training and taking it back. Its a widespread problem and there are some universities (OSU comes to mind) that have tried to increase the number of domestic applicants. And I agree with Silpion as well, there is a problem with the academic institution right now concerning graduate students. I am barely into my PhD program but I've made it clear I intend to be out of here in 4 years from joining the lab. I see all the time people in their 7th or 8th years because theyve mastered a particularly difficult skill or technique and the lab just keeps coming up with a reason to keep them around for labor. Its really unfortunate and quite honestly kills a lot of drive for a good number of graduate students. My 'class' has had a lot of attrition from people quitting and each incoming class is getting smaller and smaller. So much needs to be fixed with the scientific field.\n\nRant finished. My apologies.",
"Better science education. The public is ignorant of science and the scientific process on a very fundamental level. The frontier of science is rapidly moving beyond what a layperson can understand because our educational system doesn't teach them much about science. Consequently, the public has adopted an \"anti-intellectual\" stance because they don't understand science and perceive scientists as being \"elitist\" or a conspiracy. \n\nThe whole anti-vaccine hoopla despite the study being completely refuted is a prime example of how the public is ignorant of science.",
"There are many problems in research. Some are already mentioned by others here. I would add the following:\n\n- First and foremost, significantly more funding needed for academia and small research companies (in form of SBIRs and STTRs). The quality of research degrades because getting funding is a matter of survival now. “Publish or perish”, indeed. To illustrate:\n\n[Amgen found that 47 of 53 “landmark” oncology publications could not be reproduced.](_URL_1_)\n\n[Bayer found that 43 of 67 oncology & cardiovascular projects were based on contradictory results from academic publications.](_URL_0_)\n\n- Grant writing needs to be seriously modified and simplified. It was bad before, but now it is ridiculous (as I hear). People spending 50-70% of their time writing grants. \n\n- Lab size needs be limited as well. Labs with 50+ postdocs, where supervisor sees his subordinates only once a year, are not productive.",
"As an undergrad physics major who is now running away because of the lack of jobs I think there are 2 major problems with science\n\n1) the public needs to understand the difference between scientist and engineer, part of the \"too many grad students not enough jobs\" problem is tht the US (especially) is pushing for more scientists when we really only need more engineers (which is what I plan on going to grad school for) \n\n2) to try and fix the grad student problem I honestly think that we need more permanent research positions, though it is cheaper to train new crops of grad students every few years it seems woefully inefficient",
"Neurobiology grad student here. I might not have been in science as long as others, but I have been doing research through undergrad so 7 years now. Here are my thoughts:\n\n1. Publications should not always have to tell \"a story.\" Everyone should publish their data and should do so ever 6 months.\n\n2. All scientists should be required to educate the public. They should get paid for doing three things: discovering new things, teaching others how to discover new things and teaching everyone what things have been discovered an their meaning. \n\n3. Collaboration: Funding shall not be given to people but to projects, and in addition to doling out money, agencies for funding should be responsible for bringing together technical experts to solve a problem. \n\nIn writing these I realize that I am sounding idealistic, but I think the question warranted some idealism.",
"My first thought was the grad student payment/funding/money in general. Since that's been said....\n\nBut the one thing lacking is information. The only way I can find out something works or doesn't is two ways. \n\nEither i'm lurking on Google scholar (etc.) to find the one paper or snippet I need. I'm in a small field and this is a pain, I can only imagine for most everyone else. Missing the one paper you need is a huge pain and frustrating and it sucks to find out you may have been scooped. Recently RSS feeds have helped with new articles, but how many things can I subscribe to until I have the same \"too much information no way to search\" problem?\n\nAnd the second is conferences. First of all, I don't get why they're such a big deal, i could go on for a a long while on this. Secondly, I have to ask these people (who may not want to answer) about my project, which can get me scooped, or misinformation, or just the general anxiety of finding and asking someone important or busy or cranky about my research. \n\nFinally, and this absolutely does not apply to everyone is \"checkpoints\". Every year I will have one or two checks/exams/whatever. Im in a good situation where I see my adviser nearly daily and receive feedback etc. He can figure out very quickly that I'm a competent student and capable of doing the right work. I don't understand the need for a month of prep for an hour long exam on research. If i can prove myself in lab through data and papers, I don't see the need for me to not be doing research because I'm prepping to tell you something you already know.",
"I am surprised no one has said this yet, but the way publishing works is absolutely ludicrous. \n\nMost funding comes from NIH/NSF to do the research. Then money has to come out of the grant to submit the manuscript to a publisher. Just to submit a manuscript costs money in some, but not all journals. For example, J Neuroscience requires $150 to submit, regardless of if it is accepted or not. \n\nIf the manuscript is so lucky as to get accepted, depending on the journal, it can be ~ $1,500 to publish the research. \n\nTHEN after all that money from government funding is spent on doing research, which can costs tens of thousands of dollars, and paying to submit the research to a journal, the university and other government labs have to pay the journal (e.g., Elsevier) money to access research papers that were paid for by them! It is triple-dipping into grants. \n\nFortunately, things seem to be changing on the access end of journals, like PLoS & Frontiers journals. Unfortunately, they are less high-impact than Science / Nature / Cell press.\n\nNot to mention the fact that peer-reviewers and editors (unless editor-in-chief) do not get paid to review papers. Where is this money going?! It cannot be that expensive to format a paper for the journal, all the text is laid out and the figures are done by the authors with specific guidelines from the publisher.",
"Nothing new but...\n\nGet rid of this awful Publish or Perish mentality. The \"political\" rewards for publishing drive poorer quality science from graduate students, from postdocs and from entire labs. I don't mean to say that everything published is a disaster, but the pressure to publish that starts the instant you touch a laboratory setting leads to premature publications and incorrect reports because the diligence is not done on things that appear to add up. In the end, unless you are lucky, the process feels less like science, crushes curiosity and creativity and ends up being a breeding ground for [congruence bias](_URL_2_).\n\nIt seems if you want to be really successful and get a good position somewhere you need to stop being incredibly skeptical and critical of your own results -- which is **a BAD trait for a scientist**. Unfortunately I have no idea how to fix this problem. I guess more pressure from journals to publish well vetted bodies of work.\n\nAlso, the overhead collected by administration at institutions is **FRIGHTENING** considering this is government grant money in high demand and need.",
"Publications, citation indices, reviewer statuses, et. all should not be used as the primary metric for hiring. Once a publishing becomes a goal, it eclipses its intended purpose which is to tell others about your research. \n\nParticularly, the way \"citation\" works is deplorable. Every single paper is padded with lots and lots of references as either an excuse to not explain something, or to increase the citations of your papers or your friends. Good papers can have like 4 or 5 citations! If it's not a review paper or a length-constrained paper, adding citations makes a paper less readable. \n\nImagine if undergraduate texts were littered with citations so you to look up the original author's works for everything. How many people would actually get through anything?\n\nYes, they are a necessary evil. But maybe we should place less emphasis on the \"necessary\" and more on the \"evil.\"",
"Separate positions for researchers and instructors at universities. Make post-doc research more of a position than \"training,\" not everyone wants the managerial responsibility of being a PI. Increase public funding to universities/research institutions.",
"* The peer review process needs a review of the peers. If I'm not mistaken, it was either PNAS, PLoS, Science, or Nature that did an experiment like this in about 2007 or 2008. It was a public experiment, too. Wherein anyone could read the paper, then read the anonymized reviewers comments and assess how good, bad, and relevant they were. I've heard nothing since...\n\n\n* The funding system needs a bit of an overhaul, too. One of the main problems that the NIH has been dealing with better in the past few years is to stop giving so much damn money to just 1 person. According to their rules, you spend 20% of your time per grant (over 500k). When you get 5 of them, that's 100% and you can't have any more. However, there are plenty of instances of people (as in a single, or primary PI) having well over 10, 20 and in some of the rarer cases, upwards of 50. Which brings me to my next point:\n\n\n* Fucking post-docs. The idea of keeping a legion of post-docs at your disposal disgusts me. And it's a shame that post-docs have been warped into something they weren't supposed to be, in part, because of the funding issues. I don't really know how to fix either one, though.\n\n\n* The American tenure system could use some slight changes, but for the most part I think it works well and the abusing or unsavory instances are few and far between. However, this is obviously related to the funding _and_ peer-review problems as listed above.\n\n\nIn conclusion: let's burn it all to the ground and start again.\n\n\n**EDIT**: Actually, nothing I said has anything to do with doing _science differently_. It's just doing _academia differently_. So, a comment on how to do science different, with respect to some of the above points: there needs to be more projects like ADNI (i.e., public-private ventures), though, I think the private investors/funders should be held to the same public investigator (i.e., PIs, government funded professors) standards and access. No hiding behind trade secrets or other industry junk.",
"I'd require that undergraduate students in science/engineering areas engage in research (and present/publish their findings) as a degree requirement. We'd have better retention of students in these majors past the freshman year, small schools/labs would see improved research infrastructure over time, and large schools/labs would be more connected to student life. Hopefully we'd make sure that post-docs and grad students didn't just carry the entire thing, too.",
"I would love to see a reputable, peer reviewed journal dedicated to publishing well-designed studies, groups of studies, and meta-analyses that failed to reject the null hypothesis. I feel that because of the way publishing works, type 1 error is overinflated. Although this is probably more the case in the social sciences that I love.",
"Get people from more fields to publish preprints to arXiv or arXiv like databases."
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"http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/28/us-science-cancer-idUSBRE82R12P20120328",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruence_bias"
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[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what would you do to change the way science was done?
This is the eleventh installment of the weekly discussion thread and this weeks topic comes to us from the suggestion thread (linked below). Topic: What is one thing you would change about the way science is done (wherever it is that you are)? Here is last weeks thread: _URL_1_ Here is the suggestion thread: _URL_0_ If you want to become a panelist: _URL_2_ Have fun!
|
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] |
|
rbxb1
|
Can someone with a neuro-biology background tell me if this research is bunk or not?
|
My question is about this link:
_URL_1_
The link is an analysis of this paper:
_URL_0_
What I was curious about is the comparison he makes between these apparant 'fractal' levels in a brain exposed to psilocybin and those states observed in a person experianced in meditation.
If you think this is more than quackiness, do you know of anymore research along these lines?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c44kdbx",
"c44k8ii"
],
"text": [
"The Carhart-Harris research paper looks perfectly legit.\n\nThe interspersed commentary by Stuart Hameroff (great Scott! is he still at it?) is pure speculative fantasy.",
"The only way someone can tell you if the research is legit or not is if they try to recreate parts of the experiment themselves... But since it has been peer reviewed and published I would venture to say that it has some merit... it would be more easy to confirm if I could access the full journal article."
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"pnas.org/content/early/2012/01/17/1119598109.abstract",
"http://www.quantumconsciousness.org/upsidedown.htm"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can someone with a neuro-biology background tell me if this research is bunk or not?
My question is about this link: _URL_1_ The link is an analysis of this paper: _URL_0_ What I was curious about is the comparison he makes between these apparant 'fractal' levels in a brain exposed to psilocybin and those states observed in a person experianced in meditation. If you think this is more than quackiness, do you know of anymore research along these lines?
|
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] |
|
1t1983
|
Why is the heart off-center?
|
Why is the heart off-center? And a potential follow up would be why it is the anatomical right side?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ce3es52"
],
"text": [
"While it is true that the heart is more or less [midline in the chest](_URL_4_) but has more mass on the left side of the chest, the explanation that this is due to the left heart's increased load (pumping to systemic circulation) is incomplete and misleading. \n\nThough we often talk about left vs right hearts with regard to their circulatory pathways (eg right heart goes to pulmonary circulation while left heart goes to systemic), the [orientation of the heart in the chest wall doesn't really follow that left/right distinction.](_URL_1_) The anterior (front) surface of the heart is actually the *right* ventricle, while the left ventricle wall is mostly along the [posterior](_URL_0_) surface. \n\nThe structure and orientation of the heart is partially dictated by its embryologic origins, in which it starts off as a [simple hollow tube and then folds around itself](_URL_5_) to create its characteristic shape. \n\nThere are cases where the orientation of the heart can be flipped around - [dextrocardia](_URL_6_). This can sometimes be found in a syndrome called [situs inversus](_URL_2_) where all the visceral organs are similarly flipped. Unless they develop other associated symptoms (such as with [Kartagener syndrome](_URL_3_)), this is often asymptomatic and identified incidentally during imaging (or when parts of the physical exam do not correspond to normal anatomy)."
],
"score": [
19
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://home.comcast.net/~wnor/heartpostheartchambers.jpg",
"http://dgholgate.tripod.com/1.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situs_inversus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartagener_syndrome",
"http://www.medical-artist.com/assets/images/Thoracic-Surface-Anatomy.jpg",
"http://bio.sunyorange.edu/updated2/EV.HTML/8.%20Embryological%20Evidence%202_files/image031.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrocardia"
]
}
|
Why is the heart off-center?
Why is the heart off-center? And a potential follow up would be why it is the anatomical right side?
|
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] |
|
1lpzo4
|
Why is WMAP drawn as an ellipsoid instead of a sphere?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cc1m9to",
"cc1n20a"
],
"text": [
"As you probably presume, the data is a sphere, and the 'camera' is in the middle of that sphere. However, you can't just print that on a page, much like you can't print a spherical globe on a page. You need a way to flatten it so as it can be printable and legible. For reasons of readability, it's projected as an ellipse when printed - this is called an Aitoff projection. \n\n[You can read more about it here.](_URL_0_)",
"It is a projection of the sphere onto a flat surface, like a world map. [This](_URL_1_) is an example of a world map using a similar projection."
],
"score": [
14,
11
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=602",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Aitoff_projection_SW.jpg/1024px-Aitoff_projection_SW.jpg"
]
}
|
Why is WMAP drawn as an ellipsoid instead of a sphere?
|
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||
wzt11
|
Is it possible to kill yourself with an AED?
|
I was watching Breaking Bad, and someone just killed themselves with an AED by stripping off one of the heart pads and putting it in their mouth, with the other on his heart (and then shocking). Is this possible?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5hwp08"
],
"text": [
"Possible but unlikely. The AED is designed to only deliver a shock when it detects a shockable rhythm. If it did deliver a shock when no shockable rhythm was detected, it would need to deliver that shock at the right time during the cardiac cycle.\n\nExternal ventricular stimulus before the cardiac cells have repolarized is called a \"R on T\" phenomenon and can induce ventricular fibrillation, itself a shockable rhythm.\n\nCardioversion is synchronized to avoid this phenomenon.\n\nHere's an [OLD article](_URL_0_) discussing the basics."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=691786"
]
}
|
Is it possible to kill yourself with an AED?
I was watching Breaking Bad, and someone just killed themselves with an AED by stripping off one of the heart pads and putting it in their mouth, with the other on his heart (and then shocking). Is this possible?
|
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|
1lej7n
|
Is there such a thing as a primarily backscattering material?
|
Hi everyone,
This is based on a discussion I was having in response to [another thread](_URL_0_). In it I made an off-hand reference to a material which is primarily backscattering as a thought experiment. I got asked if I could come up with any real-world examples, and realized that not only could I not think of any, but I couldn't seem to find any by google either. So my question to you is, is there a material which is strongly backscattering without being reflective?
It's possible I'm missing something obvious, but it's been quite a while since I took optics, and all my own work is with strongly forward scattering materials.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbyi31g",
"cbyg4o4"
],
"text": [
"Plasma will reflect pretty much any light of frequency below the plasma frequency, which is 5.64x10^4 n^1/2 s^-1 (n is electron density in cm^-3 ).",
"I'm interpreting \"primarily\" as \"most photons are scattered rather than absorbed\", since any non-reflective object pretty much scatters any photons it doesn't absorb.\n\nAlso, it's important to distinguish \"backscattered\", where photons return on (more or less) the path they went in, from diffuse reflection where photons return at various angles.\n\nI think in combining these two properties, what you describe as \"primarily backscattering\" is just retroreflection. There are various materials which are retroreflective (like road signs), but they are basically made of arrays of tiny prisms or mirrors.\n\nI feel like this isn't quite the answer you are looking for. The problem is that for the most part, when reflection isn't specular, you don't really get to dictate the outgoing path. Backscatter is just the small proportion of photons that happen to pick the incoming path as the outgoing path. But if you did have a material which did predominantly backscatter, you wouldn't really be able distinguish the effect from retroreflection.\n\nP.S. Corner-cube retroreflectors are really neat - for example, no matter where you are, when you look into one, you see a reflection of your eye."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1l77fe/if_low_and_high_frequency_waves_like_radio_waves/"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is there such a thing as a primarily backscattering material?
Hi everyone, This is based on a discussion I was having in response to [another thread](_URL_0_). In it I made an off-hand reference to a material which is primarily backscattering as a thought experiment. I got asked if I could come up with any real-world examples, and realized that not only could I not think of any, but I couldn't seem to find any by google either. So my question to you is, is there a material which is strongly backscattering without being reflective? It's possible I'm missing something obvious, but it's been quite a while since I took optics, and all my own work is with strongly forward scattering materials.
|
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|
kcbxx
|
Shadow Sharpness/Definition - Depth Of Field
|
hey everyone, I had observed a shadow cast from my leg in the early afternoon from the sun and noticed for the first time that the clarity or sharpness of the shadow was GREATER closer to the foot (sharp edge) than it was far less so up towards my knee (blurry/undefined edge).
Photo - _URL_0_
Can anyone explain this?
I'm a photographer and understand Depth of Field for both eyes and lenses, but I cannot understand why light alone would act this way.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2j4es9",
"c2j52mu",
"c2jzq34"
],
"text": [
"Because the sun is not a point source of light you can find places where the sun is only partially occluded, and therefore the edges of shadows will be blurry.\n\nWith this in mind it turns out that the sharpness of the edge has to do with how quickly the disk becomes entirely occluded. Due to parallax, distant things pass by more slowly, therefore edges are smeared out more at a distance.\n\n**Edit**: [Picture.](_URL_0_)",
"I would like to add that a shadow caused by any light source that is not a point source has multiple parts. _URL_1_ You are seeing those parts.",
"We deal with this all the time in computer graphics.\n\nPerhaps the simplest way to understand this is to realize, the sun is not a point source of light. It is a disk that has an area; an area source (actually, it is more of a sphere that has a volume--but the disk idea works). The shadow cast by such lights have two parts; at the center is the umbra, 100% shadowed--no part of the sun is visible at that point; at the edge of the shadow is the penumbra, which is a partial shadow--part of the sun but not all is partially obscured by whatever is casting the shadow. Outside the shadow, the sun is completely visible.\n\nThe reason the penumbra looks blurred is that it is a gradient, correlated with how much of the sun is visible or obscured at any given point in the penumbra. The point where the sun is half-visible will be half-shadowed, and so on. The less of the sun you can see, the darker the shadow will be at that point.\n\nAnd the reason why the edge of the shadow got sharper near your foot than for the upper leg is due to geometry and perspective.\n\nI'll illustrate with a [diagram](_URL_3_).\n\nNotice the shadow is conical. Notice how the penumbra, the shadow's edge, gets sharper, as it gets closer to the earth--the object casting the shadow. The same phenomena is at work with your leg's shadow.\n\nSmall area lights, far away, will cast sharp shadows. Large area lights, close by, will cast very soft blurred shadows. Shadow-casting objects very close to the surface being shadowed will have sharper shadows than the same object further away from the shadowed surface.\n\nYou can kind of see the effect of this in [this computer graphics video](_URL_2_) illustrating soft shadowing (sorry I couldn't find a better one).\n\nThis stuff is easier to understand visually than in words. Hope this helps."
],
"score": [
18,
11,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/aUoiW"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/pF42Q.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbra",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=47qNGBJuEKc",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Diagram_of_umbra%2C_penumbra_%26_antumbra.png/800px-Diagram_of_umbra%2C_penumbra_%26_antumbra.png"
]
}
|
Shadow Sharpness/Definition - Depth Of Field
hey everyone, I had observed a shadow cast from my leg in the early afternoon from the sun and noticed for the first time that the clarity or sharpness of the shadow was GREATER closer to the foot (sharp edge) than it was far less so up towards my knee (blurry/undefined edge). Photo - _URL_0_ Can anyone explain this? I'm a photographer and understand Depth of Field for both eyes and lenses, but I cannot understand why light alone would act this way.
|
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|
j6vzc
|
How can I prep myself for a lab position, given little experience?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c29mxxj"
],
"text": [
"Good fucking luck. Seriously - you're going to be in over your head for a while. Start small and work your way up consistently and you might come out of this with some good experience. Watching a video is not the same as actually doing something. \n\nEquipment isn't so hard if you know how to run a computer. Write down all the steps and keep doing them and you can run that piece. That first part bears repeating: Write everything down. Every last little thing. You're going to be asking the other lab members lots and lots of questions, which is a good thing, but sometimes the one you need won't be around. Take good notes. \n\nAlways wear gloves, close-toed shoes, and pants. No shorts. No sandals. Ever. Wear lab goggles if you're working with anything at all hazardous. \n\nHot glass looks the same as cold glass.\n\nLabel everything. Vials, boxes, beakers - write what's in it, the concentration, the date, and your initials. \n\nMicropipettors - you will use them all the time. The first stop on the plunger is the set point. The second is only for dispensing the last drop of reagent, not for sucking it up. You'll know what I mean when you get one in your hand. \n\nIt takes experience to know how to work cleanly, safely, and correctly in a lab. You'll be learning this over the next year, I'm sure!"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How can I prep myself for a lab position, given little experience?
|
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1qguqp
|
What is the deal with dx?
|
So, I'm an engineering student in my second year so I've read calculus I but dx is really confusing me sometimes.
Does anyone feel tempted to try to explain what dx really is? I mean, sometimes it can be used as a number and sometimes it's used as dx/dy)
I'm sorry if my question is kind of... stupid or obvious but I went through calculus without really getting a grasp of what dx really is. I know that dx/dy is the derivative of y(x) but not why it is.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"I consider every answer that has been posted up to this point to be either incomplete or just wrong. It is a fairly advanced subject, though, so I'll do my best to keep it at a low level.\n\nThe basic idea of calculus is linear approximation. A linear function is one in which the function of a linear combination of variables is the same as the linear combination of the function of those variables. Explicitly, if *a* and *b* are constants and *x* and *y* are variables, the function *f* is linear if *f(ax+by) = a f(x) + b f(y)*. Calculus involves approximating non-linear functions by linear ones.\n\nNow the dx term shows up in both differentiation and integration: in differentiation, you 'divide' by dx whereas in integration you 'multiply' by dx. Your question is about what kind of an object dx really is. The best answer to this comes from the theory of [differential forms](_URL_0_).\n\nThe motivation for this subject is that undergraduate calculus deals with functions in a way that doesn't really make sense. It deals with variables that, by themselves, might not have any intrinsic importance. For example, I could work in Cartesian co-ordinates or polar co-ordinates. The answer I get should not depend on the co-ordinates. To understand this, we need to appreciate that calculus involves infinitesimals *of geometric objects* (this is the point that I thought was completely missing in the other answers). In single variable calculus, for example, the dx refers to an infinitesimal line segment. In the calculus of two variables, the term dxdy refers to an infinitestimal plane element. The number of d's you see has a relationship with the number of dimensions of the geometrical object in question.\n\nYou can understand the 'd' as a mathematical object known as an 'operator', which is in some ways more general than a function. At the highest level, it takes functions to functions (or, more properly, forms). One can develop an algebra for the 'd' operator, which is known as the [exterior derivative](_URL_1_). This is an extremely general construction that works on curved spaces, and allows the theory of calculus to be expressed in these complicated situations. It is very important to have this kind of calculus for fluid flow problems, stress-strain calculations in continuum mechanics, and electromagnetism in real-world situations. It is in some sense the right way to interpret the beast that is the stress-energy tensor.\n\nIt is best to think of differentiation not in terms of df/dx = ..., but rather as df = ... dx. The idea is that you are determining an expression for the infinitesimal object df in terms of the infinitesimal object dx. This also makes integration make more sense as well, and rids you of all the intellectual baggage of trying to understand what the hell it means to divide by a line. You're used to multiplying lines to lines (with the dot product or the cross product), but there isn't a simple theory of division when dealing with general geometric object.\n\nI hope this gives a flavour of what is in store for you if you keep asking deep questions about the foundations of mathematics. It is an interesting area and an exciting time to be thinking about it, but very few people will actually require an in-depth understanding of the meaning of the strange symbols they are manipulating. You do not need to understand why the rules are as they are in order to calculate answers. It just helps a lot.\n\nTL;DR: If x is a point, dx is an infinitesimal line. If x is a line, dx is an infinitesimal surface. If x is an n-dimensional object, dx is an (n+1)-dimensional infinitesimal object.\n\nEdit: fixed the TL;DR.",
"When thinking about infinitesimals, I find that it's often helpful to first think of the finite Δx before considering dx, then just replace all your finite \"Δ\"s with infinitesimal \"d\"s. So if you think of the average velocity equation, < v > =Δx/Δt, then make the above replacement to get the instantaneous velocity v=dx/dt. \n\nAs another example, lets find the arc-length formula. Pythagoras says that the length squared is Δr^2 = Δx^2 + Δy^2 . Dividing both sides by Δy^2 gives Δr^2 /Δy^2 = 1+Δx^2 /Δy^2. Rearranging we get Δr=sqrt(1+Δx^2 /Δy^2 ) Δy. Making the infinitesimal replacement we get\ndr=sqrt(1+dx^2 /dy^2 )dy. You can then integrate both sides to get the total length of a curve from x1 to x2",
"the derivative of y(x) is dy/dx. what does that mean?\n\nim sure you've heard of the derivative being called the instantaneous rate of change, or the slope of the function at any point.\n\n How would one calculate the slope? 'rise over run' right? you take how much the function increased in the y direction and divide it by how much its increased in the x direction and you get a slope for that region right?\n\n For example the function y=x^2 goes from (1,1) to (3,9) and the slope for the region from x=1 to x=3 would be (9-1)/(3-1) = 8/2 = 4. The general formula for this (I hope your comfortable with function notation) is (F(x2)-F(x1))/(x2-x1).\n\nWhat if you wanted the slope for a smaller region than in the previuos example? you would calculate a slope between a smaller range of x right? for example x1=1 and x2=1.1, which would give you a slope of (1.21-1)/(1.1-1)=2.1. what is the smallest region you could calculate for? when x1=x2, which will always be a slope of 0. \n\nthats a tad strange in a way isnt it? the slope between 1 and 3 is 8, the slope between 1 and 1.1 is 2.1, but the slope between 1 and 1 is 0. what if you tried to find the slope between 1 and 1.01, or 1 and 1.0001? what if you wanted to find the slope of the smallest possible region but not get a zero answer? You would notate it as the limit of (F(x2)-F(x1))/(x2-x1) as x2 approaches x1 in value. So the divisor of the function would be (x2-x1) as x2 approaches x1, a value that gets infinitely close to 0 and represents a distance along the x axis. We call this dx. and the top of the function would be (F(x2)-F(x1)) as x2 approaches x1, a infinitely small value that represents distance along the y axis, we call this dy. \n\ndy/dx is simply the slope formula! although under a very special and intriguing circumstance where your calculating the slope for what is essentialy a point and not a region (or a infinetely small region)\n\n\ntldr; dx is (x2-x1) as x1 approaches x2 in value. Its not when x2=x1, just when its infinitely close. When you do the same thing for f(x) for the same values of x, you get dy. When you find what the values of dy/dx are as you as you manually have x2 approach x1 in value, you will see that the values approach a limit at every point (and that value doesnt have to be 0, even though when x1=x2 it is zero!)"
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{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_form",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior_derivative"
]
}
|
What is the deal with dx?
So, I'm an engineering student in my second year so I've read calculus I but dx is really confusing me sometimes. Does anyone feel tempted to try to explain what dx really is? I mean, sometimes it can be used as a number and sometimes it's used as dx/dy) I'm sorry if my question is kind of... stupid or obvious but I went through calculus without really getting a grasp of what dx really is. I know that dx/dy is the derivative of y(x) but not why it is.
|
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|
vmsit
|
By what metric is the human mind so complex?
|
I've heard it said many times that the human brain is the most complex object in the know universe. For example, I listened to David Christian's Big History course, and he spent considerable time quantifying the brain's complexity.
But now I can't remember (or find) the relevant units for measuring this complexity. It was something about energy flow; energy flow per gram or something. What is the relevant unit? Thanks
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c55yrk1"
],
"text": [
"When claims about the complexity of the brain are made, they often refer to the astounding number and intricacy of connections between neurons.\n\nOne estimate puts the number of neurons in a human brain at 100 billion (10^11) [[ref](_URL_0_)]. Compare that to the measly 6.79 billion people that live right now on the planet. You have about 100 times more brain cells in your head that there are people on this Earth.\n\nNow more astounding is the number of synapses. In one paper, they estimated the number of synapses in the *neocortex* only around 100 **trillion** (10^14) [[ref](_URL_2_)]. Compare that, for example, to the total number of people who have ever lived on earth: a (very rough) 100 billion or perhaps with then number of stars in the milky way, which is around 400 billion [[ref](_URL_1_)].\n\nThat is only numbers. The way neurons interact, is not like computers. A neuron is not just on/off - the signals it can transmits depend on the timing and amplitude of electrical and chemical signals, as well as a number of other factors. We are only recently starting to glimpse at the amazing complexity of this one-and-a-half kilo lump of flesh we carry in our skulls every day."
],
"score": [
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ne.11.030188.002231",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/syn.1083/abstract"
]
}
|
By what metric is the human mind so complex?
I've heard it said many times that the human brain is the most complex object in the know universe. For example, I listened to David Christian's Big History course, and he spent considerable time quantifying the brain's complexity. But now I can't remember (or find) the relevant units for measuring this complexity. It was something about energy flow; energy flow per gram or something. What is the relevant unit? Thanks
|
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] |
|
6nx76s
|
How does the silicone lottery work?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dkda6hv"
],
"text": [
"Every CPU type is manufactured to some specification, and that specification says that *all* units of that type will meet some quality standards (for example, all CPU model X run at clock speed Y). \n\nDue to manufacturing variability, some of those units can run at higher clock speeds. (Some can't run fast enough to meet the specification, but those are rejected during fabrication.)\n\nSilicon lottery just takes those CPUs and tests them (supposedly rigorously) at higher clock speeds, then sells them according to the highest clock speed they reliably run at."
],
"score": [
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does the silicone lottery work?
|
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||
kbgxi
|
Placing a bar on the north-pole - Walking in one direction
|
Consider the following (of course completely insane) setup:
Our position would be at the exact geographical north-pole. There we place a very long bar (lets say the aperture of the earth) that has 0 flexibility, so its tangential to the north pole. Now we climb on this bar and start walking in one direction.
Two questions:
First: While we would continue walking in one direction would walking get harder or easier?
I thought about it and apparently we have two conflicting forces:
On the one hand the force of gravity would get lower since our distance to the earth's core would increase. So walking should get easier.
On the other hand the direction of this force vector would change from down to backwards. In the beginning at the north-pole its direction is 90 degrees to the direction where we want to go while in the end its almost 180 degress. Hence walking should get harder.
This is how far I got with my very limited knowledge about physics. It would be nice to get enlightened by someone. Please skip the argument of lower level of oxygen in the air pls
Second: This is a more psychological question: While we would look in one direction where the bar goes, would it seem to us as if it would go upwards?
Ty, reddit :)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2iy7lv",
"c2j1d0n"
],
"text": [
"As one walks the local gravitational sense of down will gradually shift backward, so that it would be like ascending an ever-steepening ramp. It would never quite reach true vertical. On the other hand, as one walked further out, the force due to the earth's gravity would lessen as well. Seen from the north pole, the bar will seem to carry off for a very great distance a little above the local horizon.\n\nThe difficulty of walking is proportional to the amount of work done against the gravitational pull. That work dW should equal the change in gravitational potential energy between some point x along the bar and the starting point at the north pole (d = r). U = GMm/d where m equals your mass, M is the mass of the earth, G is the gravitational constant, and d is the distance from the earth's center, which is given by d=sqrt(r^2 + x^2 ). Then in terms of x, dU/dx = -GMmx/(x^2 + r^2 )^3/2 = dW/dx.\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is a Wolfram Alpha plot of the second derivative of the work done. If I haven't screwed anything up or missed a sign, then it should mean that, up to a length x equal to r/sqrt(2), it gets harder and harder (the derivative is positive over that interval), and after that it gets easier and easier.",
"Hint: Translate from polar to rectangular coordinates. Take the surface of the Earth as a plane, and you'll see that your imaginary plank takes on the shape of a semicircle. So it'd be like climbing up the inner surface of a sphere."
],
"score": [
8,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=plot+%2870*6.67e%28-11%29*5.97e24%2F%28x^2%2B6.38e6^2%29^%283%2F2%29+-+3*70*6.67e%28-11%29*5.97e24*x^2%2F%28x^2+%2B+6.38e6^2%29^%285%2F2%29+%29+from+0+to+12.7e6"
]
}
|
Placing a bar on the north-pole - Walking in one direction
Consider the following (of course completely insane) setup: Our position would be at the exact geographical north-pole. There we place a very long bar (lets say the aperture of the earth) that has 0 flexibility, so its tangential to the north pole. Now we climb on this bar and start walking in one direction. Two questions: First: While we would continue walking in one direction would walking get harder or easier? I thought about it and apparently we have two conflicting forces: On the one hand the force of gravity would get lower since our distance to the earth's core would increase. So walking should get easier. On the other hand the direction of this force vector would change from down to backwards. In the beginning at the north-pole its direction is 90 degrees to the direction where we want to go while in the end its almost 180 degress. Hence walking should get harder. This is how far I got with my very limited knowledge about physics. It would be nice to get enlightened by someone. Please skip the argument of lower level of oxygen in the air pls Second: This is a more psychological question: While we would look in one direction where the bar goes, would it seem to us as if it would go upwards? Ty, reddit :)
|
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] |
|
1gakhn
|
Does a material that is totally anti-adherent exist?
|
This came to my mind after seeing that it was impossible to use all the water on a bottle, and i wonder if the bottle was made with a material like this would it be possible to squezze every single drop out of the bottle?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"caicmf5"
],
"text": [
"That depends on the material which you are trying to remove from the bottle.\nIn the case of water, you are looking for a material which is hydrophobic. Hydrophobic materials are generally made from non-polar molecules so that dipole interactions with water are limited, forcing the water, which is quite polar, to interact with itself (measurements of hydroaffinity involve checking the contact angle of a bead of water on the surface).\nHydrophobic surfaces will show a property which can be best described as low friction in its interaction with water on its surface, making water slide over it very easily, having the effect that you are asking about.\nThis is how products that, for example, cause water to roll off of your car windshield work.\n\nIf you want to \"anti-adhere\" so different materials, low hydroaffinity does not guarantee this. Surface interactions with non-polar liquids like oil, for example, will not be the same."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Does a material that is totally anti-adherent exist?
This came to my mind after seeing that it was impossible to use all the water on a bottle, and i wonder if the bottle was made with a material like this would it be possible to squezze every single drop out of the bottle?
|
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|
124s1w
|
What recent findings in your field will be thought to undergrads in a couple of decades?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6s59fk"
],
"text": [
"I think you meant \"taught\" instead of \"thought,\" right?"
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What recent findings in your field will be thought to undergrads in a couple of decades?
|
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] |
||
175nmw
|
Why does my computer case measure 77 volts AC vs. the neutral hole (and negligible voltage vs. earth ground hole).
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c82gpnu"
],
"text": [
"It could be a bad power supply, but it could also be a miswired house.\n\nYou should first verify that you have a true earth ground - don't trust the plumbing unless you're *sure* there's an uninterrupted copper pipe going down into the soil. Also, don't trust the outlet, since we need to know if the house is miswired. Find a ground that you're *sure* is metal that goes deep into soil. If necessary, make one by jamming a metal stake into the earth.\n\nThen, measure:\n\n* Earth ground versus outlet ground.\n* Earth ground versus outlet neutral wire.\n* Earth ground versus outlet hot wire."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why does my computer case measure 77 volts AC vs. the neutral hole (and negligible voltage vs. earth ground hole).
|
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||
7gfvmo
|
What is the purpose of a seperatory funnel shaped like this?
|
[deleted]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dqk9w4b",
"dqk308z"
],
"text": [
"Its for storing gasses or any substances with an accessible gas phase. Using Schlenk apparatus you apply vacuum to this vessel, then shut the line off to vacuum entirely and connect this to whatever you other flask is. Open the taps between them and immerse this one in liquid nitrogen and it will condense whatever vapour is in the system.",
"That's definitely not a separatory funnel. That looks like a custom piece of glassware, consisting of a high vacuum stopcock (with its own ground glass neck) attached to bottom of a round bottom flask that's had its neck sealed off. Not sure what it would be used for."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the purpose of a seperatory funnel shaped like this?
[deleted]
|
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] |
|
nnfyk
|
Is Data Science a Science?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3ai384",
"c3albvg"
],
"text": [
"My glib answer is, sure, why not? Tradition and nomenclature aside, if you're creating and testing hypotheses in an attempt to uncover basic truths about the universe, then you're doing science.",
"I'm not sure exactly what you mean by \"data science\", but most questions regarding information theory are questions of mathematics and logic. Mathematics and logic are \"formal sciences\", knowledge worked out from first principles. When we use the word \"science\" these days we generally mean \"natural sciences\", knowledge generated by forming hypotheses and testing them experimentally.\n\nSo, yes and no. Depends what you mean by science."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is Data Science a Science?
|
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] |
||
cfn0vh
|
Why is it so hard to recycle? Not sure what flair to choose, but engineering would also apply I guess.
|
[deleted]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"euem1gz",
"eujho8l"
],
"text": [
"about glass:\n\nGlass (bottles, etc.) is already heavily recycled (80%+). I am not sure where you are from but recycling old glass is very cost efficient as it melts at lower temperatures compared to new glass. Putting glass into road (why that?) or even concrete is too expensive and doesn't make sense at all.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nabout plastic:\n\nPlastic is never a single compound but rather a mixture of many different materials. Even if you have the same polymer the additives/filler materials are very much different and can't be separated easily.\n\nAdditionally plastic will degrade with every processing step (unlike glass). Therefore recycling is pretty limited and much more expensive compared to new material.",
"[Roads can be made from recycled plastic](_URL_0_), but not as easy as you want.\n\nSeparation is hard and costs money.\n\nIt's hard to process material of mixed density and hardness. The crusher to break up glass will clog with soft plastic. So we need to separate before we even start.\n\nMost recycled waste is from consumers and it will be contaminated with food, bacteria, fungi and all sorts of harmful things. You need to keep your workers and facilities safe. That means you need to clean, rinse and sterilize. \n\nIdeally, you want a consistent recycled product, with similar properties from batch to batch. Customers want a consistent product. That means even more costly sorting and/or blending.\n\nAll this costs money. You need collections, processing facilities, worker salaries, electricity, natural gas, wash water, fuel for trucks, plus CO2 emissions and environmental monitoring from all those.\n\nAt this point in time, the most environmentally friendly thing you can do for plastics is to landfill them. The current technology and economics are not favourable for recycling. (Note: I don't do this, but purely on the numbers landfill is currently \"best\").\n\nAnother fun fact is where do you think all the plastic in the ocean comes from? Turns out, a lot of it is sending plastic to China etc to recycled. What do you think they do with all the bits they cannot use? Burn it and treat it real good, or dump in into the rivers and oceans?"
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://canada.constructconnect.com/joc/news/infrastructure/2018/06/canadas-dinosaur-roadbuilders-giving-short-shift-plastics"
]
}
|
Why is it so hard to recycle? Not sure what flair to choose, but engineering would also apply I guess.
[deleted]
|
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|
1c4sls
|
Geologists of /r/askcience, what is this weird rock my friend and I found?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9d0kyx",
"c9d0jkd"
],
"text": [
"It's a [concretion](_URL_0_) with an iron oxide as the cementing material. Concretions are pretty cool!\n\nEdit: check out /u/MrBirdBear 's comments below for more information on concretions.",
"I'd first try to determine the Mohs hardness of the rock, which you can get a pretty accurate value by \"scratch testing\" with different materials of known hardness. --Don't use a good kitchen knife for the \"steel\" scratch test-- not worth it.\n\nIf nothing comes of this, I'd take the thing to the nearest materials science/geology/natural science research group. Most established universities will have equipment which can \"quickly\" (hours) determine chemical composition.\n\nFor this rock, I would go immediately to powder X-ray diffraction, or energy dispersion X-ray (EDX) measurements. These techniques can indicate which chemicals, and how much of each chemical, are in the specimen with pretty good accuracy. There are of course caveats to each technique which I will leave out for brevity. If you'd like more elaboration, let me know.\n\nWithout knowing anything else about where this was found (near a river, out in an open field, etc...) and the local geological environment, part of me thinks that you may have a meteorite, judging from the pitted appearance and the metallic \"sphere\" which suggests a melt/solidify type of process (i.e., falling through the atmosphere). That's well-wishing, though. To the rockhounds!!!!\n\n*edit: Fuck it; I think it's a big piece of iron-rich material on second glance (Indigoes, you beat me to the punch!)."
],
"score": [
37,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretion"
]
}
|
Geologists of /r/askcience, what is this weird rock my friend and I found?
|
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||
we91a
|
Are there underdeveloped areas in science?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5cmksy"
],
"text": [
"In a certain sense, all areas of science are underdeveloped. There are fundamental questions whose answers we don't know even in the more popular fields of physics and biology. And within those fields there are subfields that don't get much funding."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Are there underdeveloped areas in science?
|
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||
4x4cfd
|
Are there any Miller-Urey-type experiments that are currently running continuously?
|
Hello, I have always been fascinated by experiments simulating the early times on Earth trying to answer the question of how life first arose. I was wondering if any of you know about Miller-Urey-type experiments that focus on running the experiment continuously and analysing the chemical composition at time intervals trying to create some primordial-like soup by performing a longer (in relation to time) experiment?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d6dkwht"
],
"text": [
"It's most certainly being done, you can try to contact some people like the Ott lab in Germany:\n_URL_0_\n\nOr Eric Parker: _URL_1_."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.uni-saarland.de/en/lehrstuhl/prof-dr-albrecht-ott/research/originoflife.html",
"https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-parker-31483932"
]
}
|
Are there any Miller-Urey-type experiments that are currently running continuously?
Hello, I have always been fascinated by experiments simulating the early times on Earth trying to answer the question of how life first arose. I was wondering if any of you know about Miller-Urey-type experiments that focus on running the experiment continuously and analysing the chemical composition at time intervals trying to create some primordial-like soup by performing a longer (in relation to time) experiment?
|
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|
j2nba
|
Would anybody be interested in a subreddit to help researchers find relevant literature?
|
Today I stumbled across a Masters thesis from a guy studying the foraging patterns of rats. He had lab rats in a circular arena in the dark and studied their movement, modelling it using diffusive-type mathematics. My research involves confining colloidal particles inside a ring of optically trapped colloidal particles and studying their structure and dynamics. These two situations are very similar but I never would have found the former had I not spent an entire afternoon Googling vaguely relevant queries
My proposition is a subreddit in which researchers can post the general focus of their work and others can suggest directions in which they might want to look that they may not have thus far investigated. If the movement of rats searching for food can be related to diffusive dynamics in glassy colloidal systems who's to say what other analogies we scientists may be overlooking?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c28mwl6",
"c28mq6j"
],
"text": [
"I think it would be tough to get this to work well. Most people are so specialized that no one will have any input on each others posts. This is why I think _URL_0_ didn't take off.\n\nedit: not that I don't think you should try. I would probably post there. I just think it will take some work to make the magic happen.",
"Try posting here also.\n\nr/askacademia\n/r/Scholar\n /r/Scientific\n/r/AcademicPublishing"
],
"score": [
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/scientific"
]
}
|
Would anybody be interested in a subreddit to help researchers find relevant literature?
Today I stumbled across a Masters thesis from a guy studying the foraging patterns of rats. He had lab rats in a circular arena in the dark and studied their movement, modelling it using diffusive-type mathematics. My research involves confining colloidal particles inside a ring of optically trapped colloidal particles and studying their structure and dynamics. These two situations are very similar but I never would have found the former had I not spent an entire afternoon Googling vaguely relevant queries My proposition is a subreddit in which researchers can post the general focus of their work and others can suggest directions in which they might want to look that they may not have thus far investigated. If the movement of rats searching for food can be related to diffusive dynamics in glassy colloidal systems who's to say what other analogies we scientists may be overlooking?
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] |
|
1b65ck
|
What causes these purple line in pictures of M42? (pictures in comment)
|
A while ago i was shooting M42 (got a new mount :-D) and a certain feature attracted my attention. As you can see in my picture (_URL_2_) there is a prominent purple line a bit left from the core. The one that "divides" the blue core and purple "wing".
At first i thought that was an error through the chromatic abberation of my scope, but recently i saw a few "amateur" pictures and some of them had the feature very prominent, like these:
_URL_5_ from u/ndupont
_URL_3_ from u/8thunder8
In other pictures it is less visible but still there, like in these:
_URL_0_ from u/Dr_Washington
_URL_1_ from u/kellogg76
Other pictures seem to completely lack this feuture. Like this one:
_URL_4_ from u/spastrophoto
Could someone tell me what the line is and how it is formed?
Thank you in advance.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c93yb9g",
"c97zpol"
],
"text": [
"Before one of our resident astronomers comes in for a more detailed answer, the wiki will give you a very good grounding and might spark some further questions. _URL_3_\n\nBasically, the blue/purple colour itself is generated by the O class stars in the centre of the nebula. The shape of the nebula is controlled by a variety of gas and dust structures, which will in turn control what colour is reflected at which point.\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_\n_URL_2_\n\nHow it precisely appears on a particular photo will depend strongly on what image processing is done in the camera, and by the photographer. There is also the chance of some chromatic abberation from the lens, as well as flare effects.",
"I don't get a view of the m42 like that with my scope :( I have an 8 inch dobsonian telescope and all I get is a pale white view. Is it because my scope is too small? Or because I dont use a camera, only my eye?"
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/yPPJV.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/rHSUy.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/2oB7W9l.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/y2p1V.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/DFvT3.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/ZMCmLzH.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_cloud",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H_II_region",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_nebula",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_Nebula"
]
}
|
What causes these purple line in pictures of M42? (pictures in comment)
A while ago i was shooting M42 (got a new mount :-D) and a certain feature attracted my attention. As you can see in my picture (_URL_2_) there is a prominent purple line a bit left from the core. The one that "divides" the blue core and purple "wing". At first i thought that was an error through the chromatic abberation of my scope, but recently i saw a few "amateur" pictures and some of them had the feature very prominent, like these: _URL_5_ from u/ndupont _URL_3_ from u/8thunder8 In other pictures it is less visible but still there, like in these: _URL_0_ from u/Dr_Washington _URL_1_ from u/kellogg76 Other pictures seem to completely lack this feuture. Like this one: _URL_4_ from u/spastrophoto Could someone tell me what the line is and how it is formed? Thank you in advance.
|
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|
9hnu46
|
In common chimpanzee societies, how do infants/juveniles differ in terms of food access during development?
|
I'm probably making many assumptions that show a general lack of understanding of chimpanzee behavior, and I apologize for that. Hopefully someone will still try to provide an explanation and show errors in my thinking.
So my questions are:
Do most infants have access to a similar amount of food? Is there a ranking system that determines how much food different infants can get? Which factors lead to inequality in terms of nutrition, if that occurs at all?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e6ea9v4"
],
"text": [
"Infants in chimp society are treated much the same way children are in human society - they get special treatment. Adult chimps make an effort to play with them and are often happy to give them some of their own food (or rather let them take it).\n\nChimps have a hierarchical social structure, and the higher ranked chimps generally do get more food than lower ranked chimps. So it might be possible that the child of a lower-ranked female would get less food, but females tend to be fairly high up the order anyway, and having a child actually *raises* their rank in the group.\n\nYoung chimps will often steal food from lower-ranked chimps, who are kind of powerless to stop them. Basically infant chimps are temporarily super high-rank and always get the food and attention they want."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
In common chimpanzee societies, how do infants/juveniles differ in terms of food access during development?
I'm probably making many assumptions that show a general lack of understanding of chimpanzee behavior, and I apologize for that. Hopefully someone will still try to provide an explanation and show errors in my thinking. So my questions are: Do most infants have access to a similar amount of food? Is there a ranking system that determines how much food different infants can get? Which factors lead to inequality in terms of nutrition, if that occurs at all?
|
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|
1b3ler
|
Heparin vs Dalteparin, why would you use one over the other? If the effects of dalteparin are more predictable why continue to use heparin?
|
I am little confused. I somewhat understand that their are difference in molecular weights, however from what I have read it appears the the effects of dalteparin are more predictable. Why continue to use of drugs such as heparin with less predictable effects over Dalteparin? I think im missing something
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c93ekb2"
],
"text": [
"A couple physiologic reasons to use heparin, even when low-molecular weight heparin derivatives like dalteparin or enoxaprin are available: \n\n1) Heparin has a half life of about 1-2 hours, whereas the LMWHs generally have half lives of about twice this. If you have a patient who is at risk of bleeding, but still need anticoagulation in the hospital (e.g. before surgery), you might choose heparin so that you can discontinue it and clear it from the body more quickly if an adverse event occurs. \n\n2) Heparin is degraded internally by macrophages etc., so if a patient has poor kidney function, you can still use it. This is not the case with enoxaprin, which relies more heavily on kidney excretion to remove it from the body. A couple studies do seem to show that its OK to use dalteparin in patients with poor kidney function, but it's not as well established. \n\nOverall, I think the main reasons are those given in the above posts -- docs get comfortable with the behavior of established medications and can be slow to change (especially with high-risk therapies like anti-coagulation), and, if they know how to wield it well, will choose the cheaper drug available on any hospital's formulary.\n\nSource: med student"
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Heparin vs Dalteparin, why would you use one over the other? If the effects of dalteparin are more predictable why continue to use heparin?
I am little confused. I somewhat understand that their are difference in molecular weights, however from what I have read it appears the the effects of dalteparin are more predictable. Why continue to use of drugs such as heparin with less predictable effects over Dalteparin? I think im missing something
|
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11fjcs
|
Why are stimulants bad for your circulatory system, but aerobic exercise is good for it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6m3bfw",
"c6m3gag",
"c6m40zn"
],
"text": [
"[Long term, coffee drinking is probably good for you.](_URL_0_) The real problem with abusing stimulants is that it's so easy for one to put their circulatory system under more strain than it has been conditioned to handle. [Similar strain can be induced through exercise](_URL_1_), but most people will simply give up well before serious damage is done. Once there's a drug in your system, it's not quite as easy to stop its effects.",
"[Same question](_URL_2_) three weeks ago\n\n[Top answer](_URL_3_) to a similar question",
"'cardiovascular exercise' e.g. long distance running may not be particularly good for one's cardiovascular system after all.\n_URL_4_"
],
"score": [
65,
24,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/340733/title/Coffee_gives_jolt_to_life_span",
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2012/06/04/ultra-marathons-might-be-ultra-bad-for-your-heart/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/105vn6/if_both_exercise_and_caffeine_increase_our_heart/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/u1tyq/why_is_an_elevated_heart_rate_good_when_caused_by/c4rq137",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19332846?itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum&ordinalpos=1"
]
}
|
Why are stimulants bad for your circulatory system, but aerobic exercise is good for it?
|
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] |
||
9miria
|
Does anyone know what the lines on this measuring cylinder represent? (Or rather their values)
|
My father found this odd measuring culling with values that he couldn’t recognize the significance of, they are close to fluid ounces, but not exact, as would be expected on a measuring cylinder?[Measuring Cylinder](_URL_0_)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e7eygwt"
],
"text": [
"They could have originally been used in a specific reaction (ordered for that specific reason) and that happened to be the exact amount of a liquid or solvent that was commonly added.\n\nWhen it comes to doing a routine addition, spending a couple extra bucks on a dedicated piece of glassware may cut out headache and man hours."
],
"score": [
11
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://imgur.com/9lJuFcR"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Does anyone know what the lines on this measuring cylinder represent? (Or rather their values)
My father found this odd measuring culling with values that he couldn’t recognize the significance of, they are close to fluid ounces, but not exact, as would be expected on a measuring cylinder?[Measuring Cylinder](_URL_0_)
|
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|
1iltw4
|
Thinking about the recent pitch drop, would other materials like wood or iron "drip", given the time?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"Yes; this is called [creep](_URL_0_). At all nonzero temperatures, there's a nonzero probability of atomic bonds breaking, regardless of their strength, and therefore there's a nonzero rate of viscous flow under a load (such as gravity), even for crystalline metals (see [this example](_URL_1_) for lead sagging over tens of years).",
"In liquids, the resistance of things to flow is called viscosity. Low viscosity materials would be like water, it basically instantly deforms to a shear stress. High viscosity materials are like pitch, they'll deform to relieve the shear stress, but it takes a very long time. \n\nIn solids, it doesn't quite work like that. There's not nearly the same ability of atoms to rearrange themselves to relieve the stresses applied. There are strong bonds that \"lock\" the atoms into place. However, you still get motion to relieve the shearing stresses, and this motion is called creep when the stresses are below critical stresses. \n\nIf we think of the \"best case\" scenario, that of a defect free material (of which wood isn't, and iron is highly unlikely to be), would there be motion? Oftentimes, stress relief and motion in materials are mediated by dislocations and defects. This is because it is a lot easier for motion to happen when you have atoms that are bonded less strongly to its neighbors (as you would have in say an edge dislocation). But if you have a perfect material, no defects, no vacancies, nothing (a situation that is virtually impossible thermodynamically), I'd maintain that you still get flow over infinite time scales, as random fluctuations should allow for atom rearrangement for shear stress relief. But unless the stresses are pretty high, or temperatures getting somewhat close to melting temperatures, you are not going to notice those atom rearrangements at all, with effects having conceivably even longer time scales than the age of the universe.",
"This page _URL_2_ contains an entry as follows:\n\n\"10^65 years: Assuming that protons do not decay, estimated time for rigid objects like rocks to rearrange their atoms and molecules via quantum tunneling. On this timescale all matter is liquid.\"",
"a followup .. would material \"creep\" under sustained loads be considered a form of dripping?",
"There seems to be the asumption in most thread we are talking about room temperature.\n\nIs it not until the melting point that iron would ever drip? Is the melting point the point at which it would be possible for it to drip after 17years?\n\nAlso if you chilled the pitch down, when could you stop it dripping altogether? Is it commerical freezer temperture or liquid nitrogen?\n\nAnd then wood does not have a melting point!"
],
"score": [
32,
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13,
5,
2
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creep_%28deformation%29",
"http://thayer.dartmouth.edu/defmech/Chapter_19.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future"
]
}
|
Thinking about the recent pitch drop, would other materials like wood or iron "drip", given the time?
|
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||
10gis7
|
Is it possible to extract information from tidal forces on subatomic particles
|
In terms of pure science (i.e. ignore practical impossibilities in measurement and construction), could one take three objects and knowing the mass and location of objects 1 and 2, determine the mass and location of object 3 solely by determining the relative gravitational effect on objects 1 and 2? I think yes - please correct me if I am wrong.
Taking this one step further, could you take two objects (A and B) and knowing the mass and location of object A determine the mass and location of object B by measuring the tidal forces in A? In short, I think you could as it would be doing the same thing as if you cut A in half, and performed the same measurement as with objects 1, 2, and 3 above.
Now the question: How small could object A be before you could not do this anymore? Could you do it with a single atom? Do tidal forces effect subatomic particles?
My question comes from a thought experiment in which I ask how much information could an entity extract from a small object about the object's surroundings given that the entity has perfect information about the object and infinite computational power.
TL/DR: could you use tidal forces within an atom to extract information about the mass and location of other objects.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6dc6a1"
],
"text": [
"There are four fundamental forces: strong and weak nuclear, EM, and gravity. Gravity is by far the weakest, orders of magnitude smaller than the other forces.\n\nFurther, gravitational force depends on the mass of the two objects the force is between and their distance. The mass of subatomic particles is so low that you essentially disregard their gravitational effects for most calculations between subatomic particles. Only in the presence of something with very large mass (a planet, a star) would you consider it.\n\nLook at something huge compared to an atom like a human being. How much gravity do you feel between two people? And think about how much smaller an atom is compared to a person.\n\nSo, no it is too weak to have an observable effect, and you couldn't use tidal forces within an atom to extract information about the mass and location of other objects."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is it possible to extract information from tidal forces on subatomic particles
In terms of pure science (i.e. ignore practical impossibilities in measurement and construction), could one take three objects and knowing the mass and location of objects 1 and 2, determine the mass and location of object 3 solely by determining the relative gravitational effect on objects 1 and 2? I think yes - please correct me if I am wrong. Taking this one step further, could you take two objects (A and B) and knowing the mass and location of object A determine the mass and location of object B by measuring the tidal forces in A? In short, I think you could as it would be doing the same thing as if you cut A in half, and performed the same measurement as with objects 1, 2, and 3 above. Now the question: How small could object A be before you could not do this anymore? Could you do it with a single atom? Do tidal forces effect subatomic particles? My question comes from a thought experiment in which I ask how much information could an entity extract from a small object about the object's surroundings given that the entity has perfect information about the object and infinite computational power. TL/DR: could you use tidal forces within an atom to extract information about the mass and location of other objects.
|
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|
qa54s
|
What research is out there on biofeedback therapies?
|
It seems to be prescribed for a variety of therapeutic treatments like anxiety, depression, etc. Are there studies supporting its efficacy?
How correlated *are* the various measurements to emotional states? Is the sensitivity of some little finger clamps attached to a PC sufficient to make accurate measurements that can detect these correlations?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3w1caw"
],
"text": [
"To answer your first question. There are some studies, but no where even close enough for it to be considered an evidence-based treatment.\n\nTo answer your second question: Not very. With panic attacks? Hell yes. With depression, no."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What research is out there on biofeedback therapies?
It seems to be prescribed for a variety of therapeutic treatments like anxiety, depression, etc. Are there studies supporting its efficacy? How correlated *are* the various measurements to emotional states? Is the sensitivity of some little finger clamps attached to a PC sufficient to make accurate measurements that can detect these correlations?
|
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] |
|
1k9a4g
|
How far away from each other are 2 bits on a wire?
|
Maybe it's not as simple as I've put, but I'm looking for the distance between 2 consecutive bits on a wire.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbmta6g",
"cbmo2ya",
"cbmympm"
],
"text": [
"As the others have said, it depends on the bit rate. But there is an interesting consequence to all this in regards to high energy physics experiments, such as ATLAS or CMS at the LHC:\n\nCollisions happen every 25 ns in the LHC, which gives about a 5 meter length of cable in which to send all the data for the collision. The individual elements in the detectors then measure what comes out of the event and send their raw data up through countless cables to the counting room where the data is first looked by computers and stored, which is away behind radiation shielding. In the case of CMS, that distance is 65 meters^[[1]](_URL_0_). The electronics on the detector forget the data right when they send it so they can be ready for the next collision.\n\nThat means that at all times the data for about a dozen collisions **exists only in the cabling**.",
"Are you talking about the physical distance between two bits on a wire? Bits [signals] propagate at the speed of light. And clock speed determines the time difference between adjacent signals. Clock speed depends solely on the hardware.\n\nIf distance = speed*time, then, assuming a clock speed of 48Mhz, the distance between bits is equal to (speed of light) * (1/48,000,000 seconds) ≈ 300,000,000 m/s * (1/48,000,000 s) = 6.25 meters.\n\nI'm not a physicist by any means, and I'm not sure if you're asking for the answer I gave or something involving a lot more physics.\n\nDoes this make sense?",
"Related question: since the length of cable where that bit \"is\" at that moment would have a different charge (i assume?), could i, theoretically, quickly cut the wire in many small lengths of wire, insulate the ends, and have the data stored in the cable?"
],
"score": [
17,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=OLUvSNeV1XoC&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=CMS+counting+room&source=bl&ots=0fMtrV3UB_&sig=G9VEAGDQf3k0alJPmMHez91jMxo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ujMKUpqmGMrayAHS24DQDA&ved=0CHcQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=CMS%20counting%20room&f=false"
]
}
|
How far away from each other are 2 bits on a wire?
Maybe it's not as simple as I've put, but I'm looking for the distance between 2 consecutive bits on a wire.
|
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|
1g7b8h
|
Using all available resources (man power and materials), how could the castaways patch up the ship and escape Gilligan's Island?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cahgkut"
],
"text": [
"I've given this much thought as well and I've come to the conclusion that they did not have access to the materials necessary to repair the badly damaged hull. I feel they would have had the best results by selecting two of the largest trees within proximity of the lagoon and digging them out to create two canoes. They could have then used materials from the ship and twisted plant fibers to bind the two canoes, constructing a stable catamaran that could carry all seven castaways and the necessary supplies."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Using all available resources (man power and materials), how could the castaways patch up the ship and escape Gilligan's Island?
|
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||
ke49d
|
Amplitude coherence
|
I asked a few days back about coherence and was told it is a phase phenomenon which makes it amplitude independent. I am not so sure.
Could someone tell me if amplitude coherence exists? basically is there a parameter that can tell me if there is a relation between the amplitude of two signals? Such a parameter would basically allow me to differentiate between two signals (x and 2x as opposed to x and 3x) based on their amplitude.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2jjafo",
"c2jmxvr"
],
"text": [
"Not sure what the question is asking.\n\nIf you're asking about *interference* between 2 signals, that is a function of phase, although the higher-amplitude signal will \"influence\" the resultant phase more. For example, if you add two signals that are 90 degrees out of phase and have the same amplitude, the result will have a phase of 45 degrees relative to the first signal. If instead the first signal has twice the amplitude of the second, the result will have a phase of 25.6 degrees.\n\nCan you phrase the question better?",
"Would you mind elaborating a bit more? Can we assume that the two signals of interest have identical frequencies? Can we assume that both signals at least have known frequencies? \n\nAre you trying to extrapolate multiple bits of information by perturbing a single transmission medium with mutiple signals?"
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Amplitude coherence
I asked a few days back about coherence and was told it is a phase phenomenon which makes it amplitude independent. I am not so sure. Could someone tell me if amplitude coherence exists? basically is there a parameter that can tell me if there is a relation between the amplitude of two signals? Such a parameter would basically allow me to differentiate between two signals (x and 2x as opposed to x and 3x) based on their amplitude.
|
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] |
|
xyi1c
|
This is for you math lovers. If curiosity was
connected to the earth by an extension cord how
long would it take for the earth to "reel in" curiosity
due to the earth's rotation
|
we'll say the planets stopped orbiting the sun for no reason at 54.6 million km from each other, and curiosity, it's cord and it's anchor are indestructible
|
askscience
|
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],
"text": [
"Earth's circumference is about 37,700km, ballpark figure. Your number divided by mine is about 1450 rotations. So 4 years.",
"Assuming I understand your question correctly, it's [1362.44 days](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
6,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=54.6+million+km+%2F+circumference+of+earth"
]
}
|
This is for you math lovers. If curiosity was connected to the earth by an extension cord how long would it take for the earth to "reel in" curiosity due to the earth's rotation
we'll say the planets stopped orbiting the sun for no reason at 54.6 million km from each other, and curiosity, it's cord and it's anchor are indestructible
|
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|
4tx4vq
|
What properties of different materials make them adept at being exo or endothermic?
|
I was thinking about this for quite a bit recently. For example, what about the coolant in a car makes it good at being a good or what makes water a good insulator?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d5la7pd"
],
"text": [
"If I'm understanding your question correctly, I think you're curious as to why certain compounds are good at siphoning off and then dissipating heat. \n\nIt's difficult to discuss why chemicals like _ene-glycol, or antifreeze, are used in their contexts without discussing the fluid dynamics behind their use, but in terms of chemistry, we use the compound we do for coolant because of a couple of reasons. \n\nWe use a fluid because it can serpentine through the weird shapes to make contact with the parts that need heat siphoned away. A solid would be bad at this.\n\nWe use a liquid and not a gas because of its relatively high specific heat. A liter of gas will not be able to handle as much heat as a liter of liquid. Ideally, we want a fluid that will be able to siphon off heat without changing its own temperature too much.\n\nWhich brings us to what specific heat is. It's how much heat 1 gram of compound can take or give before it goes up or down 1 degree Celsius. Of liquid compounds, compounds that can hydrogen bond are going to be more resistant to temperature changes when it takes on heat. If you recall something like 'temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy' you can justify hydrogen bonding compounds' high specific heats by thinking 'heat doesn't make it move as much because the heat also has to try to pry the H-bonds loose.\n\nWater is a liquid that hydrogen bonds, but it's not very effective in the temperature range of a car because it starts boiling at 100 degrees Celsius, and freezes into a solid at 0 degrees Celsius. Propylene glycol, on the other hand, stays a liquid form -74 to +371 degrees celsius, so it'll be good at its job and stay a liquid for a much bigger range.\n\nAre there better compounds? Yeah, but the toxicity, and more likely the costs of production limit them from being used over our current coolants."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What properties of different materials make them adept at being exo or endothermic?
I was thinking about this for quite a bit recently. For example, what about the coolant in a car makes it good at being a good or what makes water a good insulator?
|
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|
34uc8i
|
For anything to be detected, does it have to absorb or emit energy of some sort?
|
I'm asking because I just came to the realization, that if this is the case (which I think it is), it collapses the whole concept of strong numerical and qualatitive identity in philosophy. Or am I high?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cqy7ljm"
],
"text": [
"Detection require interaction yes. When you say \"absorb or emit energy\" that is not well defined without some more explanation of what you mean, energy isn't a particle/field to be interacted with it is just a property held by fields."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
For anything to be detected, does it have to absorb or emit energy of some sort?
I'm asking because I just came to the realization, that if this is the case (which I think it is), it collapses the whole concept of strong numerical and qualatitive identity in philosophy. Or am I high?
|
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21wnn2
|
Which has more complexity as far as the number of physical operations happening in one time, a 200 foot commercial fishing vessel (minus crew) or a single celled organism?
|
I'm sitting on my boat in the Bering Sea, thinking about what defines life (we do a lot of philosophical thinking out here) and if you could say that the boat is alive. I mean power is created by burning energy, there are a huge number of computers, transformers, fans, pumps, winches, even the two sets of washers/dryers, dishwasher and wifi routers are running right now.
So what's a more complex system, my boat, or a single cell of cyanobacteria?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"I don't know much at all about boats, but I feel pretty confident saying its a single celled organism, and I'll try to explain why. Proteins are created from a DNA template in two steps. First, the DNA is [transcribed](_URL_4_) into mRNA. Then, the mRNA is [translated](_URL_5_) into a protein by a package of proteins and RNA called a ribosome. In eukaryotes like plants and animals, that's two separate processes. In bacteria, they can be coupled: an mRNA strand can have transcription started on it before the whole thing is translated. Moreover, a single strand of mRNA can have multiple ribosomes on it at the same time, all performing translation.\n\nTake a look at [this picture](_URL_2_) showing coupled transcription and translation. That thin line on the bottom with all the \"strands of pearls\" on it is DNA. The \"string\" in each strand of pearls is mRNA that is being transcribed, while each \"pearl\" is a ribosome. In bacteria, RNA can be produced at [80-90 nucleotide bases per second](_URL_0_) while amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) are added to a growing strand at a rate of [4 to 22 per second](_URL_3_). Now it looks like there are about 12 mRNA strands coming off the DNA (not counting the really little ones) each with at least 15 ribosomes on it. So taking the more conservative estimates for speed, just in this picture we're looking at (12\\*80)+(12\\*15\\*4)=1680 operations/second in this picture-and that's without breaking \"add one nucleotide\" or \"add one amino acid\" into their own component steps. \n\nThat may not seem like a lot, but this is looking at one small piece of DNA; there will be many other places across the genome where the exact same thing is happening. Not to mention some enzymes work extremely fast. For example, [ATP synthase](_URL_6_) is used by the cell to make ATP, which is the basic unit of energy used in many other processes. ATP synthase lets protons move through it from one side of a membrane to another and uses the energy to produce ATP. Part of the protein spins, at an average of [nearly 400 revolutions/second](_URL_1_) and each revolution produces three ATP-each ATP synthase is responsible for 1200 operations/second, and one cell will have hundreds or thousands. [Carbonic anhydrase](_URL_7_) interconverts water and carbon dioxide to bicarbonate and a proton and has a rate of 10^4 to 10^6 reactions per second.\n\nBasically, there are so many copies of so many enzymes working so quickly that I think its pretty reasonable to say that a single celled organism is more complex.",
"Snarky: The boat is clearly more complex, since it contains at least one cell of cyanobacteria, as well as other stuff.\n\nNot-snarky: Presumably there is some implicit feature size - where the questioner would say \"that's not my boat, that's the natural microcrystalline structure of steel\" or \"that's not my boat, that's a rat living on my boat\". My point is, the question is ill-specified unless we know that dividing line.",
"I think a good level of complexity to start at would be to include all instructional manuals and computer interactions that would be required to maintain the boat and this would have to include crew members and the specific instructional sets required to operate all aspects of the boat and operate all machinery. considering the amount of coding that it would take to operate said humans and instructional manuals i think that it would take more instructions then the smallest Bactirum 1.7 Mb and a large sized one at 12-15Mb I think you could roughly assume that the fishing boat is more complex",
"I think to answer the question, we should find a way to compare complexity of fishing boat and bacteria. \n\nFor operational complexity, I would suggest looking at the complexity of gene regulatory network of cyanobacteria and comparing it to the complexity of systems theory model of functioning fishing boat. For crude estimate, it could be just counting the number of nodes and edges in both models.\n\nFor structural complexity, the number of different kinds of parts that must be manufactured might be good way to compare. \n\nMy intuition tells me that cyanobacteria is more complex (and everybody here tries to convince you with hand-waving), but we might be wrong. \n\n1. _URL_8_",
"But can the boat acquire energy on its own? Can it repair itself? Can it propagate by itself?\n\nIn the future when we can self charging, self repair, self replicating machines. Then they would be considered on par with bacteria in the hierarchy of life. Until then, NOPE.\n\nCyanobacteria is far more complex than a boat. The amount of reaction it has to its environment is absolutely huge. Not only it can sequester energy for self use. It can propagate by itself. Both are neccesary for the it to be defined as \"alive\".\n\nBoat on the other hand can do neither."
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://jb.asm.org/content/191/11/3740.full",
"http://www.jbc.org/content/281/7/4126.long",
"http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/~smaloy/MicrobialGenetics/topics/chroms-genes-prots/coupled-transcription.jpg",
"http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/366/1580/2979.full",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_%28genetics%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_%28biology%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthetase#E._coli_ATP_synthase",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase",
"http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/analyzing-regulatory-networks-in-bacteria-14426192"
]
}
|
Which has more complexity as far as the number of physical operations happening in one time, a 200 foot commercial fishing vessel (minus crew) or a single celled organism?
I'm sitting on my boat in the Bering Sea, thinking about what defines life (we do a lot of philosophical thinking out here) and if you could say that the boat is alive. I mean power is created by burning energy, there are a huge number of computers, transformers, fans, pumps, winches, even the two sets of washers/dryers, dishwasher and wifi routers are running right now. So what's a more complex system, my boat, or a single cell of cyanobacteria?
|
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] |
|
49g3us
|
Is Visuo-spatial intelligence part of Fluid intelligence?
|
Fluid intelligence is not thoroughly defined. For example, a lot of visual matrices that involve mental rotation are supposed indicator of Fluid intelligence. However if they also measure visual memory and mental rotation, are they not also measuring visuo-spatial intelligence? If so, does that mean Gv is part of Gf?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d0san00"
],
"text": [
"Notionally, they're separate. But it's impossible to test \"fluid intelligence\" without also testing other abilities as well. Fluid intelligence is *supposed* to be about the ability to identify new patterns, learn new rules, etc., but ones ability to perceive the pattern in the first place will affect performance.\n\nSo, it's a problem in the design of the test.\n\nIt's worth noting that under most credible models of intelligence, visuo-spatial reasoning abilities are only partially independent of general reasoning or learning ability. In other words, someone who has greater than average visuospatial reasoning ability will tend to have greater than average ability in other areas as well, because of the existence of a general factor (g, general intelligence, general learning ability, whatever you want to call it). Mental abilities are definitely intercorrelated."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is Visuo-spatial intelligence part of Fluid intelligence?
Fluid intelligence is not thoroughly defined. For example, a lot of visual matrices that involve mental rotation are supposed indicator of Fluid intelligence. However if they also measure visual memory and mental rotation, are they not also measuring visuo-spatial intelligence? If so, does that mean Gv is part of Gf?
|
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|
3uhs4a
|
How do armadillos transmit leprosy to humans?
|
Are Armadillos the only animal carriers of leprosy or are they the only animals that can give leprosy to humans? If so, why only armadillos?
Read somewhere that they enable the infection to survive in the due to their lower body temperatures. However I don't understand how or why only armadillos can give the infection to humans.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cxf38mm",
"cxfew71"
],
"text": [
"[As far as we know, they're the only other carriers of M. leprae](_URL_0_). \n\nThe actual mechanism of transfer appears to be unknown, but it [seems to be spread either from the skin or nasal mucosa](_URL_1_).",
"> However I don't understand how or why only armadillos can give the infection to humans.\n\nYou have to be able to host a bacteria in your own body to be able to transmit it. Most mammals, especially most small mammals, have high body temperatures that can't host the disease. Even in humans it mostly takes effect on our colder tissues like skin, fingers, and toes. So the main reason they are the only ones transmitting it to humans is that they are the only ones carrying it in the first place (aside from a few primate cases). It doesn't survive or spread long enough in most other animals to be transmitted."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/how-armadillos-can-spread-leprosy-180954440/",
"http://www.who.int/lep/transmission/en/index2.html"
]
}
|
How do armadillos transmit leprosy to humans?
Are Armadillos the only animal carriers of leprosy or are they the only animals that can give leprosy to humans? If so, why only armadillos? Read somewhere that they enable the infection to survive in the due to their lower body temperatures. However I don't understand how or why only armadillos can give the infection to humans.
|
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|
uoq6w
|
What are the implications of eosinophilia?
|
If it is determined that a person has eosinophilia (based on an elevated white-blood cell count called eosinophile), what are the likely causes? In layman's terms, what are the implications, and odds that it is an indicator of something more serious (such as leukemia)?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4x7oqv"
],
"text": [
"It can be caused by a variety of things, and one can not guess the cause for a particular person without further evaluation. Common causes are parasitic infections, allergic conditions, but malignant conditions can also cause eosinophilia."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What are the implications of eosinophilia?
If it is determined that a person has eosinophilia (based on an elevated white-blood cell count called eosinophile), what are the likely causes? In layman's terms, what are the implications, and odds that it is an indicator of something more serious (such as leukemia)?
|
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] |
|
w4eex
|
Would it be possible to print a message onto paper which is only revealed in sunlight?
|
I'd love to know if its possible. What I'd like to do is send out invitations or business cards which are in black, sealed envelopes and when opened the message would slowly reveal itself. Any help on the science or practical technique behind such a thing would be amazing!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5a4ju0"
],
"text": [
"I'm typing this in a very tired state, but I think a simple silver nitrate solution would work for this. I'm not sure how quickly, but it would work. A cheaper solution might be lemon juice but I doubt it would look as good or act as quickly."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Would it be possible to print a message onto paper which is only revealed in sunlight?
I'd love to know if its possible. What I'd like to do is send out invitations or business cards which are in black, sealed envelopes and when opened the message would slowly reveal itself. Any help on the science or practical technique behind such a thing would be amazing!
|
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] |
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7ngtnh
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Why does using a laminated transformer core reduce the magnitude of induced eddy currents?
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askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ds24kf9"
],
"text": [
"My understanding is that it restricts *how* eddy currents can form in the first place. They can only form within a single lamination, because the glue between layers is nonconductive, rather than being able to form any-which-way throughout the bulk of the core the way they could if the core was a single conductor. Making the laminations thin also increases the electrical resistance presented to the eddy currents so you get less current for the same induced EMF. [Here](_URL_0_) is some more info about this topic specifically as well as about transformer core design in general."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-construction.html"
]
}
|
Why does using a laminated transformer core reduce the magnitude of induced eddy currents?
|
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||
v97s8
|
Human Bottleneck
|
I've read in numerous places that human population went through a bottleneck of maybe a few thousand people or so at some point. Is this thought to be a cluster of 1000 people hidden away in some sheltered area, or a scattering of, say, a few dozen small groups scattered across a wide geographic range? Or is the whole bottleneck idea flawed?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c52x08v"
],
"text": [
"I am actually researching some of this because of my recent discovery of ash from the Youngest Toba Tuff eruption, which is believed to be a possible cause for a bottleneck- both in humans and other species. If you would like more information, I could search through the articles I have to find more. The first one that popped out at me is called \n\"The super-eruption of Toba, did it cause a human bottleneck?\" By F.J. Gathorne-Hardy and W.E.H. Harcourt-Smith (2003).\n\nIn it, it says:\n\n > A recent exhaustive review of Middle and Late Pleistocene human sites in Africa, based mainly on archaeological finds (McBrearty & Brooks 2000), shows that by 73.5 Ka, modern humans occupied a diverse range of habitats over the whole African continent, and were an extremely adaptable and resourceful species, with complex tool-kits, an ability to hunt and forage for a variety of different taxa, large geographic ranges, and a network of long distance exchange (McBrearty & Brooks, 2000).\n\nSo it would have occurred over a wide area.\n\nAs for the timing of the bottleneck, the populations that were left (some say 1000 breeding pairs), and the time it took for the bottleneck to happen; those are still debated by scientists (and have caused some heated debates). \nLet me know if you want more information or possible articles."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Human Bottleneck
I've read in numerous places that human population went through a bottleneck of maybe a few thousand people or so at some point. Is this thought to be a cluster of 1000 people hidden away in some sheltered area, or a scattering of, say, a few dozen small groups scattered across a wide geographic range? Or is the whole bottleneck idea flawed?
|
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|
6qs8in
|
Why is equation of EM wave Ecos(kx-wt)?
|
So for a wave traveling in the X direction, the equation is cos(kx-wt), as seen here: _URL_0_
But why is the oscillating part (kx-wt)? Is it not also valid to say the oscillating part could be described as (kxwt)? In both cases you are traveling along the X axis.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dkzofhn",
"dkzy7v6"
],
"text": [
"Because what you have there is the solution to the [electromagnetic wave equation](_URL_0_) which is derived from the maxwell equations. The general solution to these equations is some function g of the the form g(kx-wt). The spatial derivative is kg(kx-wt) and the time derivative is wg(kx-wt). If the function was of the form g(kxwt) the derivative would be kwtg(kxwt) or kxwg(kxwt) respectively. k and w must fullfill the dispersion relation k=w/c",
"Because there are two terms, a change in wt (time passing) can be cancelled out by a change in kx (moving your position) and you can see the wave as stationary and not changing. For example, imagine moving at the same speed as a wave pulse on a string, it would look like that pulse wasn't moving. If it was a kxwt term however, you can't cancel out the effect of time passing by moving your position and you would always see the wave oscillating, which doesn't make sense.\n\nYou can't move at the same speed as a photon of course, but the equation for an em wave still has the same form as waves in other mediums.\n\nEdit: BluScr33n explains the actual reason, that it's the form that satisfies the PDE that describes em wave propagation, but this might help you understand why a kxwt dependence wouldn't work regardless"
],
"score": [
12,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://image.slidesharecdn.com/electromagneticwavesandoptics-111207054805-phpapp01/95/electromagnetic-waves-and-optics-9-728.jpg?cb=1323238743"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave_equation"
]
}
|
Why is equation of EM wave Ecos(kx-wt)?
So for a wave traveling in the X direction, the equation is cos(kx-wt), as seen here: _URL_0_ But why is the oscillating part (kx-wt)? Is it not also valid to say the oscillating part could be described as (kxwt)? In both cases you are traveling along the X axis.
|
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] |
|
10buk2
|
I know it's a funny thing to joke about but is there actually any science behind Zimbabwe's 1 million man flush?
|
Will flushing all the toilets at the same time actually do anything to help with the sewer system... I mean they needed someone to design the system in the first place so they obviously have an engineer around, is there any reason to think it will work?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6c51rr"
],
"text": [
"From what I have read, mass flushes are traditionally used to test whether massive systems can handle the load. _URL_0_\n\nMy concern with Zimbabwe's test is that plumbing systems don't traditionally have the ability to handle *too much* more than normal, and especially not one built in a developing country. I would be concerned about massive amounts of backed-up sewage - 3rd world sewage - flowing out of the toilets at lower elevations simply because it cannot process that much water further down the system.\n\nThis could get very messy."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.tcu360.com/campus/2012/08/15550.tcu-band-helps-amon-g-carter-stadium-synchronized-toilet-flushing"
]
}
|
I know it's a funny thing to joke about but is there actually any science behind Zimbabwe's 1 million man flush?
Will flushing all the toilets at the same time actually do anything to help with the sewer system... I mean they needed someone to design the system in the first place so they obviously have an engineer around, is there any reason to think it will work?
|
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|
lu7co
|
Theoretical physics: 30 years from now.
|
Im not a scientist but I enjoy reading and watching documentaries about the universe, quantum mechanics, astronomy and the like. So, what I've seen so far is that much of the mainstream science (what we, non scientist read and watch on tv) is based on the works of Hawking, Feynman, etc. Some of these theories are 30 years old or more. So my question is: What are the main ideas/theories currently being discussed that have the potential to become mainstream science 30 years from now and who are the scientist behind them?
Thanks!
EDIT: Sorry if the question has been posted before. Kind of new to Reddit.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2vo4tg"
],
"text": [
"There is no way to answer this question scientifically. If we knew which theories were going to prove fruitful and which ones weren't, then we would only be investigating those theories."
],
"score": [
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
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Theoretical physics: 30 years from now.
Im not a scientist but I enjoy reading and watching documentaries about the universe, quantum mechanics, astronomy and the like. So, what I've seen so far is that much of the mainstream science (what we, non scientist read and watch on tv) is based on the works of Hawking, Feynman, etc. Some of these theories are 30 years old or more. So my question is: What are the main ideas/theories currently being discussed that have the potential to become mainstream science 30 years from now and who are the scientist behind them? Thanks! EDIT: Sorry if the question has been posted before. Kind of new to Reddit.
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|
5k1fmb
|
What's the average number of attempts necessary to reach 1,000 successes at a 1% rate?
|
So in statistics I understand that, given a 1% chance of success, it will take an average of 68.something attempts to succeed, because the equation is .99^x = .5 and you solve for x. However, does that mean that the average attempts to get, say, 1,000 successes at a 1% rate would be ~68,000? On one hand, it makes sense that you would just multiply the average attempts by the number of successes necessary. However, looking at it from the standpoint of common sense, a 1/100 chance times 1,000 necessary successes should just be 100*1,000. Which number is correct (if either) and why?
Thanks in advance!
Edit: for further clarification, I'm basically asking a question that's an extension of [this](_URL_0_) old Reddit post. If .99^100 = X and X is about .64, then you can just substitute X for number of attempts instead of probability and thus find the average number of attempts in order to have any given chance of success, correct? That is, .99^x = .5, so x =68.9676. This seems to assert that, after about 69 attempts, you would have a 50% chance of success. So why doesn't that translate into chance of having a certain number of successes within a certain number of attempts? Or why is this number not 100, since intuitively it should take an average of 100 attempts to succeed given a 1% chance of success?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dbkoqkk",
"dbkuhti"
],
"text": [
"> So in statistics I understand that, given a 1% chance of success, it will take an average of 68.something attempts to succeed, because the equation is .99^(x) = .5 and you solve for x.\n\nI'm not sure where you are getting that equation. If the success chance is *p*, then the number of trials needed before you get one success is distributed according to the geometric distribution. The mean is 1/*p*; so you need on average 100 trials for your first success if the success rate is 1%.\n\n > However, does that mean that the average attempts to get, say, 1,000 successes at a 1% rate would be ~68,000? On one hand, it makes sense that you would just multiply the average attempts by the number of successes necessary. However, looking at it from the standpoint of common sense, a 1/100 chance times 1,000 necessary successes should just be 100*1,000. Which number is correct (if either) and why?\n\nSuppose you have already gotten *k* successes and each individual trial has a success chance of *p*. Then we can ask \"what is the probability that the number of trials required was *n*?\" The number of trials *n* is distributed according to the negative binomial distribution. In particular, if *P*(*n*; *k*, *p*) is the desired probability then\n\n > P(n; k, p) = *_n-1_*C*_k-1_*p^(k)(1-p)^(n-k) for n = k, k+1, k+2, k+3, ...\n\nThe mean of this distribution is just *k*/*p*, which is what you would expect naively. It took on average 1/*p* trials to get the first success, so it takes *k* times that to get *k* successes. (This result is actually not that naive since you can write the number of trials as a sum of random (dependent) variables, but expectation is linear regardless of whether the variables are independent.)\n\nSo if the success chance is 1% and you want 1000 successes, it will take on average 1000/.01 = 100,000 trials to achieve that.",
"* I think you're asking for the median number of attempts, not the mean/average number, which, as noted below, is 100,000.\n\n* In other words, you're asking: when will the chance of 1000 successes exceed 50%, correct?\n\n* Because the binomial distribution approaches the normal, I'm guessing that number would be close to 100,000 too, but not sure.\n\n* You're effectively asking for the mean of the negative binomial distribution (_URL_0_), which appears to be a difficult problem: _URL_1_"
],
"score": [
15,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/25qsv7/eli5_if_i_attempt_something_with_1_probability"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_binomial_distribution",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02613677"
]
}
|
What's the average number of attempts necessary to reach 1,000 successes at a 1% rate?
So in statistics I understand that, given a 1% chance of success, it will take an average of 68.something attempts to succeed, because the equation is .99^x = .5 and you solve for x. However, does that mean that the average attempts to get, say, 1,000 successes at a 1% rate would be ~68,000? On one hand, it makes sense that you would just multiply the average attempts by the number of successes necessary. However, looking at it from the standpoint of common sense, a 1/100 chance times 1,000 necessary successes should just be 100*1,000. Which number is correct (if either) and why? Thanks in advance! Edit: for further clarification, I'm basically asking a question that's an extension of [this](_URL_0_) old Reddit post. If .99^100 = X and X is about .64, then you can just substitute X for number of attempts instead of probability and thus find the average number of attempts in order to have any given chance of success, correct? That is, .99^x = .5, so x =68.9676. This seems to assert that, after about 69 attempts, you would have a 50% chance of success. So why doesn't that translate into chance of having a certain number of successes within a certain number of attempts? Or why is this number not 100, since intuitively it should take an average of 100 attempts to succeed given a 1% chance of success?
|
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|
s4vea
|
Symbiotic Organisms in the Human Body
|
Just finished reading a Wired article about anti-viral medicine and came across a paragraph describing how trillions of viruses live in our body and assist our immune system in fighting other diseases. Along with viruses, we also harbor bacteria throughout or intestinal tract. So I came to wonder how much we actually are symbiotic organisms.
1) What percent of the biological matter in our bodies does not carry our DNA?
2)When antibiotics wipe out our intestinal bacteria do they develop a resistance to antibiotics?
3) How does the evolution of these organisms affect our health?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4b43xp"
],
"text": [
"There are about 10 times more bacteria than human cells in our body (10^14 versus 10^13), so that's one point to consider."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Symbiotic Organisms in the Human Body
Just finished reading a Wired article about anti-viral medicine and came across a paragraph describing how trillions of viruses live in our body and assist our immune system in fighting other diseases. Along with viruses, we also harbor bacteria throughout or intestinal tract. So I came to wonder how much we actually are symbiotic organisms. 1) What percent of the biological matter in our bodies does not carry our DNA? 2)When antibiotics wipe out our intestinal bacteria do they develop a resistance to antibiotics? 3) How does the evolution of these organisms affect our health?
|
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|
5zzzz6
|
What is the Heisenberg Picture?
|
I'm looking for a slightly dumbed-down explanation of what the Heisenberg Picture (not uncertainty Principle) is and what it describes. It would be cool if someone could explain how the Heisenberg Group was used to show its equivalence with the Schrödinger Picture.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"df2kasc"
],
"text": [
"I gave a simplified answer in your ELI5 thread, but this is /r/AskScience, so why not give a more technical answer as well?\n\nIn quantum mechanics, you represent the state of your system by a state vector |Ψ > , and you represent an observable quantity by a Hermitian operator A.\n\nAn example of quantity you might be interested in calculating and physically measuring would be the expectation value of A in some state:\n\n < Ψ|A|Ψ > .\n\nIn general, this quantity will depend on time. In the Schrodinger picture you postulate that state vectors evolve according the time-dependent Schrodinger equation:\n\ni~~h~~ (d/dt) |Ψ > = H|Ψ > , where H is the Hamiltonian operator.\n\nThis is a differential equation which can be solved for the time dependence of the state vector:\n\n|Ψ(t) > = exp[-iHt/~~h~~]|Ψ(0) > .\n\nThis is completely general, so it applies to any state vector in the Schrodinger picture. (Remember that H is an operator rather than a number. If it's confusing to think about the exponential of an operator, remember that you can write the exponential function as a power series.)\n\nNow consider the time evolution of the expectation value. Say initially it's:\n\n < Ψ(0)|A|Ψ(0) > .\n\nWhat is it at time t? Just evolve the state vector.\n\n < Ψ(t)|A|Ψ(t) > = < Ψ(0)|exp[iHt/~~h~~]Aexp[-iHt/~~h~~]|Ψ(0) > .\n\nSo the expectation value has changed from < Ψ(0)|A|Ψ(0) > to < Ψ(0)|exp[iHt/~~h~~]Aexp[-iHt/~~h~~]|Ψ(0) > , and we did so by applying the time evolution operator to the state vector.\n\nBut physically there is no difference between doing that, or instead simply replacing the operator A with a time dependent operator and leaving |Ψ > constant in time.\n\nAll we need to do to make these two approaches is to define the time evolution of the operator as\n\nA(t) = exp[iHt/~~h~~]A(0)exp[-iHt/~~h~~].\n\nThis is the Heisenberg picture, and by construction it gives you the exact same physical result as the Schrodinger picture.\n\nInstead of solving the Schrodinger equation for the time evolution of a state vector, you solve the Heisenberg equation of motion for the time evolution of an operator. The Heisenberg equation of motion is\n\ni~~h~~ dA/dt = [A,H], where the square brackets denote the commutator ([A,B] = AB-BA). This also assumes the operator has no *explicit* time dependence, but that's very often the case.\n\nThe Schrodinger and Heisenberg pictures are completely equivalent methods of treating time evolution in quantum mechanics. The Schrodinger picture is what you use most often in practice in non-relativistic QM. The Heisenberg picture is nice for quickly proving some theorems like the virial theorem. It's also used some in quantum field theory.\n\nAlthough there's a third picture which is sort of like a hybrid between the Schrodinger and Heisenberg. It's called the interaction picture, and it's used a lot in QFT when doing calculations using perturbation theory."
],
"score": [
16
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the Heisenberg Picture?
I'm looking for a slightly dumbed-down explanation of what the Heisenberg Picture (not uncertainty Principle) is and what it describes. It would be cool if someone could explain how the Heisenberg Group was used to show its equivalence with the Schrödinger Picture.
|
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|
vgo82
|
I was just at the spa and had a question come to mind: is there any good science behind reflexology? Acupuncture? Why or why not?
|
I was getting a massage earlier this evening and I started thinking about other services spas typically offer, namely reflexology and acupuncture. It made me wonder...tons of people claim relief from various maladies because of these services...is there any science to back them up? Why or why not?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c54fg50"
],
"text": [
"Generally speaking, \"good science\" for a treatment modality involves most or all of the following:\n\n* Hypothesis testing and mechanism of action: I predict that x will occur if I do y, because of what we know and can demonstrate about how x is affected by y.\n\n* Documentation and repeatability: Can other scientists review my work, replicate the experiment, and arrive at similar results? Hopefully the people reviewing and repeating the expriment don't have a vested interest in the outcome.\n\n* Falsifiability: Have I outlined what will disprove my hypothesis? This is very important.\n\n* Experimental design: Are we using a large enough cohort? Are we accounting for observer bias? Is the study blinded effectively, so neither the subjects nor the researchers know who is in the treatment group and who's in the control? This is also very important.\n\nWhat you find with a lot CAM (Complementary and Alternative Medicine) like reflexology, acupuncture, homeopathy, etc is that they fail some or all of these requirements. A good heuristic is that real effects tend to become amplified as controls and sample sizes are improved, and noise / false positives tend to go away. If you have an effect that's consistently repeatable under good controls with double-blind protocols, you're on your way to real medicine."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
I was just at the spa and had a question come to mind: is there any good science behind reflexology? Acupuncture? Why or why not?
I was getting a massage earlier this evening and I started thinking about other services spas typically offer, namely reflexology and acupuncture. It made me wonder...tons of people claim relief from various maladies because of these services...is there any science to back them up? Why or why not?
|
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|
24g2xb
|
Is A Distributed Bragg reflector(DBR) with a defective layer on centre an Fabry–Pérot(FP) interferometer/resonator?
|
DBR has periodic layers of dielectric surfaces(say N1 and N2 are alternating layers), if one of its centre layer is defective (different in thickness) does it now behave like an Fabry–Pérot interferometer/resonator?
example structure [N1,N2,N1,N2,N1,N2,N1,N2,...N1(with deferent thickness ),N2,N1,N2,N1,N2,N1,N2,]
In other words can the cavity in FP resonator be replaced with the dielectric with different thickness?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ch74cm5"
],
"text": [
"Yes, odds is that the coating of the mirrors you are thinking of in that FP resonator are made with a very similar idea in mind. The freedom you get from being able to tailor the optical properties by chosing the material and thickness makes for some quite interesting research. \n\nIf you are interested in knowing more look up the very active field of photonic crystal cavities. \n\nEDIT: adding a good [paper](_URL_0_) to start with."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.cst.com/Content/Articles/article687/CST_Whitepaper_Photonic_CST.pdf"
]
}
|
Is A Distributed Bragg reflector(DBR) with a defective layer on centre an Fabry–Pérot(FP) interferometer/resonator?
DBR has periodic layers of dielectric surfaces(say N1 and N2 are alternating layers), if one of its centre layer is defective (different in thickness) does it now behave like an Fabry–Pérot interferometer/resonator? example structure [N1,N2,N1,N2,N1,N2,N1,N2,...N1(with deferent thickness ),N2,N1,N2,N1,N2,N1,N2,] In other words can the cavity in FP resonator be replaced with the dielectric with different thickness?
|
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|
xbbyf
|
What is actually going on in your head when you are taking Nootropics like AlphaBrain? I've always wondered, and never been sure of the how valid their claims are.
|
_URL_0_
Here's an example, I read through this, and have not been able to comprehend too much of what it was saying, simple because I don't know chemistry works in the brain, and I'm more of a math-based person rather than Chemistry. But through the infinite power of Google, I was reading various claims and articles that these companies are making products like Alpha Brain with lucrative and ridiculous claims that hold little to no validity, and I simply want to know how they affect the brain so I can make my own decision
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5kvcz7"
],
"text": [
"These types of products are completely devoid of legitimate testing of their effects. Thus the only reasonable answer is: We don't know. They don't know. Your mileage may vary."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.onnit.com/alphabrain-science/"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is actually going on in your head when you are taking Nootropics like AlphaBrain? I've always wondered, and never been sure of the how valid their claims are.
_URL_0_ Here's an example, I read through this, and have not been able to comprehend too much of what it was saying, simple because I don't know chemistry works in the brain, and I'm more of a math-based person rather than Chemistry. But through the infinite power of Google, I was reading various claims and articles that these companies are making products like Alpha Brain with lucrative and ridiculous claims that hold little to no validity, and I simply want to know how they affect the brain so I can make my own decision
|
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] |
|
1fvd69
|
If we follow citations back through scientific literature in time, where will we end?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cae6eg9"
],
"text": [
"Very good question(s). You will end up at an article with no citations, but I'm not sure if there's one or two papers in each field you're highly likely to wind up at (e.g. 96% of wikipedia eventually links to Philosophy), or if it's more diffuse."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If we follow citations back through scientific literature in time, where will we end?
|
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||
rmcsc
|
How possible is it to survive a botched skydive?
|
We all hear those unbelievable stories every couple of years of a person who skydives, only to have their parachute become stuck during descent. I could never understand how surviving something like that was possible. I guess I'm interested in the body's capacity for resilience when I ask: how can it happen? Is there anything one could do to increase the chances of survival in a situation like this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c46zfk0"
],
"text": [
"When someone dies from a fall of such height, it isn't the distance of the fall that kills them but the immediate change in momentum. Think of a car wreck. If you drive an old car that was made without crumple zones and air bags into a brick wall at high speed, most of the momentum change will occur at your body and then the rigid frame of the car or the wall breaking. In modern cars, crumple zones (plastic bumpers among other things) take some of the energy from the impact into the crumpling of the piece. Air bags inflate quickly and then deflate immediately after to slow down the time that it takes for your body to move forward, decreasing the momentum. \n\nTo save someone falling, it is the same principle. One story I remember reading about was a sky diver whose parachutes didn't open. He aimed his body for an aluminum hanger and survived. The reason being that rather than impacting the ground in an instant, the hanger slowed his decent by fractions of a second slowing his momentum to a low enough amount that rather than liquefying him, he just broke most of the bones in his body."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How possible is it to survive a botched skydive?
We all hear those unbelievable stories every couple of years of a person who skydives, only to have their parachute become stuck during descent. I could never understand how surviving something like that was possible. I guess I'm interested in the body's capacity for resilience when I ask: how can it happen? Is there anything one could do to increase the chances of survival in a situation like this?
|
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|
2wkocl
|
Speed of information?
|
I was reading recently about the speed of information and how person A who is 10 light seconds away from an explosion won't know about the explosion at the same time as person B who is 5 light seconds away, but 5 seconds after person B. Also, if the sun disappeared, how Earth would continue to rotate around the sun for about 8 minutes as if the sun were still there.
I understand information, which doesn't travel faster than light, taking 5 and 10 seconds to reach person A and person B, but does that mean that the event didn't happen until the information reached the observer? I ask this because how can the Earth continue to rotate around "where the sun was"?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cos203x",
"corzdkw"
],
"text": [
"> how can the Earth continue to rotate around \"where the sun was\"?\n\nThis is precisely why the idea of a [field](_URL_0_) is so central in relativistic physics. In this picture, everything is kept local: Earth never \"talks\" directly to the sun, but only to the gravitational field in its immediate vicinity, and the sun does likewise. When the sun vanishes in your scenario, the change takes eight minutes to propagate *in the field*. The gravitational field right around Earth doesn't know about the faraway event until then.\n\nHere's an imprecise analogy: picture a whirlpool made by spinning an object underwater. The spiral pattern comes out of the central point and moves gradually outwards. Now imagine that you stop spinning the object. The very outer edge of the spiral is still spinning, and it will take some time to \"realize\" that the object isn't spinning anymore.\n\n\nIt really wouldn't make any intuitive sense if the things acted just as if events were delayed by light-travel time! That's why fields were introduced. Later, we found out that we need them for other reasons too.",
"Well, amongst other things, if the earth were to fly off immediately, then that would be \"information,\" wouldn't it? Because you could deduce the disappearance of the sun from it. So it won't happen that fast."
],
"score": [
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(physics\\)"
]
}
|
Speed of information?
I was reading recently about the speed of information and how person A who is 10 light seconds away from an explosion won't know about the explosion at the same time as person B who is 5 light seconds away, but 5 seconds after person B. Also, if the sun disappeared, how Earth would continue to rotate around the sun for about 8 minutes as if the sun were still there. I understand information, which doesn't travel faster than light, taking 5 and 10 seconds to reach person A and person B, but does that mean that the event didn't happen until the information reached the observer? I ask this because how can the Earth continue to rotate around "where the sun was"?
|
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] |
|
ifzyy
|
What are the best science toys?
|
What science toys did you enjoy the most? What do you recommend? Also, what websites do you recommend for ordering them? Target age of the toys doesn't matter, just looking for anything that can be used for learning.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c23kill"
],
"text": [
"Google gave pretty [nice](_URL_1_) [results](_URL_0_). Instructables also have interesting things to make. Off the beaten path, I also enjoyed Zero Blasters."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://scitoys.com/",
"http://www.thinkgeek.com/geektoys/science/"
]
}
|
What are the best science toys?
What science toys did you enjoy the most? What do you recommend? Also, what websites do you recommend for ordering them? Target age of the toys doesn't matter, just looking for anything that can be used for learning.
|
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|
9uk2x1
|
Will people tend to rate the same thing differently on a different scale; say a 5 star scale compared to a 1-10 scale?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e96t4ub"
],
"text": [
"Absolutely, ask a friend what he or she thinks of that girl or guy over there ok a scale of 1-10. Then ask on a 1-100 scale.\n\nTheir face will scrunch up, they’ll tilt their head, and often ask, “why a 100 point scale?” It breaks out averaging. If she is a 66 the person may say she’s a 7.\n\nOr perhaps he’s and 84 so they round down to an 8 on the 1-10 scale. \n\nIt doesn’t matter much when you’re close to averages but the further away from the average the more statistical difference it makes. Someone who’s a 94 that gets rounded down to a 9 is getting crippled compared to the person who is a 54-56 won’t be affected much.\n\nIf something is 10% better it doesn’t cost just 10% more. That’s why using a more accurate scale matters.\n\nI hope this helps!"
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Will people tend to rate the same thing differently on a different scale; say a 5 star scale compared to a 1-10 scale?
|
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||
15d1l7
|
How does one test the stability of a structural object such as a heavy panel in the wall or ceiling of a tunnel?
|
I was reading this news article: _URL_0_ and started wondering, how do these panels get tested for stability? My naive thought is that just merely going and pulling on the panels with tools would merely lead them to possibly becoming more unstable than they may have been before. I'm assuming they'd want to test the stability here without increasing the probability of a panel falling, so how do they do that?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7lgkjh"
],
"text": [
"Applying a load to the panels would not increase the probability of the panel falling, unless it causes plastic deformation. \nEssentially there are two types of deformation; plastic deformation where the material can not recover completely after being unloaded, and elastic deformation, where the material returns to its original state after unloading. So if they apply the test load (a load determined by the factor of safety) and there is no plastic deformation, then they're all in the clear. Otherwise, repairs need to be made until the panels reach the correct stability."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://bostonherald.com/news_opinion/local_coverage/2012/12/stuck_truck_trashes_tunnel_tiles"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does one test the stability of a structural object such as a heavy panel in the wall or ceiling of a tunnel?
I was reading this news article: _URL_0_ and started wondering, how do these panels get tested for stability? My naive thought is that just merely going and pulling on the panels with tools would merely lead them to possibly becoming more unstable than they may have been before. I'm assuming they'd want to test the stability here without increasing the probability of a panel falling, so how do they do that?
|
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|
2lewmb
|
Is there such thing as an "Anti-Electromagnet"?
|
I was thinking it would be really useful for low power applications if it were possible to have a magnet much like a permanent magnet which you can disable the field temporarily by applying a charge to it, rather than maintaining a charge to keep it active.
Is such a device in existence/possible?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"clukk9u"
],
"text": [
"[Electropermanent magnet\n](_URL_0_)\n\nBasically there is a permanent magnet made with 2 materials, where only one of which can have it's magnetization changed (by supplying a current). Therefore, when current is supplied, the two materials have opposite magnetizations, therefore making the net field 0 (essentially turning the magnet off). When no current is supplied, the two materials have the same magnetization and therefore act as a magnet."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electropermanent_magnet"
]
}
|
Is there such thing as an "Anti-Electromagnet"?
I was thinking it would be really useful for low power applications if it were possible to have a magnet much like a permanent magnet which you can disable the field temporarily by applying a charge to it, rather than maintaining a charge to keep it active. Is such a device in existence/possible?
|
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] |
|
15ov22
|
Strange Object near Sun - 30.12.2012 - Anybody know what it is?
|
A friend just posted this picture on facebook and it looks really weird..
Does anyone know what it could be?
mirror: _URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7ofus3",
"c7okavi",
"c7ofeb7",
"c7ou3qk"
],
"text": [
"It looks a lot like a [sungrazer comet](_URL_1_), although I didn't think anything had the dynamic range to image one in the same image as the Sun, so I wonder if the above might be a composite image.\n\nThe tag AIA in the image means [Atmospheric Imaging Assembly](_URL_0_), an instrument aboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory.\n\n[Edit] further information:\n\nAIA 171 and AIA 304, in the image, refer to two wavelength filters used on the AIA, the 171 angstrom and the 304 angstrom, so this image is presumably some sort of composite of two images in the hard ultraviolet. The images tags indicate that the image was very recent (today), but I'm unable to find mention of it on the SDO website.\n\n[Edit2]: Because the SDO images from the same time don't show this feature, I'm going to agree with Silpion that it was probably a cosmic ray hitting the detector, which may have been removed later with median combine or crreject or something similar.",
"Source:\nsolar images from the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)\n\n_URL_3_\n\nor SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)\n\n_URL_4_\n\n\nBut the image from 06:10 doesnt seem to be there anymore:\n\n_URL_4_",
"Was there any more info on his post? Like which telescope or spacecraft took the photo? A link to the original source?",
"Not an astronomer, but I do work with some fancy cameras (mostly underwater), and this looks like an artifact from the CCD. Most CCDs measure the charge in each pixel across rows or columns, and if a pixel or group of pixels is overloaded, the measurement can bleed into the next few pixels, resulting in the *perfectly* vertical streaking shown in this image. If I'm correct, this is the most significant streaking I've ever seen (normally it's just a few pixels), and I'm not sure what could have caused it."
],
"score": [
28,
8,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/CmLvz"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory#Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_.28AIA.29",
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/comet-streaks-sun.html",
"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/aiahmi/browse/",
"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/",
"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/assets/img/browse/2012/12/30/"
]
}
|
Strange Object near Sun - 30.12.2012 - Anybody know what it is?
A friend just posted this picture on facebook and it looks really weird.. Does anyone know what it could be? mirror: _URL_0_
|
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|
9skwwi
|
What tech is used to map places non-intrusively?
|
As I understand, the images we have which show how the surface of the earth looks like without water or the new info about the inside of the pyramids is using some tech which maps these places without having to go in. Any idea on how it is done? If I had a house which I know has a secret room, could I theoretically use this tech to find it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e8tvvjo",
"e8tu0fi"
],
"text": [
"What you're asking about is not one method; it is a set things, most of which could be called either tomography or remote sensing (although most would probably concede tomography is technically a form of remote sensing). A full list and description of the the techniques and physical properties used in remote sensing is well beyond the scope of a Reddit post. For simplicity's sake, let's just say any physical property you can imagine has been or is being used in remote sensing in some particular case, and the exact method being used depends on what you're looking for and what you're trying to see it through.\n\nOff the top of my head, in geology alone we use radio, gravity, electrical resistance, magnetism, seismic waves, ground deformation, infrared, radioactive decay, and even cosmic rays to get an idea of what is under the surface. None of these techniques is good for all cases; they each have their limitations.\n\nAs for your secret room, you could detect it with a bunch of geophones and something to smack the ground real hard with, like a sledgehammer or shotgun. Most of those other geophysical methods, with the exception of cosmic rays, would work as well, especially if the room had water or conductive metals in it. Don't expect the data to look anywhere near as clear as it is in the movies though; the imagery you get back makes fetal ultrasounds look crisp and clean (hey ultrasound, that's another method we use). You'll very likely need to consult someone who is trained in interpreting the data.",
"They're mapped by sending waves through the material and measuring what bounces back.\n\n[The ocean floor is mapped using sonar.](_URL_0_)\n\nArchaeologists frequently make use of [ground-penetrating radar](_URL_1_) to detect changes in the consistency of sediment or stone, and this technique has been involved in many recent headline-grabbing discoveries in Egypt. It's one of several tools used in [geophysical survey.](_URL_2_)"
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/seafloor-mapping/how_multibeamsonar.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground-penetrating_radar",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysical_survey"
]
}
|
What tech is used to map places non-intrusively?
As I understand, the images we have which show how the surface of the earth looks like without water or the new info about the inside of the pyramids is using some tech which maps these places without having to go in. Any idea on how it is done? If I had a house which I know has a secret room, could I theoretically use this tech to find it?
|
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] |
|
p3h8f
|
How does powerline networking work?
|
Is there a theoretical bandwidth limit and can you get more speed by increasing the voltage/current? Does it suffer heavy interference from other devices in the home? How come the national grid haven't used the concept to pipe internet to remote, cut off, locations?
|
askscience
|
{
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],
"text": [
"Powerline networking works by inserting relatively small high-frequency signals on to the line. Most appliances effectively filter this just by virtue of their construction and don't much care whether they are there or not but this is not a universal fact; you can find numerous anecdotes of specific circuits either heavily interfering (by unintentionally injecting their own high-frequency noise into the line) or receiving interference and causing anomalous operation because of the presence of powerline networking in that circuit.\n\nThere is a definite bandwidth limit that's set by the devices involved and the particular electrical installation. You have to remember that the wires your power is carried on are not meant for this application and in general have crummy transmission characteristics at the frequencies used, don't expect this kind of tech to ever compete directly in bandwidth with dedicated lines. Increasing the amplitude of the signals placed on to the line won't help this except to make it more immune to transient noise picked up from the environment.\n\nThis isn't used for national broadband because it doesn't scale (both in terms of cost and transmission characteristics) and cannot compete at all with dedicated hardware and lines. It isn't as simple as just hooking a few odds-and-ends up at each house, it would represent an enormous financial and political burden to attempt to modify our already-fragile national infrastructure to even attempt it. You're better off running dedicated lines everywhere (coincidentally, that's exactly what telephone lines are) and keeping power and communications separate."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does powerline networking work?
Is there a theoretical bandwidth limit and can you get more speed by increasing the voltage/current? Does it suffer heavy interference from other devices in the home? How come the national grid haven't used the concept to pipe internet to remote, cut off, locations?
|
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|
27nock
|
I know unfolding is a complex event in the life of a protein... but can long proteins actually get tied in knots?
|
Can a protein get tied in a knot and if so can it be tied so tightly that it can't be undone by the normal unfolding process? If they can... what are the ramifications... if they can't... why (k)not?
Thanks.
edit: Amazing and thorough responses. Thanks, I have more reading to do it looks like!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ci2luzo",
"ci2mnt4"
],
"text": [
"Yes! Actually, proteins do form knots. However, I think you have the process a little backwards, proteins are generated as a long single strand and the complicated process that gives them their shape and therefore function, is folding. Once folded, they generally do not unfold until they're degraded. They DO change conformation, move and flex and these changes can be substantial. \n\nAnyway, back to your question. The first knotted protein was discovered in ~1994, and was HUGE deal. People generally thought that knots were too complex as far as folding goes and that they had been weeded out. _URL_1_\n\nBut, since then there have been oodles more knotted proteins that have been found, and there are whole labs dedicated to studying knotted structures! Since we can't actually watch how proteins fold, there are tons of people trying to mathematically model how it could work. A couple great articles are here _URL_2_ and here _URL_3_ (I\"m cherrypicking articles that I know are free to view, there are more behind paywalls)\n\nIf a protein for some reason was to need to unfold again after folding, there's no reason that the process couldn't be fully reversible, we just don't know if it happens. Typically your cells go to great lengths to keep their proteins folded and in working order, the Unfolded Protein Response is almost universal in living things. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nNow let's go to the last part. IF a protein had a physiological need to knot, and then unknot, and it COULDN'T, there are several things that could happen. Typically broken proteins (ones that aren't folded well or correctly, are corrected by the UPR process described above. Proteins that can't be refolded are broken down into their component parts (and quickly too! Your cells are very tidy!) \n\nNow here's one last interesting hypothetical, that is certainly not out of the realm of possibility. If a knotted protein was to unfold or to knot incorrectly and for whatever reason the cell couldn't degrade it or break it down, it could theoretically cause disease. There are lots of diseases caused by misfolding of proteins (Alzheimers, Parkinsons, Huntingtons), and some where misfolded proteins actually teach OTHER proteins to misfold. Those would be termed \"prion\" diseases and fall into the same realm as Mad Cow. \n\nSo in summary, proteins can and do get tied in knots, and it's intentional as far as we can tell. If a protein that was supposed to knot couldn't, or one that wasn't supposed to did, your body would try to refold it correctly or destroy it. If neither of those worked there's a chance that it could cause disease.",
"A few more things!\n\nProteins are generated by ribosomes as a long amino acid strings, and said strings are slowly ratcheted out of a particular region of the ribosome. The fact that the whole string is not released at once allows for a kind of sequential folding. One part of the nascent protein may be folded as the next part along the string is being built. [Here](_URL_4_) is a fun picture showing that a protein could be folded straight from the ribosome, or sometimes be misfolded or incompletely folded and require further manipulation. Here the (mentioned by others) chaperon proteins come in, either preventing the incompletely folded nascent protein from misfolding or actually correcting misfolded proteins. If the chaperon protein doesn't reach the misfolded protein in time or cannot properly refold the protein, it goes into the [proteosome](_URL_5_), which (as others have mentioned) degrades the protein. The proteasome is really cool, it's basically a bunch of protein-degrading enzymes facing inward to make a tube of protein destruction."
],
"score": [
44,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfolded_protein_response",
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00103a057",
"http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.0020122",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0074755",
"http://www.nature.com/nrm/journal/v5/n10/images/nrm1492-f1.jpg",
"http://myelomacinderella.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Proteasome.jpg"
]
}
|
I know unfolding is a complex event in the life of a protein... but can long proteins actually get tied in knots?
Can a protein get tied in a knot and if so can it be tied so tightly that it can't be undone by the normal unfolding process? If they can... what are the ramifications... if they can't... why (k)not? Thanks. edit: Amazing and thorough responses. Thanks, I have more reading to do it looks like!
|
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] |
|
aecapq
|
What is the significance of an 7 nm node and what happens when we can’t go any smaller?
|
I read that AMD announced a 7nm GPU. What does “7nm architecture” mean and why that over a larger number? Also, what happens when we can’t go any smaller? I heard at one time people thought anything smaller than 10 was impossible.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"edo6251",
"edo6t73"
],
"text": [
"The numbers don't really mean much of anything at this point. Nominally, it corresponds to the size of the components the CPU is made of, but it has been basically replaced with marketing wank. \n\nBut you want the transistors as small as possible for a variety of reasons. For one, it makes it easier to fit more of them on the same size chip so you can make a more complex, more capable device. Also, historically, reducing the size of transistors let us decrease the voltage and power so that you can get more computation done with the same amount of energy and also increase the frequency so you can compute faster. That hasn't worked out as well for the last several node shrinks as it tended to for the preceding several decades though.",
"It refers to the size of the smallest circuitry features (i.e., transistors) that can be practically produced using that process. It's arbitrary, though, because there isn't really one value that sums up the process like that:\n\n > [While some claim that the node designation of \"7 nm\" has no physical meaning beyond marketing purposes, others point to transistor density as the real important number that is represented by these designations.](_URL_2_)\n\nSo, for example:\n\n > [a 25 nm wafer pattern should correspond to a 100 nm mask pattern, but the wafer tolerance could be 1.25 nm (5% spec), which translates into 5 nm on the photomask.](_URL_1_)\n\nWhich of these values \"correctly\" describes the technology is arbitrary.\n\nTypically the limiting factor is in [photolithography](_URL_0_) and [photomasking](_URL_1_) where the wavelength of light becomes critical to the results. You can always reduce the wavelength of your photon source, but it has to be effectively blocked by the mask and create the necessary reaction on the die, which becomes increasingly difficult."
],
"score": [
22,
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolithography#Resolution_in_projection_systems",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomask",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_nanometer"
]
}
|
What is the significance of an 7 nm node and what happens when we can’t go any smaller?
I read that AMD announced a 7nm GPU. What does “7nm architecture” mean and why that over a larger number? Also, what happens when we can’t go any smaller? I heard at one time people thought anything smaller than 10 was impossible.
|
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] |
|
tm02p
|
Furby is just shy of 15 years old. How advanced would a comparable toy be today?
|
In other words, how complex is consumer grade AI in 2012? I don't mean in conversation so much, but in its ability to react to its surroundings and learn over time. The only AI journalism I've seen recently is regarding really experimental technology or parroting programmes like Cleverbot and Siri, so I'm terribly out of the loop when it comes to where we're at in ready-to-ship artificial intelligence.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4ny2ss",
"c4nvvlm"
],
"text": [
"A college of mine is working on similar stuff, if a camera/furby type avatar is appropriately positioned it can act as a chess tutor. \n\nIt can recognise the location of pieces on the board and say if a move is valid. It can judge whether or not a child is paying attention to the chess board. It can also make a stab at if the child is happy or sad and adjust the difficulty accordingly.\n\nThe catch is that this requires a laptop's worth of processing power, it's not stand alone like a furby.",
"Image recognition is much more available and mature, so maybe such a toy could recognize different people and have trainable reactions to each of them. See [OpenCV](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://opencv.willowgarage.com/wiki/"
]
}
|
Furby is just shy of 15 years old. How advanced would a comparable toy be today?
In other words, how complex is consumer grade AI in 2012? I don't mean in conversation so much, but in its ability to react to its surroundings and learn over time. The only AI journalism I've seen recently is regarding really experimental technology or parroting programmes like Cleverbot and Siri, so I'm terribly out of the loop when it comes to where we're at in ready-to-ship artificial intelligence.
|
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] |
|
o6ft6
|
Anyone familiar with GST fusion proteins and how they are prepared?
|
Mostly the preparation I'm having difficulty grasping.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3ero1p"
],
"text": [
"Which part of the preparation are you having trouble with? I haven't actually used GST in particular but it is a similar concept as with any fusion tag. \n\nFirst step is the molecular cloning - The DNA sequence that encodes the GST tag is known, so you fuse this sequence in-frame with whatever protein you are interested in to form the fusion protein. This is probably done in a plasmid that has some other elements that are needed. I can go into more detail if this is where you are having problems.\n\nSecond step is to transform a host - Assuming you want to make your GST fusion protein in some organism other than what you made the plasmid in (likely *E. coli*), you are going to have to get that piece of DNA into whichever organism. This step really depends on what your host is. A lot of bacteria will just take up foreign DNA under certain conditions, with plants you use a bacterium called Agrobacterium... not sure about animal cell lines and all that.\n\nThird step is to purify the fusion protein - Again this depends on exactly what you are trying to do, but if you are using GST you are probably trying to \"pulldown\" your fusion protein and possibly find protein that interacts with your protein of interest. You do this by taking advantage of GST's high affinity to glutathione by using by small beads (usually agarose or sepharose) that are coated with glutathione to separate your fusion protein and anything that has high affinity for it from all the other junk. \n\nAgain I could give you more detail at any step, but that is the basics."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Anyone familiar with GST fusion proteins and how they are prepared?
Mostly the preparation I'm having difficulty grasping.
|
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7hz0w2
|
Can there be a relative extrema at the end point of an interval?
|
On my calculus test we were given a graph of f^1 (x) where the line crossed the x-axis at x=-2 going from positive to negative. The line later continued to cross the x-axis at x=4 and it went from negative to positive. The question asked was: For what values of x on the domain of [-3,5] does f(x) have a relative maximum?
In my answer I said that both x=-2 and x=5 were the relative maximums. I was marked wrong for it. My argument is that:
> Because f^1 (-3) = f^1 (5) and f^1 (-2) = 0 = f^1 (4) and the slopes from [-3,-2] and [4,5] are the same on the graph of f^1 (x) then f(-2) = f(5)
Therefore since their values are the same then they are both extremas.
|
askscience
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"**edit:** Just in case, please do not interpret what I have written below as some argument you can use against your teacher to get back points on an exam. You should always stick to the definitions and conventions used in that particular class to answer any questions. However, this topic is sufficiently confusing that I think it's important to address why there is such a big discrepancy between what calculus textbooks say and how calculus is actually done.\n\n---\n\nThe answer to the title question is \"yes\". However, almost all introductory calculus textbooks will tell you \"no\". As an educator myself who often teaches freshman calculus, this is a very big peeve of mine and causes endless confusion when it comes to constructing exam problems, assigning homework problems, grading exams, etc.\n\nSo why is there a discrepancy between introductory textbooks say and actual mathematics? Ultimately the discrepancy stems from the concept of \"open set\". Here is the (real) definition of relative maximum:\n\n > Let *f* be a function on some domain *D*. Suppose f(a) ≥ f(x) for all x in an open set containing *a*. Then f(a) is a relative (or local) maximum value of *f* on *D*.\n\nWhat does \"open set containing *a*\" mean? The term \"open set\" must always be considered relative to some topology. Of course, to be pedantic, that topology should always be specified. However, we have standard topologies when none are specifically given. In this case, the standard topology would be the *subspace topology* that *D* inherits from the real numbers. Now I understand this goes over the head of a calculus student. But there is actually a very simple way to explain it in this context.\n\nSuppose we have some function f(x) on the interval [0, 1]. What are the open ~~sets~~ intervals of [0, 1]? (Again, this is *open in the subspace topology*.) The open intervals of [0, 1] must have one of the following forms:\n\n* (a, b) with a ≥ 0 and b ≤ 1\n* [0, a) with a ≤ 1\n* (b, 1] with b ≥ 0\n* [0, 1]\n\n**Question:** Is f(1) = 1 a relative maximum value of f(x) = x on [0, 1]?\n\n**Answer:** Yes. The interval (0.99, 1] is an open set containing x = 1 and f(1) ≥ f(x) for all x in (0.99, 1]. \n\nNote that since the entire domain *D* is always open in itself, the (real) definition of relative maximum (or minimum) means that any *absolute* maximum (or minimum) is also a *relative* maximum (or minimum). This makes sense. If a value is the largest for *all* x, it should also be the largest for *nearby* x.\n\nSo where do the textbooks go wrong? Quite simply, they interpret \"open set\" incorrectly. Note that the last three classes of sets I listed above are *not* open in the entire real line. That is, they are not open intervals in (-∞, +∞). For instance, (0.5, 1] is open in [0, 1] but it is not open in (-∞, +∞). This means that the endpoint of a domain can *never* be the location of a relative extremum because there are no open sets containing that endpoint. ***This is absolutely ridiculous.***\n\nOf course, I am not proposing that we teach topology to calculus students. Textbooks can very simply change the definition of relative extremum to be the real definition. For instance, the following definition would work perfectly fine in calculus and be perfectly accessible.\n\n > Let *f* be a function on some domain *D*. Suppose f(a) ≥ f(x) for all x **that are both in *D* and** in an open interval containing *a*. Then f(a) is a relative (or local) maximum value of *f* on *D*.\n\nThis way, the textbook can preserve their (incorrect) notion of open set while giving the correct definition of relative extremum. Go back to the question of whether f(x) = x has a relative maximum at x = 1. With this definition, yes! Consider the open interval (0.99, 1.01). Then for all x in this interval **and in the domain [0, 1]** (i.e., for all x in the interval (0.99, 1]), f(1) = 1 is the largest value of *f*.\n\n---\n\nAs I pointed out, this causes unnecessary confusion, and all of the commonly used introductory calculus textbooks have this error. Stewart, Rogawski, Smith et al., etc. What's even worse is that because these textbooks have the wrong definition of relative maximum, they also end up having to give the wrong definition of some other concepts like critical point. The true definition of critical point is:\n\n > Suppose *x* is in the domain of *f*. Then we say *x* is a critical point of *f* if either f'(x) does not exist or f'(x) = 0.\n\nThis immediately implies that all endpoints of domains are critical points because a function cannot be differentiable at an endpoint. (This is because the derivative is defined as a two-sided limit.) So on the interval [-1, 1], the function f(x) = x^(2) has three critical points: x = -1, x = 0, and x = 1. (This is because f'(x) does not exist at either x = -1 or x = 1, and f'(x) = 0 at x = 0.) This is all well and good because why do we care about critical points? Fermat's theorem!\n\n > Suppose f(a) is a relative extreme value of *f* on some domain *D*. Then *a* is a critical point of *f* on *D*.\n\nIn other words, critical points tell us where relative extreme values can occur. Now since endpoints of the domain are always critical points, this theorem tells us that endpoints are always candidates for extreme values. Now the really funny thing here is the following sort of logic these textbook authors use:\n\n1. Give incorrect definition of relative extremum, which means they cannot occur at endpoints.\n2. Give correct definition of critical point and correct statement of Fermat's theorem.\n3. Tell students that to find the extreme values of a function on a closed, bounded interval, they must also check the endpoint values.\n\nThere is just a lot of unnecessary confusion and voodoo happening here. Note that the textbooks have to tell students to check endpoints because extreme values *can* occur at endpoints, but they also don't want to tell them relative extreme values occur at endpoints for some reason. So they have to give wrong definitions, and then later say \"oh my bad, check endpoints anyway\". \n\n---\n\nI really don't understand why many authors have chosen to teach calculus this way. It's not the way calculus is actually done. So you are right to be confused. Personally, I never construct a problem in such a way that a student has to tell me a relative extreme value is at an endpoint, for this very reason. I don't want to cause any further confusion. So I make all the intervals open. Or I simply ask for the global extreme values. Or whatever. I wish all teachers were mathematically strong *and* perceptive to these common errors, and thus constructed their exams and courses appropriately. But that's not the case.\n\nI've also been on a years-long crusade against the use of notation like \"sin x\" or \"cos^(2) x\" because that notation is actually inconsistent. Worse, it clashes with a perfectly fine consistent notation that treats trigonometric function symbols like any other function symbol. So something like \"sec(x+1)^(2)\" should be properly interpreted as \"(sec(x+1))^(2)\" but it gets interpreted as \"sec((x+1)^(2))\" because of this god-awful notation that many people in the mathematics world have picked up over the last century or so. But that's life."
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Can there be a relative extrema at the end point of an interval?
On my calculus test we were given a graph of f^1 (x) where the line crossed the x-axis at x=-2 going from positive to negative. The line later continued to cross the x-axis at x=4 and it went from negative to positive. The question asked was: For what values of x on the domain of [-3,5] does f(x) have a relative maximum? In my answer I said that both x=-2 and x=5 were the relative maximums. I was marked wrong for it. My argument is that: > Because f^1 (-3) = f^1 (5) and f^1 (-2) = 0 = f^1 (4) and the slopes from [-3,-2] and [4,5] are the same on the graph of f^1 (x) then f(-2) = f(5) Therefore since their values are the same then they are both extremas.
|
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|
1h50ue
|
What is a "discovery set" and "replication set"?
|
While I was reading some papers on genomics and eQTL studies, I noticed some papers referring to some parts of their sample as a "discovery set" and another part as a "replication set." I was not able to find a definition for these terms. Can anyone help clarify?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"car8sht"
],
"text": [
"A fear in any study is that differences between a two groups (ex. healthy and diseased) might be differences *only* between the two tested groups, and not the \"real\" differences between all healthy and all diseased individuals.\n\nThe replication set (or validation cohort) is a simple way to provide added assurance that the differences found in the original study are true to the phenomenon being studied -- it's just a second group, usually recruited in a slightly different context, that the same test is applied to. If the test accurately works for this second set, confidence in the result is higher.\n\nIt seems like there is no statistical grounding for this approach, however, since using both the original and validation cohort to define differences would produce a more accurate result than producing it in one and testing it in the other. Cost could be an alternate consideration that drives this two-group model: \"we tested 200 serum factors in our original cohort, and found 3 that were informative for our biological phenomenon. We confirmed that these 3 were important for our phenomenon in a replication set.\""
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is a "discovery set" and "replication set"?
While I was reading some papers on genomics and eQTL studies, I noticed some papers referring to some parts of their sample as a "discovery set" and another part as a "replication set." I was not able to find a definition for these terms. Can anyone help clarify?
|
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|
1hivxy
|
Modern problems and electric lighting?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"caurehx"
],
"text": [
"> I've often thought that if we just were allowed to get more sleep, the world would be a more pleasant place.\n\nThe worst parts of the world tend to be those places without regular electricity service IMO."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Modern problems and electric lighting?
|
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] |
||
3nzxku
|
Why do ground glass joints make such a great seal?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cvt656o"
],
"text": [
"They don't actually. You'll find that using a glass stopper in, say, an extraction funnel will lead to leakage.\n\nIn order to create a proper seal for applications like a rotary evaporator, you'd need [vacuum grease](_URL_0_) around all joints, or you won't maintain a vacuum."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_grease"
]
}
|
Why do ground glass joints make such a great seal?
|
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||
86gqt5
|
What is the minimum amount of curve/deflection a person can visually perceive without the aid of depth perception or a straight edge?
|
If you have an object/curve that fits into your central 30 degree visual field, but is not curved toward you, shaded or textured in a way that helps you pick up on its curvature, how curved does the image projected on your retina have to be for you to tell it isn't straight? I would imagine the answer taking the form of a ratio of apparent deflection of the middle to the apparent separation of the ends, or possibly in degrees of arc in the projected plane. I'm just looking for an amount of curve for which most people would agree that the thing was not straight.
Am I right to be concerned with the near-peripheral field? I am imagining beyond that, getting closer won't really help. If an object's curve can be detected more easily at a different field of view I'd be more interested in the lowest threshold of curvature perception whatever it happens to be, or any number really, that is better than a guess or anecdote.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dw51e5o"
],
"text": [
"Sorry I'm a little unclear about what you're asking. In the first sentence, you say that the object is not curved toward you and then you ask how you would be able to tell it isn't straight? I don't understand that..."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the minimum amount of curve/deflection a person can visually perceive without the aid of depth perception or a straight edge?
If you have an object/curve that fits into your central 30 degree visual field, but is not curved toward you, shaded or textured in a way that helps you pick up on its curvature, how curved does the image projected on your retina have to be for you to tell it isn't straight? I would imagine the answer taking the form of a ratio of apparent deflection of the middle to the apparent separation of the ends, or possibly in degrees of arc in the projected plane. I'm just looking for an amount of curve for which most people would agree that the thing was not straight. Am I right to be concerned with the near-peripheral field? I am imagining beyond that, getting closer won't really help. If an object's curve can be detected more easily at a different field of view I'd be more interested in the lowest threshold of curvature perception whatever it happens to be, or any number really, that is better than a guess or anecdote.
|
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] |
|
qiylp
|
Are there things we can see that we are no longer causally connected to?
|
Can we see things we are no longer causally connected to? The other night while falling asleep, I was thinking about really distant galaxies, and the fact that the light we are seeing from them is billions of years old, but then I remembered that the universe is expanding, and in fact, that the expansion is accelerating, which means by the time that light gets to us, that galaxy is no where near where I 'see' it to be (it's some huge distance further away because while that photon was traveling to us the actual galaxy has been moving away from us and we've been moving away from the position the photon started at!)
So does that mean that the farthest things we can see are in fact no longer causally connected to us because it's taken billions and billions of years for the light to get to us, and by now the increasing rate of expansion has caused the rate of expansion between us and the *actual galaxy* (not just the light we are seeing which is showing us a "position" and picture that is billions of years old) to become larger than the speed of light?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3y0yrc",
"c3y389u",
"c3y2ev6"
],
"text": [
"The answer is \"yes, objects can vanish from our lightcone because their relative speed exceeds the speed of light\" I could go on and talk more about it, but it would be basically paraphrasing [this article](_URL_0_)",
"No, we would still be causally connected to something if we can see its light, even if it took billions of years to get to us. It has not left our observable universe if we can still see it. Simultaneous is relative. Even if it has passed the radius (distance from us to them) of the observable universe in its local reference frame it has not in *ours*, which is the only one we care about.\n\nBut there are galaxies and other structures leaving our observable universe \"all the time\" as they get too far away and get red shifted until we can no longer see them.",
"Absolutely. As long as the Universe is accelerating - and observations suggest that it is - things which we can see now will in the future be unobservable. So there are some galaxies, past a certain distance, such that if we sent them a signal and they sent one back, we would never receive the reply."
],
"score": [
3,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe"
]
}
|
Are there things we can see that we are no longer causally connected to?
Can we see things we are no longer causally connected to? The other night while falling asleep, I was thinking about really distant galaxies, and the fact that the light we are seeing from them is billions of years old, but then I remembered that the universe is expanding, and in fact, that the expansion is accelerating, which means by the time that light gets to us, that galaxy is no where near where I 'see' it to be (it's some huge distance further away because while that photon was traveling to us the actual galaxy has been moving away from us and we've been moving away from the position the photon started at!) So does that mean that the farthest things we can see are in fact no longer causally connected to us because it's taken billions and billions of years for the light to get to us, and by now the increasing rate of expansion has caused the rate of expansion between us and the *actual galaxy* (not just the light we are seeing which is showing us a "position" and picture that is billions of years old) to become larger than the speed of light?
|
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] |
|
qktk2
|
Anyone work with error prone PCR?
|
Error prone PCR was mentioned in my biotech lecture a while back, but I want to know more about it. From what I understand so far it can be used to induce mutations to come up with "better" functioning proteins or regulatory sequence (eg. stronger promoters). I guess I'm most curious as to how effective the technique is. It seems like you would have to do a lot of sifting through "harmfull" mutations in your PCR product to find one with benefit (no natural selection working in vitro).
|
askscience
|
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],
"text": [
"It can be very beneficial if you design your experiment well.\n\nYou have to design a screen or selection to test your mutants. If you design a selection, the mutants the perform worse will be outcompeted and those that perform well will be increased.\n\nFor example: you could place the large number of mutant promoters in front of an essential nutritional gene on a yeast plasmid (ex: *URA3*, required for growth in media lacking uracil). Then grow the yeast (normally ura3-) in media lacking uracil. Only those that express Ura3p will grow. Those that make more will grow better. After a few generations, you can extract the plasmids and sequence them to determine which promoters worked well (the yeast survived and divided and thus are enriched) and which (because they were lost because the yeast died) did not perform well.\n\nThis sort of selection will enrich for strong promoters. You can then take what you've learned from the first round to make additional specific mutations, or to choose parts of the promoter to mutate again.\n\nThis sort of experiment only works well if you have an efficient method of screening/selecting better functioning proteins and lets you go back from the better protein to the DNA easily (if you express a bunch of mutant proteins, find which one works well, but can't connect it to the original mutant DNA sequence it's not very useful).",
"Yes.\n\nPretty much every time I try to run a PCR, actually. :\\"
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Anyone work with error prone PCR?
Error prone PCR was mentioned in my biotech lecture a while back, but I want to know more about it. From what I understand so far it can be used to induce mutations to come up with "better" functioning proteins or regulatory sequence (eg. stronger promoters). I guess I'm most curious as to how effective the technique is. It seems like you would have to do a lot of sifting through "harmfull" mutations in your PCR product to find one with benefit (no natural selection working in vitro).
|
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] |
|
32093g
|
Anyone know what this is? Its like a silver looking piece of cloud with a red cloud next to it.
|
_URL_0_
_URL_1_
I was walking the kids to school we saw this. Just kinda wondering what is going on here so I can better explain what this is. Thanks again!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cq6rptz"
],
"text": [
"It's hard to tell for sure without a higher-resolution look, but it's almost certainly [cloud iridescence](_URL_1_) in some very small clouds. It is a diffraction phenomenon, caused when all the cloud droplets (or ice particles if it is an ice cloud) are the same size.\n\nIt's a fairly common phenomenon in general, especially in mountainous areas like yours, but it usually occurs much closer to the sun, so it's hard to see. Also, it usually occurs in smooth clouds such as [lenticular clouds](_URL_0_); seeing it in puffy, cumuluform clouds like these is pretty rare."
],
"score": [
15
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gsz9utrC3co",
"http://i.imgur.com/jcIkY8z.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/droplets/iridim4.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_iridescence"
]
}
|
Anyone know what this is? Its like a silver looking piece of cloud with a red cloud next to it.
_URL_0_ _URL_1_ I was walking the kids to school we saw this. Just kinda wondering what is going on here so I can better explain what this is. Thanks again!
|
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|
11frr6
|
Question about strange elastic wire (metal).
|
I used to go to prep high school where a lot of kids parents had really interesting jobs. Well in my Chem 201 class one day one of my class mates brought in two strange metals that his dad's company had been experimenting with.
The first one looked like a spring that would bend out of it's shape in a similar fashion to something like a paper clip if you pulled and contorted it but if you put it in your hand and breath on it it would curl back up into it's original shape due to the heat. It was pretty cool.
But the one I was really amazed by (but only got to play with for about 30 seconds) was a wire that you would wrap around both hands and when you pulled it would stretch about 20% and cease stretching and act like any other normal wire. And when you stop applying pressure it would pull back to it's original length just like an elastic. It really was amazing, experience tells you metal isn't supposed to do that so it just feels weird.
Anyways since then I have been unable to locate what this metal was and would like to find out what it was I was playing with.
Thanks Ask Science!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6m56o6"
],
"text": [
"I think you're looking at something called a shape memory alloy. There are a variety of different types - a common one is nitinol, a near 50/50 mixture of nickle and titanium.\n\nThe wiki article is actually a pretty good place to start, but I can give a rough overview. The atoms in metals and alloys typically organize into repeating crystalline structures. The exact format of these structures can vary and are called phases. Shape memory alloys exploit that straining certain alloys can induce a phase change (for example, the new configuration could take up more shape along the axis of stress). These phases changes will reverse when the stress is removed. This is what allows them to return to their original shape even after going 'too much' strain.\n\nThis effect is called the psuedo or super elastic effect. This is one of the two effects of SMAs, the other being the shape memory effect."
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Question about strange elastic wire (metal).
I used to go to prep high school where a lot of kids parents had really interesting jobs. Well in my Chem 201 class one day one of my class mates brought in two strange metals that his dad's company had been experimenting with. The first one looked like a spring that would bend out of it's shape in a similar fashion to something like a paper clip if you pulled and contorted it but if you put it in your hand and breath on it it would curl back up into it's original shape due to the heat. It was pretty cool. But the one I was really amazed by (but only got to play with for about 30 seconds) was a wire that you would wrap around both hands and when you pulled it would stretch about 20% and cease stretching and act like any other normal wire. And when you stop applying pressure it would pull back to it's original length just like an elastic. It really was amazing, experience tells you metal isn't supposed to do that so it just feels weird. Anyways since then I have been unable to locate what this metal was and would like to find out what it was I was playing with. Thanks Ask Science!
|
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] |
|
16wqma
|
Do you and I see the same colors?
|
Do we all see the same colors?(excluding color-blind people) Is the color red that I see the same as the red you see? Or, for example, is it possible that the blue I see is the red you see? Is it possible that this is what decides a person's favorite color?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8020lj",
"c805m01",
"c80i7rn"
],
"text": [
"[Is it possible that you and I see the same colors differently?](_URL_0_)",
"The thing you're asking about has a name, [qualia](_URL_1_), which is the experience of consciousness. Such as, what do you perceive when your eye looks at something blue, or what does spinach taste like. This tends to be difficult to study, but here is a good example. The reason why kids tend to dislike vegetables is because they're more sensitive to compounds that are bitter, as we age, we lose some of our sensitivity to bitter. This is an example in the change in qualia over time.",
"Physically, the same wavelengths of light will excite the same photoreceptors in the eye, but people have varying concentrations and distributions of these photoreceptors. Emotional repsonses to colors also have variations between people. [source](_URL_2_)"
],
"score": [
9,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/qfqad/is_it_possible_that_you_and_i_see_the_same_colors/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia",
"http://www.ca.uky.edu/hes/fcs/FACTSHTS/HF-LRA.151.PDF"
]
}
|
Do you and I see the same colors?
Do we all see the same colors?(excluding color-blind people) Is the color red that I see the same as the red you see? Or, for example, is it possible that the blue I see is the red you see? Is it possible that this is what decides a person's favorite color?
|
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31kuqt
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How did Lene Hau stop a beam of light?
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I asked this in the subreddit intended for simplified explanations, sorta like what a 5 year old may use to describe things (bot deleted my post last time for using the subreddit name), but had no luck. If anyone here can help me out, I'd very much appreciate it(:
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cq2j903"
],
"text": [
"Basically the light was absorbed in a really cold gas called a Bose-Einstein condensate, which acts like a single atom. Because of that, it was able to absorb the light as a whole (rather than each individual atom doing its own thing), and because it was so cold it didn't lose coherence (e.g. diffuse around randomly on an atomic level) before re-emitting the light."
],
"score": [
12
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How did Lene Hau stop a beam of light?
I asked this in the subreddit intended for simplified explanations, sorta like what a 5 year old may use to describe things (bot deleted my post last time for using the subreddit name), but had no luck. If anyone here can help me out, I'd very much appreciate it(:
|
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|
pecif
|
Is there anything behind the "fat burn" vs. "cardio" settings on the exercise machines at the gym?
|
A number of exercise machines at the gym will track your heart rate. They usually have some range of heart rate labeled something like "fat burn" and another range labeled something like "cardio". The fat burn is always lower than cardio. For example, fat burn might be 110-130 bpm and cardio might be 130-150 bpm. These numbers are approximate, because the machines vary them by age.
Does keeping your heart rate in the fat burn range actually help you lose weight more quickly? If so, why? How does your body respond differently to the different intensity workouts?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3oomjz",
"c3opgh6",
"c3oswjd",
"c3p1opy"
],
"text": [
"The fat burning zone is the biggest myth in fitness. It's based on the idea that as you transition to higher intensities you switch substrates from fat to glycogen. This is true, but by that logic the truest fat burning zone is when you sleep (or lie still while relaxed) because you are burning 100% fat. The problem is the the total calories burned per minute at low intensities is too low to significantly affect body composition without exercising for several hours. As intensity increases the ratio switches but burning 400 kcals an hour that is 50% fat is better than 200 kcals an hour that is 90% fat. There is a sweet spot of intensity that allows improvements in cardiovascular fitness, energy expenditure and fat burning, and is sustainable and it's significantly higher than the fat burning zone. If your fat burn zone is 130 bpm you should be thinking at least 150. Though variety is important too, but that's another story.\n\nTo learn about substrate usage look up RER (respiratory exchange ratio) tables. \n\nSource: I'm a PhD student in bioenergetics. I live and breathe this shit",
"i asked the gym instructor the exact same thing - and got a good answer in laymans terms- his answer was along the lines of this - cardio will technically burn the most fat but you cant really keep your maximum intensity up for long, maybe 10 mins at most, so then on fat burn it uses the interval training method, using your maximum intensity for short bursts then back down. you can then train for longer. i believed it but now some of the answers below from brainy people are making me doubt it!\n\nedit - spelling",
"I'm a kinesiology student in upper year research physiology. It isn't necessarily a myth but it comes down to proportions of fuel use. Your body uses four sources of fuel when you do exercise: glucose and fatty acids stored in your muscle and glycogen and triglycerides stored elsewhere or in your blood. As you increase the intensity towards maximum, the ratios of fuel use increases because some forms of fuel are easier to create energy with or they're quicker. It depends. Anywho, around 65-70% HR max, while you're burning fewer calories than you would be at 80-85%, a greater portion of it comes from fat. Therefore, fat burning. It makes sense, because at really high intensities, your heart, being a muscle, needs quick and easy fuel to keep it going at that intensity, and compared to a triglyceride or a fatty acid, glucose and glycogen look mighty fine to your body.\n\nHope that helps. It isn't a myth, but it depends on the person as well. You'll use more fat as fuel as sub-max intensities, but at near-max, you'll burn more calories, just more carbohydrates, so fuel up, mofuckas.",
"Top 3 are bro science citing no research. Leave it to an exercise thread, always brings out the factual info"
],
"score": [
411,
4,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is there anything behind the "fat burn" vs. "cardio" settings on the exercise machines at the gym?
A number of exercise machines at the gym will track your heart rate. They usually have some range of heart rate labeled something like "fat burn" and another range labeled something like "cardio". The fat burn is always lower than cardio. For example, fat burn might be 110-130 bpm and cardio might be 130-150 bpm. These numbers are approximate, because the machines vary them by age. Does keeping your heart rate in the fat burn range actually help you lose weight more quickly? If so, why? How does your body respond differently to the different intensity workouts?
|
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7w6lc6
|
Do proteins at the molecular level "‘live’ in a world governed by the laws of quantum physics."?
|
I was surprised by the below interview with this mathematician Dr. Joseph Geraci in which he posits that "when you want to really get down to the level of small molecules and figure out how to engineer a protein to configure itself in a precise way, that becomes incredibly difficult. The reason is because by their nature, proteins are quantum. They are hundreds of amino acids that clump together yet emerge as this very specific shape that has a very specific job as a result of a variety of evolutionary forces. But ultimately they are quantum in their nature, they ‘live’ in a world governed by the laws of quantum physics."
I had not ever heard of anything of the sort - eg. proteins being governed by the laws of quantum physics. But I also realize that I might not fully understand quantum physics.
Can somebody opine on this?
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Well, this is my area so I could write about this all day, really. To try to keep it short..\n\nUltimately, everything is quantum-mechanical of course. But chemistry is indeed entirely quantum-mechanical. Whether you know it or not (and most would be in the 'or not' camp), everything we know about atoms and electrons and chemical bonds and so on are ultimately from quantum mechanics. All models of chemical bonding and such are from quantum mechanics. All of chemistry is quantum-mechanical in that sense. There's simply no workable classical model of the atom. It was that was the specific problem that lead to the development of QM in the first place.\n\nSo the question is really what the question is. One would be: Are there non-trivial quantum effects at play in proteins/enzymes? In other words, are there quantum effects outside what you see (or could see) in the rest of chemistry? The answer to that is no, as far as we know, there isn't.\n\nOn the other hand, there are many many complex chemical reactions performed in enzymes (reaction-catalyzing proteins) that we haven't observed elsewhere. And in some cases that can require a more explicitly quantum-mechanical model to explain than is usually used in chemistry. However there are exotic reactions like that outside of enzymes too, so again you can't really say proteins are any more or less quantum in that respect either.\n\nAnother question would be whether quantum-mechanical calculations are required to understand or model proteins. The answer to that is that it depends on what specific aspect you're looking at. The overall _structure_ of proteins and protein folding is usually modeled with a semi-classical ('molecular mechanics') model, which uses results from quantum mechanics but classical-mechanical rather than explicit QM calculations. \n\nHowever, those models cannot describe reactions, the breaking and forming of bonds. Nor can you model things like electron transfer (or anything to do with electrons changing state), or energy transfer, or something like the absorption of light by chlorophyll in Photosystem II. As soon as you get down to the level of electrons and photons you do need explicit QM calculations. Again, there's no usable classical model of how those things work here so although it's quantum-mechanical you'd also expect it to require QM. Electrons move about quantum-mechanically. (but atoms heavier than hydrogen don't do it to a significant extent, even in QM models it's usually just the electrons being treated that way, while the nuclei are treated classically)\n\nHowever, QM calculations require too much computing power to be able to model more than a few hundred atoms at usable accuracy, which is far from a whole protein, and we won't be able to do full proteins anytime soon. For that reason there are also hybrid \"QM/MM\" models that combine both into one, using QM for where reactions happen and MM for the rest of the structure. \n\nIn short, predicting protein structure doesn't necessarily require QM, but predicting enzyme reactions, like reactions in general, does. And QM often has to be used to calculate the parameters for the semi-classical models. Ultimately everything is indeed QM indeed, but it's not computationally feasible nor accurate enough to use it for everything.",
"Yes, in general, it is correct to say that the \"quantum\" nature of matter is relevant for molecules. For example, even large molecules have been observed to be in \"quantum superposition.\" [Here](_URL_0_) is an example article about such an experiment. More generally, molecules interact through various chemical bonds, our understanding of the properties of which are derived from the study of the quantum mechanics of atoms.",
"I think it's fair to say that in most cases classical mechanics electrostatics are a good approximation for the function of proteins. I can think of two examples though.\n\nLinus Pauling was one of the first to figure out how the secondary structures of proteins form. Proteins partially rely on hydrogen bonding to maintain this structure, and hydrogen bonding would not be very strong at all if not for the quantum nature of atoms.\n\nAnother example of quantum mechanics in proteins is tunnelling. Proteins often transfer charges around, for example in the proteins which are responsible for cellular respiration. Often these charges need to jump from one site in the protein to another. Classical mechanics would predict this jumps to be fairly slow, but the electrons are actually able to tunnel between the sites. This greatly enhances the rate at which the proteins can do their jobs.",
"Everything small enough (around the nanometric scale) is governed by quantum mechanics, a lot of stuff you learn about molecular chemistery is derived from quantum mechanics, e.g. the resonance in benzene rings is caused to de deslocalization of electrons due to their dual wave-particle nature. Quantum mechanics are usually far from our percepcion because effects are so small or get eavend out, but that's not always the case.\n[Here](_URL_2_) is a small article about birds migration and quantum entanglement.\n[Here](_URL_2_) is one about quantum mechanics and photosynthesis."
],
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"https://tmrwedition.com/2018/02/08/interview-with-mathematician-medical-scientist-and-quantum-computation-specialist-dr-joseph-geraci/"
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|
{
"url": [
"https://medium.com/the-physics-arxiv-blog/physicists-smash-record-for-wave-particle-duality-462c39db8e7b",
"http://www.physicscentral.com/explore/action/pia-entanglement.cfm",
"https://phys.org/news/2014-01-quantum-mechanics-efficiency-photosynthesis.html"
]
}
|
Do proteins at the molecular level "‘live’ in a world governed by the laws of quantum physics."?
I was surprised by the below interview with this mathematician Dr. Joseph Geraci in which he posits that "when you want to really get down to the level of small molecules and figure out how to engineer a protein to configure itself in a precise way, that becomes incredibly difficult. The reason is because by their nature, proteins are quantum. They are hundreds of amino acids that clump together yet emerge as this very specific shape that has a very specific job as a result of a variety of evolutionary forces. But ultimately they are quantum in their nature, they ‘live’ in a world governed by the laws of quantum physics." I had not ever heard of anything of the sort - eg. proteins being governed by the laws of quantum physics. But I also realize that I might not fully understand quantum physics. Can somebody opine on this? _URL_0_
|
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] |
|
1cdici
|
Proof by physical experiment?
|
Recently i come across the internet, a teacher first fills two water tanks with volume a^2 and b^2 in full, then fill another c^2 large water tank with those two. The water fills the tank in full volume, no more no less, hence "proved" the Pythagoras theorem.
I know that physics and mathematics contribute in a highly collaborative manner, but proof of an open problem in mathematics by physical experiment is quite unheard of.
That's all of my question, however, since one can reverse engineer the physical experiment to write mathematical proof quite easily, any interesting, innovating physical experiment or phenomenon(you can't comb a hair ball) is also welcome but not preferred.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9fggts"
],
"text": [
"All experiments, no matter how precise the instrumentation, have experimental error. Because of this, there cannot be an actual proof by physical experiment. While the tank example is nice, it only shows that c^2 is within some error factor of a^2 + b^2 rather than actual equality, and further only shows it for those particular values of a, b, and c rather than any appropriate values.\n\nReverse engineering a physical proof won't really work either, the tank proof gives no insight into *why* the quantities are equal, not in a way you could write down as a deduction from simpler statements.\n\nFor a more extreme example, one of the seven millennium problems, some of the biggest open problems in all of mathematics, deals with the existence of solutions to a certain special equation: Navier-Stokes. This equation essentially allows you to plug in the state of a fluid at a given moment and the solution tells you what the fluid will do. To a physicist, the fact that we cannot prove solutions always exist is nonsense: just take an actual fluid and put it any given way, and it *must* do *something*, therefore what it does is the solution! Unfortunately, that isn't math."
],
"score": [
14
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
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Proof by physical experiment?
Recently i come across the internet, a teacher first fills two water tanks with volume a^2 and b^2 in full, then fill another c^2 large water tank with those two. The water fills the tank in full volume, no more no less, hence "proved" the Pythagoras theorem. I know that physics and mathematics contribute in a highly collaborative manner, but proof of an open problem in mathematics by physical experiment is quite unheard of. That's all of my question, however, since one can reverse engineer the physical experiment to write mathematical proof quite easily, any interesting, innovating physical experiment or phenomenon(you can't comb a hair ball) is also welcome but not preferred.
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|
1f7smd
|
What's the difference between Alien hand & Anarchic hand syndrome? [also posted in r/psychology]
|
At first I thought they were synonymous but upon further research, I realized they were different at least agency wise. I just can't understand the physiological difference and the behavioral difference (in the sense of ownership & such). I also couldn't but notice its significance on free will. Is anyone familiar with this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ca7ozor"
],
"text": [
"As far as I'm aware, alien and anarchic hand syndrome are synonymous terms. Alien hand syndrome can be described as a loss of agency with preserved awareness of ownership over the affected limb and I'm not aware of any other definition for anarchic hand syndrome. Perhaps the loss of agency is not as severe in Anarchic Hand Syndrome? Could you provide a link to where you read about this?\n\nIn regards to free will, AHS is potentially a result of a loss of free will, or more appropriately \"Free won't\" by which patients lose the capability to suppress exogenously generated actions due to lesions in volition/control regions of the brain (SMA and SEF). \n\nI recently attended some lectures by a leading researcher in AHS (Jennifer McBride) perhaps consulting some of her research could provide the insight you require?"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What's the difference between Alien hand & Anarchic hand syndrome? [also posted in r/psychology]
At first I thought they were synonymous but upon further research, I realized they were different at least agency wise. I just can't understand the physiological difference and the behavioral difference (in the sense of ownership & such). I also couldn't but notice its significance on free will. Is anyone familiar with this?
|
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|
6afo7p
|
Aren't we all(humans, plants, animals, basically everything that is alive on Earth) related?
|
Don't we all have a common ancestor?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dhe7uml",
"dhexv69"
],
"text": [
"Yep, evolutionary ancestry of all life we know of can be traced back to the [Last Universal Common Ancester](_URL_0_), aka LUCA. This includes animals (incl. humans), plants, fungi, bacteria and archaea. Intermediate ancestors (ex. LUCA to all animals) also existed at one time and can be modeled through evolutionary biology.\n\nWhile LUCA no longer exists in it's ancestral form, we can even study what it might have been like through analysis of conserved genetic elements and evolutionary relationships.\n\n > Research published in 2016, by William F. Martin, by genetically sequencing 6.1 million protein coding genes from sequenced prokaryotic genomes of various phylogenetic trees, identified 355 protein clusters from amongst 286,514 protein clusters that were probably common to the LUCA. The results \"depict LUCA as anaerobic, CO2-fixing, H2-dependent with a Wood–Ljungdahl pathway (the reductive acetyl-coenzyme A pathway), N2-fixing and thermophilic. LUCA's biochemistry was replete with FeS clusters and radical reaction mechanisms. Its cofactors reveal dependence upon transition metals, flavins, S-adenosyl methionine, coenzyme A, ferredoxin, molybdopterin, corrins and selenium. Its genetic code required nucleoside modifications and S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methylations.\" The results depict methanogenic clostria as a basal clade in the 355 lineages examined, and suggest that the LUCA inhabited an anaerobic hydrothermal vent setting in a geochemically active environment rich in H2, CO2, and iron.[22]",
"This question means a lot for the origin of life and for our expectation to find it on other planets.\n\nIf [abiogenesis](_URL_1_) happened only once on Earth, then all species are related, and the probability of life arising spontaneously may be low.\n\nIf abiogenesis happened multiple times independently, then the chances of it happening are higher. In this case not all species on Earth would be related to each other, and our expectation to find extraterrestrial life would increase.\n\nAs /u/sciklops said, all evolutionary ancenstry can be traced back. So it would appear that abiogenesis happened only once. This isn't a definite answer though, since it is still possible that other independent lifeforms arose at some point but quickly became extinct as they couldn't compete against already existing life. Anyway the answer to your question is yes, all *currently living* beings are related.\n\nThere's also the panspermia theory that proposes that life can spread between planets when microorganisms are carried by meteors. This opens the way to other possibilities, e.g. abiogenesis having happened only once in the entire universe, or multiple lifeforms from independent origins having arrived to the same planet. Anyway the latter surely isn't the case on Earth."
],
"score": [
36,
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis"
]
}
|
Aren't we all(humans, plants, animals, basically everything that is alive on Earth) related?
Don't we all have a common ancestor?
|
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|
4k4ju4
|
How is it helpful to consider stresses at the material point as a sum of hydrostatic stress and deviatoric stress?
|
I'm in my first year at university and we're told that the stresses at a point can be re-written to be the hydrostatic stresses + the deviatoric stress, and I was wondering what uses this has over having just the stresses as they are.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d3ctctd"
],
"text": [
"Has to do with the way materials fail. Simply put, hydrostatic stresses change volume and deviatoric stresses change shape of a material. Some circumstances benefit from separating the two changes. Also, many metals can withstand high hydrostatic stress, but fail when the deviatoric stress is too high. This is because the deviatoric stresses change the shape of the metal structure at the molecular level. Again, very simple explanation."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How is it helpful to consider stresses at the material point as a sum of hydrostatic stress and deviatoric stress?
I'm in my first year at university and we're told that the stresses at a point can be re-written to be the hydrostatic stresses + the deviatoric stress, and I was wondering what uses this has over having just the stresses as they are.
|
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] |
|
m6pr3
|
What synapomorphy separates Cycads and Ginkgos from the rest of the Gymnosperms?
|
I was looking at a phylogenetic tree similar to [this](_URL_0_) one, as well at studying samples in a biology lab on plant species morphology. I understand what separates gymnosperms and angiosperms, and what separates seed plants from the rest of the land plants. What I'm wondering is what specifically makes Cycads and Ginkgo different from the rest of the Gymnosperms or vice versa.
Edit: This isn't an assignment or anything. I asked my professor and he didn't know, but suggested I research it on my own.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2yk7sb"
],
"text": [
"There may not be any clear morphological synapomorphies. Most modern studies of the basal branching order of green plants and the relationships between their higher-level taxa rely on molecular data. So in the case of a particular relationship like cycads + *Gingko* comprising a sister group to the rest of the gymnosperms, the informative synapomorphies would be shared nucleotide bases at homologous variable sites of particular, highly conserved genes (e.g., ribosomal genes). \n\nIn any case, I don't think the monophyly of cycads and gingkos is very well supported. I found some other trees depicting them as paraphyletic. The relevant [tree of life project page](_URL_0_) presents these taxa in a large unresolved monotomy with other basal groups, although the reference list for the phylogeny cites nothing more recent than 2002."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.botany.wisc.edu/courses/botany_400/images/lectureImages/SeedPlants.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://tolweb.org/Spermatopsida/20622"
]
}
|
What synapomorphy separates Cycads and Ginkgos from the rest of the Gymnosperms?
I was looking at a phylogenetic tree similar to [this](_URL_0_) one, as well at studying samples in a biology lab on plant species morphology. I understand what separates gymnosperms and angiosperms, and what separates seed plants from the rest of the land plants. What I'm wondering is what specifically makes Cycads and Ginkgo different from the rest of the Gymnosperms or vice versa. Edit: This isn't an assignment or anything. I asked my professor and he didn't know, but suggested I research it on my own.
|
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|
9krw5o
|
Is there evidence that GR is realized with curved spaced rather than torsion or non-metricity?
|
I have heard that there are formulations of GR which use torsion or non-metricity of space and I am interested in how one would distinguish them with measurements and, as a bonus, how to imagine what non-metricity actually is.
Would these different formulations potentially solve problems like dark matter or dark energy?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e727nl6",
"e72euqz"
],
"text": [
"Ordinary GR considers spacetime to be curved, with no torsion. This works extremely well for almost all measurements.\n\nExtending general relativity with torsion is called *Einstein-Cartan theory*. This gives predictions which one can measure. Here is one such paper, setting a very low upper limit on the existence of torsion:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nNote that this entails torsion *on top of* curvature. It is hard to imagine how you could make a viable theory without any curvature at all.",
"Non-metric theories of gravity do not obey the strong equivalence principle, and many are ignored for that reason. Any such theory would have to reconcile with the existing limits that are observationally placed on such deviations."
],
"score": [
7,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://arxiv.org/abs/0712.4393"
]
}
|
Is there evidence that GR is realized with curved spaced rather than torsion or non-metricity?
I have heard that there are formulations of GR which use torsion or non-metricity of space and I am interested in how one would distinguish them with measurements and, as a bonus, how to imagine what non-metricity actually is. Would these different formulations potentially solve problems like dark matter or dark energy?
|
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|
1wvwyg
|
Pair production and frames of reference
|
> "Photon-nucleus pair production can only occur if the photons have an energy exceeding twice the rest energy (mc^2 ) of an electron (1.022 MeV)" [Wikipedia - Pair production](_URL_0_)
So a photon with an energy greater of 1.022 MeV can do pair production. Let's assume a photon with exactly 1.022 MeV that produces a e^+ e^- pair in my laboratory system.
My question is: What happens in other inertial reference frames where the photon is red shifted and does not have enough energy to create a e^+ e^- pair? What does an observer see from here?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cf651oi"
],
"text": [
"An isolated photon, whatever its energy, cannot decay into an e^(+)e^(-) pair.\n\nWhat we are looking at here is the process\n\n photon+nucleus -- > e^(+)+e^(-)+nucleus.\n\nIn photon-nucleus pair production, the condition that the photon energy must exceed 1.022 MeV only holds in the frame of reference in which the nucleus is at rest.\n\nIn the frame of reference you want to switch to, the photon will be less energetic but the nucleus will be more energetic, and the pair production will still occur, but some of the requisite energy will come from the kinetic energy of the nucleus.\n\nAs you correctly surmise, whether or not pair production occurs cannot depend on the frame of reference."
],
"score": [
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_production#Energy"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Pair production and frames of reference
> "Photon-nucleus pair production can only occur if the photons have an energy exceeding twice the rest energy (mc^2 ) of an electron (1.022 MeV)" [Wikipedia - Pair production](_URL_0_) So a photon with an energy greater of 1.022 MeV can do pair production. Let's assume a photon with exactly 1.022 MeV that produces a e^+ e^- pair in my laboratory system. My question is: What happens in other inertial reference frames where the photon is red shifted and does not have enough energy to create a e^+ e^- pair? What does an observer see from here?
|
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|
3nmd8j
|
I took a picture of a plane in the sky and it looks like there is a path drawn in front of it alredy. Anyone knows why?
|
[here](_URL_0_) is the picture. thnx!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cvpjb53"
],
"text": [
"If you look at the buildings, you can see that the sun is behind the plane. What you are seeing is the shadow from the condensation trail. [You can find many similar images online](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
11
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/1MfZxbn"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=contrail+shadow"
]
}
|
I took a picture of a plane in the sky and it looks like there is a path drawn in front of it alredy. Anyone knows why?
[here](_URL_0_) is the picture. thnx!
|
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] |
|
5i4mho
|
Why (in good conditions), a moving light appears to make a sequencial trail ? - - - -
|
When you look at a fix point, and if a light emmiter move fast enough in your vision, you dont see a
continuous light trail, but a separated one, with regular empty spaces.
What is that?
Some indication of how consciousness works ?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"db61bwa",
"db5kotn"
],
"text": [
"If you are talking about things like tail lights or brake lights on cars, lots of modern cars have LEDs for those lights. LEDs are strange little components that don't work at all like regular incandescent lights. In order to get a lot of light out of an LED without it burning up, they add some electronics that turns the LED on and off very fast. By varying the ratio of \"on time\" to \"off time\" they control the apparent brightness. As long as the the LEDs aren't moving across your field of vision, they appear to just be on. This is due in part to the limits of our vision (persistence of vision). But when the LEDs move quickly across our field of vision, we can see the individual light pulses. \n\nA similar thing happens with street lights. These are a type of gas discharge lamp that is pulsing on and off because the electricity powering them is alternating current (AC).\n\nThe effect is nearly nonexistent with incandescent lamps because they contain a metal filament that is heated by the current flowing through it. The filament doesn't cool off in between the pulses of current so the light appears to be constant rather than pulsing.",
"The most likely explanation is that the light source is being powered by an AC current, and so is flashing on/off (or bright/dim) at a high frequency. Trailed exposures of e.g. streetlamps can sometimes show this effect."
],
"score": [
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why (in good conditions), a moving light appears to make a sequencial trail ? - - - -
When you look at a fix point, and if a light emmiter move fast enough in your vision, you dont see a continuous light trail, but a separated one, with regular empty spaces. What is that? Some indication of how consciousness works ?
|
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|
4zr0uw
|
[biology/chemistry] If you analyze a winegum/jelly closely, will you be able to see that there is animal gelatine in it in some way?
|
I have recently thought about whether or not you could trace back components from a winegum, or any candy for that matter, to the animal the gelatine originated from or if it will dissolve into untraceable bits. So can you, by analyzing a winegum, see if there's traces of animals in it in any way?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d6y545i",
"d6yywfp"
],
"text": [
"Gelatin is derived from collagen, a protein. During the process of making gelatin, intact collagen is hydrolyzed, i.e. broken up into little bits.\n\nTheoretically, you could dissolve a winegum, subject it to mass spectrometry, and identify the collagen peptides. In a perfect situation, you could then use those peptides to identify the animal from which the collagen came from (because different species will have slight differences in the sequence of their collagen protein).",
"You could use FTIR and look for peptide bonds.\n\nYou could do Kjeldahl analysis and look for nitrogen. \n\nGelatin is protein. Most replacements (agar, pectin, etc) are carbohydrates. Proteins contain nitrogen, carbohydrates don't.\n\nIf you wanted a quick way, you could grind up some fresh (not canned or packaged in any way) papaya or pineapple juice and expose the target candies for a few hours. If they break down completely, they were gelatin based. If they just swell and lose color or something like that they're not.\n\nPapaya and pineapple have an enzyme that destroys proteins. This is why you can't use them in jello unless they're cooked, but I assume OP is a vegan.\n\nEdit: do you want to know what kind of animal it came from? That's more complicated, and would probably require a Western Blot."
],
"score": [
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
[biology/chemistry] If you analyze a winegum/jelly closely, will you be able to see that there is animal gelatine in it in some way?
I have recently thought about whether or not you could trace back components from a winegum, or any candy for that matter, to the animal the gelatine originated from or if it will dissolve into untraceable bits. So can you, by analyzing a winegum, see if there's traces of animals in it in any way?
|
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|
lg3gc
|
Question on diffusion in respiration
|
So I understand the process of diffusion of gasses into the blood stream at the alveolar level, due to differing partial pressures between atmospheric levels and levels in the blood.
What I don't understand is why, when oxygen is in the lungs it has whatever partial pressure it has (say 100 mmHg), and it diffuses into the blood because it has a lower partial pressure (say 40 mmHg). But why is it that the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs doesn't decrease when achieving equilibrium with the blood, i.e. why doesn't the PO2 in the lungs lower to 70 mmHg, and the PO2 in the blood raise to 70 mmHg, instead of both equaling out to 100 mmHg?
I didn't have a problem with this at first because I figured the lungs had an excess supply compared to the blood at any given point, so the PO2 probably wouldn't decrease significantly (like using a pool to fill a glass of water, the glass will reach capacity, and pool will be pretty much the same). But when the oxygenated blood goes and deposits O2 in the tissues, it starts out at 100 mmHg as it was when it left the lungs, but after transferring O2 to the cells, it's down to 40 mmHg, so why doesn't it stay at 100 mmHg, like it does in the lungs?
**Tl;dr: Why does the partial pressure of O2 in the lungs stay the same when oxygenating blood, but the partial pressure of O2 in the blood drops when oxygenating tissue?**
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2see1v"
],
"text": [
"Wait, how do you know P02 in the lungs remains the same? We inhale air, of which approx. 20% is O2, and exhaled air contains approx. 15% O2.\n\nTake a deep breath and hold it in. You are using that oxygen right now, but the total pressure remains the same because you closed the system by holding your breath. The difference is made up of waste gases like CO2."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Question on diffusion in respiration
So I understand the process of diffusion of gasses into the blood stream at the alveolar level, due to differing partial pressures between atmospheric levels and levels in the blood. What I don't understand is why, when oxygen is in the lungs it has whatever partial pressure it has (say 100 mmHg), and it diffuses into the blood because it has a lower partial pressure (say 40 mmHg). But why is it that the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs doesn't decrease when achieving equilibrium with the blood, i.e. why doesn't the PO2 in the lungs lower to 70 mmHg, and the PO2 in the blood raise to 70 mmHg, instead of both equaling out to 100 mmHg? I didn't have a problem with this at first because I figured the lungs had an excess supply compared to the blood at any given point, so the PO2 probably wouldn't decrease significantly (like using a pool to fill a glass of water, the glass will reach capacity, and pool will be pretty much the same). But when the oxygenated blood goes and deposits O2 in the tissues, it starts out at 100 mmHg as it was when it left the lungs, but after transferring O2 to the cells, it's down to 40 mmHg, so why doesn't it stay at 100 mmHg, like it does in the lungs? **Tl;dr: Why does the partial pressure of O2 in the lungs stay the same when oxygenating blood, but the partial pressure of O2 in the blood drops when oxygenating tissue?**
|
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|
1f3zjw
|
Equator experiments - Based on real science??
|
So my mother and I went to the equator in ecuador today. They do several experiments that can be seen in this video (_URL_0_). The experiments include showing the Coriolis Effect by draining water from a basin on the equator and north/south of the equator. I know that the Coriolis effect doesn't actually change the way toilets flush, but is it actually effecting the water draining in this video? Or is it some sort of slight of hand by the guy pulling the drain?
Also if anyone can debunk any of the other 'experiments' please chime in!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ca6l370",
"ca6nh97"
],
"text": [
"Although what you saw had nothing to do with the Coriolis force, the effect *can* be seen in a draining tub when done *very very carefully*. For an ordinary sink under ordinary conditions, things like the way the water was moving right before the drain was opened will determine how the water drains, so it's easy to create a tourist trap like what you saw.\n\nHowever if you set things up in very carefully controlled laboratory conditions with very still water, you will find that the direction the water spins as it drains is determined by the Coriolis force and hence whether the sink is in the northern or southern hemisphere. (Note that right by the equator would not be the place to do these experiments, since the Coriolis force will be at its smallest around there.) [This PDF](_URL_0_) has references to relevant articles. \n\nThe standard references are both from *Nature*. For the northern hemisphere, it's\n*Bath-Tub Vortex*, Ascher H. Shapiro, *Nature* 196, 1080-1081, while for the southern hemisphere, it's *The Bath-Tub Vortex in the Southern Hemisphere*,\nLloyd M. Trefethen, R. W. Bilger, P. T. Fink, R. E. Luxton & R. I. Tanner,\n*Nature* 207, 1084-1085.\n\n\nHowever, it turns out careful measurements had already been done in 1908; this was pointed out in a 1963 letter to the editor in *Nature* (vol. 197), by E. N. da C. Andrade:\n\n > WITH reference to Prof. A. H. Shapiro's recent communication on the above subject, I venture to call attention to the fact that in 1908 the Austrian physicist, O. Turmlïtz, described careful and effective experiments which demonstrated the effect of the rotation of the Earth on the outflow of water through a central aperture, in a paper entitled \"Ein neuer physikalischer Beweis der Achsendrehung der Erde\"\n\nBut remember, as [John Baez points out](_URL_1_):\n \n > The effect of the Coriolis acceleration on your bathtub vortex is SMALL. To detect its effect on your bathtub, you would have to get out and wait until the motion in the water is far less than one rotation per day. This would require removing thermal currents, vibration, and any other sources of noise. Under such conditions, never occurring in the typical home, you WOULD see an effect.",
"So here's the sleight of hand:\n\nNotice which part of the basin the scammer fills from the bucket each time. When he's in the Southern Hemisphere, he fills the basin to the left of the drain, creating a residual clockwise motion. When he's in the Northern Hemisphere, he fills the basin to the right of the drain, creating a residual counter-clockwise motion. Unsurprisingly, these are the directions of the resulting vortex when the drain plug is pulled.\n\nSticking his hand in the water to \"settle\" it is not nearly enough to damp the residual motions he created when filling the basin. As other have correctly noted, you'd need a lot more than this to settle the residual motions in order to measure the true Coriolis effect on the scale of a 1-meter basin.\n\nMoreover, the Coriolis force scales with distance from the equator - strongest at the poles, weakest near the equator. Being a few meters from the true equator means the Coriolis force will still be essentially zero...much, much too small to observe on this scale, even with a very good experimental setup."
],
"score": [
6,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBVntSA-qoQ"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.physics.indiana.edu/~hake/CoriolisMyths.pdf",
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/bathtub.html"
]
}
|
Equator experiments - Based on real science??
So my mother and I went to the equator in ecuador today. They do several experiments that can be seen in this video (_URL_0_). The experiments include showing the Coriolis Effect by draining water from a basin on the equator and north/south of the equator. I know that the Coriolis effect doesn't actually change the way toilets flush, but is it actually effecting the water draining in this video? Or is it some sort of slight of hand by the guy pulling the drain? Also if anyone can debunk any of the other 'experiments' please chime in!
|
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1oovl8
|
Will the CMB ever go dark?
|
I'm a high school astronomy teacher and I'm trying to teach about the Big Bang. Reddit was extremely helpful with a previous question!
So now I'm wondering if we will ever stop receiving the CMB from the early universe. If I understand this correctly light was released when the first atoms of H and He formed at 380,000 years after the big bang. I assume that we're getting the red-shifted light from objects that we're distant from us in the early universe. So the CMB light that arrives every day is from an object that was one light-day farther away from us. Will the last bit of light from the farthest object ever pass us?
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"In principle, no. There are really two separate questions here, so I'll address them one by one.\n\n1) Will the CMB ever go dark because we've stopped seeing light from the farthest point? The answer is almost certainly no (or not any time soon), because we don't know that such a farthest point exists. The Universe could very well be infinite. And even if it is finite, it's quite likely to be so absurdly large that any edges or any changes in its character are farther away than we'll ever be able to see. (I can expand on that if you'd like.)\n\nThere's another way of answering that question (just to give you an idea of some different ways to explain this to your students). This is the more accurate answer for our Universe, actually. As you probably know, the expansion of the Universe is accelerating. Now consider a part of the Universe so far away that it's receding from us faster than light. Because the expansion is accelerating, that point is accelerating away from us. So it will *always* appear to be moving away faster than light. This means it will always outrun any light it sends to us. Because of this, there's a *horizon* past which we'll never be able to see. If the Universe does have an edge, it's (far, far) past that horizon, so we'd never see the CMB from it. As time goes on and on, we'll see CMB photons emitted from closer and closer to (but never quite *from*) that horizon.\n\nBy the way: you phrased this as \"the farthest object\", but that's not really correct. The CMB wasn't emitted by *objects* as we normally think of them. Heck, there weren't any objects back then at all. The Universe at 380,000 years was a plasma of radiation, dark matter, neutrinos, and some scattered atoms (mostly hydrogen and helium). No objects had formed. The CMB was emitted *everywhere*.\n\n2) Will the CMB ever go dark because it's just gotten so dim we can't see it? Well, like any light source, the CMB dims as it travels further out and gets diluted (or, more precisely, as the Universe expands, so there are fewer photons per volume). It will also redshift to more and more unobservably small frequencies (long wavelengths). But there's not any particular point where it becomes dark all of a sudden - it just depends on how good your telescope is!",
"The CMB photons steadily lose energy as the Universe expands. They started off comparable to visible light in energy, and are now microwaves (I believe they are 2000 times less energetic now than they were at emission, but that's off the top of my head--don't quote me). Eventually, in the distant future, they will be so low energy as to be undetectable. \n\nIn the even more distant future, if the current acceleration of the expansion of space continues, there will be no more CMB photons inside our \"light cone\", a formal way of saying that space will be expanding too fast for more photons to reach us.\n\nThe CMB will never fade out the same way that a lightbulb fades out with distance. A lightbulb is \"nearly\" a point source, and the brightness of a point source falls off as 1/r^2 . The photons expand from the point of origin into spherical shells of ever-increasing surface area and become dispersed. In contrast, the CMB comes from literally all over the Universe, from a spherical surface billions of light years away from us.\n\nThis shell gets a little farther away, but also a little bigger, every second. In fact, the brightness of *any individual part* of the shell falls off as 1/r^2 just like a lightbulb, but the surface area of the shell increases as r^2, for no net effect. Imagine surrounding yourself with a spherical shell of lightbulbs, then moving the lightbulbs away but filling in the gaps in the shell with more bulbs. You'd always see the same number of photons from the shell incident on your position."
],
"score": [
4,
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"url": []
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|
Will the CMB ever go dark?
I'm a high school astronomy teacher and I'm trying to teach about the Big Bang. Reddit was extremely helpful with a previous question! So now I'm wondering if we will ever stop receiving the CMB from the early universe. If I understand this correctly light was released when the first atoms of H and He formed at 380,000 years after the big bang. I assume that we're getting the red-shifted light from objects that we're distant from us in the early universe. So the CMB light that arrives every day is from an object that was one light-day farther away from us. Will the last bit of light from the farthest object ever pass us? Thanks!
|
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] |
|
3owl2c
|
what are the actual specific reasons you arent supposed to shut a compute off with the power button?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cw2gb7k",
"cw28pj7"
],
"text": [
"Note there is a difference between just pressing the power button, and pressing and holding the power button for ~5 seconds. The former is typically the same as giving your OS a \"shutdown\" command but varies depending on OS and OS settings (could be Sleep, Hibernate, etc.). The latter is the hard shutdown that is dangerous.\n\nWhy? Because the power button forces the machine to shut down, regardless of what it's doing. Maybe the OS might be in the middle of applying updates, or a program is installing or updating. If interrupt those actions, there's a reasonable chance that you end up with a corrupted and broken program install, or a corrupted and broken operating system. Another danger stems from file caching. Any file that's on disk (HDD, SSD, flash drive, etc.) must be read into RAM in order to be used. When you save changes to a file, the OS will update them in RAM, but doesn't necessarily write them back to disk immediately. If you force a shutdown before changes are written, those changes will be lost. Even worse, if you manager to force a shutdown *while* changes are being written, then the file will almost certainly end up corrupted.",
"The operating system may be writing files to persistent storage at any time. These are not always atomic (i.e. indivisible) operations, so if something remains partially written then it may not be legible when you turn it on again. The possible result is corruption of data."
],
"score": [
10,
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
what are the actual specific reasons you arent supposed to shut a compute off with the power button?
|
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||
4vag0u
|
In high school we learn that the action potential is always propagated on a especific direction: the dendrite to axon. So, how the dendrodendritic synapse happens?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d5x37gj"
],
"text": [
"Action potentials can propagate in either direction. Two factors normally make them propagate from dendrite to axon. First, they are initiated in dendrites. Second, active loci become refractory after an action potential, so back-propagation does not occur."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
In high school we learn that the action potential is always propagated on a especific direction: the dendrite to axon. So, how the dendrodendritic synapse happens?
|
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||
8lkmrp
|
If I think really hard will more blood go to my brain?
|
What can increase blood circulation in the brain besides increased heart rate, or putting your head upside down? Is it effected by increased brain or sensory activity? I know our little gray cells aren’t muscles, and that there’s always a minimum amount of blood in our brains.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dziaty7"
],
"text": [
"Maybe.\n\nThe blood flow to the brain is tightly auto regulated through the range of normal systemic blood pressures. It's usually about 50 mils of blood per minute per 100 grams brain tissue which is about 750ml/min. Or about 15% of cardiac output. However regional blood flow is auto regulated to respond in changes in metabolic activity so if one part of your brain is more active there will be an increase in blood flow to that region, in this way thinking hard could increase the blood flow to the regions of the brain that are involved in that thinking process. But it is unlikely that this will impact the total amount of blood flow to the brain except in the extreme examples of coma or widespread seizure activity where there could be decreases in global cerebral blood flow or increases respectively."
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If I think really hard will more blood go to my brain?
What can increase blood circulation in the brain besides increased heart rate, or putting your head upside down? Is it effected by increased brain or sensory activity? I know our little gray cells aren’t muscles, and that there’s always a minimum amount of blood in our brains.
|
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|
zhdp4
|
What are the odds of my seeing some type of large scale Lunar base in my lifetime?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c64l7k9"
],
"text": [
"With most space exploration funding being Administration dependent, no one can *really* say, but its certainly technologically plausible, with the occasional resupply from Earth.\n\n*Make it happen.*"
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What are the odds of my seeing some type of large scale Lunar base in my lifetime?
|
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||
18vvrl
|
Nominal fees and commitment. What is the name of the phenomenon that when somebody pays a small fee for something, they are way more likely to engage in the activity or use the thing?
|
As a bit of background, I work with youth with mental illness. Given the well established physical health risks associated with these illnesses, I'm applying for funding to start up a running group. I'm going to be asking for money for shoes, gear and a race entry fees. However, I know there is evidence to suggest that if somebody pays for something, however small the amount, they are much more likely to engage in or use whatever it is they've paid for. With that in mind, I'm going to be asking participants to pay $5-10 to be involved in the group. Does anybody know what that phenomenon is called, or even better, have a reference to support it?
Edit: Thank you kindly to /u/wanderingbort as he/she provided the spark to the answer. I think what I'm suggesting is a [commitment device](_URL_1_) that is based on the sunk cost fallacy which, according to [this article](_URL_0_) [PDF], is that people have a greater tendency to complete an endeavor once an investment in money, effort and/or time has been made.
I should also mention the reason for doing this is that continued engagement for this population in such an endeavor is often really difficult given the nature of the illness and side effects of medication.
Hopefully I will be successful in the grant application. Thanks!!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8ijfd9",
"c8il6yg"
],
"text": [
"Sunk Cost Fallacy (_URL_0_) in Economics research.\n\nCommitment Escalation/Bias (_URL_1_) in more behavioral fields. \n\nI am by no means an expert on the practical applications/exploitation of these outside of game theory and design however, those terms can get you started on self-directed research.",
"Social Psychology research refers to this phenomenon as the \"Foot in the Door\" technique. \n\n _URL_2_"
],
"score": [
15,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/the_psychology_of_sunk_cost.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commitment_device"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunk_cost_fallacy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot-in-the-door_technique"
]
}
|
Nominal fees and commitment. What is the name of the phenomenon that when somebody pays a small fee for something, they are way more likely to engage in the activity or use the thing?
As a bit of background, I work with youth with mental illness. Given the well established physical health risks associated with these illnesses, I'm applying for funding to start up a running group. I'm going to be asking for money for shoes, gear and a race entry fees. However, I know there is evidence to suggest that if somebody pays for something, however small the amount, they are much more likely to engage in or use whatever it is they've paid for. With that in mind, I'm going to be asking participants to pay $5-10 to be involved in the group. Does anybody know what that phenomenon is called, or even better, have a reference to support it? Edit: Thank you kindly to /u/wanderingbort as he/she provided the spark to the answer. I think what I'm suggesting is a [commitment device](_URL_1_) that is based on the sunk cost fallacy which, according to [this article](_URL_0_) [PDF], is that people have a greater tendency to complete an endeavor once an investment in money, effort and/or time has been made. I should also mention the reason for doing this is that continued engagement for this population in such an endeavor is often really difficult given the nature of the illness and side effects of medication. Hopefully I will be successful in the grant application. Thanks!!
|
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] |
|
7xsz96
|
What is the reasoning for the muon's name?
|
Pretty basic question... mu is 10^-6 so does that have anything to do with it's name?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dub3avk"
],
"text": [
"μ is the greek equivalent of m. The muon was originally called a [m]eson, meaning a medium-mass particle, but later it was discovered that muon (mass of 105MeV) was a very different particle than the pion (mass of 140MeV) which was found at the same time. The pion now is categorized as a meson (built from a quark and an antiquark), whereas the muon is a fundamental particle, a lepton. The m stayed."
],
"score": [
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the reasoning for the muon's name?
Pretty basic question... mu is 10^-6 so does that have anything to do with it's name?
|
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|
2uqubk
|
Why is tanh a universal basis function?
|
I was reading an [intro to neural networks](_URL_2_).
At the very bottom the use of tanh as the hidden node function is explained as it is a "universal basis function".
Also listed are the common candidate function groups: sigmoid and radial functions.
Are there any other function groups which can be used as a basis in this case?
What properties make these functions or function groups good candidates?
I read both [Basis function](_URL_1_) and [Radial basis function](_URL_0_) but I could not connect the wiki definitions with its application in neural networking.
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cobmjvj"
],
"text": [
"This is what they're referring to: _URL_0_\n\nIt says that any continuous function can be approximated by a linear combination of sigmoid functions (which is what a 2 layer neural network is capable of doing). The proof is actually really intuitive:\n\nBasically, sigmoid functions like tanh can resemble step functions by making their weights very large (this was the original motivation when using them in neural networks). The linear combination of two step functions can resemble a piecewise function (think of a step, plus the negative of that step shifted over a bit). The linear combination of an unlimited number of piecewise functions can resemble any continuous function (imagine taking a curve and discretizing it). That's basically all there is to it."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_basis_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_function",
"http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/cs449/multilayer.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_approximation_theorem"
]
}
|
Why is tanh a universal basis function?
I was reading an [intro to neural networks](_URL_2_). At the very bottom the use of tanh as the hidden node function is explained as it is a "universal basis function". Also listed are the common candidate function groups: sigmoid and radial functions. Are there any other function groups which can be used as a basis in this case? What properties make these functions or function groups good candidates? I read both [Basis function](_URL_1_) and [Radial basis function](_URL_0_) but I could not connect the wiki definitions with its application in neural networking. Thanks!
|
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] |
Subsets and Splits
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