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mclqb
|
Are there any widely-used scientific laws, theorems, effects named after Asian scientists?
|
I know this is not your conventional askscience question, but I hope it doesn't go too much against any rules. Here goes:
Coriolis acceleration, Leibniz notation, Darwinian evolution, Newton's laws, Kepler's laws, Macaulay's notation, Hooke's law, Planck constant, Bohr's model, Einstein's equations, Boltzmann's constant, Burger's vectors, Rayleigh scattering, Euler's identity, etc.
All these great scientific facts/equations/effects and all of them seem to be of European/"Western" descent. What are some widely-used scientific terms that were discovered by Asian scientists?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"[Okazaki fragments](_URL_0_) and the second half of [Calabi-Yau manifolds](_URL_1_) are the first two that spring to my mind. They're more objects than laws or theorems, though.",
"These are some I've found:\n\n**Physics**\n\n* [Wu–Yang monopole](_URL_13_)\n* [Lee–Yang theorem](_URL_13_)\n* [Raman spectroscopy](_URL_12_) / [Raman scattering](_URL_12_)\n* [Yang–Baxter equation](_URL_12_)\n* [Yang–Mills theory](_URL_12_)\n\n**Mathematics**\n\n* [Wall-Sun-Sun Prime](_URL_13_)\n* [Modularity Theorem](_URL_12_) (formerly known as Taniyama–Shimura–Weil conjecture)\n* [Collatz conjecture](_URL_13_) (also known as Kakutani's problem, after Shizuo Kakutani, among many other names)\n* [Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number](_URL_12_)\n\n\n\n**Meteorology**\n\n* [Fujita-Pearson scale](_URL_13_)\n* [Fujiwhara effect](_URL_13_)",
"Just to add to the pile (off the top of my head, no special importance):\n\n*Statistics*: [Akaike information criterion](_URL_15_)\n\n*Medicine*: [Ishihara color test](_URL_14_)",
"There's the [Chandrasekhar limit](_URL_16_), which governs how big a star has to be in order to form a neutron star when it \"dies.\"",
"And from Africa, there's the Mpemba Effect, named after the Tanzanian high school student who discovered it.",
"[Reiji Okazaki!](_URL_17_) discovered how DNA replicates on the lagging strand.",
"[Yamanaka factors](_URL_19_) are what let us make stem cells out of non-stem cells. Probable future Nobel.\n\nNot sure if anything is named after [Kimura](_URL_20_) or [Ohta](_URL_18_) yet but it probably will be.",
"Calabi-Yau manifolds are named at least partly (Yau) for an Asian physicist. There's also Bose of Bose-Einstein statistics. That's all I can think of right now.",
"Statistics has [Malahanobis Distance](_URL_21_), which was invented by an Indian statistician of the same name."
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"url": []
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"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okazaki_fragments",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabi-Yau_manifold",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang-Baxter_equation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee%E2%80%93Yang_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_scattering",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakutani%27s_problem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisot%E2%80%93Vijayaraghavan_number",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu-Yang_monopole",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang-Mills_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall-Sun-Sun_prime",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimura%E2%80%93Taniyama_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujiwhara_effect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujita_scale",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishihara_colourblindness_test",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akaike_information_criterion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekar_limit",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiji_Okazaki",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomoko_Ohta",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induced_pluripotent_stem_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motoo_Kimura",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahalanobis_distance"
]
}
|
Are there any widely-used scientific laws, theorems, effects named after Asian scientists?
I know this is not your conventional askscience question, but I hope it doesn't go too much against any rules. Here goes: Coriolis acceleration, Leibniz notation, Darwinian evolution, Newton's laws, Kepler's laws, Macaulay's notation, Hooke's law, Planck constant, Bohr's model, Einstein's equations, Boltzmann's constant, Burger's vectors, Rayleigh scattering, Euler's identity, etc. All these great scientific facts/equations/effects and all of them seem to be of European/"Western" descent. What are some widely-used scientific terms that were discovered by Asian scientists?
|
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] |
|
3hfx6r
|
Is there any evidence to suggest that large companies such as mobile phone manufacturers use techniques like planned obsolescence to encourage us to purchase new models?
|
In the example of mobile phones, A lot of people seem to complain that their phones seem to mysteriously slow down, or give up totally as they near the end of their various contracts.
I've heard people say, 'it's as if the phone knows it's nearly time to upgrade'
The question is, Do they?!
Is there any evidence that there is a deliberate hardware 'failure' or software 'slowdown' such as the chip that [Epson](_URL_0_) put in some printers to intentionally stop printing after a certain number of prints.
Obviously, I understand that their is a chemical restriction on the life time of the battery so this question discounts the very obvious shortening of battery life most people observe.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cuasnqs"
],
"text": [
"Planned obsolescence is really just a conspiracy theory. No manufacturer intentionally limits the lifespan of their products*. What actually tends to happen is a combination of confirmation bias and design tradeoffs.\n\nConfirmation bias comes in because you generally don't hear from people who are pleasantly-surprised by how long their phone lasts, or who are happy because their phone works just the same as it did when they bought it. So, if someone's phone conks out 2 years after their contract expires, they say \"I guess it IS getting a bit old\", but if it happens nearer to the contract term, it's \"It's like they designed it to fail after 2 years!\".\n\nOn the design side, there is a target lifetime for any product you buy. Which parts are selected, and which manufacturing processes are used to build the product, are based on a tradeoff between cost, lifetime, and other parameters (often size/weight).\n\nI could easily design you a mobile phone that would last for decades - it'd have a super heavy and bulky case, it'd use standard rechargeable batteries (lots of them, because they've got a lower power density than lithium-polymer batteries), and it'd have a very expensive, power-hungry software-defined radio, so it could keep up with changes in the wireless standards. It'd probably cost upwards of $2000, and be the size and weight of brick. And nobody would buy it.\n\nWhen people complain about their mobile phone \"getting slower\" over time, that is often because they're no longer running the software it originally came with. Meanwhile, the manufacturer is making new phones, with faster CPUs, and their latest software is designed to work well on the faster new phones. While they *could* spend more time and effort trying to get the software to run acceptably on older phones, it's not clear that that's a good use of their time, especially if they're still in a growth phase (which smartphones still are). Making a better experience for new users (and users who are upgrading), is more-profitable than to spend time making old phones run new software well. \n\n\\* I'm not going to say that *no manufacturer has ever* intentionally limited the lifespan of their product, in an attempt to drive repeat business, but in general, making shoddy products for their own sake is not a winning strategy."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://therestartproject.org/design/triumphing-together-against-planned-obsolescence/"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is there any evidence to suggest that large companies such as mobile phone manufacturers use techniques like planned obsolescence to encourage us to purchase new models?
In the example of mobile phones, A lot of people seem to complain that their phones seem to mysteriously slow down, or give up totally as they near the end of their various contracts. I've heard people say, 'it's as if the phone knows it's nearly time to upgrade' The question is, Do they?! Is there any evidence that there is a deliberate hardware 'failure' or software 'slowdown' such as the chip that [Epson](_URL_0_) put in some printers to intentionally stop printing after a certain number of prints. Obviously, I understand that their is a chemical restriction on the life time of the battery so this question discounts the very obvious shortening of battery life most people observe.
|
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|
2xy8xm
|
How to predict the volume and the pressure of a gaz after condensing it?
|
Say a given quantity of gaz (for example, steam) occupies a given volume in a closed system. After fully condensing it to liquid, how would I be able to predict the volume occupied by the liquid in said system? What about the Pressure?
I know both pressure and volume will decrease but what law describes this?
Do PV=nRT and similar laws only apply to gases?
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cp5ahql"
],
"text": [
"Gas not gaz.\n\nAnd yes, the ideal gas law only applies to gasses. It is very useful for predicting the pressure inside a closed system at various temperatures, but it assumes that everything will remain as a gas.\n\nTo figure out what will happen when something condenses then you need to look at the [vapor pressure](_URL_0_) of the substance across a range of temperatures. Assuming you start with everything as a gas you can use the ideal gas law to figure out exactly how much stuff is in there, and then by looking at the vapor pressure curves you can figure out how much will remain as a gas when you cool it down to temperature X. Using that information you can easily figure out what the new pressure inside the system will be. However, this method is reliant on having good vapor pressure data for the substance in question."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_pressure"
]
}
|
How to predict the volume and the pressure of a gaz after condensing it?
Say a given quantity of gaz (for example, steam) occupies a given volume in a closed system. After fully condensing it to liquid, how would I be able to predict the volume occupied by the liquid in said system? What about the Pressure? I know both pressure and volume will decrease but what law describes this? Do PV=nRT and similar laws only apply to gases? Thanks!
|
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|
20yqp9
|
How is energy conserved in radiative pressure?
|
So, I've been reading a little online about solar sails and whatnot and one thing that I haven't been able to understand is how energy is conserved when a photon bounces off. Does it redshift or something to make up for the extra kinetic energy imparted to the sail?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cg891kv",
"cg87s84"
],
"text": [
"Yes. In fact, the [Compton effect](_URL_0_) is a well understood phenomenon that describes this very phenomenon.\nIn short, if one scatters a photon off of a stationary electron the electron will start to move, and the photon will be scattered through some angle. If one checks the difference in wavelength of the photon after scattering and before, the wavelength shift will correspond exactly to the (kinetic) energy imparted to the electron during the scattering event.",
"Yes, indeed it does. You can think of the light being re-emitted by the now-moving object, it's emitted at a lower energy relative to the initial frame of the object, because of the Doppler shift."
],
"score": [
4,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_effect"
]
}
|
How is energy conserved in radiative pressure?
So, I've been reading a little online about solar sails and whatnot and one thing that I haven't been able to understand is how energy is conserved when a photon bounces off. Does it redshift or something to make up for the extra kinetic energy imparted to the sail?
|
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] |
|
24hgnh
|
Whats the newest info or most recent theory in regards to the Pioneer anomaly?
|
Just recently learned about the Pioneer Anomaly, but from a source that is a few years old. And was wondering if any progress had been made on answering what causes it.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ch7tqf6"
],
"text": [
"Yes, there was news in 2012 that after more careful analysis of the Pioneer, the anomaly was caused solely by thermal radiation pressure. Basically, every object not at absolute zero is constantly giving off thermal radiation. Radiation carries momentum, so when you emit thermal radiation in one direction, you recoil in the opposite direction. The effect is very small, and if you emit thermal radiation equally in all directions, all the recoils cancel out. But if one side of an object is hotter than the other side, it will emit more thermal radiation, and the recoil from one side will not be canceled by the recoil from the other side, and you will have a net recoil. The effect is very small, but for an object in space on a long voyage, it becomes noticeable."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Whats the newest info or most recent theory in regards to the Pioneer anomaly?
Just recently learned about the Pioneer Anomaly, but from a source that is a few years old. And was wondering if any progress had been made on answering what causes it.
|
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|
lha5u
|
How does brain resting work? How can it be optimized?
|
I'm pretty sure a lot of people want to know how to rest better
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2spiuo",
"c2spg5s"
],
"text": [
"[Sleep and \"resting\" are not the same.](_URL_1_)\n\n[Here is what happens during sleep and why our brains need it.](_URL_2_)\n\n[Sleep hygiene](_URL_0_) is essentially the key to ensuring your brain gets good \"rest\". \n\nIf you have more specific questions let me know, I'm happy to provide more info.",
"Sleep really is helping, but how does sleep help? What else does similar things to our brain(similar to sleep)? Why do we get braintired in the first place? i'm looking for a rather low-level explanation."
],
"score": [
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.umm.edu/sleep/sleep_hyg.htm",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/jfkav/whats_the_difference_between_sleeping_for_6_hours/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ik703/why_do_humans_need_sleep/"
]
}
|
How does brain resting work? How can it be optimized?
I'm pretty sure a lot of people want to know how to rest better
|
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] |
|
3p9mne
|
How valuable is the Flesch reading ease?
|
*Nature* just published a study showing that the Flesch reading ease of the IPCC reports has been decreasing over time. Is that especially meaningful? How well does the Flesch score actually capture how difficult something is to read?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cwao7mn"
],
"text": [
"It's not meaningful at all. You can see some of the criticism by professional linguists [here](_URL_0_) and in the links contained within."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=21847"
]
}
|
How valuable is the Flesch reading ease?
*Nature* just published a study showing that the Flesch reading ease of the IPCC reports has been decreasing over time. Is that especially meaningful? How well does the Flesch score actually capture how difficult something is to read?
|
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] |
|
nuyy9
|
Are Protons and Neutrons in a nucleus static or do they move about in a "gloop"?
|
The strong nuclear force holds them together but when they are together, do they have a fixed position, like a solid or do they move about?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3c5rj2"
],
"text": [
"Early models of the nucleus regarded it as a \"liquid drop,\" where the nucleons did effectively behave as if they constituted a liquid.\n\nHowever, according to modern models that better match experimental data, it would be more appropriate to think of it as a gas."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Are Protons and Neutrons in a nucleus static or do they move about in a "gloop"?
The strong nuclear force holds them together but when they are together, do they have a fixed position, like a solid or do they move about?
|
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] |
|
3o9eiq
|
What is the length of one photograph? Thanks in advance.
|
[deleted]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cvvag3y",
"cvy3wcu"
],
"text": [
"The length is however long the shutter was left open to allow the camera to gather light. This is called the shutter speed: \n_URL_0_ \n\nYou can make it as long or short as you like. A one second shutter speed lets in a lot of light, dimmer objects could be seen, but motion would result in noticeable blurs.",
"Amateur photographer here.\n\n/u/AsAChemicalEngineer is correct, but actually a photo may be a combination of different moments.\n\nTake for instance a night photo taken with a 5 second shutter speed, and flash. The background has then a 5 seconds exposure because the flash doesn't make a difference for it. And the foreground is a mix between ambient light for 5 seconds, and a very intense burst for a fraction of a second.\n\nNormally you get this: shutter opens, flash fires, some time passes, shutter closes. Your foreground photo is dominated by what happened right after the button was pressed, and the background is a sum of what happened while the shutter was open.\n\nBut you can also use rear curtain flash and then the foreground will be dominated by what happened right before the shutter was closed. This often looks better for moving subjects.\n\nOr you can use multiple flash pulses and leave multiple images of the subject in a single long exposure image.\n\nYou can also manually trigger the flash whenever you want, through manual control, timers, or sensors.\n\n\nI think an important point to make here is that photography isn't a straight copy of reality. Even without opening Photoshop, a photographer has many ways of bending reality to their will, and capturing images that didn't happen the way they seem to have in the final image."
],
"score": [
8,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutter_speed"
]
}
|
What is the length of one photograph? Thanks in advance.
[deleted]
|
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|
23u6bs
|
Is it possible to follow the Solstice? If so how far would I have to travel per day?
|
If I wanted to follow the sun to enjoy the most amount of sunlight (or longest night by contrast) from the tropic of cancer to the tropic of capricorn and have the longest days possible for an entire year, how far would I have to travel each day? Is this even possible?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ch10hdo"
],
"text": [
"It would be fairly easy to move each day so that the sun always passes overhead.\n\nThe Sun does not move linearly from day to day, but roughly a sine wave (to within first order - our slightly elliptical orbit throws this off a bit). So, it spends a while around solstices lingering over the tropics, and moves most quickly at equinoxes over the equator.\n\nIf we do approximate this as a sine wave, it takes exactly one year to complete a cycle from +23.5° latitude to -23.5° latitude back to +23.5° latitude. If we assume 1 degree of latitude is 111 km, and a year has 3.15 x 10^7 seconds, then the functional form will be:\n\nX = 23.5 * 111000 m * sin(2 * Pi * t/3.15x10^(7))\n\n...where t is measured in seconds and X is in meters. The fastest you'll have to move - at equinox - can be found by taking the derivative:\n\nV = 0.52 * cos (1.99 x 10^-7 t)\n\nThat will be maximized when t=0 or t=Pi (at the two equinox), and will be 0.52 m/s, or roughly 1.2 miles per hour. You could do this walking, provided you only took short breaks."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is it possible to follow the Solstice? If so how far would I have to travel per day?
If I wanted to follow the sun to enjoy the most amount of sunlight (or longest night by contrast) from the tropic of cancer to the tropic of capricorn and have the longest days possible for an entire year, how far would I have to travel each day? Is this even possible?
|
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|
roeat
|
Scientists of Reddit, what would happen if you had complete control over everything in your body?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c47df4q"
],
"text": [
"I would love that, is it a fart or not? You tell me asshole"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Scientists of Reddit, what would happen if you had complete control over everything in your body?
|
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||
40i2ju
|
Can there be such a distance function?
|
I want to know about a special distance function. I know the properties of a normal distance function, in any space, but one has recently drawn my attention: the triangular inequality.
The triangular inequality can be explained the following manner (if I understand correctly):
given A,B and C 3 points in some space and D a distance function in this space, than the following statement is true:
D(A,B) < = D(A,C) + D(C,B).
My question is: can there be a distance function for which the following statement is true:
given A,B and C 3 **different** points then
D(A,B) ** < ** D(A,C) + D(C,B)?
If yes, which one, how?
If no, why?
**Edit:** Thanks everyone for the answer. I didn't realize so weird distances and metrics can be useful, I just thought it is a weird question to think about. Well, you learns something everyday!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cyub43h"
],
"text": [
"Yes. But before we start, first the 4 properties that a function must have in order to be a distance function:\n\n- D(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y\n- D(x, y) = D(y, x)\n- D(x, y) > = 0\n- D(x, z) < = D(x, y) + D(y, z)\n\nthe last one being the triangle inequality that you already mentioned. You're looking for a distance function where the triangle inequality is a strict inequality when the 3 points are distinct.\n\nLet D(x, y) = 0 if x = y and 1 otherwise.\n\nVerification that this function has the 4 required properties is straightforward, property 1, 2 and 3 follow directly from the definition. For property 4, we distinguish distinct cases:\n\n- x = z, but x < > y and y < > z. We find: D(x, z) = 0, D(x, y) + D(y, z) = 2, OK.\n- x < > z, x = y, y < > z. D(x, z) = 1, D(x, y) + D(y, z) = 1, OK.\n- x < > z, x < > y, y = z. D(x, z) = 1, D(x, y) + D(y, z) = 1, OK.\n- x < > z, x < > y, y < > z. D(x, z) = 1, D(x, y) + D(x, z) = 2, OK.\n\nFor your requirements, the 4th point of the above applies. We see that the strict inequality clearly holds.\n\nThe name of this distance function is the \"discrete metric\", with metric being the term commonly used instead of distance function."
],
"score": [
18
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can there be such a distance function?
I want to know about a special distance function. I know the properties of a normal distance function, in any space, but one has recently drawn my attention: the triangular inequality. The triangular inequality can be explained the following manner (if I understand correctly): given A,B and C 3 points in some space and D a distance function in this space, than the following statement is true: D(A,B) < = D(A,C) + D(C,B). My question is: can there be a distance function for which the following statement is true: given A,B and C 3 **different** points then D(A,B) ** < ** D(A,C) + D(C,B)? If yes, which one, how? If no, why? **Edit:** Thanks everyone for the answer. I didn't realize so weird distances and metrics can be useful, I just thought it is a weird question to think about. Well, you learns something everyday!
|
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|
5ige5r
|
If Astatine and Francium have half-lives measured in minutes/hours, how on Earth are they naturally occurring?
|
Sorry for the pun.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"db88627",
"db8li6y"
],
"text": [
"They are decay products of other unstable atoms. For example, Uranium-235 undergoes alpha decay to Thorium-231 which beta decays to Protractinium-231 which alpha decays to Actinium-227 which alpha decays to Francium-223 which beta decays to Astatine-223.",
"Half life and natural occurence aren't related in perhaps the way you think they are. \n\nEven if a small fraction of astatine or francium exists for a fleeting moment on Earth, from larger elements decaying, it still would constitute naturally occuring. \n\nThere are some elements that would never occur naturally, even through radioactive decay, that can *only* be made synthetically, and these might even stick around for a while - like Technetium which only has an atomic number of 43. The two properties aren't so causally linked."
],
"score": [
10,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If Astatine and Francium have half-lives measured in minutes/hours, how on Earth are they naturally occurring?
Sorry for the pun.
|
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|
61vilt
|
Are we able to detect when pairs of particles spotaneously pop into existence?
|
As I understand it, elementary particles will pop into existence as a contrary pair of particles. Naturally, particles will also cancel out very quickly after coming into existence. Does this leave behind some trace that we can detect?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dfhrdjc",
"dfi4zo5"
],
"text": [
"Virtual particles are by definition not observable.\n\nHowever the kinds of effects of QFT which *can be* described in terms of virtual particles have measurable effects. For example, the Casimir effect, the masses of hadrons, the fact that coupling constants change depending on the energy scale, anomalous electromagnetic moments, etc.",
"Not all particles that spontaneously pop into existence have to then annihilate. Only 'virtual particles,' or those particles which exist in a region of space that did NOT previously have enough energy density to actually form the particles. The uncertainty principle allows them to exist, 'borrowing' energy for a very brief time, as long as the energy is returned by them annihilating. \n\nBut if the energy IS available, then it can simply be converted to a particle-antiparticle pair which will happily fly off, and are easily detected! An easy experiment to demonstrate this is a cloud chamber. Imagine a glass terrarium of isopropyl alcohol, which evaporates and forms a cloud of alcohol vapor. \n\nWait a very short time and a cosmic ray, in this case high-energy photon, will fly through the cloud chamber and collide with an atmosphere molecule. It's then energetically-favorable for the energy of the photon to be converted into the mass of an electron-position pair (plus their kinetic energy). What's cool is you will see two paths in the chamber, one traveling clockwise and the other traveling counter-clockwise! This is due to the fact that the two newly-produced particles have opposite electric charge and respond differently to an external magnetic field. \n\nNote, you see the path because the particles then collide with the alcohol vapor, causing it to condense into thicker droplets. Not a difficult DIY project if you're interested!"
],
"score": [
13,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Are we able to detect when pairs of particles spotaneously pop into existence?
As I understand it, elementary particles will pop into existence as a contrary pair of particles. Naturally, particles will also cancel out very quickly after coming into existence. Does this leave behind some trace that we can detect?
|
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] |
|
4qpdho
|
What would trigger a universal phase transition?
|
I was reading an article, _URL_0_ , about phase transition and I think I understand the idea, but I don't understand how it could be initiated?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d4uzmso"
],
"text": [
"Either an incredibly high energy event or quantum tunnelling basically.\n\nSee [this](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://m.huffpost.com/uk/entry/4437807.html?edition=uk"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_vacuum"
]
}
|
What would trigger a universal phase transition?
I was reading an article, _URL_0_ , about phase transition and I think I understand the idea, but I don't understand how it could be initiated?
|
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|
7e6byk
|
Imagine I detect (localize) a particle at one location, and wait a short period of time to let its probablility distribution "spread out". Does this probability go to zero at some finite distance away, based on how long I wait?
|
I just saw a question like "what is the probability that an electron from the other side of the Earth is in my room.
This made me wonder. AFAIK, an electron's probability distribution in space extends infinitely, but with an exponential decrease the further out you go. Does this not mean that an electron prepared in some localized state has a non-zero probability of traveling faster than the speed of light?
The only way around this is if the probability distribution in space went to zero at some finite distance away, that is related to the amount of time it's been since the electron was localized earlier. This distance being c*t.
Is this right? Is this idea explained anywhere?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dq2uyx1"
],
"text": [
"Immediately after measuring the position of a particle, you'd collapse its wavefunction into something like a [Dirac delta function](_URL_0_) at some position (or imagine a Gaussian function with arbitrarily small width if you care about being mathematically precise).\n\nNow as the wavefunction begins to evolve with time, it spreads out, just like you said.\n\nIf you do your time evolution using a non-relativistic Hamiltonian, the wavefunction doesn't just drop to zero at some finite distance. So you could reach the conclusion that it's possible to detect the particle at a distance greater than ct away at time t, but that's just because you haven't included relativity in your theory.\n\nParticles in nature appear to obey the laws of Einstein's relativity, to the best of our knowledge. So we need to treat the problem in a manner consistent with relativity.\n\nTo make your theory manifestly obey the symmetries imposed by relativity, it's better to switch to a field theory. Once you've written a Lagrangian field theory, you can make it quantum by promoting your fields to operators and imposing canonical commutation rules for your operators.\n\nNow you have a theory which obeys both special relativity and quantum mechanics, and you can ask how it treats this situation.\n\nIn this formalism, you don't generally work in terms of wavefunctions anymore, but rather field operators acting on state vectors.\n\nThe way that causality is enforced is to make the field operators commute everywhere outside each others' light cones.\n\nIf two operators commute with each other, that loosely means that they don't affect each other; there can be no definite order or causal relation between them.\n\nIf you evaluate the field operator for your electron at some spacetime point x and another spacetime point y, it just means that the operators should commute with one another whenever the event x is spacelike-separated from event y.\n\nYou still find some little oddities that make you wonder if the theory really respects relativity or not. For example there's something called a propagator, which essentially just tells you how an exchange particle \"propagates\" through spacetime (or more typically momentum-space). If you look at the propagator for some particle in coordinate-space, you find that it doesn't go to zero outside the light cone, although it [decays exponentially](_URL_1_). You might think this to mean that the particle can \"propagate\" between spacelike-separated events. [Here](_URL_2_) is some more explanation about that.\n\nAnyway, if you start with a theory which doesn't include relativity, you might find that particles don't obey relativity within that theory. That's no surprise. But if you start with a theory that is made to be consistent with relativity, everything works out."
],
"score": [
12
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function",
"https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/314821/exponential-decay-of-feynman-propagator-outside-the-lightcone",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagator#Faster_than_light.3F"
]
}
|
Imagine I detect (localize) a particle at one location, and wait a short period of time to let its probablility distribution "spread out". Does this probability go to zero at some finite distance away, based on how long I wait?
I just saw a question like "what is the probability that an electron from the other side of the Earth is in my room. This made me wonder. AFAIK, an electron's probability distribution in space extends infinitely, but with an exponential decrease the further out you go. Does this not mean that an electron prepared in some localized state has a non-zero probability of traveling faster than the speed of light? The only way around this is if the probability distribution in space went to zero at some finite distance away, that is related to the amount of time it's been since the electron was localized earlier. This distance being c*t. Is this right? Is this idea explained anywhere?
|
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|
1b061p
|
Is uniformity of the CMB a de facto requirement of The Standard Model, and if so, is there a distance scale at which it must be manifest?
|
Layman here, hi /askscience.
I read some blurbs about the data from the Planck mission which mentioned that there are anomalies in the cosmic microwave background which don't mesh with the predictions that the universe will look basically the same in all directions. I understand the premise of the prediction (Copernican principle); what I don't understand is how important(or not) it is to prove this.
If the size of the universe, beyond the observable universe, is unknown (with near infinite possible bounds), would it be possible for the observable universe to be too small of a sample size for CMB uniformity to be relevant? Or is there something related to the wavelength and/or other properties of the CMB energy which guarantees relevance when considering a volume of space above a certain size (presumably which is also significantly smaller than the observable universe)?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c92cw1x"
],
"text": [
"Well, I'm not a physics expert, but I do not think that it matters to the CMB radiation that the universe might be infinite. Recall why this radiation exists in the first place.\n\nAt first the universe was too dense and full of energy for photons to travel through it. It was opaque. As it expanded, is became less opaque and finally transparent. That is when the first light began shining around.\n\nAlso recall that when we look at things far away, we are literally looking at them as they were in the past. So observing the CMB radiation is looking back in time far enough to see the first light that managed to free itself from the dense early universe.\n\nSince space doesn't have any preferred direction that it's expanding, we should expect uniform CMB radiation."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is uniformity of the CMB a de facto requirement of The Standard Model, and if so, is there a distance scale at which it must be manifest?
Layman here, hi /askscience. I read some blurbs about the data from the Planck mission which mentioned that there are anomalies in the cosmic microwave background which don't mesh with the predictions that the universe will look basically the same in all directions. I understand the premise of the prediction (Copernican principle); what I don't understand is how important(or not) it is to prove this. If the size of the universe, beyond the observable universe, is unknown (with near infinite possible bounds), would it be possible for the observable universe to be too small of a sample size for CMB uniformity to be relevant? Or is there something related to the wavelength and/or other properties of the CMB energy which guarantees relevance when considering a volume of space above a certain size (presumably which is also significantly smaller than the observable universe)?
|
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] |
|
59ltua
|
What is line-by-line phase reversal and how did it help bring about color television?
|
In [this video](_URL_0_) by the channel standupmaths, the narrator states that line-by-line phase reversal was used to enable colored TV. While the narrator does walk through the math of how line-by-line phase reversal solves the issue of incorporating color TV signals into pre-existing picture and sound signals, he does not explain the physics concepts that underlie line-by-line phase reversal. Could someone please explain what line-by-line phase reversal is and why it was useful in the context of TV development?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d99rr9s",
"d99r8qw"
],
"text": [
"In the NTSC standard, there was no reversal. This meant that any shift in the colour signal resulted in the colours going wrong - that's why NTSC TVs often had a colour dial to manually adjust it, so people weren't green, and so on. That's why NTSC would get jokingly called \"Never The Same Colour\".\n\nPAL (Phase Alternating Line) reversed the phase on alternate lines, hence the name. This cancelled out the colour shift - at first this was left to be done \"in the eye\", i.e. as a human you would perceive the colours to be more or less correct over all, even thought they might be wrong in each individual line. But it could still look a bit bad, so later TVs averaged the colour signal over two lines, reducing colour resolution slightly but not noticeably.",
"Isn't that PAL? If you have a phase or timing error on the whole signal /frame the colour spectrum will change (e.g faces will change colour), Now if you invert the phase of the next line the colour will shift in the oposite direction, and your eyeball will integrate(?) the picture and the phase error will cancel out, and give reduced overall chroma in the picture. (It's been a long time since I did any of this.)"
],
"score": [
11,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://youtu.be/3GJUM6pCpew?t=273"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is line-by-line phase reversal and how did it help bring about color television?
In [this video](_URL_0_) by the channel standupmaths, the narrator states that line-by-line phase reversal was used to enable colored TV. While the narrator does walk through the math of how line-by-line phase reversal solves the issue of incorporating color TV signals into pre-existing picture and sound signals, he does not explain the physics concepts that underlie line-by-line phase reversal. Could someone please explain what line-by-line phase reversal is and why it was useful in the context of TV development?
|
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|
pyxgk
|
Is there a possibility of "adding more cone types" to the human eye?
|
As I understand it, the wavelengths you can see are determined by the type and amount of cone cells in your eyes. Is it possible, with current technology or even in theory, to add more cone types / more cone cells to change what we can see? Is there a possibility of people engineering themselves to actually see ultraviolet, infrared, and beyond in both directions? And if so, is there a theoretical limit to this? (i.e. is there a wavelength that we can't see for reasons other than "not having the right cone type/amount")
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3td0no"
],
"text": [
"Yes; in fact, there are human beings alive right now (mostly females) who have 4 cone types (called tetrachromats), and they are able to distinguish between colors that other people can't, and seem to have a richer and more complex sense of color."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is there a possibility of "adding more cone types" to the human eye?
As I understand it, the wavelengths you can see are determined by the type and amount of cone cells in your eyes. Is it possible, with current technology or even in theory, to add more cone types / more cone cells to change what we can see? Is there a possibility of people engineering themselves to actually see ultraviolet, infrared, and beyond in both directions? And if so, is there a theoretical limit to this? (i.e. is there a wavelength that we can't see for reasons other than "not having the right cone type/amount")
|
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|
2yilr8
|
Where would I go if I kept on travelling up?
|
Hey, first time poster here.
What would happen if I were to launch a spaceship from the North Pole, and continually travelled in a upwards direction. Is there anything (planets, stars, etc.) that are above our solar system?
I really dont know if I'm making this clear or not, but thanks anyway.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cp9ys8l",
"cpa34hm"
],
"text": [
"Well, there's no planets, but along your way out of the Solar System you might pass a few Oort Cloud objects (mostly bodies made of ice/dust/rock). As you travel you'll eventually pass the heliopause, the boundary of where the solar wind-blown bubble butts up against the interstellar medium. This isn't an especially sharp boundary, but as you cross it you'll see changes in the magnetic field direction and the prevailing cosmic rays.\n\nAfter that, there's not much. Polaris, which is quite close to the North celestial pole, is about ~400 light years away (it's actually a multiple system involving 5 different stars), and you'd pass within ~5 light years of it.",
"Traveling up from the north pole is very inefficient way to leave the Solar system by the way. Earth is moving at about 30km/s and you need 30*sqrt(2)~42km/s to leave the Solar system. Launching from the north pole gives you no benefit from the Earth's rotation and only a fraction of that 30km/s because of the tilt of the Earth axis and vector summation, assuming you would launch on the right day of the year. Also that 42km/s is minimum required velocity which will send you spaceship on the curved parabolic trajetory around the Sun and out of the Solar system in the paralel direction to the ecliptic plane. You would need several times more to straighten the trajectory."
],
"score": [
9,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Where would I go if I kept on travelling up?
Hey, first time poster here. What would happen if I were to launch a spaceship from the North Pole, and continually travelled in a upwards direction. Is there anything (planets, stars, etc.) that are above our solar system? I really dont know if I'm making this clear or not, but thanks anyway.
|
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|
14z3f8
|
Effects of bases on skin
|
Now I realize that this will make me sound like a serial torturer, so here's the very silly reason I want this information: My father-in-law and I were talking large scale defense hypothetical scenarios.
Here goes.
I'm interested to know how bases effect the body, specifically, strong bases.
When I looked into it on google and in my chem textbook, all the info I could fins is that bases can cause chemical burns.
What I'm looking for is a detailed explanation of the effects of a strong basic compound to exposed skin. I.e: What is the damage, how long does it take, etc.
EDIT:
Thanks dudes
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7hx3vk",
"c7ijdqg",
"c7i4o6d"
],
"text": [
"I'll give it a shot, at least parts of it.\n\nIt has been known by humans for centuries that bases + fatty acids, such as those found in skin oils, undergo a reaction called [saponification](_URL_0_). Essentially, creation of soap. I remember digging around in the base bath as an undergrad and getting a little bit of it inside of my glove. The resulting feel of your skin is oddly smooth, slippery, and a bit tight and possibly itchy. It doesn't take too long to happen. A stronger KOH/NaOH concentration will give a larger effect.",
"A cool phrase that sounds horrible is what happens to you when a concentrated base touches you:\n\nLiquefactive necrosis\n\nThe base will saponify the fatty acids in your skin. This reaction then allows your skin slush off revealing more tissue underneath. Thus exposing this tissue to the base.\n\nConcentrated bases are particularly bad for this reason.\n\nFYI: Concentrated acids perform coagulative necrosis. They tend to denature the proteins in your skin and make them change shape. Much like cooking an egg white (or putting an egg white in a glass of vinegar.)",
"To add to what Quistak said, since you're talking about strong bases, let's include LDA and nBu-Li (butyl lithium). These would also likely (and rapidly) hydrolyse and and all proteins in the cell membranes and the Extracellular matrix, which in large amounts I suspect may literally dissolve your skin."
],
"score": [
3,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saponification"
]
}
|
Effects of bases on skin
Now I realize that this will make me sound like a serial torturer, so here's the very silly reason I want this information: My father-in-law and I were talking large scale defense hypothetical scenarios. Here goes. I'm interested to know how bases effect the body, specifically, strong bases. When I looked into it on google and in my chem textbook, all the info I could fins is that bases can cause chemical burns. What I'm looking for is a detailed explanation of the effects of a strong basic compound to exposed skin. I.e: What is the damage, how long does it take, etc. EDIT: Thanks dudes
|
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|
1tpm2w
|
We need your 2013 BestOf nominations for our five AskScience categories. Details inside!
|
Calling all science enthusiasts - AskScience needs your help! Help us ring in the new year with your recommendations and upvotes for our community's [Reddit BestOf 2013 Awards](_URL_2_)!
The admins have given us Reddit Gold to help us celebrate our community’s superlatives in 2013. We need your help to find, nominate, and vote on posts you feel best reflect these five categories:
* [Best Answer (greater than 30 net upvotes)](_URL_8_)
* [Best Question](_URL_5_)
* [Most Interesting Discussion Between Two Individuals](_URL_4_)
* [Most Helpful Panelist](_URL_0_) (must be nominated by the OP/question-asker)
* [Best Answer Nobody Saw (less than 30 net upvotes)](_URL_1_)
We've made a separate page for each of these categories, and you can link to each from the list above to submit your nominations. We invite you to add top level posts *with direct links to the individual submissions/comments* from this calendar year that showcase why our community is such a great place to *ask science questions and get science answers*. Annotations and/or brief explanations of your nomination are always welcome.
We'll run all five of these pages in "contest mode" (a feature courtesy of the admins) which randomly sorts top level posts and hides vote tallies until the end of the contest. Please vote on the top level comments in each thread so the best-of-our-best accumulate the most upvotes and can be recognized for the awesomeness they are!
To get started with your nominations, here are a few tips:
* Search for posts by field with the clickable icons in the side panel.
* You may also find posts with [reddit search](_URL_6_) and [Google search](_URL_3_).
* Feel free to look at [Gilded comments](_URL_9_) and [Mods' Choice](_URL_7_) posts for ideas
* Self-nominations are allowed. In one category (Most Helpful Panelist), the nominator **must be the OP**!
* You don’t need to nominate in order to vote, and you may want to check back a few times over the next week to vote again as more nominations have been submitted.
Thank you for everything that each of you bring to this community throughout the year. Here’s to a fantastic 2014 in AskScience...and beyond!
Note: If you have questions or general comments, feel free to leave them as comments on this main post. All nominations should happen within each of the five category posts, linked above.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ceadn6u",
"cee5cvc"
],
"text": [
"On categories about \"upvotes\", is this referring to pure upvotes, or net score? E.g. an answer could technically have 30 upvotes but have a below 30, zero or even net negative score. Would such a submission be allowed?",
"So hard to choose, but I would definitely say best question/best discussion would be one spawned from our shortlived sponsored content program [posted last April 1st](_URL_0_).\n\nPS: Even though I've done little to nothing else in 2013 AskScience wise, I made that post so I nominate myself for most helpful panelist."
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1tpkuf/askscience_2013_bestof_awards_nominations_most/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1tpl2w/askscience_2013_bestof_awards_nominations_best/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/bestof2013",
"http://www.google.com/search?q=site:reddit.com/r/askscience",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1tpk7y/askscience_2013_bestof_awards_nominations_most/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1tpjxe/askscience_2013_bestof_awards_nominations_best/",
"http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reddit.com%2Fr%2Faskscience%2Fsearch%3Fq%3D%26restrict_sr%3Don%26sort%3Drelevance%26t%3Dall&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFkr_deQa1rdI7mxnW1bBWwSQWvrw",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A'best'&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1tpjny/askscience_2013_bestof_awards_nominations_best/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gilded"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1bd7rl/meta_introducing_askscience_sponsored_content/"
]
}
|
We need your 2013 BestOf nominations for our five AskScience categories. Details inside!
Calling all science enthusiasts - AskScience needs your help! Help us ring in the new year with your recommendations and upvotes for our community's [Reddit BestOf 2013 Awards](_URL_2_)! The admins have given us Reddit Gold to help us celebrate our community’s superlatives in 2013. We need your help to find, nominate, and vote on posts you feel best reflect these five categories: * [Best Answer (greater than 30 net upvotes)](_URL_8_) * [Best Question](_URL_5_) * [Most Interesting Discussion Between Two Individuals](_URL_4_) * [Most Helpful Panelist](_URL_0_) (must be nominated by the OP/question-asker) * [Best Answer Nobody Saw (less than 30 net upvotes)](_URL_1_) We've made a separate page for each of these categories, and you can link to each from the list above to submit your nominations. We invite you to add top level posts *with direct links to the individual submissions/comments* from this calendar year that showcase why our community is such a great place to *ask science questions and get science answers*. Annotations and/or brief explanations of your nomination are always welcome. We'll run all five of these pages in "contest mode" (a feature courtesy of the admins) which randomly sorts top level posts and hides vote tallies until the end of the contest. Please vote on the top level comments in each thread so the best-of-our-best accumulate the most upvotes and can be recognized for the awesomeness they are! To get started with your nominations, here are a few tips: * Search for posts by field with the clickable icons in the side panel. * You may also find posts with [reddit search](_URL_6_) and [Google search](_URL_3_). * Feel free to look at [Gilded comments](_URL_9_) and [Mods' Choice](_URL_7_) posts for ideas * Self-nominations are allowed. In one category (Most Helpful Panelist), the nominator **must be the OP**! * You don’t need to nominate in order to vote, and you may want to check back a few times over the next week to vote again as more nominations have been submitted. Thank you for everything that each of you bring to this community throughout the year. Here’s to a fantastic 2014 in AskScience...and beyond! Note: If you have questions or general comments, feel free to leave them as comments on this main post. All nominations should happen within each of the five category posts, linked above.
|
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] |
|
kkdt7
|
Are Foregen's goals (foreskin restoration) realistic?
|
[Foregen](_URL_1_) claims that its tasks are to:
> - negotiating with research institutes in the field of regenerative medicine to promote dermal regeneration for the genitally injured;
- organizing research and clinical trials necessary to make regenerative medical applications a reality;
- fund-raising for the clinical trials needed to make regenerative solutions a reality.
They throw around a bunch of science-y sounding "regeneration" stuff in their [learn-more](_URL_0_) page, complete with illustrations of lizards.
I'm very curious if their goals have any merit.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2kymq7"
],
"text": [
"I kinda stopped reading when it said \" Apart from our kidneys, why can’t humans regenerate as adults\". It's the [liver](_URL_0_) which is the only internal \norgan that can regenerate. \n\n*edit: And further down their page they say that their regenerative medicine has been used to help regrow kidneys. . . so I'm not quite sure what they're trying to prove. Either that or they had a really poor proof reader."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.foregen.org/category/learn-more/",
"http://www.foregen.org/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver#Regeneration"
]
}
|
Are Foregen's goals (foreskin restoration) realistic?
[Foregen](_URL_1_) claims that its tasks are to: > - negotiating with research institutes in the field of regenerative medicine to promote dermal regeneration for the genitally injured; - organizing research and clinical trials necessary to make regenerative medical applications a reality; - fund-raising for the clinical trials needed to make regenerative solutions a reality. They throw around a bunch of science-y sounding "regeneration" stuff in their [learn-more](_URL_0_) page, complete with illustrations of lizards. I'm very curious if their goals have any merit.
|
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] |
|
jpdun
|
Is it true that antacids actually prevent your esophageal sphincter and/or pyloric valve from closing thereby exacerbating acid reflux/heartburn/gastritis? [medical]
|
According to a few sources I've found online antacids merely mask the symptoms of acid reflux/heartburn/gastritis instead of addressing the actual cause, which these sources claim is actually too low stomach acidity instead of the conventionally accepted wisdom/advertisements that insist that it's a result of too much or too high stomach acidity.
I have been looking for some quantifiable science to back up this claim [Why Antacids Will Never Cure Your Heartburn](_URL_0_) but I can't seem to find more reliable sources. I would appreciate any expertise on this medical subject.
If this is the case, then would Apple Cider Vinegar be a logical remedy to take on a daily basis to close the esophageal sphincter and pyloric valve by safely increasing the stomach's acidity so that the stomach acid/intestinal bile doesn't persist in causing stomach irritation/gastritis?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2e0wab",
"c2e10wf",
"c2eei7j"
],
"text": [
"You know, I have a real hard time answering this just due to the fact you truly are questioning how drugs that have been on the market for exceedingly long periods of time (especially stuff like sodium bicarbonate which has been around forever) due to something you read on a webpage who's address is www.natural*bias*.com. I think this is a pretty good teaching moment here. You look at your source, you can't find anything the back the statement up, which disagrees with the vast amount of medical information available to consumers out there. My question to you is why do you feel you still need to ask?\n\nNo, it's not true. Antacids lower the pH of your stomach, the main issue is if you take too many you can end up in metabolic alkalosis or just making your stomach produce too much acid.",
"I'm no expert, but I am a frequent sufferer of heartburn. I have heard this a lot, and it makes sense logically, but I'm no doctor. I know there's not a lot of studies (that I've found) that support the apple cider vinegar cure.\n\nThat said: it freaking works like a charm for me, eliminating heartburn within seconds. The explanation of how it works seems to make logical sense, but I have no idea if the mechanism is as you have described, or some other reason.",
"It's nonsense. I'm not sure which sources you're using, but try [NIH](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
5,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://naturalbias.com/why-antacids-will-never-cure-your-heartburn/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001311/"
]
}
|
Is it true that antacids actually prevent your esophageal sphincter and/or pyloric valve from closing thereby exacerbating acid reflux/heartburn/gastritis? [medical]
According to a few sources I've found online antacids merely mask the symptoms of acid reflux/heartburn/gastritis instead of addressing the actual cause, which these sources claim is actually too low stomach acidity instead of the conventionally accepted wisdom/advertisements that insist that it's a result of too much or too high stomach acidity. I have been looking for some quantifiable science to back up this claim [Why Antacids Will Never Cure Your Heartburn](_URL_0_) but I can't seem to find more reliable sources. I would appreciate any expertise on this medical subject. If this is the case, then would Apple Cider Vinegar be a logical remedy to take on a daily basis to close the esophageal sphincter and pyloric valve by safely increasing the stomach's acidity so that the stomach acid/intestinal bile doesn't persist in causing stomach irritation/gastritis?
|
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|
1qn8j8
|
Is this a theoretically possible way to look back in time?
|
Okay, assume these two things are true:
1. We have telescopes that can see nearly infinitely clear and far
2. We can send objects into space at a speed faster than 1/2 the speed of light.
We send what's basically a telescope attached to a huge screen into space at 0.51 times the speed of light. The telescope is pointed at earth, and shows the footage it captures on its attached screen.
Meanwhile, we on earth point our telescope at the screen, looking at light that's 1.02 'lightyears' old.
What would happen?
Is this even theoretically possible?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cdeir0c",
"cdemnhw"
],
"text": [
"I'm confused. This is a way to document life as it is and see it in the future. Though I think normal video cameras are better for that. Why do you think that this would be able to see into the past. The telescope is moving slower than the speed of light, so there is no way it is going to see light that has left before you launch the telescope.",
"No. The theory of relativity states that light's speed is constant regardless of your own velocity. So it isn't as if you are going 99.9999...% the speed of light that you could reach out and grab a photon. This is due to the way that time is perceived at speed, I believe. but regardless, the light emitted is still coming toward you at the speed of light. It isn't slowed. It may be distorted depending on how this is all carried out (i.e. red/blue shifts) but it still travels to you at the speed of light. While it is true that looking at a projection out in space will show you events that happened prior to the observation,t is technique, even as described, could never see further back than the point of initial launch."
],
"score": [
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is this a theoretically possible way to look back in time?
Okay, assume these two things are true: 1. We have telescopes that can see nearly infinitely clear and far 2. We can send objects into space at a speed faster than 1/2 the speed of light. We send what's basically a telescope attached to a huge screen into space at 0.51 times the speed of light. The telescope is pointed at earth, and shows the footage it captures on its attached screen. Meanwhile, we on earth point our telescope at the screen, looking at light that's 1.02 'lightyears' old. What would happen? Is this even theoretically possible?
|
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|
34gl9g
|
If the Big Crunch occurred, how would it be observed?
|
I know that the Big Crunch is an unlikely event, but I want to know how long would it take us to perceive that the universe is contracting? Would it's effects be observed immediately? Is the lifespan of the universe at it's midpoint the moment the Big Crunch begins?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cquibfs"
],
"text": [
"> I know that the Big Crunch is an unlikely event, but I want to know how long would it take us to perceive that the universe is contracting? \n\nFor one thing, that would be a pretty bizarre observation, considering we just recently discovered that expansion of the universe is accelerating. \n\nBut let's suppose we didn't. Suppose the universe was expanding, but slowing down. In that case, the first immediate observational consequence would be on distant supernova (which is how the acceleration of the expansion was discovered, and is the specific observation that got the Nobel a few years ago). [Wikipedia explains it well](_URL_0_) but the gist is that as the universe ages, the expansion rate changes, so while nearby objects seem to recede with speed that's linear with distance (a la Hubble's law), the recession speeds of incredibly distant objects deviate from that linear relationship, and that can be seen in their redshift.\n\n\n\n > Is the lifespan of the universe at it's midpoint the moment the Big Crunch begins?\n\nIn the simplest possible cosmological model, yes. [Check out this plot.](_URL_1_) The universe we seem to live in is the red line, which will expand forever at an ever increasing rate. But, if some hypothetical universe had significantly more matter than ours with no dark energy (orange line), you would expect it to 'bang,' expand for a while, and then contract in a crunch. \n\nSo back to your first question- if we lived in a universe that was going to crunch, we'd be able to tell it was going to crunch, even if it was still in the expanding part of it's evolution, given some basic models from general relativity and observations of the abundance of matter in the universe. Cool, right?"
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerating_universe#Evidence_for_acceleration",
"http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/media/990350/990350b.jpg"
]
}
|
If the Big Crunch occurred, how would it be observed?
I know that the Big Crunch is an unlikely event, but I want to know how long would it take us to perceive that the universe is contracting? Would it's effects be observed immediately? Is the lifespan of the universe at it's midpoint the moment the Big Crunch begins?
|
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|
2ou57g
|
In QM, is it always possible to measure to observables that commute precisely & simultaneously?
|
For example, the operators of momentum and kinetic energy commute. Therefore at least some of the eigenstates of momentum are also eigenstates of kinetic energy.
What about a particle that is in a state that is an eigenstate of momentum but not of kinetic energy? If a particle is in this particular state, does that mean you can't possibly know both the momentum and the kinetic energy exactly simultaneously?
Or is it simply that momentum and kinetic energy operator commute, therefore you can *always* measure them both precisely?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cmqpsaa"
],
"text": [
"Yes, if the operators commute then the observables are compatible; they can be measured simultaneously to arbitrary precision. If the particle is in an eigenstate of one then it is simultaneously in an eigenstate of the other operator, that follows from the fact that the operators commute. [This](_URL_0_) goes into detail."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www2.ph.ed.ac.uk/~ldeldebb/docs/QM/lect2.pdf"
]
}
|
In QM, is it always possible to measure to observables that commute precisely & simultaneously?
For example, the operators of momentum and kinetic energy commute. Therefore at least some of the eigenstates of momentum are also eigenstates of kinetic energy. What about a particle that is in a state that is an eigenstate of momentum but not of kinetic energy? If a particle is in this particular state, does that mean you can't possibly know both the momentum and the kinetic energy exactly simultaneously? Or is it simply that momentum and kinetic energy operator commute, therefore you can *always* measure them both precisely?
|
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] |
|
wu6dc
|
What ever happened to DRACO?
|
[MIT Article](_URL_0_)
A while back this was all over reddit for a few days. It seemed like a potential miracle drug. But a web search returned no news. Does anyone know what happened with it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5gh667"
],
"text": [
"That's from less than a year ago, which is very little time in this context."
],
"score": [
23
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ll.mit.edu/news/DRACO.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What ever happened to DRACO?
[MIT Article](_URL_0_) A while back this was all over reddit for a few days. It seemed like a potential miracle drug. But a web search returned no news. Does anyone know what happened with it?
|
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|
1wov8z
|
Are C-sections having an evolutionary impact?
|
Is it changing anything like birth weight, head size, allowing women to have smaller hips? Or anything else.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cf464po",
"cf95l6h"
],
"text": [
"I would say no, for two main reasons:\n\n1) They haven't been around nearly long enough to have an impact on the species (selection takes many generations). Additionally, since humans are making mate selections based on a lot of criteria that have nothing to do with things like birth weight/head size/etc, the chances of a new delivery method having any effect on those things is minimal or non existent.\n\n2) Our ability to save infants delivered vaginally is so good that the number of infants who survive via c-section but would have died via vaginal deliverance is likely too low to have a real impact on the species.",
"Some scientists I know have been passing this around lately, and it made me think of this thread:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis is is a legitimately solid documentary, scientifically. The microbiome and epigenetics are HOT topics in my field (anthropology, particularly evolutionary medicine) right now."
],
"score": [
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"www.indiegogo.com/projects/microbirth"
]
}
|
Are C-sections having an evolutionary impact?
Is it changing anything like birth weight, head size, allowing women to have smaller hips? Or anything else.
|
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|
xr2fa
|
Is the live coverage of Curiosity "live?"
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5oudeb"
],
"text": [
"edit: Guy below me is correct. That's what I get for repeating what I heard elsewhere"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is the live coverage of Curiosity "live?"
|
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||
2j8yvl
|
Why do photovoltaic cell graphs level out?
|
I recently did an experiment similar to this one:
_URL_0_
When discussing my graph and data I wasn't sure why the graph of a photovoltaic cell's voltage output in relation to LUX levels out. Is this because pv cells have a maximum capacity or some other reason? And if so, what is it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cl9wlil"
],
"text": [
"If this is for a class, you need to warn your teacher that the experiment in the link is fundamentally incorrect.\n\nThe author has you measure the open-circuit voltage, i.e. the voltage under zero-current conditions, with no load resistor connected across the solar panel. This is wrong, since the voltage isn't directly proportional to light intensity, instead current is. Therefore, the entire experiment is teaching a misconception and breeding confusion. And it also misses an excellent opportunity to discuss how solar cells actually work.\n\nIn photovoltaic cells, it's the short-circuit current which is directly proportional to light intensity. That's the output current at zero voltage. A solar cell is a sort of \"charge pump.\" It's a pump where the rate of photon-absorption in the PN junction determines the rate of charge carriers being forced to cross the potential barrier. So, twice the light intensity, twice the incoming photons/second, twice the number of charges per second, and twice the milliamperes. This, while voltage remains close to zero. Simple, no?\n\nTo properly perform a simplified PV experiment, you'd connect a current meter across the panel, not a voltmeter. A current meter acts as a zero-ohm resistance, so this configuration measures short-circuit output current of the panel. Then, as you turn up the brightness of the bulb, the current will rise in proportion. You'd get a smoothly sloping graph which looks nothing like the one in that article.\n\nIn answer to your original question, the potential of 9V is created by the junction potential of the stack of many PV cells in the panel. It's produced by the built-in electric fields inside the individual solar cells. In theory, for an ideal solar panel connected to an ideal voltmeter, the open-circuit voltage should always be 9V, even in total darkness. (In other words, we don't need to explain the 9V, instead we need to explain why the voltage falls to zero at all!) In your real-world example, the shape of the graph is probably determined mostly by the parallel (not series) resistance found across each PN junction in the cells. Even the resistance of the voltmeter may affect that curve."
],
"score": [
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://tuhsphysics.ttsd.k12.or.us/Research/IB07/BakeVanC/index.htm"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why do photovoltaic cell graphs level out?
I recently did an experiment similar to this one: _URL_0_ When discussing my graph and data I wasn't sure why the graph of a photovoltaic cell's voltage output in relation to LUX levels out. Is this because pv cells have a maximum capacity or some other reason? And if so, what is it?
|
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] |
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10rg8b
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Guidance for motion tracking experiment/exploration
|
Hello reddit!
Before I begin asking questions, I will explain the problem. I am a visual effects artist for Hollywood, and one major part of the visual effects industry is the digital recreation of the movement of a camera. For any particular shot that an artist is working on, they are usually given a digital representation of the camera move in 3d space (this includes pitch, roll, yaw, translation, etc.). There are specific pieces of software that analyse the movement/parallax of objects in a particular shot, and using some fancy math, extrapolates a "camera solve" that closely replicates the way the camera moved when the shot was actually captured. The problem is, these softwares and camera solves can be very difficult, time consuming, and not always totally accurate.
What I am trying to do is develop a system that can be applied to any camera on set to automatically record the camera's movements, giving a close to 100% accurate representation of that movement.
It has been suggested that I use 3d motion capture technology to record the camera's movements, however this is something that I am looking to stay away from. Motion capture equipment and setup is rather bulky, which is something I want to avoid.
My question is: What devices should I be looking at to track a camera's orientation (pitch, roll, yaw [perhaps a 3d accelerometer of some kind]) and movement (translation across all 3 axis)? My goal is to create a stand alone unit that requires no peripherals (so no external tracking cameras or infra-red systems) that can be attached to any camera. Also, it must be very accurate (to a fraction of a degree of orientation, and accurate to the cm for translation).
TL;DR: What technology can I use to extrapolate the exact position and rotation of a camera in real time?
|
askscience
|
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"Okay, you are asking for too much. The state of the art are external, fixed, tracking cameras. \n\nSo MAYBE you cannot do that. Well, you can get a 7 axis movement tracker with bluetooth. It does acceleration in the X, Y, and Z directions, roll, pitch, yaw, and magnetic pole. You will also be able to extrapolate gravity from the X, Y, and Z acceleration, so you get 2 vectors for orientation, 3 integrals for X, Y, and Z position, and another vector for orientation from the magnetic pole. The limitation is that drift becomes really significant for the accelerometer integrals, so you would be hosed. But you will get orientation quite nicely. \n\nBut wait, there is more. You can also instrument the room with ultrasonic emitters, and put a microphone on the device. Then you get position with complete accuracy. But then you violate the no external devices clause. Adding GPS doesn't help, either. With no external devices, you can get the relative changes in the camera's position pretty well. If it runs for minutes, though, your movement sensor will say the camera is in the wrong room...",
"Alright, so I work on positioning systems for aerospace vehicles, got a PhD in vision-based positioning systems for UAVs and I've developed my own external camera tracking system for labs. Basically, I know what you need to do this :) \n\nWhat you ideally want to do is to use solely an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) for positioning, they consist of a set of accelerometers and gyroscopes to determine the relative position and orientation of the unit. The challenge as people have mentioned already is that these sensors drift, that means that even if you just let them sit still they'll build up pretty large positioning errors. Some of it can be cancelled out using high quality filters (most commonly some form of Kalman filter), allowing you to operate for about 15 minutes or so with the accuracy you're asking for. But, in the end you need something else to assist the IMU. In aerospace systems that's GPS, in labs it's external tracking systems (vision or audio based), or for a lot of vision work people analyse certain features captured by the camera itself. (Granted, another alternative is to get more expensive and better designed accelerometers and gyros, but that gets very expensive very fast. a good IMU can easily cost anywhere from $10,00 up to $100,000+ for aerospace grade systems).\n\nOne solution for you could be to use an IMU for motion tracking and then incorporate certain visual cues, such as markers or key features in the scene that you know exactly where they are. By analysing a number of these features you can estimate where the camera is in the room and use this information to correct your drifting IMU, using some clever data fusion methods. However, as you can imagine this will take a long time to develop and cost a lot of money, so in the end this will be a very expensive and possibly even more complex system than what is already in use."
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Guidance for motion tracking experiment/exploration
Hello reddit! Before I begin asking questions, I will explain the problem. I am a visual effects artist for Hollywood, and one major part of the visual effects industry is the digital recreation of the movement of a camera. For any particular shot that an artist is working on, they are usually given a digital representation of the camera move in 3d space (this includes pitch, roll, yaw, translation, etc.). There are specific pieces of software that analyse the movement/parallax of objects in a particular shot, and using some fancy math, extrapolates a "camera solve" that closely replicates the way the camera moved when the shot was actually captured. The problem is, these softwares and camera solves can be very difficult, time consuming, and not always totally accurate. What I am trying to do is develop a system that can be applied to any camera on set to automatically record the camera's movements, giving a close to 100% accurate representation of that movement. It has been suggested that I use 3d motion capture technology to record the camera's movements, however this is something that I am looking to stay away from. Motion capture equipment and setup is rather bulky, which is something I want to avoid. My question is: What devices should I be looking at to track a camera's orientation (pitch, roll, yaw [perhaps a 3d accelerometer of some kind]) and movement (translation across all 3 axis)? My goal is to create a stand alone unit that requires no peripherals (so no external tracking cameras or infra-red systems) that can be attached to any camera. Also, it must be very accurate (to a fraction of a degree of orientation, and accurate to the cm for translation). TL;DR: What technology can I use to extrapolate the exact position and rotation of a camera in real time?
|
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|
6jshp5
|
How do aeronautical engineers account for saltwater exposure when they are designing and aircraft for the navy?
|
Having grownup and am still living in Pensacola, Florida I wonder how engineers account for exposure to saltwater in their designs.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"djh1cdb",
"djnkibx"
],
"text": [
"Quick answer: material selection. \n\nA fairly big portion of newer aircraft are made from composites, which don't have the issues that many metals have with salt exposure (at least during expected life span). Even with metal components, you're talking about spray exposure, not complete immersion, which can be dealt with via coatings/maintenance and/or types of metals selected.",
"Even parts hidden away inside the craft need to be tested against possible salt spray. I am a power electronics engineer and when we design power converters we test them by directly atomizing salt and putting it in the atmosphere with just the device then checking for any degradation to insulation or fan function, etc... \n\nI know you asked for aeronautical engineers but I thought you might be interested to know that even the hidden away components must be tested thoroughly and have parts carefully chosen."
],
"score": [
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How do aeronautical engineers account for saltwater exposure when they are designing and aircraft for the navy?
Having grownup and am still living in Pensacola, Florida I wonder how engineers account for exposure to saltwater in their designs.
|
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] |
|
qscm0
|
What is the latest research on *how* human's can do low or high level math? Mechanically, what is going on in there? (The Brain.)
|
_URL_0_
There is that article, and it seems to shed a good amount of light, but it's from 1999. Has there been anything else done? Any great strides? I would assume so, our ability to Math (verb) is quite important to our identity as a species.
[Edit]: There is a *typo* in the title. I promise I'm not retarded. I changed my wording of the titles halfway through and did not catch the error. Please do not judge me harshly!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c402tso"
],
"text": [
"5-year psychology/neuroscience student here: \n\nI can probably help you out but you need to be more specific\n\nCan you give me an example of what you mean by high and low level math? Are you talking about simple addition versus trigonometry here? \n\nWhat about the mechanics were you interested in knowing? There are a lot of components and even after 5 years of looking at this stuff there is a lot that I don't even understand."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/1999/05/12/MN28876.DTL"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the latest research on *how* human's can do low or high level math? Mechanically, what is going on in there? (The Brain.)
_URL_0_ There is that article, and it seems to shed a good amount of light, but it's from 1999. Has there been anything else done? Any great strides? I would assume so, our ability to Math (verb) is quite important to our identity as a species. [Edit]: There is a *typo* in the title. I promise I'm not retarded. I changed my wording of the titles halfway through and did not catch the error. Please do not judge me harshly!
|
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|
saggv
|
What causes chairs, tables and night stands to eventually become wobbly?
|
Is it the floor warping or the legs wearing out or neither? Sitting on a wobbly chair at the moment..
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4cg9oj",
"c4cg0n7",
"c4cf7je"
],
"text": [
"Probably not what you intended, but in my experience this often occurs due to bolts or other fasteners loosening over time, especially as the pieces are moved around, especially while weighted down.",
"Mathematically speaking, these things become wobbly because they have four legs, but it only takes three points to define a plane. A stool with three legs will never become wobbly.",
"I'm sure it's due to wear-and-tear. The amount of weight the chair is carrying is bending the material ever-so slightly, possibly warping it."
],
"score": [
4,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What causes chairs, tables and night stands to eventually become wobbly?
Is it the floor warping or the legs wearing out or neither? Sitting on a wobbly chair at the moment..
|
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] |
|
4hvnu7
|
Why does a string form certain parabolas?
|
A string attached between two points will hang in the shape of a parabola. What factors affect this shape? Will all strings behave the same way and form the same parabola?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d2sq1vn",
"d2sqf9k"
],
"text": [
"> A string attached between two points will hang in the shape of a parabola.\n\n\n-\n\n\nYou have repeated here an error that was made already in 1638 by Galileo. Eight years later, in 1646, Huygens proved that the shape so formed cannot be a parabola. It took until 1691 for the correct mathematical description of the curve to be derived (independently by Huygens, Leibniz and Bernoulli). This type of curve is called a *catenary* (after the Latin for \"chain\"), and is a actually a hyperbolic cosine. \n\n\n-\n\n\n(summary of detailed history given by [Bukowski, 2008](_URL_0_))",
"As explained by cryoprof below. Google 'catenary formula' for several applications. Quite interesting if you find an online graphing program and make some minor changes in it and look at the results."
],
"score": [
10,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://jcsites.juniata.edu/faculty/bukowski/leiden/cmj002-011.pdf"
]
}
|
Why does a string form certain parabolas?
A string attached between two points will hang in the shape of a parabola. What factors affect this shape? Will all strings behave the same way and form the same parabola?
|
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|
3wnwfb
|
What can we learn from the result that (i)^2 = e^(ipi)?
|
So I am currently learning about Euler's Identity and spotted that alongside the standard e^ipi = -1, (i)^2 = -1 so (i)^2 must also equal e^(ipi)...Is there anything interesting about this result, or is it just a re-arrangement of Euler's Identity? Does it lead to other interesting results?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cxxmakn"
],
"text": [
"I think you'll find that they more generally arise from rotation in the complex plane. \n\nConsider the function e^(ix) = cos(x) + i sin(x). Evaluating the cos(x) and sin(x) give a point in the complex plane of the form a+ib. Specifically, it's on the unit circle. It's like the Cartesian plane, where *a* is the *x* value and *b* is the *y* value. [Essentially, you have a real axis and a complex axis.](_URL_0_)\n\nIf you take the square root of your equation, you just get that e^(i pi/2) = i, which is a 90 degree rotation!"
],
"score": [
11
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://girlsangle.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/blog_072412_08.jpg"
]
}
|
What can we learn from the result that (i)^2 = e^(ipi)?
So I am currently learning about Euler's Identity and spotted that alongside the standard e^ipi = -1, (i)^2 = -1 so (i)^2 must also equal e^(ipi)...Is there anything interesting about this result, or is it just a re-arrangement of Euler's Identity? Does it lead to other interesting results?
|
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|
5alwcy
|
Where do microscopic and macroscopic overlap?
|
There's clearly a difference between the two, but I was wondering if there's a known scale at which we see quantum effects begin to approximate classical terms
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d9i12xg",
"d9ih643"
],
"text": [
"> I was wondering if there's a known scale at which we see quantum effects begin to approximate classical terms\n\nThere always is, but it depends on the system. For a lot of day-to-day systems, which have a a lot of particles at finite temperature, the relevant parameter is the density ρ times the cube of the [thermal de Broglie wavelength](_URL_0_) λ:\n\nρλ^3\n\nwhere\n\nλ = h/sqrt(2pi\\*m\\*k\\*T)\n\nh is Planck's constant, k is Boltzmann's constant, m is the mass of the particles, and T is temperature. Now the classical limit occurs when\n\nρλ^3 < < 1\n\nThere's a simple interpretation here, which is that λ is about the de Broglie wavelength of particles, and quantum effects are unimportant when the system is dilute enough that there is no overlap between the particles' wave functions.\n\nYou can start with a quantum theory and get back classical physics by taking this limit. For example, you can start with a gas of non-interacting bosons, and calculate the equation of state in a power series for small ρλ^(3), obtaining\n\nPV/(NkT) = 1 - ρλ^(3)/(4*sqrt(2)) + ....\n\nwhere the ellipses denote terms higher order in ρλ^(3), and the term shown is the first quantum correction to the known classical behavior PV=NkT.",
"It actually depends on the type of quantum effect.\n\n-If you're looking for a number, typically we're talking about tens of nanometers, maybe up to a hundred, for quantum dots.\n\n-If you're looking at the bulk bandstructure of matter, surface properties tend to become distinguishable from bulk when a material reaches a few atomic layers. Truly bulk band band structure seems to appear in photoemission experiments after several (say, 10) atomic layers."
],
"score": [
8,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_de_Broglie_wavelength"
]
}
|
Where do microscopic and macroscopic overlap?
There's clearly a difference between the two, but I was wondering if there's a known scale at which we see quantum effects begin to approximate classical terms
|
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] |
|
12ifa4
|
I need help with naming something.
|
I really feel this term came from science. It describes arriving at a bad conclusion.
**Made-up Example:** Five children all live on the same street where the water is bad and making them sick. Every child on this street loves to wear orange clothing. At school teachers notice all children are sick and come to the conclusion that wearing orange makes you sick.
I know there is a term for this. It's bad science because no actual study is done. It's all superficial observation.
**UPDATE:** Thank you everyone for helping. At least you gave me phrases. I really thought there was a one word term.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6vbdbm",
"c6vdxr1",
"c6vbuu4"
],
"text": [
"In common english:\n\n[Correlation does not imply causation](_URL_0_).",
"Perhaps the [fundamental attribution error](_URL_1_) is what you're looking for?",
"I think you may be talking about an [association fallacy](_URL_2_), aka \"guilt by association.\"\n\n > An association fallacy is an inductive informal fallacy... which asserts that qualities of one thing are inherently qualities of another, merely by an irrelevant association."
],
"score": [
11,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_fallacy"
]
}
|
I need help with naming something.
I really feel this term came from science. It describes arriving at a bad conclusion. **Made-up Example:** Five children all live on the same street where the water is bad and making them sick. Every child on this street loves to wear orange clothing. At school teachers notice all children are sick and come to the conclusion that wearing orange makes you sick. I know there is a term for this. It's bad science because no actual study is done. It's all superficial observation. **UPDATE:** Thank you everyone for helping. At least you gave me phrases. I really thought there was a one word term.
|
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|
xr7ms
|
So, Redditors of NASA, JPL, and related researchers... what have we learned from this important off-planet mission?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5owauw"
],
"text": [
"I work for neither of those three, but we have just discovered a new, viable landing system for larger payloads =0"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
So, Redditors of NASA, JPL, and related researchers... what have we learned from this important off-planet mission?
|
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||
29l7zz
|
why does chimerism in many animals have a perfect "midsagittial" split?
|
As far as coloration/pigmentation I'm aware it can be "spotty", but I've been seeing a lot of pictures with a near perfect midsagittal plane split lately (if that's the proper term you would use). what would be the genetic or developmental causation for this exact down the middle split in genome?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cinbof0"
],
"text": [
"Phenotypic expression patterns in chimeric individuals is often dependent on the location of the transplanted cells which will eventually lead to the resulting phenotype. Transplantation is often done during early development in which the total cell number is very small, these cells differentiate/proliferate over the course of development. Depending on the type of cell and its location, the cells will give rise to further cells at various locations. Development of expression patterns are also dictated by neighboring cells, the contact with specific cells can either promote or inhibit the cell species that develops resulting in various patterns. Primordial cells during development give rise to a variety of cells that eventually may be in close proximity to one another, or are in completely different locations. Essentially it depends on the location of transplantation and the specific type of cell that's being transplanted."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
why does chimerism in many animals have a perfect "midsagittial" split?
As far as coloration/pigmentation I'm aware it can be "spotty", but I've been seeing a lot of pictures with a near perfect midsagittal plane split lately (if that's the proper term you would use). what would be the genetic or developmental causation for this exact down the middle split in genome?
|
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|
80zqkr
|
I've seen some books and places claim that Hagfish have two brains, but when I look this up I find little to nothing about this, and when I looked at a diagram of a Hagfish's head it showed what looked like just one brain. Is this just a myth, or is it more complicated than this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dv0baxl"
],
"text": [
"I know that the males fuze themselves with the female and turn into a sperm bank so I supose in the mid way when the male still have his brain and its fuzed with the female the could \"have\" 2 brains.But I dont think so given that they are 2 diferent individuals of the same species"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
I've seen some books and places claim that Hagfish have two brains, but when I look this up I find little to nothing about this, and when I looked at a diagram of a Hagfish's head it showed what looked like just one brain. Is this just a myth, or is it more complicated than this?
|
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||
ksd4l
|
Would it be ethical and useful to use oneself as a subject for studying the bites of Tegenaria agrestis (Hobo Spider)?
|
I'm interested in finding out more, first hand, about the nature of the purported 'necrotic' bites of the 'hobo spider'. All studies I have found pertinent to this topic have never been about human exposures--and there has yet to be a truly well documented case of a necrotic bite.
I would like to test this on myself. I know that such a thing would not be academically accepted, but would it be both ethical and useful? Perhaps with the help of another to keep things slightly impartial?
I am an amateur entomologist with an interest in both insects and spiders. I hold quite large collections of both living and preserved specimens of both.
My background is a BSCS and Masters in related fields, so I am not uneducated. Perhaps foolish.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2mtauv",
"c2mvoqv",
"c2mvg6f",
"c2mtqi0"
],
"text": [
"Most institutions allow people to try things on themselves. [Barry Marshall](_URL_1_) the Australian who confirmed that ulcers could be caused by bacteria did so by drinking a petri dish of *H. pylori*. So, I think ethics is OK. \n\nUseful, on the other hand...? \n\nThere are so many questions that would lead me to be very wary of interpreting the results of such an experiment. How are you going to design this experiment? Do you know what parts of the flesh would be most likely to result in a necrotic bite? Do you know that you will not have some innate resistance to the bite that others might not have? Will a lack of necrosis in you mean that someone with an impaired immune system will not have a necrotic effect? There are so many confounders that come with a sample size of one person that I'm not sure you'll accomplish much if you show (as I assume you hope to show) no results. I presume you've read [Vetter et al's](_URL_0_) review (PDF warning). They make a good case for the weakness of the existing evidence. Would your contribution be viewed as a stunt or can it be done in a way that will be taken seriously? I'm not sure how it would be taken seriously.",
"My great-grandfather, William J. Baerg, did this exact experiment with black widow bites. [Source.](_URL_2_) According to my grandmother, this was an important event in the development of our understanding of black widow bites. Whether this is advisable in this day and age is debatable.",
"well that kind of thing has been done before in hymenoptera, though i don't know if anyone's done it in spiders.\n\n[wikipedia](_URL_3_)\nor if you can find access to the original:\nSchmidt, J. O., Blum, M. S., and Overal, W. L. \"Hemolytic activities of stinging insect venoms\", Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology, 1:155–160, 1984.",
"How would it affect your family and friends if you are hurt?"
],
"score": [
5,
5,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://utahpests.usu.edu/uppdl/files/uploads/Hobo%20Spider%20Dermonecrotic%20Lesions.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Marshall",
"http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=1582",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmidt_Sting_Pain_Index"
]
}
|
Would it be ethical and useful to use oneself as a subject for studying the bites of Tegenaria agrestis (Hobo Spider)?
I'm interested in finding out more, first hand, about the nature of the purported 'necrotic' bites of the 'hobo spider'. All studies I have found pertinent to this topic have never been about human exposures--and there has yet to be a truly well documented case of a necrotic bite. I would like to test this on myself. I know that such a thing would not be academically accepted, but would it be both ethical and useful? Perhaps with the help of another to keep things slightly impartial? I am an amateur entomologist with an interest in both insects and spiders. I hold quite large collections of both living and preserved specimens of both. My background is a BSCS and Masters in related fields, so I am not uneducated. Perhaps foolish.
|
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|
4iebci
|
Were D & C procedures part of the tubal ligation procedure in the early or mid 1980's?
|
So today is Mother's Day and a few years ago my mother confided in me a guilt she has carried for a long time. Several months after the birth of my youngest sibling, she had her tubes tied. Apparently the doctor performed a D & C as part of the procedure. She was never told that she was pregnant but later felt that this would be the only reason for that being included in the procedure. So in addition to giving up her own fertility, she has a guilt that she has carried related to a potential loss of a child she never bore.
Can someone give me some background on the nature of this procedure as it was performed around 1984, if her worries are based on fact or fiction?
Also, make sure to wish you mom a happy mother's day.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d2xi5pn"
],
"text": [
"D & C is a generic procedure to clear out the uterus. Yes, it is used during abortions, but it is also used for other purposes when there is excess tissue in the uterus. It's unlikely a doctor would perform an abortion without her consent and it'd be a huge breach of ethics. Your mother should know she has nothing to worry about."
],
"score": [
12
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Were D & C procedures part of the tubal ligation procedure in the early or mid 1980's?
So today is Mother's Day and a few years ago my mother confided in me a guilt she has carried for a long time. Several months after the birth of my youngest sibling, she had her tubes tied. Apparently the doctor performed a D & C as part of the procedure. She was never told that she was pregnant but later felt that this would be the only reason for that being included in the procedure. So in addition to giving up her own fertility, she has a guilt that she has carried related to a potential loss of a child she never bore. Can someone give me some background on the nature of this procedure as it was performed around 1984, if her worries are based on fact or fiction? Also, make sure to wish you mom a happy mother's day.
|
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] |
|
vp60y
|
Radioactive alarmclock
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c56ek5o",
"c56k5h1"
],
"text": [
"Well, here's an experiment to see if it uses radioactive glow-in-the-dark paint: put it in a dark closet for several hours. If it's still glowing, it's probably radioactive.\n\nApparently, though, the radioactive dose you get isn't that significant. According to [one source](_URL_0_), you get only a few millirem a year (millirem is a way of measuring radiation exposure). However, the body can handle radiation, as there are many sources of it in nature. In the US, workers are not allowed to receive more than 5 rems per year, or 5000 millirem.\n \nSo, it looks like you're probably fine if it is radioactive. If you're worried about it, don't keep it too close to you. Radiation levels drop off very fast when you move a radioactive source away from you. If you get rid of the clock, though, you should do research on how to dispose of it properly.",
"Any idea how old the clock is? How bright is the glow? The production of Radium clock faces ended in the 1960's, and while the radioactivity would still present, the phosphor that actually does the glowing in those clock faces (usually Zinc Sulfide) degrades comparatively quickly and is likely to be very dim nowadays.\n\nIf it does contain Radium, the hazard from direct exposure is low. However, if the clock has a glass/plastic cover over the face, don't remove it, as this could allow Radon and its daughter products to escape into the room, which could then get inhaled/ingested and possibly cause problems."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.freewebs.com/billyschorr/radioluminescentpaint.htm"
]
}
|
Radioactive alarmclock
|
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] |
||
14uwgm
|
which is most important, response rate or sample size
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7gn4to",
"c7grh4c"
],
"text": [
"The most important thing is that A) the responses are truly drawn from a random sample (or as close to random as possible), and B) you get a couple thousand responses. This is how political polls work.\n\nDue to [Poisson statistics](_URL_0_), the % uncertainty on a truly random counting decreases as the number you counted goes up (not the fraction of the total). This increases like the sqrt(N), where N is the number counted. \n\nFor 1000 random counts, the % uncertainty is sqrt(1000) / 1000 = 3.2%. This is regardless of the size of the population. For this reason, we can estimate, to good accuracy, the number of galaxies in the universe, simply by taking one long exposure of a tiny piece of sky.",
"[Non-response bias](_URL_1_) is probably what you are thinking about. In short, participants choosing to respond can bias your results if their responses are proportionally different than non-responders. I'd offer some articles looking at the magnitude of the effect and how to account for it, but I am not on a computer with journal access at the moment."
],
"score": [
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson_distribution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-response_bias"
]
}
|
which is most important, response rate or sample size
|
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||
1v7pbt
|
How is 100 percent daily value measured?
|
I was drinking a smoothie blend drink and noticed it had 1,500% of my daily value of Vitamin C. What is daily value based off of/how is it measured?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ceq1s7i"
],
"text": [
"Daily values of food/drinks are based around a 2,000 calorie/day diet (most nutrition labels will say this). I guess scientists and doctors determine how much of each nutrient you need.\n\nFor example, let's say you need 50g of Vitamin C (not the real value, probably) based on a 2,000 calorie diet. If you smoothie had 1,500% of that daily value, there were 750g of Vitamin C in it (50g * 1500%/100%).\n\nLet's say, though, you have a 4,000 calorie diet that you need to maintain for the extensive energy you burn each day. This would mean that your daily value of Vitamin C would be 100g, not 50g. Therefore, that smoothie would have 750% of the recommended daily value of Vitamin C."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How is 100 percent daily value measured?
I was drinking a smoothie blend drink and noticed it had 1,500% of my daily value of Vitamin C. What is daily value based off of/how is it measured?
|
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|
14fkf6
|
Hi Guys. Ive tried this on a few different subreddits and got redirected here. Could someone help explain Taste to me. (more detailed question in comments)
|
I've been wondering about this for awhile but can someone explain taste to me? I asked on r/science and didnt get anything. Maybe I worded it wrong or something. Basically what Im wondering is how does taste work? I know smell can affect it, but I remember playing trivial pursuit as a kid and one of the cards said that hearing can also affect it. I was also wondering if there are tiny reactions (like Sn1, Sn2, E1, E2 (think organic chem)) on your tounge (and nose: aromatically, maybe). Lastly, I recently watched supersize me and it talks about how food can have psychological effects, such as producing endorphins, is this because of comfort food associating memories with tastes and smells, or because of actual chemicals in the food? Any knowledge you could bestow on me would be greatly appreciated.
|
askscience
|
{
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],
"text": [
"so there are the five basic tastes. sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami or savory.\n\nEach has a different receptor. Sweet a receptor for sugars, sourfor hydrogen ions, salt for sodium ions, bitter various compounds, and umami responds to glutamate, or MSG. Anyways each of these varies a bit in exactly how they respond to a signal.\n\nIn terms of reactions occuring, sure thery are reactions but these are mostly going to be hydrolysis reactions breaking down sugar chains via amylase and fats via lipase.\n\nAs far as the influence of smell on taste it is stimulated separately. But the chemicals stimulating smell neurons are going to reach your nose from inside your mouth."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
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}
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Hi Guys. Ive tried this on a few different subreddits and got redirected here. Could someone help explain Taste to me. (more detailed question in comments)
I've been wondering about this for awhile but can someone explain taste to me? I asked on r/science and didnt get anything. Maybe I worded it wrong or something. Basically what Im wondering is how does taste work? I know smell can affect it, but I remember playing trivial pursuit as a kid and one of the cards said that hearing can also affect it. I was also wondering if there are tiny reactions (like Sn1, Sn2, E1, E2 (think organic chem)) on your tounge (and nose: aromatically, maybe). Lastly, I recently watched supersize me and it talks about how food can have psychological effects, such as producing endorphins, is this because of comfort food associating memories with tastes and smells, or because of actual chemicals in the food? Any knowledge you could bestow on me would be greatly appreciated.
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|
1wsivq
|
Where has the divergence in the pronunciation of the word "niche" come from?
|
specifically: "neesh" and "nitch"
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cf5udjs"
],
"text": [
"I'll suppose the difference between the pronunciations is strictly bound to American and British English. One explanation is that the Anglo-Norman language has had a superstratum-influence on English, back in the 11th century. This means that the English peasants took over words from the ruling French-speakers. So, niche is a French word, which then can either be pronounced in the French way (neesh), or bastardized (nitch). \nIf we delve further into this, we could say that the American sense of patriotism, a natural occurrence in a newborn nation, has caused them to 'de-Frenchify' pronunciations (which creates bastard words). Perhaps they wanted to create their own identity, distinguish themselves from the British oppressors. This is pure speculation, of course, but nevertheless food for thought. \n\nIt might also be a simple case of analogy, where another word ending \"iche\" was pronounced as \"itch\", resulting in more of such words being pronounced as \"itch\". Even less interesting, but perhaps more plausible, is a phonetic pronunciation of a word. \nThe French origin, and therefore \"special\" pronunciation, was forgotten, and the word was then pronounced like any English speaker would do when he sees \"niche\" without any knowledge of its background. I hope this helped.\n\nedit: spacing"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Where has the divergence in the pronunciation of the word "niche" come from?
specifically: "neesh" and "nitch"
|
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|
1ew2r8
|
Some please explain to me: The relationship between parallel fibers, climbing fibers, and "long term depression", as it relates to neuroscience
|
I am starting an internship studying mice in a conditioned /unconditioned stimulus paradigm using electrodes and tones (classical conditioning). I am reading all these research papers talking about parallel fibers and climbing fibers, as well as things such as long term depression of synapses and Purkinje cells. I was wondering if someone can give me an easier to understand summary of some of this stuff and how they are related to studying brain activity, in words an undergraduate bio major could understand.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ca4jgs2"
],
"text": [
"Ok, so I'm going to assume that you're reading about the cerebellum. I'll therefore limit myself to this region of the brain. All the fibers and cells you are referring to are parts of the cerebellar circuitry (i.e. the circuitry of the cerebellum).\n\nLet's use the following image from Wikipedia as a visual guide:\n_URL_1_\n\nWe start with mossy fibers (MF). These are axons of neurons in precerebellar nuclei (i.e. any region outside of the cerebellum that projects to the cerebellum). These MF excite cerebellar granule cells (GC). The GCs have very characteristic axons called parallel fibers (PF). They are called PFs, because they run parallel to each other, as can be seen here (the red lines):\n_URL_3_\n\nThe PFs innervate Purkinje cells. Now, the Purkinje cells are the most characteristic unit of the cerebellum. They are relatively large neurons with very extensive dendrite trees (as drawn by Ramon y Cajal):\n_URL_2_\n\nOk, so far so good. Now it will get a little more complex. The MFs that I mentioned earlier also excite the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCNs). However, the PCs' main function is to inhibit these same DCNs. Therefore, MF activity leads to both excitation (direct) and inhibition (via PCs) of DCNs. Confusion? Bear with me for a while, it will become more clear.\n \nSo these DCNs have a role in motor function (although more and more research shows that they also influence cognitive function[^1](_URL_4_)). Therefore, they project to motor areas, e.g. the premotor area. In addition, the DCNs inhibits to the inferior olive (IO). The axons of IOs are called climbing fibers. Ah! There they are! And now we're going to add another layer of confusion. Just like PFs, CFs excite PCs. CFs also excite DCNs, effectively causing a negative feedback loop. The worst part is that I did not even start about Golgi cells (GgCs), basket cells (BCs), or stellate cells (SC).\n\n.\n\nSo why do we have so much complex circuitry in our cerebellum? Well, the circuitry allows for very specific fine tuned responses and modulation[^2](_URL_0_). The cerebellum plays a role in fine tuning of, for example, timing of movements. \n\n.\n\nIt is a very long story, so I'll just await more specific questions."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v12/n6/full/nrn3011.html",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/CerebCircuit.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/msTaM4S.gif",
"http://i.imgur.com/6eiGCt1.jpg",
"http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/abstract/S1364-6613%2813%2900065-X"
]
}
|
Some please explain to me: The relationship between parallel fibers, climbing fibers, and "long term depression", as it relates to neuroscience
I am starting an internship studying mice in a conditioned /unconditioned stimulus paradigm using electrodes and tones (classical conditioning). I am reading all these research papers talking about parallel fibers and climbing fibers, as well as things such as long term depression of synapses and Purkinje cells. I was wondering if someone can give me an easier to understand summary of some of this stuff and how they are related to studying brain activity, in words an undergraduate bio major could understand.
|
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] |
|
2985sy
|
Why are some DVT's asymptomatic?
|
I've heard plenty of how a DVT can cause pain, swelling, and other symptoms in a patient, but also that it could cause no symptoms at all. Why is this?
The only theory I have is that the clot moves before it causes major problems with circulation, but with my lack of knowledge, it's probably wrong. Haha.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ciim11p"
],
"text": [
"Based on what you stated was your theory, I think I see where you might be confused.\n\nClots, in general, result from the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, followed by fibrin deposition and other factors gathering together (cellular debris, red and white blood cells that get trapped, etc).\n\nNow, here is the thing: A clot does not always block off blood flow.\n\nSo, Acute DVT (which is what most people think of when they hear DVT - pain, swelling, etc) is generally due to an occlusive clot. However, non-occlusive clots - that is, clots that do not block off the entire vein - can be asymptomatic as blood can still flow past. If there is enough collateral venous circulation for the specific areas that would normally be drained by the vein with the clot, you can also avoid most symptoms.\n\nNow, an asymptomatic, non-occlusive DVT could still be the cause of a pulmonary embolism if it detaches, gets to the lung, and blocks flow there.\n\nDVTs can resolve on their own - assuming it stops growing, it should eventually undergo fibrinolysis. You can read more about that in [this review paper](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3079895/"
]
}
|
Why are some DVT's asymptomatic?
I've heard plenty of how a DVT can cause pain, swelling, and other symptoms in a patient, but also that it could cause no symptoms at all. Why is this? The only theory I have is that the clot moves before it causes major problems with circulation, but with my lack of knowledge, it's probably wrong. Haha.
|
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|
llklt
|
Are adipose cells in the human body created but never destroyed?
|
And if so, does this mean that, for example, a person who weighs 300 pounds then loses it down to 150 pounds will never be the same physically as someone who has always been 150 pounds?
I know excess skin flaps occur in people who've lost lots of weight, but what occurs as a result of all the extra adipose cells that remain?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2tnpke"
],
"text": [
"More or less. Adipocytes do have a lifespan, but it's quite long when compared to most other cells. Can range from months to years. \n\nThere's two ways that you can gain fat: hypertrophy and hyperplasia of adipocytes, and the distinction is important. \n\nHypertrophy of an adipocyte is just where they grow larger, but do not increase in number. However, at a certain point in growth they'll start telling other cells around them (adipocytes that haven't developed yet, essentially) to turn into adipocytes, and this is called hyperplasia of adipocytes, where the number of adipocytes actually increases, and not just the size. \n\nSo if you get extremely fat, and then lose a lot of weight, you'll still have more or less the same number of adipocytes if they underwent hyperplasia instead of hypertrophy (in other words, you stored your new fat gain inside new adipocytes instead of ones you already had), which, from what I understand, is why it's easier to regain weight once you lose it (that and down-regulation of metabolism). \n\nHere's a [site](_URL_0_) that may explain it better. Just gave the highlights."
],
"score": [
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.scq.ubc.ca/america-and-adipocytes-why-liposuction-is-not-the-answer/"
]
}
|
Are adipose cells in the human body created but never destroyed?
And if so, does this mean that, for example, a person who weighs 300 pounds then loses it down to 150 pounds will never be the same physically as someone who has always been 150 pounds? I know excess skin flaps occur in people who've lost lots of weight, but what occurs as a result of all the extra adipose cells that remain?
|
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] |
|
2o5crg
|
Can somebody help me understand Boyle's and Charle's laws? (Thermal physics)
|
It is alot of information to take in, and i can't seem to be able to fully understand thoose concept, especially the relationship between:
Pressure, Volume and temperature
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cmkmqrg"
],
"text": [
"Imagine a piston:\n\n* As you compress the piston (V decreased), the pressure builds up inside. So P is inversely proportional to V.^*\n* As you heat the piston at constant volume (T increased), the pressure builds up inside, so P is proportional to T.^*\n\nAt this point, we can have a guess that P ∝ T/V. It turns out, the constant of proportionality is the gas constant, R=8.314 J/mol/K. So P = R T / V.^+\n\nWe can rearrange it to have R = P V / T.^+ Since R is a constant, this means any \"valid\" sets of {P, V, T} must reproduce R, and so we can equate any two \"valid\" sets of {P, V, T} to each other.\n\n* At constant temperature: P1 V1 = P2 V2 (Boyle's Law)\n* At constant pressure: V1 / T1 = V2 / T2 (Charle's Law)\n* At constant volume: P1 / T1 = P2 / T2 (Gay-Lussac's Law)\n\nAs you can see, these laws are all the result of a unified governing equation, P = R T / V.^+ Such an equation is formally known as an \"equation of state\", and all properties & their relations can be derived from the equation of state.\n\n\nNotes:\n\n* ^* The proportionality (or inverse proportionality) has not been derived here, so it is an assumption. However, these proportionalities are well measured experimentally, so we have created here a mathematical model based on empirical facts. **We should not make these kind of assumptions when there are insufficient empirical data to support the assumptions.** \n\n* ^+ The actual equation of state is either:\n * P = R T / v, where v is the specific volume of the gas (volume per mole)\n * P = rho R T, where rho is the number density (mole per volume)\n * P = n R T / V, where V is the total volume, and n is the number of moles of gas\n\n I did not want to dive in on the difference between extensive (V, n) properties vs intensive (v, rho, P, T) properties. The argument remains the same if we give some leeway to the technical definition of R versus its implied meaning."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can somebody help me understand Boyle's and Charle's laws? (Thermal physics)
It is alot of information to take in, and i can't seem to be able to fully understand thoose concept, especially the relationship between: Pressure, Volume and temperature
|
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] |
|
1pgz63
|
What is a nucleosome and what does it do?
|
I haven't found an explaination simple enough for me to understand. To understand this I probably need to know what a chromatin is, but I don't understand those either. Thank you!
Edit: Thanks for all your answers, I do understand a little more about myself now.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cd27yjk",
"cd27v8k"
],
"text": [
"A nucleosome is basically the packed structure of DNA and its associated proteins. [This](_URL_0_) picture shows it well enough. Chromatin is made up of nucleosomes, like beads on a string. The histones pack DNA tightly and when histones are acetylated, they are unwound, which enables transcription factors access to the DNA so they can transcribe genes to make proteins. When Chromatin is packed tightly (heterochromain), it is less accessible and regions in it cannot usually be transcribed. In contrast, less packed chromatin (euchromatin) is transcriptionally active and it can be transcribed. The nucleosome is just the complex of DNA wrapped around histones.\n\nEdit: Changed a word.",
"3rd year biology student here:\n\nThere is a huge amount of DNA in each of your cells and for various reasons (eg. for mitosis and for control of expression) it needs to be packaged up.\n\nThe most simplest unit of DNA packaging is the nucleosome. This is where the DNA is wrapped a couple of times around a histone octomer (a protein made from eight sub units).\n\nThis can be important for controlling expression - many epigenetic changes are made to histone proteins such as acetylation and methylation to make the DNA easier/harder to access.\n\nThere's likely to be a lot more to it than this - and this is probably an oversimplification, but these are the basics we're taught."
],
"score": [
11,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/images/nucleosome.gif"
]
}
|
What is a nucleosome and what does it do?
I haven't found an explaination simple enough for me to understand. To understand this I probably need to know what a chromatin is, but I don't understand those either. Thank you! Edit: Thanks for all your answers, I do understand a little more about myself now.
|
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|
14snm4
|
Do we currently have a good explanation as to why the layers of the retina are inverted from what we would expect?
|
From my understanding in my neurobiology course, the layers of the retina are not arraigned to best "capture" the light. The cones and rod cells are farthest away from the vitreous body instead of being the closest, and the light has to penetrate the ganglion and bipolar cells to order to strike the photo-receptive cells.
Do we have an hypothesis at the moment as to why the layers are inverted? Does it serve to protect the cones and rods from infection, or is the clarity "good enough" and the change in developmental process large enough that a natural reversal is unlikely?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7g1z74",
"c7g1ghg",
"c7glvin",
"c7g22td"
],
"text": [
"The explanation we learned was evolution: photoreceptors came first and then more complex circuitry was added later. It turns out, cephalopods [have stuff in the \"sensible\" order](_URL_0_) and vertebrates do not. It's less of a big deal than you might think: a thin layer of tissue is mostly transparent - that's why you have to stain it to see anything under a microscope.",
"An even bigger issue is that the optic nerve and blood vessels attach to the front of the retina, blocking a significant portion of it. My understanding is that there's no good reason for any of this and you're correct with your \"good enough\" explanation, but I'll leave that to someone who knows more about it...",
"There is a very good reason. The photoreceptors are very energy-consuming cells and require a constant supply of energy from the adjacent vasculature. So the photoreceptors need to be adjacent to the choroid layer, but also need to be innervated with the other retinal layers (i.e. ganglion cells, etc.). But the choroid layer is rich with hemoglobin and other molecules which are photoactive in the visible range, which would reduce our retina's visual acuity unevenly in the visible range. So the choroid layer needs to be behind the photoreceptors, and the ganglion cells (and others) just sort of got placed where they could. It also turns out that those cells (ganglion, etc.) are not photoactive in the visible range and do not reduce the quality of vision being where they are.",
"I don't think we know for sure, but [here's](_URL_1_) an interesting theory.\n\nEssentially, they believe that for small-eyed animals, an inverted configuration would save space by maximizing the amount of cells between the lens and the photoreceptors (a space called the vitreous humor that would otherwise be filled with only fluid).\n\nJust a thought."
],
"score": [
3,
3,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina#Vertebrate_and_cephalopod_retina_differences",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19591859?dopt=Abstract"
]
}
|
Do we currently have a good explanation as to why the layers of the retina are inverted from what we would expect?
From my understanding in my neurobiology course, the layers of the retina are not arraigned to best "capture" the light. The cones and rod cells are farthest away from the vitreous body instead of being the closest, and the light has to penetrate the ganglion and bipolar cells to order to strike the photo-receptive cells. Do we have an hypothesis at the moment as to why the layers are inverted? Does it serve to protect the cones and rods from infection, or is the clarity "good enough" and the change in developmental process large enough that a natural reversal is unlikely?
|
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] |
|
omopg
|
Why is it that L'Hospital's rule only works when the limit is to an answer that is in indeterminate form?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3ihm9x"
],
"text": [
"The proof uses the fact that it is indeterminate. The special case [here](_URL_0_) is fairly simple to go through if you'd like."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27hopitals_rule#Special_case"
]
}
|
Why is it that L'Hospital's rule only works when the limit is to an answer that is in indeterminate form?
|
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||
uq8t5
|
Two question about Barn Swallows: 1) are there non-mating males/helpers? 2) how can I make them more welcome/comfortable at my house?
|
I think they are barn swallows. I've notice a forked tail. I'm in eastern Nebraska. Here are some [photos](_URL_0_). The nest has been on the house above the garage for as long as we've lived here (3 years), and I wouldn't think of removing it, even if it were legal. I love having these guys around, and I'm interested in birds, although I don't know much beyond some basic identification books.
This year it seems there are *3 birds* to this nest. Do swallows have non-mating males of helper birds? We were gone for a week and a half- is it possible they hatched and grew during that time and I'm seeing a large immature bird, the only one to survive? In the past, there have always been 4 babies.
Also, is there anything I can do to make these birds feel more welcome? What I mean is, if they ate seeds, I'd put out a feeder. We already don't linger around beneath the nest more than is absolutely necessary.
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4xnb02"
],
"text": [
"Yes, they are Barn Swallows.\n\nNo, there's nothing that you can put out for them to eat; they eat only insects caught on the wing. What would help them would be a nice big weedy patch of waste ground full of huge weeds and shrubby nasty things, all of which would attract flying bugs. Also, a pond full of hatching mosquitoes would be great. However, this is less than optimal for humans, soooo...\n\nYou can't even provide them with water, unless you have a farm pond, because they drink on the wing.\n\nAbout all you can do is leave them alone. But hey, for wildlife, sometimes that's all they need to be successful, is for humans to just keep their hands off.\n\nAs for \"helper\" birds, [this study seems to think, Uh, no, probably not.](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/5GVqE"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347287801562"
]
}
|
Two question about Barn Swallows: 1) are there non-mating males/helpers? 2) how can I make them more welcome/comfortable at my house?
I think they are barn swallows. I've notice a forked tail. I'm in eastern Nebraska. Here are some [photos](_URL_0_). The nest has been on the house above the garage for as long as we've lived here (3 years), and I wouldn't think of removing it, even if it were legal. I love having these guys around, and I'm interested in birds, although I don't know much beyond some basic identification books. This year it seems there are *3 birds* to this nest. Do swallows have non-mating males of helper birds? We were gone for a week and a half- is it possible they hatched and grew during that time and I'm seeing a large immature bird, the only one to survive? In the past, there have always been 4 babies. Also, is there anything I can do to make these birds feel more welcome? What I mean is, if they ate seeds, I'd put out a feeder. We already don't linger around beneath the nest more than is absolutely necessary. Thanks!
|
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] |
|
4jhvmh
|
How accurate is the concept behind Discovery's "Sonic Sea"?
|
I just saw [this video](_URL_0_) on Facebook which details the ways in which humans add noise pollution to the ocean. The trailer definitely does its best to make the problem sound really bad, but it seems to me as though the vastness of the ocean would make human noise pollution a pretty insignificant problem for whales and other species that rely on sonic communication. Have there been any studies that have definitively demonstrated that ships and/or oil prospecting provide a significant disruption to whales' (or other marine species') ability to communicate?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d38o085"
],
"text": [
"sound pollution in the sea is definitely an issue for whales, and could possibly interefere with their communications with each other\n\nthings like large diesel engines of ships bangin away at about 2-4Hz can be heard 1500kms away by some sonar!"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.facebook.com/Discovery/videos/10154297859393586/"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How accurate is the concept behind Discovery's "Sonic Sea"?
I just saw [this video](_URL_0_) on Facebook which details the ways in which humans add noise pollution to the ocean. The trailer definitely does its best to make the problem sound really bad, but it seems to me as though the vastness of the ocean would make human noise pollution a pretty insignificant problem for whales and other species that rely on sonic communication. Have there been any studies that have definitively demonstrated that ships and/or oil prospecting provide a significant disruption to whales' (or other marine species') ability to communicate?
|
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|
2d6ogq
|
How can the Iron Dome system work?
|
I'm trying to figure out the physics of it. It seems fairly obvious, shooting a projectile fired into a roughly parabolic arc. But then I consider the speed the projectile is moving (RPG's move nearly 300 m/s) and the fact that the interceptor would have to be able to continuously update targets flight path and trajectory data (implying it would have its own radar system and tracking computer) and have to make split second corrections - which would require huge amounts of force on a 90 kilo rocket - just to get into the area of the target missile, plus it only carries about 11 kilos of explosives, so it must get to within a reasonable proximity....
I just don't understand, can someone help me out here?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cjmm9gv",
"cjmuwkx"
],
"text": [
"You actually nailed it - antimissile systems works by doing a lot of calculations very fast, and correcting the flight path quickly.\n\n > implying it would have its own radar system and tracking computer\n\nYou're wrong on this, however. The missile doesn't have it's own radar system ; tracking is done by another station on the ground.\n\nAnother thing to take into account is that the hostile missile's path is somewhat calculated and predicted by the Iron Dome system, which give the missile more accuracy.\n\nThat's also how [missile-based CIWS](_URL_0_) works on warships. Even though it's not the Iron Dome, you can see a missile-based CIWS in action [here](_URL_1_).",
"Also OP if you didn't knew, the intercepting missiles don't have to hit the offensive ones right on the nose and can explode near it and disable it anyway because of the magic of [the continuous-rod warhead](_URL_6_). Like the name suggest, [around the explosive](_URL_7_) inside the missile is [a metallic \"shell\" made of rods](_URL_7_) that [expand after the blast](_URL_6_) and [are the one doing the damage!](_URL_7_) Check out the [wiki article here.](_URL_6_)"
],
"score": [
19,
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system#Missile_systems",
"http://gfycat.com/CompetentChiefAsiaticwildass",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_rod",
"http://i.imgur.com/SIcWESP.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/7oH5jbP.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/ojttvlR.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/sgEx3mg.gif",
"http://i.imgur.com/avYMnpx.png"
]
}
|
How can the Iron Dome system work?
I'm trying to figure out the physics of it. It seems fairly obvious, shooting a projectile fired into a roughly parabolic arc. But then I consider the speed the projectile is moving (RPG's move nearly 300 m/s) and the fact that the interceptor would have to be able to continuously update targets flight path and trajectory data (implying it would have its own radar system and tracking computer) and have to make split second corrections - which would require huge amounts of force on a 90 kilo rocket - just to get into the area of the target missile, plus it only carries about 11 kilos of explosives, so it must get to within a reasonable proximity.... I just don't understand, can someone help me out here?
|
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] |
|
2emsnr
|
How does Isreal's Iron Dome work?
|
Does anyone know or is it classified?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ck14qs4"
],
"text": [
"3rd time explaining this today (twice on ELI5). Not an expert, but had a passing familiarity and understanding, which google confirmed.\n\nHere is a very quick and simple breakdown (because other 2 detailed descriptions wound up in closed topics):\n\n1. Radar and detection module detects an enemy missile at long range.\n2. A friendly interceptor missile is prepared and using radar (and wind, temperature, humidity etc) to predict the trajectory of the enemy missile.\n3. IF its point of impact is estimated as a populated area a human operator is prompted for permission to launch.\n4. A friendly interceptor missile is fired and guided to impact the enemy missile at a point along that trajectory.\n5. Friendly interceptor missiles short range detection systems (infra red and optical targeting) 'lock on' to the enemy missile once it is within range.\n6. Friendly interceptor missile explodes in close proximity to the enemy missile, destroying it.\n\nThe missile is guided by steering fins. The radar module and the guidance control module are separate from the launcher (which apparently hold 20 missiles each) for security reasons, transmitting data to the launcher/missile wirelessly. \n\nIt's effectiveness is put between 75% and 95% by israeli officials. It received some criticism early on (with doubts on that success rate) although over time it is widely considered to of proved itself. \n\nAccording to an article easily found via google each missile costs 95,000 US dollars. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nHope this helps."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/middle-east/59368/iron-dome-how-israels-missile-defence-system-works"
]
}
|
How does Isreal's Iron Dome work?
Does anyone know or is it classified?
|
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] |
|
882kla
|
Why is the Tiangong re-entry probability (in this picture on the right hand side) higher at the top and bottom of the zone?
|
In this link:
_URL_0_
The probability shows highest at the top and bottom of the potential impact zone. Why is this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dwhlnen",
"dwhucck"
],
"text": [
"Projected onto the ground the orbit makes a sine-like curve, with most of its path close to the upper and lower bounds in terms of latitude. There the station flies roughly parallel to the lines of constant latitude - it spends more time in these regions.\n\nYou can see it in the image where the lines in the map get much closer together.",
"Tiangong is in a roughly circular orbit (eccentricity is close to 0). We'll quarter a circle, and draw some lines: _URL_0_ . The length of the circle circumference is how much time Tiangong spends there. Tiangong spends 25% of it's orbit in the northernmost 15% of it's orbit, same for southernmost. It spends only 50% in the middle 70% (25% northbound, 25% southbound). If you divide the circle up into even smaller sections, and repeat, it would eventually look like the impact probability curve. \n\n(We can't do east/west, because the earth in spinning underneath it)\n\nIf the orbit was [highly eccentric](_URL_1_), then we'd be able to tell the north-south of the impact a bit better because the low point of the orbit would consistently be at a known north-south ordinate."
],
"score": [
13,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://blogs.esa.int/rocketscience/files/2018/01/esa_esoc_tiangong1_risk_map_jan2018-1024x375.png"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://imgur.com/a/1tRLW",
"https://planetplanetdotnet.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/ellipse_diagram.png"
]
}
|
Why is the Tiangong re-entry probability (in this picture on the right hand side) higher at the top and bottom of the zone?
In this link: _URL_0_ The probability shows highest at the top and bottom of the potential impact zone. Why is this?
|
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] |
|
bgczvz
|
So another earthquake hit the PH today. Just 1 day apart, but from different places. Is there a connection between the 2? Should we be worried here in the PH for another big one?
|
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"elkpi9n"
],
"text": [
"For reference, the first large event was this [one](_URL_3_) occurring on 4/22 in the northern part of the country. The more recent event occurring on 4/23 was this [one](_URL_2_) in the more central/southern portion of the country.\n\nLocal geologists / seismologists have indicated that these two earthquakes occurred on different fault systems, and given the distance between these two earthquakes (relative to their magnitude) it is not possible that they are related as either foreshocks or aftershocks (i.e. they are far enough part that [coulomb stress transfer](_URL_5_) between the source faults is basically impossible). They're within the time range that one could potentially argue for [dynamic triggering](_URL_1_) of the latter earthquake by the first, but this is a proposition that would require a lot of investigation before anyone would make this claim (and it's probably unlikely, as in most cases the original triggering earthquake is significantly larger than the original 6.1 magnitude event). In short, there's probably no direct connection between them.\n\nSo what's the most likely explanation for these two events happening in close spatial and temporal proximity? Random chance superimposed on the fact that the [region is generally characterized by a lot of seismicity](_URL_0_), so the presence of strong earthquakes is in no way surprising. There are [~150 earthquakes of between 6.0 - 6.9](_URL_4_) per year globally, so that two of them might happen in a seismically active area, a few days apart, isn't really that unlikely. As to whether you should be worried about a larger earthquake in the region? No more than you would on any other day, i.e. as stated before, the region has a high seismic risk in general, so there's always a measurable risk of a large event. People can certainly expect aftershocks from both events, but these will be smaller than the original events."
],
"score": [
11
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/pt19113000/executive?fbclid=IwAR39YcVlCbObvB3kvEQBhhUCQ5R56kYKHG5jkuCUtNu1k9NM4Ry_3DBy_5I"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/pt19113000/region-info",
"https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-earth-060313-054648",
"https://www.emsc-csem.org/Earthquake/earthquake.php?id=760848",
"https://www.emsc-csem.org/Earthquake/earthquake.php?id=760623#summary",
"https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/browse/stats.php",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb_stress_transfer"
]
}
|
So another earthquake hit the PH today. Just 1 day apart, but from different places. Is there a connection between the 2? Should we be worried here in the PH for another big one?
_URL_0_
|
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|
2hvr7j
|
Virologists: Does amount of virions one receives relate to severity of disease?
|
If as little as ten virions (i chose this number arbitrarily, as i am having difficulty finding any sources) is needed to contract the flu, would it be correct to assume that if one would receive a thousand virions at once, that they would contract a more severe case of the flu than if they had only received ten?
Or is the severity of a disease independent from the amount of virions one received to cause the infection?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ckwjqic"
],
"text": [
"Higher viremia is often associated with more severe disease, such as during infections of [Dengue](_URL_0_). However, this is more related to established infections in the body, rather than inoculation. Interestingly, there was a study a year ago to demonstrate the efficacy of face [masks](_URL_2_) to prevent spread of seasonal flu, showing a significant reduction in viral copies. \n\nRegarding severity of disease, a lot of that depends on the immune response, and [route of transmission](_URL_1_). With regard to the latter, higher titers can lead to more likely infection of the lower respiratory tract. \n\nFurther, since there is such a wide range of viruses, with very different modes of infection, and life cycles, it is hard to make general statements. Some viruses that produce high titers allow the body to clear the infection more efficiently, such as with chicken pox (varicella zoster virus). \n\nSo, while titer may have an impact, there are certainly other factors at work."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10608744",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1473309911701426",
"http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1003205"
]
}
|
Virologists: Does amount of virions one receives relate to severity of disease?
If as little as ten virions (i chose this number arbitrarily, as i am having difficulty finding any sources) is needed to contract the flu, would it be correct to assume that if one would receive a thousand virions at once, that they would contract a more severe case of the flu than if they had only received ten? Or is the severity of a disease independent from the amount of virions one received to cause the infection?
|
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166c1i
|
Physics - Questions on EM Field (Propagators, etc)
|
The EM force propagates by photons (virtual photons, I believe). I imagine a proper understanding requires some QED or QFT, but I just want to check my physical intuition from various models with anyone who might have more experience. Maybe this is all completely irrelevant because we're only talking about virtual particles--but if that's the case, why do we identify them as photons if they don't share any of these common properties of photons? So, going forward as if they were regular photons...
In atomic theory, we're taught that electronic transitions are accompanied by the absorption or emission of photons, with energy, momentum, etc being conserved. Are (virtual) photons essentially sent constantly in all directions from every charge in order to propagate information about the magnitude and position of the charge onto the EM field? Where do these photons go, and where does the energy, angular momentum, etc to produce them come from? Is each particle capturing photons from other particles in order to maintain conservation? What would the EM field of a proton in pure isolation be made of, ie, where would the energy come from?
When considering the force between two charged particles, is there a way to quantify the energy of the photons transmitting the force, and thus frequencies and wavelengths? Do larger charges emit higher energy photons, for instance, or simply more photons?
In astronomy, we measure photon frequencies across the known spectrum--from kHz to well beyond THz. Is there a "specific frequency" of the virtual photons that serve as force propagators? Or is such a question not even relevant to virtual photons?
Is there a way to intuitively combine the ideas of classical EM forces with atomic theory--thinking of the 13.6 eV necessary to ionize Hydrogen, for instance, as coming from photons emitted by another charge moving through space, with the photons being produced perhaps by energy given up from its changing potential? But if the photons *create* the field (and therefore the potential), this all seems circular.
Help.
EDIT: After just reading this over a few times, I think I'm basically confusing processes that involve actual photons (emission/absorption in atoms) with processes that involve virtual photons (EM fields and forces). I am however still curious if energy, frequency, etc apply to virtual photons, and where the energy comes from.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"It is important to make a distinction, as you mention in your edit, between virtual particles and so-called 'real' particles. The word 'particle' is the culprit for a lot of the confusion that arises when discussing virtual particles. Allow me to establish a few points:\n\n* 'Virtual particle' can refer to one of two very different things: A [Vacuum fluctuation](_URL_3_) or a [Virtual force carrier](_URL_5_). Since you seem to be referring to the latter, we'll dispense with vacuum fluctuations.\n* The 'reality' of a particular particle is an issue for r/philosophy. In a physics context, 'virtual' describes a very particular set of properties and virtual particles are actually mathematically indistinguishable from real particles.\n\n\nNow that that's out of the way, let's look into the nature of forces and where energy used to exert a force comes from:\n\nI'm sure you know that particles are excitations of their respective fields. Well, it's time to dispense with 'particles' entirely because the definition of a virtual particle is that it is an excitation of a field that is **NOT** a particle. While an electron might be like a solid, clear note, a virtual particle is a messier byproduct of the interaction of two fields. As soon as the fields stop interacting, the messiness vanishes. \n\nIn many cases, it is conceptually and mathematically preferable to view an interaction as the exchange of virtual particles. Examples include any Feynman diagram, and especially electromagnetism or the weak nuclear force (the strong nuclear force is less elegant because quarks don't like to be alone and gluons interact with themselves and with each other). These are good approximations, but are nonetheless oversimplifications that are not entirely accurate. Electrons are an excitation of the electron field, but they also have an electromagnetic charge, and therefore disturb the electromagnetic field. Most particles aren't perfect waves, but are a combination of two disturbances at once. \n\nThe disturbance in the electron field is not one entire electron, nor is the disturbance in the electromagnetic field one whole photon. Rather, the combination of the two sums to one electron. When someone says that an electron 'emits a virtual photon' what's actually happening is the electron turns into a virtual electron AND a virtual photon. Virtual particles always have less mass than their real counterparts because of this. \n\nIn interactions between two particles where a force is exerted, it is possible for a massive force-carrier to be created literally out of nothing, as long as it disappears quickly. This is a result of the Heisenberg uncertainty Principle and is similar to the way vacuum fluctuations work. The more massive the particle, the shorter it can last and the shorter it lasts, the less distance it can cover before vanishing. This is why forces have different ranges; the weak nuclear force is transmitted by a very massive force carrier which can only go a very short distance before it violates Conservation of Mass and Energy, which is why the range of that force is so tiny.\n\nIn summary, and to clarify: any given particle (let's say an electron) describes a potential field in space. This space is empty unless another similarly charged particle is enters it. If this occurs, the field of both particles will be disturbed and that disturbance will manifest as a virtual particle. While the virtual particle travels, both charges lose some energy and exist in a superposition until the force is exchanged. This collapses and the charges become 'real' again as soon as the virtual particle vanishes. Depending on the type of charges, the virtual particle will transfer momentum and energy between the two particles without retaining any of its own; disappearing too quickly to be said it existed at all. This is why forces can act at a range without violating conservation laws.\n\n\n**EDIT: More about the nature of force transferral.**\n\n\nI think we can answer your question by drawing from the genius of the late [Richard Feynman](_URL_2_), who introduced the concept of Quantum Electrodynamics (a fairly comprehensive theory for the transmission of the electromagnetic force). You are technically correct that charge carriers are constantly emitting virtual particles. In fact, as Feynman tells us, every electron not only interacts with itself in infinitely complex ways, but it also takes an infinite number of paths to get from point A to point B. Any given electron will literally go to the Moon and back, in addition to the center of the Earth, and the edge of the galaxy, and two feet to the left, just to get from one point in space to another. \n\nI've drawn up a few Feynman diagrams to help illustrate what's really going on. First, in [this](_URL_1_) image, we have the diagram for a simple interaction; two electrons scattering off each other. They get close, exchange a virtual photon, and are mutually repelled. The diagram shown is a very simple one, and isn't technically accurate. Electrons and photons don't just move in nice neat lines like that. We can make the diagram more complex by showing how the photon might decay into a particle-antiparticle pair, which then mutually annihilate and re-form into a photon. This is shown [here](_URL_0_). This still isn't a perfect picture of the interaction. To get more accurate, we show [here](_URL_4_) the electrons interacting with themselves, maybe they exchanging multiple photons, and we could add more particle-antiparticle pairs if we want. Keep in mind that all three pictures show the same thing: Two electrons scattering off each other.\n\nYou can see how complicated a simple interaction is getting, and I've only added a few steps. In reality, the diagram should be infinitely complex. Feynman was the guy who decided to give us all a break by realizing that what really matters and what we should really care about are the simplest versions of these iterations. They may not be perfectly accurate, but by looking at the simpler versions, we can make a guess for the limit they are approaching.\n\nFeynman diagrams say nothing about how particles travel or why and when they do. The importance of such a diagram is to show **points of interaction**, the places where three lines meet. Everything else, like the arrow that indicates an electron, is a generalization or average of the infinite paths that the electron actually takes.\n\nTl;dr: Virtual photons are not created preemptively to the interaction because they ARE the interaction (see my first response on this thread). Charge carriers are indeed constantly throwing virtual particles right and left and interacting with themselves, but to try to comprehend or calculate this will only give you a headache. It's only useful to think of the actual interactions between multiple particles, and ignore self-interactions.",
"Just a remark on notation (or maybe its more than that?): We know from the Aharonov–Bohm effect that particles are affected by EM potentials, even if there is no EM field at all! So one might argue that the potential is the more fundamental quantity and a field is just an interpretation without real physical meaning ..."
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|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/afyWn.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/ZwBe6.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation",
"http://i.imgur.com/jlyj2.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_carrier"
]
}
|
Physics - Questions on EM Field (Propagators, etc)
The EM force propagates by photons (virtual photons, I believe). I imagine a proper understanding requires some QED or QFT, but I just want to check my physical intuition from various models with anyone who might have more experience. Maybe this is all completely irrelevant because we're only talking about virtual particles--but if that's the case, why do we identify them as photons if they don't share any of these common properties of photons? So, going forward as if they were regular photons... In atomic theory, we're taught that electronic transitions are accompanied by the absorption or emission of photons, with energy, momentum, etc being conserved. Are (virtual) photons essentially sent constantly in all directions from every charge in order to propagate information about the magnitude and position of the charge onto the EM field? Where do these photons go, and where does the energy, angular momentum, etc to produce them come from? Is each particle capturing photons from other particles in order to maintain conservation? What would the EM field of a proton in pure isolation be made of, ie, where would the energy come from? When considering the force between two charged particles, is there a way to quantify the energy of the photons transmitting the force, and thus frequencies and wavelengths? Do larger charges emit higher energy photons, for instance, or simply more photons? In astronomy, we measure photon frequencies across the known spectrum--from kHz to well beyond THz. Is there a "specific frequency" of the virtual photons that serve as force propagators? Or is such a question not even relevant to virtual photons? Is there a way to intuitively combine the ideas of classical EM forces with atomic theory--thinking of the 13.6 eV necessary to ionize Hydrogen, for instance, as coming from photons emitted by another charge moving through space, with the photons being produced perhaps by energy given up from its changing potential? But if the photons *create* the field (and therefore the potential), this all seems circular. Help. EDIT: After just reading this over a few times, I think I'm basically confusing processes that involve actual photons (emission/absorption in atoms) with processes that involve virtual photons (EM fields and forces). I am however still curious if energy, frequency, etc apply to virtual photons, and where the energy comes from.
|
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|
5sncjj
|
Is VALS, a psychoanalytic method for market segregation created in the 70s, still relevant in modern times and what are the competing methodologies? [Social Science]
|
VALS was created by SRI in the 70s to group people in different categories for political purpose as well as to predict buying patterns.
Is it still relevant today, and what are the competing methodologies back by solid science and research.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ddhvshj"
],
"text": [
"My go-to methods for categorization using modern methods would be either a basic neural network, or possibly k-means clustering algorithm or single-linkage clustering. When to choose each:\n\n**Basic neural network =** If the categorization is a bizarre shape (many different factors need to be considered simultaneously in non-linear ways to categorize), and if I have some time to spare, since it can be slow to fit and adapt comparatively. I would also need to have a collection of correct answers available for training data if I'm using a basic network. For market segregation, you may not know what you want the segments to be beforehand, depending, and if you don't, this won't work very well\n\n**K-Means clustering =** If I don't know what the segments are ahead of time, and I suspect that the segments may be consistently spheroid (roundish blobs in N-dimensional space, not long stringy shaped categories in feature space).\n\n**Single-link clustering =** Same as above, but if I suspect categories may be long string shapes rather than blobs. Sometimes you might just try both methods if you aren't sure and see which looks better afterward.\n\n**VALS** takes a different approach in that it assumes a bunch of information ahead of time about what consumers are like, unlike the above methods. This may be good or bad depending entirely upon how correct those assumptions are for your customer base. I would tend not to assume that userbases are that homogenous that the same pre-structured method would apply to each best, but I have not directly pitted VALS against the above methods for the same datasets in controlled tests before, so could not tell you 100% for sure.\n\nIt is similar to the choice between convolutional vs. normal neural networks at places like Google. A convolutional network is one where you build in a lot of assumed structure to your network, by defining certain filters that will occur. So it's more specialized and more vulnerable to bad assumptions, but can be more powerful (and stable) than a generic network IF you're right in your assumptions.\n\nIf you had staff on hand with enough time to develop assumptive systems like VALS but customized to any particular task or business, and based on assumptions derived from data specific to that application, that would almost certainly be best of all in performance. But that would also be very expensive to develop.\n\n-------\n\nFor any model, you also want to make sure you aren't overfitting your data, that is, creating too many segments to match your data too closely, and accidentally fitting some random noise as if it were real data. You can avoid this by running whatever algorithm you choose to fit many different numbers of segments of customers, and then looking at the statistical fits of each. The combination that gives you an \"elbow point\" in a \"Scree plot\" is the one you want (google \"scree plot\" for more info)"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is VALS, a psychoanalytic method for market segregation created in the 70s, still relevant in modern times and what are the competing methodologies? [Social Science]
VALS was created by SRI in the 70s to group people in different categories for political purpose as well as to predict buying patterns. Is it still relevant today, and what are the competing methodologies back by solid science and research.
|
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|
62129n
|
How does a boa constrictor hunt? I get how a viper can bite prey and follow it until it dies, but wouldn't wrapping yourself around a large animal take a long time and be realtively easy to escape?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dfjpwer",
"dfkupqb"
],
"text": [
"Snakes are very muscular. Their bite force is pretty strong and hard to pry loose, but once they wrap their body around something, it's very easy for them to apply a lot of compressive force. \n\nYes, it can take a while to subdue and kill a larger animal. It tends to happen via suffocation. They constrict when the prey breathes out, and don't give up the space they gain. Again and again until the prey can't inhale. \n\nBut consider that a large meal likely means that the snake doesn't have to eat again for weeks or even months. It's worth their effort.",
"I've recently read that constrictors may be killing not by suffocation, but by the much more rapid (and freakier!) method of creating so much blood pressure in the prey's body--like an almost whole-body blood pressure cuff--that the prey's heart can't pump against that pressure. So, it shuts off the systemic blood supply--in seconds. And so, lights out for the prey's brain, and therefore struggling, kicking, and other potentially snake-harming resistance."
],
"score": [
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does a boa constrictor hunt? I get how a viper can bite prey and follow it until it dies, but wouldn't wrapping yourself around a large animal take a long time and be realtively easy to escape?
|
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||
1215lf
|
How rigorous is the science behind programs like p90x and Insanity?
|
I'm trying to start a new workout plan, and I'm wondering if programs like p90x and Insanity were conceived through real scientific method, or if they are just using guys in lab coats to sell a product.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6rhj0d",
"c6rf1rl"
],
"text": [
"You should probably be aware that the state of exercise science is pretty crappy. It's easy to blame scientists for this (and, to be sure, in many ways they *are* to blame), but a great deal of the crappiness also comes from the difficulty in securing funding, finding willing subjects who will conform to the demands of the study, and control for a large number of confounding variables.\n\nFactors like this are why coaches often don't take peer-reviewed exercise science literature seriously. Essentially no workout program is designed by \"science\", unless by \"science\" you mean decades of trial-and-error combined with anecdotal evidence and folklore from hundreds or thousands of coaches and athletes, often with some attempt to tie it to theory or an understanding of anatomy and adaptation. This is often termed \"bro-science\". In some cases it is far superior to the real science in the field.\n\nCircuit training programs like p90x and Insanity are not magic. If you're completely unadapted strength-wise, you'll get stronger. Your metabolic conditioning will improve. You'll probably shed body fat. The basic principle underlying short, intense workouts (and their superior utility relative to long, low-intensity cardio-fests) is well attested both in the scientific literature and in bro-science. Beyond that, it's hard to say what'll work for you. Exercise programming, by its very nature, is something very individual. Pick something you like and stick with it.",
"I always wanted to know if muscle confusion was a real term that discribed a method that improved muscle definition."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How rigorous is the science behind programs like p90x and Insanity?
I'm trying to start a new workout plan, and I'm wondering if programs like p90x and Insanity were conceived through real scientific method, or if they are just using guys in lab coats to sell a product.
|
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|
6751h9
|
What are the pros/cons of feed forward and feedback control systems?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dgoatey"
],
"text": [
"Feedforward: you have a precise mathematical model of what you are controlling. This is simpler in terms of control, but getting the precise mathematical model may be difficult. \n\nFeedback: You don't need as good of a model, and you can handle errors that accumulate. However your controller can become unstable, and it's slower. For a lot of real world things, you need feedback or else you're flying blind."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What are the pros/cons of feed forward and feedback control systems?
|
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] |
||
ybgjl
|
Is there any scientific phenomena that happens only at a finite point of conditions?
|
Water freezes at 0C and remains frozen. Is there anything that unique happens to something, for example, only at X degrees, no more or no less?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5u18hw"
],
"text": [
"Sure, directly from your example water has a [triple point](_URL_2_) (specifically _URL_1_ for water). If you look at the entire [phase diagram](_URL_0_) then you'll see there are a large number of other \"single point\" phenomena. That feature is not atypical of phase diagrams for materials besides just water."
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Phase_diagram_of_water.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(molecule)#Triple_point",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_point"
]
}
|
Is there any scientific phenomena that happens only at a finite point of conditions?
Water freezes at 0C and remains frozen. Is there anything that unique happens to something, for example, only at X degrees, no more or no less?
|
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] |
|
wp053
|
How practical is the SEARL generator?
|
So today while at work one of my colleagues informed me of something called the SEARL generator (_URL_0_). I've been trying to do some research into it, but I decided that the experts here at /askscience may be able to help me travel down the unbiased path. My questions are as follow:
1. How exactly does this work (layman explanation would be really appreciated)?
2. How would the energy output/cost compare to other types of green energy such as solar, wind or geothermal?
3. What would the cons be with this type of technology?
4. Is it something that we could implement now?
Really I'm just looking for whatever it is you guys can give me. I'm really intrigued by the concept, but can't seem to find any really good sources on it. Thanks in advance!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5f6mue",
"c5f6nri",
"c5f6vsy"
],
"text": [
"Simply because there are no good sources.\n\nThe documentation on the website reads like any other free energy claim. Furthermore, the guy appears to be claiming not only to have solved the energy problem, but also that this thing will clean the air, and provide antigravity solutions.\n\n1. Vangelis-style music to videos? Check.\n2. Quotes regarding impossibilitiy? Check.\n3. Lots of mentioning of 'quantum effects' without any actual technical detail? Check.\n4. Extreme claims of 'new science'? Check.\n5. Long rambling documents full of claims with no attempt to back them up? [Check](_URL_0_).\n\nIn essence, it screams nutjob pseudoscience.",
"1) It doesn't. It's yet another [perpetual motion machine](_URL_1_).\n\n2) You can't really compare the cost of things that work and exist, to free fantasy\n\n3) The fact that it doesn't work and can't work according to any known physics would be a major con.\n\n4) Not now, or ever.",
"1. It doesn't. The laws of thermodynamics have their say here of course, but the more interesting thing to consider is the laws of economics. Energy is essentially money. If anyone ever produced a machine that produced unlimited free energy, he'd be producing free money and anyone with a penny to invest would be breaking down his door to buy the rights to his design. The fact that this website has existed for at least three years and that my house is still powered by conventional energy is a sure proof that this is bullshit.\n\n3. Ultimately, if everyone had their Searl generators powering their cars and Searl power plants powering their grid? Even if the energy comes from fairy farts, it would behave like normal energy and end its journey as wasted heat from friction or electrical resistance. As people all over the world began to adapt to the conditions of unlimited free energy they'd become energy gluttons. After about a century of this and innovation with unlimited energy as basis we have seven billion people using yottawatts of energy and that would probably have an interesting effect on the environment."
],
"score": [
6,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://searlsolution.com/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://searlsolution.com/members/documents/STbook10.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_perpetual_motion_machines"
]
}
|
How practical is the SEARL generator?
So today while at work one of my colleagues informed me of something called the SEARL generator (_URL_0_). I've been trying to do some research into it, but I decided that the experts here at /askscience may be able to help me travel down the unbiased path. My questions are as follow: 1. How exactly does this work (layman explanation would be really appreciated)? 2. How would the energy output/cost compare to other types of green energy such as solar, wind or geothermal? 3. What would the cons be with this type of technology? 4. Is it something that we could implement now? Really I'm just looking for whatever it is you guys can give me. I'm really intrigued by the concept, but can't seem to find any really good sources on it. Thanks in advance!
|
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|
1vffzv
|
Have any trends appeared using the Five Factor Model?
|
Ive recently been interested in psychology and specifically the dynamics of personality psychology. Eventually I found the Five Factor Model. Basically, I was wondering if the FFM has shown any trends or correlations within or between the five factors.
E.g. Those that score higher in neuroticism generally score low in agreeableness. Etc.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cetievr",
"cetgim7"
],
"text": [
"Hello, I/O Psychologist student here teaching Personality Psychology this semester. One of my favorite topics of recent has been Personality, more specifically, the General Factor of Personality (GFP). The FFM is a way to express someone's personality using the 'big five'- that is, five different factors that 'fully' explain someone's whole personality. \n\n Well, as it turns out, we can also narrow it down to 3 factors, 2 factors, or even 1 factor- the GFP. This is essentially looking at a person and saying whether they have a good or bad personality. It primarily functions on social desirability. \n\nThe reason that the GFP CAN exist is due to intercorrelations between the FFM. [Here](_URL_0_) is an article by van der Linden et al. explaining how the GFP is formed and it goes into the other sets of factors. This is a meta-analysis of studies that have examined the FFM and if you look on table 4 there is a set of intercorrelations. \n\nYou will see that across 144 studies:\n\nOpenness to experience is significantly related to conscientiousness and emotional stability (reverse scored nueroticism) and conscientiousness is significantly related to emotional stability and negatively related to extraversion. \n\nYou may find studies that differ from this and say otherwise, but I would suggest to keep looking for meta-analyses for more conclusive evidence.\n\nEdit: Response that wasn't there when I posted (?) also pulled van der Linden. Table 2 is from study 1 and Table 4 is from study 2.",
"Conscientiousness --- Openness .20\n\nConscientiousness --- Agreeableness .43\n\nConscientiousness --- Extraversion .29\n\nConscientiousness --- Neuroticism -.43\n\nOpenness --- Agreeableness .21\n\nOpenness --- Extraversion .43\n\nOpenness --- Neuroticism -.17\n\nAgreeableness --- Extraversion .26\n\nAgreeableness --- Neuroticism -.36\n\nExtraversion --- Neuroticism -.36\n\nThis meta-analysis also showed that the Big Five formed two higher-order factors, 'Stability' (Conscientiousness, .73; Agreeableness, .60; Neuroticism, -.54) and 'Plasticity' (Openness, .99; Extraversion, .39). \n\n[Source: A large 2010 meta-analysis of Big Five inter-correlations](_URL_2_) \n\n**Important to me:** In general, I wouldn't place too much faith in the big five even though it is by far the most popular (*common*) measure of personality factors. Science trends. But since the big five really interests you I would suggest looking into the [trait theory](_URL_2_).\n\n*Edit: formatting*"
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.beanmanaged.eu/pdf/articles/arnoldbakker/article_arnold_bakker_218.pdf",
"http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&ved=0CHoQFjAJ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.beanmanaged.eu%2Fpdf%2Farticles%2Farnoldbakker%2Farticle_arnold_bakker_218.pdf&ei=xO_bUs65NcTksAS0_IDwDw&usg=AFQjCNFWttVhEsCRGpR-7lCkDl3mWe1qGg&bvm=bv.59568121,d.cWc&cad=rja",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory"
]
}
|
Have any trends appeared using the Five Factor Model?
Ive recently been interested in psychology and specifically the dynamics of personality psychology. Eventually I found the Five Factor Model. Basically, I was wondering if the FFM has shown any trends or correlations within or between the five factors. E.g. Those that score higher in neuroticism generally score low in agreeableness. Etc.
|
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|
688lgw
|
Are ergodic processes always stationary?
|
If a process is ergodic does that necessarily entail that it cannot change over time?
Asking in relation to Friston's Free Energy framework that assumes living systems are ergodic, but a question has been raised that ergodic processes are necessarily stationary, and living systems are not stationary, so they cannot be ergodic. However I have read about specifically 'stationary ergodic processes', which implies that not all ergodic processes are stationary.
Any clarification greatly appreciated. Thank you.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dgwoa2g"
],
"text": [
"The problem is that the definition of ergodicity implicitly assumes stationarity. A process is ergodic if its time average converges to its mean. This definition only makes sense if the mean is constant, ie the process is stationary in its first moment.\n\nYou can generalize this to non-stationary processes by requiring that the time average of the process up to time T converges to the time average of the time-dependent mean up to time T (in the sense that the difference between the two converges to zero), but that's not a very commonly used notion and is not the typical definition of ergodicity.\n\nEDIT: I should add that the phrase \"stationary ergodic process\" is often reserved for processes that are stationary in a stronger sense than just stationary in their first moment. Ergodicity only requires stationarity of the first moment. But wide-sense stationarity lets you talk about autocovariance and others concepts more easily. So, there is some utility in saying \"stationary ergodic\" instead of just \"ergodic\""
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Are ergodic processes always stationary?
If a process is ergodic does that necessarily entail that it cannot change over time? Asking in relation to Friston's Free Energy framework that assumes living systems are ergodic, but a question has been raised that ergodic processes are necessarily stationary, and living systems are not stationary, so they cannot be ergodic. However I have read about specifically 'stationary ergodic processes', which implies that not all ergodic processes are stationary. Any clarification greatly appreciated. Thank you.
|
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|
wupyl
|
Could someone explain muscular energy expenditure to a physics student?
|
Every physics student is warned, when they are young, about the dangers of equivocation--words have technical meanings. For example, if you had to carry a heavy box from place to place, you might say you were "doing work." However, from a physics point of view, you have done no work on the box, because there is no change in its energy. This seems to be a paradox, which we're told is a matter of biology--your muscles require energy to stay in a particular position even if physics doesn't demand any, really. But I don't know why this is, or what the details are.
AskScience, could you explain how this works to me? Why can't I hold a heavy box as well as a table?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5gv13t"
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"text": [
"> This seems to be a paradox, which we're told is a matter of biology--your muscles require energy to stay in a particular position even if physics doesn't demand any, really. \n\nMechanically, perhaps. Thermodynamically, not so. Life is dependent on the constant consumption of energy, as the moment we attain thermodynamic equilibrium with our environment, we're dead."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Could someone explain muscular energy expenditure to a physics student?
Every physics student is warned, when they are young, about the dangers of equivocation--words have technical meanings. For example, if you had to carry a heavy box from place to place, you might say you were "doing work." However, from a physics point of view, you have done no work on the box, because there is no change in its energy. This seems to be a paradox, which we're told is a matter of biology--your muscles require energy to stay in a particular position even if physics doesn't demand any, really. But I don't know why this is, or what the details are. AskScience, could you explain how this works to me? Why can't I hold a heavy box as well as a table?
|
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] |
|
ka2ge
|
Why does silly putty behave differently when placed under pressure?
|
For example, it shatters when [struck by a hammer](_URL_2_) or when [dropped from the roof](_URL_1_). What happens on the molecular level that causes an otherwise soft, highly malleable material to become hard and shatter?
As an aside question, from what I can tell, a combination of water and corn starch produces a similar effect, hardening when under sudden pressure, [allowing you to walk on it](_URL_0_). Is this the same mechanism at play here?
|
askscience
|
{
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],
"text": [
"Silly putty is a fun type of fluid because it's viscosity isn't constant. [Viscosity](_URL_2_) is a property of a fluid that determines how it responds to a stress, basically, how much it will flow if you push on it a bit. [Newtonian fluids](_URL_0_) have a viscosity that is constant relative to the applied stress on it. Water is an example of a Newtonian fluid. Silly putty is an example of a Non-newtonian fluid, in particular it is a shear-thickening fluid: when you apply a stress to silly putty its viscosity goes up! \n\nBoth cornstarch & water and silly putty are shear-thickening fluids. In the case of cornstarch & water, the shear-thickening occurs when clusters of the cornstarch agglomerate due to the shear. When suspended in water, each cornstarch particle is basically like a tiny sphere that floats around. [Itai Cohen's](_URL_1_) group at Cornell does some research on this. For silly putty, the microscopic details are similar, but not exactly the same. In this case, the shear-thickening is due to jamming of the interpenetrating PDMS polymers. If you stress the silly putty slowly, the tangled mess of spaghetti (PDMS) has time to untangle and flow. They're both types of jamming, but slightly different.",
"You're exactly correct. Both are Non-Newtonian fluids, or a fluid without a constant coeffeciant of viscosity. As pressure is applied, the viscosity changes. \nCheck it out!\n_URL_3_"
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amfjWWMg9c0",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uWYxc8xhihg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nbKWnezs4QI"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_fluid",
"http://cohengroup.ccmr.cornell.edu/publications.php",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity",
"http://youtu.be/3zoTKXXNQIU"
]
}
|
Why does silly putty behave differently when placed under pressure?
For example, it shatters when [struck by a hammer](_URL_2_) or when [dropped from the roof](_URL_1_). What happens on the molecular level that causes an otherwise soft, highly malleable material to become hard and shatter? As an aside question, from what I can tell, a combination of water and corn starch produces a similar effect, hardening when under sudden pressure, [allowing you to walk on it](_URL_0_). Is this the same mechanism at play here?
|
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|
riwb3
|
I once saw a man with a strange skin condition, looked like thousands of marbles were under his skin. what was it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c466m71"
],
"text": [
"That sounds like it could be neurofibromatosis. It causes the growth of benign tumors on the body. _URL_0_"
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurofibromatosis"
]
}
|
I once saw a man with a strange skin condition, looked like thousands of marbles were under his skin. what was it?
|
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||
2kro30
|
What happens with convective currents in a zero G environment?
|
I just started reading Red Mars today, and the author described spinning a ship at 4 rpm to simulate Mars gravity. I am wondering if heat produced would convect like it does on earth (i.e. rises).
Would a candle burn with a rising flame if it were set in a zero G environment spinning at 4 rpm to simulate gravity?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cloq3dh"
],
"text": [
"Well, a zero g environment and a simulated gravity environment are two different things. [In zero g \\(or microgravity\\), a candle burns with a cool, pale blue, spherical flame.](_URL_0_) That's because what gives a flame its usual shape is the buoyancy of the hot gases. No gravity, no buoyancy, weird flame.\n\nBut in a simulated gravity environment, you'd get something close, or closer, to an Earth candle. Mars gravity is probably high enough that the candle would still look just about normal."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DKxAs_f1SP8&t=2m0s"
]
}
|
What happens with convective currents in a zero G environment?
I just started reading Red Mars today, and the author described spinning a ship at 4 rpm to simulate Mars gravity. I am wondering if heat produced would convect like it does on earth (i.e. rises). Would a candle burn with a rising flame if it were set in a zero G environment spinning at 4 rpm to simulate gravity?
|
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|
tz9zv
|
What is the difference the bell and the diaphragm in a double sided stethoscope?
|
I know that the diaphragm is used to detect high frequency sounds and that it amplifies sound waves by having a greater diameter than the tube that it connects to. But I'm at a loss when it comes to the nitty-gritty details of the physics, especially why the bell helps you hear low frequency sounds better than the diaphragm.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4qzahi"
],
"text": [
"[This guy explains it](_URL_0_).\n\nThe diaphragm filters out some low sounds because of it's tension, but probably give better amplification than a bell as it traps the air. The bell uses the skin as a diaphragm, which might give less amplification, but allows lowers sounds to be transmitted."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.mypatraining.com/how-a-stethoscope-works"
]
}
|
What is the difference the bell and the diaphragm in a double sided stethoscope?
I know that the diaphragm is used to detect high frequency sounds and that it amplifies sound waves by having a greater diameter than the tube that it connects to. But I'm at a loss when it comes to the nitty-gritty details of the physics, especially why the bell helps you hear low frequency sounds better than the diaphragm.
|
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|
15r7m5
|
How deep must a "bottomless" hole be such that the "thud" of someone hitting the bottom is not audible at the surface?
|
In watching Gandalf battle the Balrog in LOTR:The Two Towers today, I wondered: if a person falls down a "bottomless" pit, how deep must it be so that you can't hear the person hit the bottom?
As far as basic assumptions go: the pit is a circle with a diameter of 10 feet (3.3 m) and its walls are standard "earth" (soil, clay, rock).
A followup would be, how far down the pit must they be for their screams to be inaudible at the surface?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7p22u8"
],
"text": [
"\"Soil, clay, and rock\" are not definite enough to plug into a function that could accurately produce an answer. If it was stone I'm sure a mathematician could figure it out on here. Sorry I wasn't more helpful"
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How deep must a "bottomless" hole be such that the "thud" of someone hitting the bottom is not audible at the surface?
In watching Gandalf battle the Balrog in LOTR:The Two Towers today, I wondered: if a person falls down a "bottomless" pit, how deep must it be so that you can't hear the person hit the bottom? As far as basic assumptions go: the pit is a circle with a diameter of 10 feet (3.3 m) and its walls are standard "earth" (soil, clay, rock). A followup would be, how far down the pit must they be for their screams to be inaudible at the surface?
|
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|
8sx2vj
|
Has there been an attempt to create a unifying measuring system?
|
By measuring system I mean like "metric", "empiral" etc.
And by unifying, I mean where all constants in well known formula (permeability, permittivity of vacuum, etc) resolve down to 1? I've always felt that if you scaled the metric system carefully you could effectively get rid of some, most, or even all constants.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"[Planck Units](_URL_0_)\n\nIn the Planck units system, quantities are rescaled so that a number of fundamental constants of nature end up as 1. These constants are:\n\n- Speed of light\n\n- Gravitational constant\n\n- reduced Planck constant (Planck constant divided by 2 pi)\n\n- Coulomb constant (which is related to the permittivity of the vacuum)\n\n- Boltzmann constant\n\nBy using this system of units, many fundamental equations in physics take on a much simpler form as these constants vanish from the equations due to now being equal to 1. For example, the famous equation for the relation between the rest mass and energy of a particle, E = m c^(2), simply becomes E = m.\n\nThere are several fields of physics that make extensive, or even exclusive, use of the Planck units, for example particle physics and (theoretical) cosmology.",
"The idea is called \"natural units\". It's not possible to make *all* the important constants equal to 1 though because many of them are physically related, meaning there are many different systems.\n\nA practical issue with Planck units is that they include *G*, the gravitational constant, in their definition. Our measurements of *G* are far less precise than our measurements of other physical quantities."
],
"score": [
38,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_units"
]
}
|
Has there been an attempt to create a unifying measuring system?
By measuring system I mean like "metric", "empiral" etc. And by unifying, I mean where all constants in well known formula (permeability, permittivity of vacuum, etc) resolve down to 1? I've always felt that if you scaled the metric system carefully you could effectively get rid of some, most, or even all constants.
|
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] |
|
y0rdz
|
Can anyone identify what this jaw bone belonged to? (album)
|
Found this bone along a river in Athens, Ohio. Have been wandering what it belongs to ever since.
Here is the link the the album: _URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5raa6e",
"c5ra7rm"
],
"text": [
"Looks like a deer jawbone, probably from an adult about 5-6 years old by the wear on the premolars. [(Linky)](_URL_0_)",
"After a quick google search [(here)](_URL_1_) I believe it belongs to a deer. A lot less interesting than I was hoping for."
],
"score": [
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/iVNct"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://extension.missouri.edu/explorepdf/agguides/wildlife/g09484.pdf",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=identify+jaw+bones&aq=f&sugexp=chrome,mod%3D11&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=wI4lUOPrHaWp0AHl54DgDA&biw=1245&bih=683&sei=HJAlUM7WDqru0gHmzIHACw#um=1&hl=en&safe=off&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=deer+jaw+bone&oq=deer+jaw+bone&gs_l=img.3..0j0i24j0i5i24.5765.8187.0.8833.13.13.0.0.0.0.118.1062.11j2.13.0...0.0...1c.Wdu3T0Y9bVM&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.r_qf.&fp=a3fb054276e12743&biw=1245&bih=683"
]
}
|
Can anyone identify what this jaw bone belonged to? (album)
Found this bone along a river in Athens, Ohio. Have been wandering what it belongs to ever since. Here is the link the the album: _URL_0_
|
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|
y5xvw
|
Need help with identifying jaw bone from former swamp.
|
Ok so, my friend took her kids to a creek in Rensselaer Indiana. It used to be swampy ground, probably still is in parts. they found two jaw bones that look like this: (_URL_0_) She sent me a pic and I said I'd try to find out what it came from. Apparently it's fairly long, like maybe 8-10 inches? There's only back teeth and they're sharp, and there's no holes for front teeth. Any ideas?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5smkes"
],
"text": [
"It looks like a [deer jaw](_URL_0_) to me."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/hPRIz.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.johnharveyphoto.com/PenderMayDay/DeerJawboneOnBeachHg.jpg"
]
}
|
Need help with identifying jaw bone from former swamp.
Ok so, my friend took her kids to a creek in Rensselaer Indiana. It used to be swampy ground, probably still is in parts. they found two jaw bones that look like this: (_URL_0_) She sent me a pic and I said I'd try to find out what it came from. Apparently it's fairly long, like maybe 8-10 inches? There's only back teeth and they're sharp, and there's no holes for front teeth. Any ideas?
|
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] |
|
1tq98d
|
How do certain tissues (cornea) confer transparency?
|
I'm assuming that the reason why SiO2 is opaque in certain conditions and quartz (SiO2) is transparent is due the to the crystal lattice and light scattering.
But what about the cornea and organisms such as the jellyfish? Is it a lattice structure of the cells which confer transparency or is it something else?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ceak9fo"
],
"text": [
"The cornea is transparent because of the orientation of the collagen making it up. All the fibers are aligned to allow light to pass through. It is the same reason behind the opacity/translucency of other objects."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How do certain tissues (cornea) confer transparency?
I'm assuming that the reason why SiO2 is opaque in certain conditions and quartz (SiO2) is transparent is due the to the crystal lattice and light scattering. But what about the cornea and organisms such as the jellyfish? Is it a lattice structure of the cells which confer transparency or is it something else?
|
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|
10p6hk
|
What (if anything) happens to our brains when we're "in the zone"?
|
I think the phrase means different things to different people. I'm thinking of that situation when there is a lot of chaotic activity and you just seem to have an almost preternatural awareness of what's going on around you. In a command & control situation, you're keeping track of various systems, status, relationships, etc. In a combat situation you know where to attack and when. I've even experienced it in city driving where I'm weaving through traffic, aware of signals, cross traffic, pedestrians, etc.
When you're right there, it's almost like a "spider sense" awareness. But you can't keep it up for long, and it's exhausting.
Is this just a matter of being well focused? Or is there actually a shift in brain activity/chemistry?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6ffbph"
],
"text": [
"I'm not sure if it's the right thing you're talking about but you may be interested to read about [\"Flow\"](_URL_0_) by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi"
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_\\(psychology\\)"
]
}
|
What (if anything) happens to our brains when we're "in the zone"?
I think the phrase means different things to different people. I'm thinking of that situation when there is a lot of chaotic activity and you just seem to have an almost preternatural awareness of what's going on around you. In a command & control situation, you're keeping track of various systems, status, relationships, etc. In a combat situation you know where to attack and when. I've even experienced it in city driving where I'm weaving through traffic, aware of signals, cross traffic, pedestrians, etc. When you're right there, it's almost like a "spider sense" awareness. But you can't keep it up for long, and it's exhausting. Is this just a matter of being well focused? Or is there actually a shift in brain activity/chemistry?
|
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|
3zvndx
|
Can someone answer an astrophysics question for my uncle?
|
"Astrophysics question: If a planet was positionally locked with a "moon" almost as big as itself and the two rotated around a point in space between the two (a barycenter), what would the resulting effect be on the course of the Sun's arc across the sky if you were observing it from the surface of either? Pluto & Charon do this by the way.
Also, is it possible for planets or moons that do not rotate independently to maintain a magnetic field? Would the orbit of the two planetary bodies around one another create a field of it's own?"
I have no idea why he wants to know, but any help is appreciated!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cypmcy2",
"cypbvzq"
],
"text": [
"The effect on the Sun's path across the sky would be pretty much negligible.\n\nWhat you're describing would be a double planet (and the Pluto-Charon system isn't one only because Pluto isn't a planet). In the details, the barycenter will be orbiting the Sun in an elliptical orbit. The planets will be orbiting the barycenter in ellipses as well, so their path around the Sun will be wobbling [like this](_URL_0_). The image is about the Earth-Moon system, which is not a double planet, but it's also not terribly far from that. Take a look at [this other image](_URL_2_) - it says the second path is the correct one for the Earth-Moon system, though IMO it's still exaggerated. Anyway your hypothetical double planet system could be similar to any of the 3 cases depending on the relative speed of the two planets compared to the speed of the barycenter around the Sun: the faster they move around the barycenter, the more likely it is for them to exhibit retrograde movement.\n\nIf the orbital plane of the planets around the barycenter is approximate to the plane of their orbits around the Sun, then the path of the Sun across the sky will look almost the same as from a moonless planet: no significant effect from the wobbling of the system. It may look slightly bigger when you're closer, though.\n\nOn the other hand, if the orbits around the barycenter are inclined almost perpendicular to the orbit around the Sun, then the Sun's path across the sky may look like wobbling in curls.\n\nBut you will almost not notice. The distance between the two planets, assuming its similar to typical planet-moon distances in the Solar System, is negligible when compared to their distance to the Sun.\n\nRegarding inclination, as planets are supposed to form from an accretion disc, their orbital inclination should be very approximate to their orbital plane around the Sun. Most moons in the Solar System in fact have a very low inclination with respect to their parent planets' orbits. That said, there are some exceptional cases. The whole Uranian system (including the rotation of the planet and the orbits of its moons) is inclined more than 90º. Astronomers and planetary scientists literally rip their hair off their heads trying to explain how it formed (a giant impact is the most widely accepted hypothesis, but it's hard to explain that the planet didn't disintegrate).\n\nI cannot answer your second question about the magnetic field, but I can suggest reading about [Ganymede's magnetosphere](_URL_1_).",
"The day would last as long as the \"month\". The sun would move the same way you'd see it move from the moon, with the possibility of an eclipse every \"day\" depending on the orbit. The sun's apparent size would change, but it wouldn't be by much.\n\nIt is possible for planets that don't rotate quickly to have magnetic fields."
],
"score": [
11,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://courses.candelalearning.com/colphysics/wp-content/uploads/sites/222/2014/12/Figure_07_05_04a.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganymede_\\(moon\\)#Magnetosphere",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/files/2008/09/moonorbitdiagram.jpg"
]
}
|
Can someone answer an astrophysics question for my uncle?
"Astrophysics question: If a planet was positionally locked with a "moon" almost as big as itself and the two rotated around a point in space between the two (a barycenter), what would the resulting effect be on the course of the Sun's arc across the sky if you were observing it from the surface of either? Pluto & Charon do this by the way. Also, is it possible for planets or moons that do not rotate independently to maintain a magnetic field? Would the orbit of the two planetary bodies around one another create a field of it's own?" I have no idea why he wants to know, but any help is appreciated!
|
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] |
|
ljo89
|
Does mechanical energy depend on frame of reference?
|
There are only two objects in a universe. These objects are far enough apart that gravitational interactions are negligible. Object A has mass 1 kg and object B has mass 2 kg. They are getting closer to each other. From the reference frame of A, the total mechanical energy in the universe would be due to object B's apparent motion. From the reference frame of B, the opposite would be true. So, from the reference frame of A, there is twice as much mechanical energy in the universe.
How does this square with the law of conservation of energy?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2t8933",
"c2t94lf"
],
"text": [
"The law of conservation of energy tells you about the evolution of energy with time. It says that the energy variation is totally due to the energy getting in or out of the system. It doesn't say anything about the energy in different frames.",
"Energy is not Lorentz invariant.\n\nThe energy-momentum 4-vector is Lorentz *co*-variant.\n\nWhen boosting between frames, energy an momentum mix into each other. But the equation\n [; p_i = p_f ;]\nAlways holds in any frame, where p_i is initial 4-momentum and p_f is final."
],
"score": [
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Does mechanical energy depend on frame of reference?
There are only two objects in a universe. These objects are far enough apart that gravitational interactions are negligible. Object A has mass 1 kg and object B has mass 2 kg. They are getting closer to each other. From the reference frame of A, the total mechanical energy in the universe would be due to object B's apparent motion. From the reference frame of B, the opposite would be true. So, from the reference frame of A, there is twice as much mechanical energy in the universe. How does this square with the law of conservation of energy?
|
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] |
|
18yzrh
|
Is there a study that supports that people will act how they are expected to act?
|
If so, where can I find it?
I'm sorry if this is the wrong place to post this. I wasn't sure where else this question would go.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8jfs5c"
],
"text": [
"The [Stanford Prison Experiment](_URL_0_) shows something similar, if not the same."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment"
]
}
|
Is there a study that supports that people will act how they are expected to act?
If so, where can I find it? I'm sorry if this is the wrong place to post this. I wasn't sure where else this question would go.
|
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] |
|
74gao5
|
Why is Xenon banned in sport?
|
Recently I saw an article dating 2014 saying that WADA had banned the use of Xenon and Argon then I saw a 2017 article saying there's still no test for either of them from what I've read athletes, mainly long distance runners and cyclists inhale the gas and it enhances their performance but how? My understanding is that both are inert/noble gases which means they are unreactive so how do they enhance performance
Edit: Thanks for all the replys I have a good understanding of it now
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dny3qsd",
"dnyt1pm",
"do0dnka"
],
"text": [
"Xenon increases Erythropoietin (EPO) levels which promotes the formation of red blood cells by the bone marrow. There is some anecdotal evidence that some top tier athletes were using it to increase testosterone production as well. \n\n[EPO Source](_URL_0_)",
"Keep in mind xenon is not inert! It can experience a dipole due to weak electron attraction to the nucleus in the outermost electron shell, which not only allows it to form compounds (e.g. xenon tetrafluoride), but it can also interact with certain protein structures.\n\nFor example, as another user mentioned, xenon is actually a brilliant anesthetic. There’s been quite a bit of work done with it, and it’s totally awesome: Blood solubility is low, so it goes in, does it’s job, and leaves your bloodstream super fast, allowing for quick induction and quick recovery. The only limiting factor is price. Xenon costs about $8 per liter in the current market. Say we have a mean flow of 2L/min for a given procedure that lasts 60 minutes. That’s $960 for the gas alone. Not to mention fees for other supplies, fees to pay the anesthesiologist, or the cost of the actual surgery.\n\nAs others have mentioned, EPO production is why it’s banned in sports. Just wanted to point out though that xenon (and some other noble gases) are not biologically inert. If you inhale enough xenon, you will pass out.",
"Xenon is known to interact with protein receptors and ion channels and function as a hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF), similar to nitrous oxide (laughing gas). As such, xenon has been used as an anesthetic for decades, notably in Russia."
],
"score": [
2487,
223,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-016-0505-1"
]
}
|
Why is Xenon banned in sport?
Recently I saw an article dating 2014 saying that WADA had banned the use of Xenon and Argon then I saw a 2017 article saying there's still no test for either of them from what I've read athletes, mainly long distance runners and cyclists inhale the gas and it enhances their performance but how? My understanding is that both are inert/noble gases which means they are unreactive so how do they enhance performance Edit: Thanks for all the replys I have a good understanding of it now
|
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|
yk1jk
|
How credible is the "Del pain scale" if at all
|
Talk on facebook (which makes me doubt it's validity) is that there's some sort of pain scale, measured in the unit "del". Is it a valid scale for measuring pain? I would think that pain is really hard to measure, if at all possible.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5wdmy5"
],
"text": [
"It is 100% chain letter bullshit that was made up to make people believe that getting kicked in the nuts is more painful than childbirth.\n\nDo i have a source? No. But I can't be expected to prove a negative; however, I can assert that there is no scientific paper in existence that positively asserts that such a scale exists."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How credible is the "Del pain scale" if at all
Talk on facebook (which makes me doubt it's validity) is that there's some sort of pain scale, measured in the unit "del". Is it a valid scale for measuring pain? I would think that pain is really hard to measure, if at all possible.
|
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] |
|
mgiyb
|
How do scientist meassure Earth's temperture average?
|
They just dont look at the temperatures every day for all cities and then they just take the average. Do they?
This is the only bit on Climate Science that feels like "You just have to trust us on this value". I have to know this so I can understand and defend that climate change is happening
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c30rsts",
"c30tfir"
],
"text": [
"To determine average temperatures, geologists and climatologists measure the average sea-surface temperatures and average atmospheric temperatures. (I think NASA has satellites pointed at the earth that measure temperatures.)\n\nSince you're interested in learning more about climate change, the following information may be of use to you. I will discuss how we know about past climates (for without knowing past climates, we would have nothing to compare to our current climate). \n\nRegarding a study of climate change, geologists/climatologists have two main steps: 1. Measure past climates a.k.a. paleoclimate, and 2. Utilize global-climate models (GCMs) which are computer programs that calculate how factors such as atmospheric composition, topography, ocean currents, and Earth's orbit affect the climate.\n\nWhen considering paleoclimate:\n\nThe stratigraphic record: The nature of sedimentary strata deposited at a certain location reflects the climate at that location. (Coal deposits means a warm climate, while till deposits mean cold.)\n\nPaleontological evidence: Different assemblages of species live in different climatic belts. Thus, the succession of species in a sedimentary sequence provides clues to the changes in climate at that site. (For example, looking at plankton fossils-- cold-water species differ from the warm water species.)\n\nOxygen-isotope ratios: Two isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different atomic weights. Geologists have found that the ratio of O^18 to O^16 in glacial ice indicated the atmospheric temperature at the time when the snow that made up the ice formed: the ratio is larger in snow that forms in warmer air. Because of this relationship, the isotope ratio measured in a succession of ice layers in a glacier indicated temperature change through time.\n\nGrowth rings: One growth ring in a tree (visible on a stump) represents one year of growth. The thickness of the ring indicates rate of growth in a year. Trees grow faster during warmer, wetter years and more slowly during cold, dry years. The succession of ring widths provides an easily calibrated record of climate during the tree's lifetime. Growth rings in corals and shells can provide similar information.\n\nUsing these techniques, an approximate record of global climate has been reconstructed represented by mean temperature and rainfall. \n\nAlso, the following are indicative of global warming:\nA shift in climate belts (Temperature climate belts move to higher latitudes; vegetation belts follow. Then, desert regions would expand.)\nRise in snow line (As temp increases, snow lines on mountains will rise and globally, move to higher latitudes.)\nStronger storms (Increase in ocean temps would mean that more of the ocean could evaporate when a tropical depression passed over. This evaporation would nourish stronger hurricanes. In non-desert areas, there would be more precipitation and therefore, flooding.)\nRise in sea level (as ice sheets melt)\nIncrease in wildfires (because with higher temps the moisture content of plants is lower)\nInterruption of the oceanic heat conveyor (Oceanic currents play a major role in transferring heat across latitudes. If global warming melts polar ice, the resulting freshwater would dilute surface ocean water at high latitudes. This water could not sink, and thus thermohaline circulation would be shut off, preventing the water from conveying heat.)",
"For the modern era, there are datasets that compile all of the measured (i.e. thermometer) temperatures over the past 50 - 75 years. [Here is a recent study](_URL_2_) done by a professed climate skeptic and a team of physicists, looking very carefully at measured temperature records.\n\nHere are some other sources to get you a little more familiar with what you're asking about. They're from a great source, The Discovery of Global Warming by Spencer Weart:\n\n[The Modern Temperature Trend](_URL_1_)\n\n[Past Climate Cycles and Ice Ages](_URL_0_)\n\nPlus what satupie said."
],
"score": [
8,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.aip.org/history/climate/cycles.htm",
"http://www.aip.org/history/climate/20ctrend.htm",
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/post/a-skeptical-physicist-ends-up-confirming-climate-data/2011/10/20/gIQA6viC1L_blog.html"
]
}
|
How do scientist meassure Earth's temperture average?
They just dont look at the temperatures every day for all cities and then they just take the average. Do they? This is the only bit on Climate Science that feels like "You just have to trust us on this value". I have to know this so I can understand and defend that climate change is happening
|
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] |
|
nif4i
|
Are there astrological effects on brain chemistry?
|
My question is, is that is there a possibility that the gravity of the sun or moon could affect regulation of Neurotransmitters or something that causes behavioral change? I was thinking about pagan rituals seemingly revolving around astronomy and thought that maybe, for instance, if someone saw a vision during a certain period of astrological significance it could be environmental/ physiological. If your mind state is slightly altered and you used the archetypes already associated with whatever you expect to be the result of said ritual (leaving you open to suggestion) could this be the cause of "expected" results?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c39cf0p",
"c39eeqs",
"c39eugx"
],
"text": [
"The gravitational pull of the sun and moon is less than the change you get from the Earth's gravitational pull by standing on a chair. In other words: No, there's no reason at all to think that has any importance whatsoever to chemistry.",
"No. The effect of gravity of the moon is less than an apple 10 feet above your head.",
"In addition to what Platypuskeeper said, this: if western astrology were true, wouldn't you expect to see exactly 12 types of people?"
],
"score": [
7,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": []
}
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Are there astrological effects on brain chemistry?
My question is, is that is there a possibility that the gravity of the sun or moon could affect regulation of Neurotransmitters or something that causes behavioral change? I was thinking about pagan rituals seemingly revolving around astronomy and thought that maybe, for instance, if someone saw a vision during a certain period of astrological significance it could be environmental/ physiological. If your mind state is slightly altered and you used the archetypes already associated with whatever you expect to be the result of said ritual (leaving you open to suggestion) could this be the cause of "expected" results?
|
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|
t2uf7
|
Question on Fact and Theory
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4j2db5",
"c4j2s1o",
"c4j3556",
"c4j3082"
],
"text": [
"Have you considered leaving it alone?\n\nShe has already made up her mind and has selected to believe that a supernatural being that is not amenable to any form of objective observation creating all life from nothing fits the data more readily than nucleosynthesis.\n\n_URL_0_",
"You should say that facts are facts, while theories explain and are supported by facts.",
"I think something basic like [this](_URL_1_) is your best shot. Perhaps give examples of other words that have different possible meanings, which can give rise to confusion. \n\nBut don't get your hopes up. I imagine you might get through to her with regards to vernacular vs. non-vernacular use of theory, which would be something I suppose, but odds are at best she'll shift to another line of reasoning that'll bug you just as much.\n\nHonestly, I think the real problem is not with finding an easily understandable explanation, but in that it's barely, if at all, possible to correct such a fundamental misunderstanding without being (or at least coming across as) condescending as fuck.",
"Facts are what you can observe or measure. A theory is a model of reality that unites the facts."
],
"score": [
13,
6,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://youarenotsosmart.com/2011/06/10/the-backfire-effect/",
"http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/theory?s=t"
]
}
|
Question on Fact and Theory
|
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||
51qchx
|
Can someone explain what's exactly going on in yesterday's Astronomy Picture of the Day?
|
This is the picture that I mean: _URL_0_
Apparently, there was a solar eclipse on 1st September and it is a time lapse shot of the same. However I don't quite understand how this time lapse shot worked.
My doubts:
1. Is that the sun we're seeing in different phases? It looks like the moon to me! Why does it look like the moon?
2. If that indeed is the sun, then what is the bright yellow object in the lower left corner of the image?
(I still feel the white object in phases is the moon and the sun is in the lower left hand corner. But then the 'lunar' eclipse makes no sense!)
3. If this is a time lapse shot, then why don't we see multiple clouds as well? And why no multiple shots of the sun as well for that matter?
Would highly appreciate if someone with knowledge in photography/astronomy can enlighten me what is going on in the photo.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d7f2u6l",
"d7f3a6u"
],
"text": [
"1. Yes, it is the sun. It \"looks like the moon\" because the sun is VERY bright and these photos were shot with VERY dark filters which allow the camera to actually capture the detail of the sun and not a big bright orb as you are used to seeing in photographs.\n\n2. Yep, that is the sun, I am guessing at sunrise.\n\n3. It's a time-lapse, and you are seeing multiple shots of the sun across the sky. Likely a cloudless day would be my best guess.\n\nHow it was made: The photographer shot 68 frames exposed/filtered to capture the detail of the sun for the eclipse. Those 68 photos (or at least the sun from those 68) were then overlaid on a 69th photo right at sunset, which is why you only see one yellow sun in the corner and no clouds streaking across the sky (also looks like a cloud-free day)",
"I may be mistaken, this isn't so much as a 'time-lapse' as a photographically altered image, solar eclipses typically last 7 minutes in totality (that's the circle of light 19 images down). \n\nSo, what's happening?\n\n1. Yes, that is the sun, no it's not in different 'phases' as much as it's undergoing an eclipse. It looks like the moon because the images have been taken with filters so the actual sun disk is visible, as a disk, it has the same (similar) angular size as the moon. You can tell it's not the moon because a new moon isn't generally lined by a ring of light.\n\n2. The last image (and the foreground) is the final picture they took but they didn't use a solar filter so you don't just see the disk but all the light.\n\n3. This is indeed a time-lapse but each individual shot of the sun (the dots tracking down from top right to bottom left) is 4 minutes apart 4.5 hours worth of images (68) have essentially been cut out and placed onto a single photo, hence there are no clouds, that is part of the foreground and is only a single photo.\n\nSorry if that's confusing, it's quite a strange but very satisfying image."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap160907.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can someone explain what's exactly going on in yesterday's Astronomy Picture of the Day?
This is the picture that I mean: _URL_0_ Apparently, there was a solar eclipse on 1st September and it is a time lapse shot of the same. However I don't quite understand how this time lapse shot worked. My doubts: 1. Is that the sun we're seeing in different phases? It looks like the moon to me! Why does it look like the moon? 2. If that indeed is the sun, then what is the bright yellow object in the lower left corner of the image? (I still feel the white object in phases is the moon and the sun is in the lower left hand corner. But then the 'lunar' eclipse makes no sense!) 3. If this is a time lapse shot, then why don't we see multiple clouds as well? And why no multiple shots of the sun as well for that matter? Would highly appreciate if someone with knowledge in photography/astronomy can enlighten me what is going on in the photo.
|
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1g64bg
|
What is the probability of drawing any given color M & M out of a bag?
|
Consider a typical middle school math problem. You open a bag of M & Ms into a bowl and count how many of each color there are. There are 10 red, 8 orange, 12 yellow, 8 green, 6 blue, and 6 brown M & Ms. 50 M & Ms in all, so the probability of each color is the number of that color M & M divided by 50:
* Red: 10/50, or 20%
* Orange: 8/50, or 16%
* Yellow: 12/50, or 24%
* Green: 8/50, or 16%
* Blue: 6/25, or 12%
* Brown: 6/25, or 12%
But let's say you're just picking them straight out of the bag—you can't count how many of each color lies in wait for you. Does this lack of information limit us to assessing each color's chances of showing up as 1/6 because all we know is that there are six options?
Do we remain loyal to the numbers we can't identify and say it's impossible to calculate the probability at all, labeling 1/6 as just a convenient pseudo-probability?
Or do we acknowledge the duality of this situation, saying that at this point we'll settle for 1/6 all around, and the *real* odds remain unknowable without physical intervention, which would render the previous odds obsolete at that point in the future? If this is the answer, does this mean that for any bag of M & Ms, there are 2 completely different sets of probabilities: one for any given point in time before you poured out the bag (which would be 1/6 for every single specimen), and one for any given point in time after you poured out the bag (which would vary immensely depending on the number of each color included in said bag)?
Someone help me—I never thought eating candy would hurt my brain more than it hurt my teeth.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cah8hey",
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"text": [
"You have hit upon the snag. Probability distributions are generally not given canonically by the universe for us to investigate (unless you're in quantum physics). The probability for some event depends on the information we have available, and if we have different information available, then two people might very well disagree on the probability. **This is not a contradiction.** Probabilities are information-relative in much the same way that time is observer-relative.\n\nAlan, who hasn't peeked into the bag will be forced to assume that (a) the bag is a \"perfectly average\" sample, (b) the M & M factory makes all colours in equal quantities and (c) the colours are uniformly distributed within the bag, and he will claim that the probability of drawing any colour is 1/6.\n\nBrian, who **has** peeked into the bag, has more information and can dispense of assumtions (a) and (b). He will claim different numbers.\n\nIn a way, Brian is more right than Alan because Alan's information is contained in Brian's, and Brian's assumptions are contained in Alan's. However, in another way, he also isn't.",
"What you're talking about is the difference between theoretical probability and experimental probability. Assuming equal quantities are made of the six colors, the theoretical probability of getting red is 1/6. However, the experimental probability would be if you dumped out all of the M & Ms, counted them, and put them back in the bag. Then the experimental probability of drawing red is 1/5. The more bags of M & Ms you used, the closer the experimental probability would be to the theoretical probability.",
"Let me see if I understand you correctly. You're proposing that a number of M & M's are drawn, and each subsequent one is drawn without knowledge of the previous one(s) taken out of the bag?\n\nIf that is so, after you pull one, you put it aside and do not know what color it is but know that the probability it was ___ is ___ (your original table)\n\nRed: 10/50, or 20%\nOrange: 8/50, or 16%\nYellow: 12/50, or 24%\nGreen: 8/50, or 16%\nBlue: 6/25, or 12%\nBrown: 6/25, or 12%\n\nFor your next draw, your table is slightly different. All the denominators are now 49, and the numerators have subtracted off a weighted probability that it was *said* color that was drawn first.\n\nE.G\n\n*Second pick P table, without knowledge of pick 1:*\n\nRed- > (10 - 20% of 1) = 9.8/49\n\nOrange- > (8 - 16% of 1) = 7.84/49\n\nThe next time this happens again, but the denominators go to 48 and the subtracted term is the probabilities *from the previous table*.",
"Isn't this question linked to the Bayesian probability theory? Maybe someone more knowledgeable could chime in, but I didn't see this mentioned in the other replies.\n\nBasically, we make assumptions but leave them open to adjustments depending on the experiences.\n\nWe start with an assumption of 1/6 probability for each color. But what if the first 8 M & Ms drawn are red? It's still possible to have an equal distribution, but unlikely. So we could increase the probability of red and decrease the others (maybe increase it just enough so that the results so far lie within the 95% confidence interval?)\n\nThat's what we do intuitively. For a more extreme case, if the first 49 M & Ms are red, most people would bet on the 50th being red too. If it wasn't red, the probability that it happens to be the last drawn would be only 1/50.",
"It is not a pseudo-probability, the problem is that we overload the term \"probability\" with many different meanings. In your first case it refers to the ignorance about the particular item picked, in the second case it refers to an ignorance about the distribution. Probability refers to my uncertainty. Pouring the bag and counting changes what I am uncertain about."
],
"score": [
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5,
2,
2,
2
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
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|
What is the probability of drawing any given color M & M out of a bag?
Consider a typical middle school math problem. You open a bag of M & Ms into a bowl and count how many of each color there are. There are 10 red, 8 orange, 12 yellow, 8 green, 6 blue, and 6 brown M & Ms. 50 M & Ms in all, so the probability of each color is the number of that color M & M divided by 50: * Red: 10/50, or 20% * Orange: 8/50, or 16% * Yellow: 12/50, or 24% * Green: 8/50, or 16% * Blue: 6/25, or 12% * Brown: 6/25, or 12% But let's say you're just picking them straight out of the bag—you can't count how many of each color lies in wait for you. Does this lack of information limit us to assessing each color's chances of showing up as 1/6 because all we know is that there are six options? Do we remain loyal to the numbers we can't identify and say it's impossible to calculate the probability at all, labeling 1/6 as just a convenient pseudo-probability? Or do we acknowledge the duality of this situation, saying that at this point we'll settle for 1/6 all around, and the *real* odds remain unknowable without physical intervention, which would render the previous odds obsolete at that point in the future? If this is the answer, does this mean that for any bag of M & Ms, there are 2 completely different sets of probabilities: one for any given point in time before you poured out the bag (which would be 1/6 for every single specimen), and one for any given point in time after you poured out the bag (which would vary immensely depending on the number of each color included in said bag)? Someone help me—I never thought eating candy would hurt my brain more than it hurt my teeth.
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|
jenh1
|
Questions about the first episode of "Curiosity" with Steven Hawking.
|
Hello everyone!
I had a few questions about some of the subject matter in the show and they're pretty specific so a google search didn't really help much.
At some point in the show the narrator brings up the point that, at least at the sub-atomic level, it's possible for particles to simply spring into existence for short periods of time. From there the point is made that the universe was, at one point, smaller than a Proton, which allows for the universe to "pop" into existence without violating any natural laws.
The first question I have is what exactly is meant by particles "appearing" from nothing. Does that mean that the particles literally create themselves, or were they just not visible to us before and then suddenly spring into the spectrum of our vision?
If they do literally create themselves then do we have any clue to how they are able to do so? Also, in the event they don't "create" themselves and they simply pop in and out of our visible spectrum does this mean that they have always existed?
My second question involves how these spontaneous appearances lead to a "big bang"? I understand that particles can appear spontaneously, but why would the result of their appearance cause an expansion of such proportions? Technically, we have particles "appearing" all the time at the sub-atomic level, but they don't expand after they appear, they simply dissipate, correct? Was there unique properties in the "first" particle that appeared to cause an expansion?
Also, just pure speculation here, but would this be where the idea of a multi-verse came from? The realization that at one time the universe appeared spontaneously on the sub-atomic level, which means that the same event could possibly still be occurring, spawning an infinite number of universes?
My last question deals with time. I've always thought of time as a man made construct, but on the other hand I realize that even before man invented the idea of keeping track of time the days still passed with the sun rising and setting every day. This means time exists in a way that is independent from human interaction.
However, in the black hole example used in the show they say that if a clock were to be pulled into a black hole it would actually slow down until it finally stops. This either seems really weird to me, or maybe it's simply a bad way to illustrate the point they were trying to make?
Would the mechanical mechanisms inside the clock that record a change in time actually slow down upon entering the black hole? If so why would this happen, and if not then I'm obviously grasping the concept of "time" in the wrong way and would appreciate it if anyone could clear up my understanding.
In closing I'd just like to thank anyone reading/responding to these questions. I appreciate any insight this community has on the questions, even if currently I'm only capable of understanding a laymans example of what's going on.
My current field of study is computer science so I'm a little ways away from my comfort zone asking questions in the field of cosmology. However, after watching this program my "Curiosity" (pun intended :P) really has seemed to have got the best of me and I'm interested in understanding a bit more about the universe, how it works, and how it came to be.
With that being said, again thank you for your responses, and also feel free to point out if any of the questions I'm asking don't make sense, aren't relevant, ect. I understand that my ignorance level for this particular field is astoundingly high.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"> The first question I have is what exactly is meant by particles \"appearing\" from nothing. \n\nParticles are states of a field; there's one field for each type of particle. It's possible for a field to jump from its ground state (no particles present at that place) to an excited state (one particle present). That's how, for example, a neutron can decay into a weak boson. Weak bosons are *very massive,* meaning they have a lot more energy than the neutron can spare. But the weak boson can pop into existence anyway, as long as it decays into an electron-antineutrino pair in a short amount of time. If you want that intermediate boson to stay around, you have to *inject* enough energy into the system for the boson to exist.\n\n > My second question involves how these spontaneous appearances lead to a \"big bang\"?\n\nThey don't. Or rather, only quite indirectly. That was probably explained poorly on television — or more likely, just explained *wrong.* What's applicable here is the idea of *spontaneous symmetry breaking,* which is really quite a different concept. The idea is that a field can exist in a particular *unstable* state for indefinite time, a row of dominoes all balanced on their ends. Left unperturbed, the field will stay that way forever. But it only takes a very tiny perturbation to \"nudge\" the field into a lower-energy state at one point. Once that happens, the change of state radiates outward, just like dominoes knocking each other over.\n\n > …the same event could possibly still be occurring, spawning an infinite number of universes?\n\nOh heavens no. It's not like that at all.\n\n > I've always thought of time as a man made construct…\n\nIt isn't, any more than space is. You can say that *clocks* are manmade, but you can also say the same thing about rulers.\n\n > …something something black hole…\n\nDon't worry too much about the details there. Everybody seems to want to use black holes to describe gravitational time dilation, but they shouldn't, because it just overcomplicates things. A clock closer to a source of gravitation will tick more slowly than a clock farther from that source of gravitation. That's all. Nothing weird about it, really.",
"Followup question about 'Curiosity'\n\nHe makes the claim that all the positive matter we see is balanced out by 'negative energy' that just happens to hang out in the intervening space, but it really does all add up to zero.\n\nI have read elsewhere though that there is a slight preference for matter over anti-matter in our universe.\n\nAre these two statements both true?"
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|
Questions about the first episode of "Curiosity" with Steven Hawking.
Hello everyone! I had a few questions about some of the subject matter in the show and they're pretty specific so a google search didn't really help much. At some point in the show the narrator brings up the point that, at least at the sub-atomic level, it's possible for particles to simply spring into existence for short periods of time. From there the point is made that the universe was, at one point, smaller than a Proton, which allows for the universe to "pop" into existence without violating any natural laws. The first question I have is what exactly is meant by particles "appearing" from nothing. Does that mean that the particles literally create themselves, or were they just not visible to us before and then suddenly spring into the spectrum of our vision? If they do literally create themselves then do we have any clue to how they are able to do so? Also, in the event they don't "create" themselves and they simply pop in and out of our visible spectrum does this mean that they have always existed? My second question involves how these spontaneous appearances lead to a "big bang"? I understand that particles can appear spontaneously, but why would the result of their appearance cause an expansion of such proportions? Technically, we have particles "appearing" all the time at the sub-atomic level, but they don't expand after they appear, they simply dissipate, correct? Was there unique properties in the "first" particle that appeared to cause an expansion? Also, just pure speculation here, but would this be where the idea of a multi-verse came from? The realization that at one time the universe appeared spontaneously on the sub-atomic level, which means that the same event could possibly still be occurring, spawning an infinite number of universes? My last question deals with time. I've always thought of time as a man made construct, but on the other hand I realize that even before man invented the idea of keeping track of time the days still passed with the sun rising and setting every day. This means time exists in a way that is independent from human interaction. However, in the black hole example used in the show they say that if a clock were to be pulled into a black hole it would actually slow down until it finally stops. This either seems really weird to me, or maybe it's simply a bad way to illustrate the point they were trying to make? Would the mechanical mechanisms inside the clock that record a change in time actually slow down upon entering the black hole? If so why would this happen, and if not then I'm obviously grasping the concept of "time" in the wrong way and would appreciate it if anyone could clear up my understanding. In closing I'd just like to thank anyone reading/responding to these questions. I appreciate any insight this community has on the questions, even if currently I'm only capable of understanding a laymans example of what's going on. My current field of study is computer science so I'm a little ways away from my comfort zone asking questions in the field of cosmology. However, after watching this program my "Curiosity" (pun intended :P) really has seemed to have got the best of me and I'm interested in understanding a bit more about the universe, how it works, and how it came to be. With that being said, again thank you for your responses, and also feel free to point out if any of the questions I'm asking don't make sense, aren't relevant, ect. I understand that my ignorance level for this particular field is astoundingly high.
|
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|
1xfvqs
|
Is it (from a psychological perspective) more fulfilling to be 3rd place than 2nd place?
|
In the light of the ongoing Olympic winter games I'm wondering whether or not there are any studies that measured the content of people after an event (immediately and maybe after a while) to see how happy they are with their achievement. Are 3rd place winners (because they just made it) generally more happy with their achievement than 2nd placers because they the "lost 1st place"?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cfbazwc"
],
"text": [
"The construct of interest here is something called [counterfactual thinking](_URL_1_)--that is, thinking about what \"might have been.\" When we get closer to what might have been, it's easier to imagine it. One well-known examples that exists within the literature is that people are more upset missing a flight by five minutes than by an hours, even though the results--as missed flight--are identical.\n\nEven better, though, I'm able to cite one of my favorite studies in the history of psychology. The Olympic-themed scenario you've presented has actually been the focus of empirical study, and yes!--**[the bronze winners (this should come to no surprise to anyone who's watched a medal ceremony) are indeed happier than the silver medalists!](_URL_0_)**\n\nSource: psych PhD student"
],
"score": [
30
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7473022",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2408534/"
]
}
|
Is it (from a psychological perspective) more fulfilling to be 3rd place than 2nd place?
In the light of the ongoing Olympic winter games I'm wondering whether or not there are any studies that measured the content of people after an event (immediately and maybe after a while) to see how happy they are with their achievement. Are 3rd place winners (because they just made it) generally more happy with their achievement than 2nd placers because they the "lost 1st place"?
|
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] |
|
2durck
|
Gravity battery - too good to be true, right?
|
I saw [this picture](_URL_0_) on Facebook and my assumption about these things is that they really don't work efficiently enough to be worth investing in. Thoughts?
Source: _URL_1_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cjta0ao",
"cjtgmmu"
],
"text": [
"It's not a ludicrous concept; using gravity to store excess electricity is already used in [pumped storage hydroelectricity](_URL_0_). So the question is, what advantages does this have over the established technology? To store a lot of energy the weights would have to be very heavy or the tunnels very deep. A 1 ton weight in a 1 km tunnel would store about 3 kilowatt-hours, which is about as much as a typical house uses in a few hours. So to store more, you'd need a heavier weight in a deeper tunnel, and then you're starting to push the limits of what can be engineered and what is efficient.",
"It will work but I am certain that it wont get used much if it gets used at all.\n\nAs /u/iorgfeflkd already said, sucha system is already used to store excess energy in the night, but with water and large reservoirs, as this is easy to handle. You don't have to dig a hole, you don't have many moving parts that need maintanace and water is cheaply and readily available.\n\nThe problem with this system is, that you need to dig and secure deep holes, so they don't collapse, which is expensive. You have to prevent water from flowing into the holes, as it will decrease the stored energy and corode the holes.\nYou also loose additional energy in the gearbox and the ropes and it is planed to use a generator and a motor, which increases the system cost. A pump-storage system can use the pump in reverse to generate energy. \n\nMaintanance is another factor, as the mechanics, the ropes, the holes and the weights can and will break. \n\nSo all in all this may be a nice concept work, but in reality it may be to expensive to build and maintain, to error prone and to uneffective to be used as a storage solution."
],
"score": [
31,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://gravitybattery.info/images/gravitybattery.png",
"http://gravitybattery.info/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity"
]
}
|
Gravity battery - too good to be true, right?
I saw [this picture](_URL_0_) on Facebook and my assumption about these things is that they really don't work efficiently enough to be worth investing in. Thoughts? Source: _URL_1_
|
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|
4rcdhe
|
Whats a basic definition of a "world line", and how does an ergosphere effect it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d4zytiq"
],
"text": [
"I can't think of a more basic one than that given on the [wikipedia page](_URL_0_)\n\n > The world line (or worldline) of an object is the path of that object in 4-dimensional spacetime, tracing the history of its location in space at each instant in time. \n\nAn ergosphere is a region in which all particles must appear to move to an outside observer (usually rotate)."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line"
]
}
|
Whats a basic definition of a "world line", and how does an ergosphere effect it?
|
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||
ms4ti
|
Why isn't forced copulation the norm in the Animal Kingdom?
|
Wikipedia has a brief section on it, citing several examples of forced copulation but it appears from there that it is not the norm across the Animal kingdom. This seems puzzling to me since it would seem to carry a massive evolutionary benefit to those males who could copulate with females regardless of cooperation.
I would speculate that the reason is because females have generally evolved methods for preventing it (I believe this is true in ducks, with the shape of the vagina). But is this true in other species?
Edit: Thinking some more, I woud imagine that if 'rape prevention' in females has evolved, then sexual attractiveness from a male standpoint, should include this ability. Has this been established?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c33f1dk",
"c33egvr",
"c33gzec"
],
"text": [
"Females evolving methods to prevent forced copulation is part of the story - there is strong selection on males to mate with as many females as possible (whether or not the female wants to cooperate), but there is also strong selection on females to be picky. Another part of the story is cryptic female choice, in which females in many groups have control over whether to fertilize their eggs with a male's sperm after mating with him. This means that even if a male was successful in forcing a copulation, he may not end up producing any offspring, and selection would thus favour the male who can convince females to willingly use his sperm.",
"> This seems puzzling to me since it would seem to carry a massive evolutionary benefit to those males who could copulate with females regardless of cooperation.\n\nI'm not an expert on evolution, but wouldn't this harm the species by removing sexual selection?",
"From an evolutionary standpoint, its much better(for species with two genders) if the female selects the most suitable male, instead of having males forcing themselves upon her, regardless of their genetic premise. \n \nThe female's critical selection of the male makes for a potentially stronger offspring.\n \nIf you let chosen copulation and forced copulation compete over a longer period of time, the species that practices chosen copulation, usually comes out stronger.\n \nForced copulation could put a species on par with single gendered species, which have to rely exclusively on mutation, without the element of selection, in order to evolve."
],
"score": [
12,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why isn't forced copulation the norm in the Animal Kingdom?
Wikipedia has a brief section on it, citing several examples of forced copulation but it appears from there that it is not the norm across the Animal kingdom. This seems puzzling to me since it would seem to carry a massive evolutionary benefit to those males who could copulate with females regardless of cooperation. I would speculate that the reason is because females have generally evolved methods for preventing it (I believe this is true in ducks, with the shape of the vagina). But is this true in other species? Edit: Thinking some more, I woud imagine that if 'rape prevention' in females has evolved, then sexual attractiveness from a male standpoint, should include this ability. Has this been established?
|
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] |
|
19gwq6
|
What's up with this apple?
|
My friends apple looked like this after he opened it, can anyone tell me what this is? _URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8nycpc"
],
"text": [
"It's just rotten on the inside, likely due to some parasite/pathogen... It's probably impossible to tell the exact cause just from that picture.\n\nThen again, I'm not an apple expert."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/jmhtmXQ.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What's up with this apple?
My friends apple looked like this after he opened it, can anyone tell me what this is? _URL_0_
|
[
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|
1kybo0
|
Antarctic Research - I was looking at a map of US research stations and had questions about placement.
|
Maybe this isn't a terribly interesting question, but I'm curious so here it goes. [In this map](_URL_0_) of US Antartic Research Sites and Stations, it was interesting to me that most sites were focused on the eastern (?) side of the continent, with very little being done on the other side. Is there any specific reason for this besides the logistical proximity to McMurdo? Or is this the "more interesting" side?
Also, the "belt" of research sites along the mountanous regions - are those mostly research sites, or are there permanent stations there as well. What kinds of things do they study?
And lastly, what's the "x" of sites in the middle of the continent? Flow and drift measurements?
(Also, [this map](_URL_1_) is helpful to see a more international view, and it looks like the coast is full of international research stations)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbtyb8s",
"cbtv411"
],
"text": [
"I spent some time at McMurdo. Part of the reason that we use that area today is heritage. It was first chosen not for science purpose, but pure exploration. It is the furthest south you can go on the water, and hence provides the closest access to get to the south pole. Even now if something is going overland to the pole it goes through Mcmurdo. Because of this, infrastructure was added, and because there was infastructure it enables science and it snowballed from there. So, it's not so much that the best science is on that side, but the most resources for the US are there.",
"I don't do antarctic research, but I work with people who do. The geographical significance of McMurdo is due to how you get to the continent. Flights leave Christchurch, NZ provided the weather is favorable, and weather conditions can keep travelers laid-up for weeks at a stretch waiting for a window. It's not easy, and definitely not safe, to take unfamiliar flight-paths into and out of the continent, and it restricts your available choices for where to put a station. \n \nA lot of the stations on the interior of the continent are automated, taking weather measurements. There are also some ice-drilling stations for taking cores for paleoclimate data."
],
"score": [
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USAP_field_research_sites_and_vessel_research.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Antarctica_Station_Map.gif"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Antarctic Research - I was looking at a map of US research stations and had questions about placement.
Maybe this isn't a terribly interesting question, but I'm curious so here it goes. [In this map](_URL_0_) of US Antartic Research Sites and Stations, it was interesting to me that most sites were focused on the eastern (?) side of the continent, with very little being done on the other side. Is there any specific reason for this besides the logistical proximity to McMurdo? Or is this the "more interesting" side? Also, the "belt" of research sites along the mountanous regions - are those mostly research sites, or are there permanent stations there as well. What kinds of things do they study? And lastly, what's the "x" of sites in the middle of the continent? Flow and drift measurements? (Also, [this map](_URL_1_) is helpful to see a more international view, and it looks like the coast is full of international research stations)
|
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