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C97355855 | Thermodynamics | https://doi.org/10.1063/1.448118 | branch of physics concerned with heat, work, temperature, and thermal or internal energy | Molecular dynamics with coupling to an external bath | [
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] | In molecular dynamics (MD) simulations the need often arises to maintain such parameters as temperature or pressure rather than energy and volume, or to impose gradients for studying transport properties in nonequilibrium MD. A method is described to realize coupling to an external bath with constant temperature or pressure with adjustable time constants for the coupling. The method is easily extendable to other variables and to gradients, and can be applied also to polyatomic molecules involving internal constraints. The influence of coupling time constants on dynamical variables is evaluated. A leap-frog algorithm is presented for the general case involving constraints with coupling to both a constant temperature and a constant pressure bath. |
C97355855 | Thermodynamics | https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.20035 | branch of physics concerned with heat, work, temperature, and thermal or internal energy | Development and testing of a general amber force field | [
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] | We describe here a general Amber force field (GAFF) for organic molecules. GAFF is designed to be compatible with existing Amber force fields for proteins and nucleic acids, and has parameters for most organic and pharmaceutical molecules that are composed of H, C, N, O, S, P, and halogens. It uses a simple functional form and a limited number of atom types, but incorporates both empirical and heuristic models to estimate force constants and partial atomic charges. The performance of GAFF in test cases is encouraging. In test I, 74 crystallographic structures were compared to GAFF minimized structures, with a root-mean-square displacement of 0.26 A, which is comparable to that of the Tripos 5.2 force field (0.25 A) and better than those of MMFF 94 and CHARMm (0.47 and 0.44 A, respectively). In test II, gas phase minimizations were performed on 22 nucleic acid base pairs, and the minimized structures and intermolecular energies were compared to MP2/6-31G* results. The RMS of displacements and relative energies were 0.25 A and 1.2 kcal/mol, respectively. These data are comparable to results from Parm99/RESP (0.16 A and 1.18 kcal/mol, respectively), which were parameterized to these base pairs. Test III looked at the relative energies of 71 conformational pairs that were used in development of the Parm99 force field. The RMS error in relative energies (compared to experiment) is about 0.5 kcal/mol. GAFF can be applied to wide range of molecules in an automatic fashion, making it suitable for rational drug design and database searching. |
C97355855 | Thermodynamics | https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3060771 | branch of physics concerned with heat, work, temperature, and thermal or internal energy | <i>The Properties of Gases and Liquids</i> | [
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] | Share Icon Share Twitter Facebook Reddit LinkedIn Reprints and Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Robert C. Reid, Thomas K. Sherwood, Robert E. Street; The Properties of Gases and Liquids. Physics Today 1 April 1959; 12 (4): 38–40. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3060771 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentPhysics Today Search Advanced Search |
C97355855 | Thermodynamics | https://doi.org/10.1021/jp810292n | branch of physics concerned with heat, work, temperature, and thermal or internal energy | Universal Solvation Model Based on Solute Electron Density and on a Continuum Model of the Solvent Defined by the Bulk Dielectric Constant and Atomic Surface Tensions | [
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] | We present a new continuum solvation model based on the quantum mechanical charge density of a solute molecule interacting with a continuum description of the solvent. The model is called SMD, where the "D" stands for "density" to denote that the full solute electron density is used without defining partial atomic charges. "Continuum" denotes that the solvent is not represented explicitly but rather as a dielectric medium with surface tension at the solute-solvent boundary. SMD is a universal solvation model, where "universal" denotes its applicability to any charged or uncharged solute in any solvent or liquid medium for which a few key descriptors are known (in particular, dielectric constant, refractive index, bulk surface tension, and acidity and basicity parameters). The model separates the observable solvation free energy into two main components. The first component is the bulk electrostatic contribution arising from a self-consistent reaction field treatment that involves the solution of the nonhomogeneous Poisson equation for electrostatics in terms of the integral-equation-formalism polarizable continuum model (IEF-PCM). The cavities for the bulk electrostatic calculation are defined by superpositions of nuclear-centered spheres. The second component is called the cavity-dispersion-solvent-structure term and is the contribution arising from short-range interactions between the solute and solvent molecules in the first solvation shell. This contribution is a sum of terms that are proportional (with geometry-dependent proportionality constants called atomic surface tensions) to the solvent-accessible surface areas of the individual atoms of the solute. The SMD model has been parametrized with a training set of 2821 solvation data including 112 aqueous ionic solvation free energies, 220 solvation free energies for 166 ions in acetonitrile, methanol, and dimethyl sulfoxide, 2346 solvation free energies for 318 neutral solutes in 91 solvents (90 nonaqueous organic solvents and water), and 143 transfer free energies for 93 neutral solutes between water and 15 organic solvents. The elements present in the solutes are H, C, N, O, F, Si, P, S, Cl, and Br. The SMD model employs a single set of parameters (intrinsic atomic Coulomb radii and atomic surface tension coefficients) optimized over six electronic structure methods: M05-2X/MIDI!6D, M05-2X/6-31G, M05-2X/6-31+G, M05-2X/cc-pVTZ, B3LYP/6-31G, and HF/6-31G. Although the SMD model has been parametrized using the IEF-PCM protocol for bulk electrostatics, it may also be employed with other algorithms for solving the nonhomogeneous Poisson equation for continuum solvation calculations in which the solute is represented by its electron density in real space. This includes, for example, the conductor-like screening algorithm. With the 6-31G basis set, the SMD model achieves mean unsigned errors of 0.6-1.0 kcal/mol in the solvation free energies of tested neutrals and mean unsigned errors of 4 kcal/mol on average for ions with either Gaussian03 or GAMESS. |
C97355855 | Thermodynamics | https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1750380 | branch of physics concerned with heat, work, temperature, and thermal or internal energy | Kinetics of Phase Change. I General Theory | [
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] | The theory of the kinetics of phase change is developed with the experimentally supported assumptions that the new phase is nucleated by germ nuclei which already exist in the old phase, and whose number can be altered by previous treatment. The density of germ nuclei diminishes through activation of some of them to become growth nuclei for grains of the new phase, and ingestion of others by these growing grains. The quantitative relations between the density of germ nuclei, growth nuclei, and transformed volume are derived and expressed in terms of a characteristic time scale for any given substance and process. The geometry and kinetics of a crystal aggregate are studied from this point of view, and it is shown that there is strong evidence of the existence, for any given substance, of an isokinetic range of temperatures and concentrations in which the characteristic kinetics of phase change remains the same. The determination of phase reaction kinetics is shown to depend upon the solution of a functional equation of a certain type. Some of the general properties of temperature-time and transformation-time curves, respectively, are described and explained. |
C97355855 | Thermodynamics | https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1316015 | branch of physics concerned with heat, work, temperature, and thermal or internal energy | From molecules to solids with the DMol3 approach | [
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] | Recent extensions of the DMol3 local orbital density functional method for band structure calculations of insulating and metallic solids are described. Furthermore the method for calculating semilocal pseudopotential matrix elements and basis functions are detailed together with other unpublished parts of the methodology pertaining to gradient functionals and local orbital basis sets. The method is applied to calculations of the enthalpy of formation of a set of molecules and solids. We find that the present numerical localized basis sets yield improved results as compared to previous results for the same functionals. Enthalpies for the formation of H, N, O, F, Cl, and C, Si, S atoms from the thermodynamic reference states are calculated at the same level of theory. It is found that the performance in predicting molecular enthalpies of formation is markedly improved for the Perdew–Burke–Ernzerhof [Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 3865 (1996)] functional. |
C97355855 | Thermodynamics | https://doi.org/10.1103/physrev.159.98 | branch of physics concerned with heat, work, temperature, and thermal or internal energy | Computer "Experiments" on Classical Fluids. I. Thermodynamical Properties of Lennard-Jones Molecules | [
{
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] | The equation of motion of a system of 864 particles interacting through a Lennard-Jones potential has been integrated for various values of the temperature and density, relative, generally, to a fluid state. The equilibrium properties have been calculated and are shown to agree very well with the corresponding properties of argon. It is concluded that, to a good approximation, the equilibrium state of argon can be described through a two-body potential. |
C97355855 | Thermodynamics | https://doi.org/10.3133/wri994259 | branch of physics concerned with heat, work, temperature, and thermal or internal energy | User's guide to PHREEQC (Version 2): A computer program for speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse geochemical calculations | [
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C48663136",
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{
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{
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},
{
"display_name": "Mole fraction",
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"level": 2,
"score": 0.4119795,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q125264"
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] | PHREEQC version 2 is a computer program written in the C programming language that is designed to perform a wide variety of low-temperature aqueous geochemical calculations. PHREEQC is based on an ion-association aqueous model and has capabilities for (1) speciation and saturation-index calculations; (2) batch-reaction and one-dimensional (1D) transport calculations involving reversible reactions, which include aqueous, mineral, gas, solid-solution, surface-complexation, and ion-exchange equilibria, and irreversible reactions, which include specified mole transfers of reactants, kinetically controlled reactions, mixing of solutions, and temperature changes; and (3) inverse modeling, which finds sets of mineral and gas mole transfers that account for differences in composition between waters, within specified compositional uncertainty limits.New features in PHREEQC version 2 relative to version 1 include capabilities to simulate dispersion (or diffusion) and stagnant zones in 1D-transport calculations, to model kinetic reactions with user-defined rate expressions, to model the formation or dissolution of ideal, multicomponent or nonideal, binary solid solutions, to model fixed-volume gas phases in addition to fixed-pressure gas phases, to allow the number of surface or exchange sites to vary with the dissolution or precipitation of minerals or kinetic reactants, to include isotope mole balances in inverse modeling calculations, to automatically use multiple sets of convergence parameters, to print user-defined quantities to the primary output file and (or) to a file suitable for importation into a spreadsheet, and to define solution compositions in a format more compatible with spreadsheet programs. This report presents the equations that are the basis for chemical equilibrium, kinetic, transport, and inverse-modeling calculations in PHREEQC; describes the input for the program; and presents examples that demonstrate most of the program's capabilities. |
C11413529 | Algorithm | https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01 | unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems | Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using<b>lme4</b> | [
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{
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{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C11413529",
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{
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{
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{
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] | Maximum likelihood or restricted maximum likelihood (REML) estimates of the parameters in linear mixed-effects models can be determined using the lmer function in the lme4 package for R. As for most model-fitting functions in R, the model is described in an lmer call by a formula, in this case including both fixed- and random-effects terms. The formula and data together determine a numerical representation of the model from which the profiled deviance or the profiled REML criterion can be evaluated as a function of some of the model parameters. The appropriate criterion is optimized, using one of the constrained optimization functions in R, to provide the parameter estimates. We describe the structure of the model, the steps in evaluating the profiled deviance or REML criterion, and the structure of classes or types that represents such a model. Sufficient detail is included to allow specialization of these structures by users who wish to write functions to fit specialized linear mixed models, such as models incorporating pedigrees or smoothing splines, that are not easily expressible in the formula language used by lmer. |
C11413529 | Algorithm | https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040454 | unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems | The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. | [
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C41008148",
"level": 0,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198"
},
{
"display_name": "Combinatorics",
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"level": 1,
"score": 0.3254693,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q76592"
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] | A new method called the neighbor-joining method is proposed for reconstructing phylogenetic trees from evolutionary distance data. The principle of this method is to find pairs of operational taxonomic units (OTUs [= neighbors]) that minimize the total branch length at each stage of clustering of OTUs starting with a starlike tree. The branch lengths as well as the topology of a parsimonious tree can quickly be obtained by using this method. Using computer simulation, we studied the efficiency of this method in obtaining the correct unrooted tree in comparison with that of five other tree-making methods: the unweighted pair group method of analysis, Farris's method, Sattath and Tversky's method, Li's method, and Tateno et al.'s modified Farris method. The new, neighbor-joining method and Sattath and Tversky's method are shown to be generally better than the other methods. |
C11413529 | Algorithm | https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/sys029 | unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems | MrBayes 3.2: Efficient Bayesian Phylogenetic Inference and Model Choice Across a Large Model Space | [
{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C98763669",
"level": 2,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176645"
},
{
"display_name": "Inference",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2776214188",
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] | Since its introduction in 2001, MrBayes has grown in popularity as a software package for Bayesian phylogenetic inference using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods. With this note, we announce the release of version 3.2, a major upgrade to the latest official release presented in 2003. The new version provides convergence diagnostics and allows multiple analyses to be run in parallel with convergence progress monitored on the fly. The introduction of new proposals and automatic optimization of tuning parameters has improved convergence for many problems. The new version also sports significantly faster likelihood calculations through streaming single-instruction-multiple-data extensions (SSE) and support of the BEAGLE library, allowing likelihood calculations to be delegated to graphics processing units (GPUs) on compatible hardware. Speedup factors range from around 2 with SSE code to more than 50 with BEAGLE for codon problems. Checkpointing across all models allows long runs to be completed even when an analysis is prematurely terminated. New models include relaxed clocks, dating, model averaging across time-reversible substitution models, and support for hard, negative, and partial (backbone) tree constraints. Inference of species trees from gene trees is supported by full incorporation of the Bayesian estimation of species trees (BEST) algorithms. Marginal model likelihoods for Bayes factor tests can be estimated accurately across the entire model space using the stepping stone method. The new version provides more output options than previously, including samples of ancestral states, site rates, site dN/dS rations, branch rates, and node dates. A wide range of statistics on tree parameters can also be output for visualization in FigTree and compatible software. |
C11413529 | Algorithm | https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msu300 | unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems | IQ-TREE: A Fast and Effective Stochastic Algorithm for Estimating Maximum-Likelihood Phylogenies | [
{
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{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C41008148",
"level": 0,
"score": 0.5003238,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198"
},
{
"display_name": "Software",
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{
"display_name": "Phylogenomics",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C70343354",
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3381973"
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{
"display_name": "Maximum likelihood",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C49781872",
"level": 2,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1045555"
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{
"display_name": "Phylogenetic tree",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C193252679",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.37708026,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q242125"
},
{
"display_name": "Machine learning",
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"level": 1,
"score": 0.32699364,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539"
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] | Large phylogenomics data sets require fast tree inference methods, especially for maximum-likelihood (ML) phylogenies. Fast programs exist, but due to inherent heuristics to find optimal trees, it is not clear whether the best tree is found. Thus, there is need for additional approaches that employ different search strategies to find ML trees and that are at the same time as fast as currently available ML programs. We show that a combination of hill-climbing approaches and a stochastic perturbation method can be time-efficiently implemented. If we allow the same CPU time as RAxML and PhyML, then our software IQ-TREE found higher likelihoods between 62.2% and 87.1% of the studied alignments, thus efficiently exploring the tree-space. If we use the IQ-TREE stopping rule, RAxML and PhyML are faster in 75.7% and 47.1% of the DNA alignments and 42.2% and 100% of the protein alignments, respectively. However, the range of obtaining higher likelihoods with IQ-TREE improves to 73.3–97.1%. IQ-TREE is freely available at http://www.cibiv.at/software/iqtree. |
C11413529 | Algorithm | https://doi.org/10.1107/s0021889807021206 | unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems | <i>Phaser</i>crystallographic software | [
{
"display_name": "Phaser",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C135393689",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.99332815,
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},
{
"display_name": "Molecular replacement",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2777166331",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.59231293,
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},
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C519991488",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.58622444,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28865"
},
{
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"score": 0.53213286,
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},
{
"display_name": "Algorithm",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C11413529",
"level": 1,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366"
},
{
"display_name": "Software",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2777904410",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.43869337,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397"
},
{
"display_name": "Crystallography",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C8010536",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.38231102,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160398"
},
{
"display_name": "Crystal structure",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C115624301",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.36302522,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q895901"
},
{
"display_name": "Optics",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C120665830",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.3157916,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620"
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] | Phaser is a program for phasing macromolecular crystal structures by both molecular replacement and experimental phasing methods. The novel phasing algorithms implemented in Phaser have been developed using maximum likelihood and multivariate statistics. For molecular replacement, the new algorithms have proved to be significantly better than traditional methods in discriminating correct solutions from noise, and for single-wavelength anomalous dispersion experimental phasing, the new algorithms, which account for correlations between F + and F − , give better phases (lower mean phase error with respect to the phases given by the refined structure) than those that use mean F and anomalous differences Δ F . One of the design concepts of Phaser was that it be capable of a high degree of automation. To this end, Phaser (written in C++) can be called directly from Python, although it can also be called using traditional CCP4 keyword-style input. Phaser is a platform for future development of improved phasing methods and their release, including source code, to the crystallographic community. |
C11413529 | Algorithm | https://doi.org/10.1080/10635150390235520 | unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems | A Simple, Fast, and Accurate Algorithm to Estimate Large Phylogenies by Maximum Likelihood | [
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C11413529",
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"score": 0.7204374,
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C2778112365",
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{
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] | The increase in the number of large data sets and the complexity of current probabilistic sequence evolution models necessitates fast and reliable phylogeny reconstruction methods. We describe a new approach, based on the maximum-likelihood principle, which clearly satisfies these requirements. The core of this method is a simple hill-climbing algorithm that adjusts tree topology and branch lengths simultaneously. This algorithm starts from an initial tree built by a fast distance-based method and modifies this tree to improve its likelihood at each iteration. Due to this simultaneous adjustment of the topology and branch lengths, only a few iterations are sufficient to reach an optimum. We used extensive and realistic computer simulations to show that the topological accuracy of this new method is at least as high as that of the existing maximum-likelihood programs and much higher than the performance of distance-based and parsimony approaches. The reduction of computing time is dramatic in comparison with other maximum-likelihood packages, while the likelihood maximization ability tends to be higher. For example, only 12 min were required on a standard personal computer to analyze a data set consisting of 500 rbc L sequences with 1,428 base pairs from plant plastids, thus reaching a speed of the same order as some popular distance-based and parsimony algorithms. This new method is implemented in the PHYML program, which is freely available on our web page: http://www.lirmm.fr/w3ifa/MAAS/. |
C11413529 | Algorithm | https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syq010 | unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems | New Algorithms and Methods to Estimate Maximum-Likelihood Phylogenies: Assessing the Performance of PhyML 3.0 | [
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] | PhyML is a phylogeny software based on the maximum-likelihood principle. Early PhyML versions used a fast algorithm performing nearest neighbor interchanges to improve a reasonable starting tree topology. Since the original publication (Guindon S., Gascuel O. 2003. A simple, fast and accurate algorithm to estimate large phylogenies by maximum likelihood. Syst. Biol. 52:696–704), PhyML has been widely used (>2500 citations in ISI Web of Science) because of its simplicity and a fair compromise between accuracy and speed. In the meantime, research around PhyML has continued, and this article describes the new algorithms and methods implemented in the program. First, we introduce a new algorithm to search the tree space with user-defined intensity using subtree pruning and regrafting topological moves. The parsimony criterion is used here to filter out the least promising topology modifications with respect to the likelihood function. The analysis of a large collection of real nucleotide and amino acid data sets of various sizes demonstrates the good performance of this method. Second, we describe a new test to assess the support of the data for internal branches of a phylogeny. This approach extends the recently proposed approximate likelihood-ratio test and relies on a nonparametric, Shimodaira–Hasegawa–like procedure. A detailed analysis of real alignments sheds light on the links between this new approach and the more classical nonparametric bootstrap method. Overall, our tests show that the last version (3.0) of PhyML is fast, accurate, stable, and ready to use. A Web server and binary files are available from http://www.atgc-montpellier.fr/phyml/. |
C11413529 | Algorithm | https://doi.org/10.1214/ss/1177011136 | unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems | Inference from Iterative Simulation Using Multiple Sequences | [
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{
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{
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{
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{
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] | The Gibbs sampler, the algorithm of Metropolis and similar iterative simulation methods are potentially very helpful for summarizing multivariate distributions. Used naively, however, iterative simulation can give misleading answers. Our methods are simple and generally applicable to the output of any iterative simulation; they are designed for researchers primarily interested in the science underlying the data and models they are analyzing, rather than for researchers interested in the probability theory underlying the iterative simulations themselves. Our recommended strategy is to use several independent sequences, with starting points sampled from an overdispersed distribution. At each step of the iterative simulation, we obtain, for each univariate estimand of interest, a distributional estimate and an estimate of how much sharper the distributional estimate might become if the simulations were continued indefinitely. Because our focus is on applied inference for Bayesian posterior distributions in real problems, which often tend toward normality after transformations and marginalization, we derive our results as normal-theory approximations to exact Bayesian inference, conditional on the observed simulations. The methods are illustrated on a random-effects mixture model applied to experimental measurements of reaction times of normal and schizophrenic patients. |
C119599485 | Electrical engineering | https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2006.881997 | field of engineering that deals with electricity | Overview of Control and Grid Synchronization for Distributed Power Generation Systems | [
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{
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{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C119599485",
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] | Renewable energy sources like wind, sun, and hydro are seen as a reliable alternative to the traditional energy sources such as oil, natural gas, or coal. Distributed power generation systems (DPGSs) based on renewable energy sources experience a large development worldwide, with Germany, Denmark, Japan, and USA as leaders in the development in this field. Due to the increasing number of DPGSs connected to the utility network, new and stricter standards in respect to power quality, safe running, and islanding protection are issued. As a consequence, the control of distributed generation systems should be improved to meet the requirements for grid interconnection. This paper gives an overview of the structures for the DPGS based on fuel cell, photovoltaic, and wind turbines. In addition, control structures of the grid-side converter are presented, and the possibility of compensation for low-order harmonics is also discussed. Moreover, control strategies when running on grid faults are treated. This paper ends up with an overview of synchronization methods and a discussion about their importance in the control |
C119599485 | Electrical engineering | https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2006.878356 | field of engineering that deals with electricity | Power-Electronic Systems for the Grid Integration of Renewable Energy Sources: A Survey | [
{
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{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C200601418",
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{
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124192"
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{
"display_name": "Power (physics)",
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"level": 2,
"score": 0.33715346,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342"
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] | The use of distributed energy resources is increasingly being pursued as a supplement and an alternative to large conventional central power stations. The specification of a power-electronic interface is subject to requirements related not only to the renewable energy source itself but also to its effects on the power-system operation, especially where the intermittent energy source constitutes a significant part of the total system capacity. In this paper, new trends in power electronics for the integration of wind and photovoltaic (PV) power generators are presented. A review of the appropriate storage-system technology used for the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources is also introduced. Discussions about common and future trends in renewable energy systems based on reliability and maturity of each technology are presented |
C119599485 | Electrical engineering | https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.07.014 | field of engineering that deals with electricity | Progress in electrical energy storage system: A critical review | [
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C73916439",
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{
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{
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{
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{
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"level": 2,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q66221"
},
{
"display_name": "Electric potential energy",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C98576551",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.44317278,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841798"
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C21880701",
"level": 1,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2144042"
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C1934278",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.43059015,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q143746"
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C171146098",
"level": 1,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124192"
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{
"display_name": "Environmental science",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C39432304",
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C186370098",
"level": 2,
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] | Electrical energy storage technologies for stationary applications are reviewed. Particular attention is paid to pumped hydroelectric storage, compressed air energy storage, battery, flow battery, fuel cell, solar fuel, superconducting magnetic energy storage, flywheel, capacitor/supercapacitor, and thermal energy storage. Comparison is made among these technologies in terms of technical characteristics, applications and deployment status. |
C119599485 | Electrical engineering | https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470667057 | field of engineering that deals with electricity | Grid Converters for Photovoltaic and Wind Power Systems | [
{
"display_name": "Photovoltaic system",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C41291067",
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] | About the Authors. Preface. Acknowledgements. 1 Introduction. 1.1 Wind Power Development. 1.2 Photovoltaic Power Development. 1.3 The Grid Converter The Key Element in Grid Integration of WT and PV Systems. 2 Photovoltaic Inverter Structures. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Inverter Structures Derived from H-Bridge Topology. 2.3 Inverter Structures Derived from NPC Topology. 2.4 Typical PV Inverter Structures. 2.5 Three-Phase PV Inverters. 2.6 Control Structures. 2.7 Conclusions and Future Trends. 3 Grid Requirements for PV. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 International Regulations. 3.3 Response to Abnormal Grid Conditions. 3.4 Power Quality. 3.5 Anti-islanding Requirements. 3.6 Summary. 4 Grid Synchronization in Single-Phase Power Converters. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Grid Synchronization Techniques for Single-Phase Systems. 4.3 Phase Detection Based on In-Quadrature Signals. 4.4 Some PLLs Based on In-Quadrature Signal Generation. 4.5 Some PLLs Based on Adaptive Filtering. 4.6 The SOGI Frequency-Locked Loop. 4.7 Summary. 5 Islanding Detection. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Nondetection Zone. 5.3 Overview of Islanding Detection Methods. 5.4 Passive Islanding Detection Methods. 5.5 Active Islanding Detection Methods. 5.6 Summary. 6 Grid Converter Structures forWind Turbine Systems. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 WTS Power Configurations. 6.3 Grid Power Converter Topologies. 6.4 WTS Control. 6.5 Summary. 7 Grid Requirements for WT Systems. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Grid Code Evolution. 7.3 Frequency and Voltage Deviation under Normal Operation. 7.4 Active Power Control in Normal Operation. 7.5 Reactive Power Control in Normal Operation. 7.6 Behaviour under Grid Disturbances. 7.7 Discussion of Harmonization of Grid Codes. 7.8 Future Trends. 7.9 Summary. 8 Grid Synchronization in Three-Phase Power Converters. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 The Three-Phase Voltage Vector under Grid Faults. 8.3 The Synchronous Reference Frame PLL under Unbalanced and Distorted Grid Conditions. 8.4 The Decoupled Double Synchronous Reference Frame PLL (DDSRF-PLL). 8.5 The Double Second-Order Generalized Integrator FLL (DSOGI-FLL). 8.6 Summary. 9 Grid Converter Control for WTS. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Model of the Converter. 9.3 AC Voltage and DC Voltage Control. 9.4 Voltage Oriented Control and Direct Power Control. 9.5 Stand-alone, Micro-grid, Droop Control and Grid Supporting. 9.6 Summary. 10 Control of Grid Converters under Grid Faults. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Overview of Control Techniques for Grid-Connected Converters under Unbalanced Grid Voltage Conditions. 10.3 Control Structures for Unbalanced Current Injection. 10.4 Power Control under Unbalanced Grid Conditions. 10.5 Flexible Power Control with Current Limitation. 10.6 Summary. 11 Grid Filter Design. 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Filter Topologies. 11.3 Design Considerations. 11.4 Practical Examples of LCL Filters and Grid Interactions. 11.5 Resonance Problem and Damping Solutions. 11.6 Nonlinear Behaviour of the Filter. 11.7 Summary. 12 Grid Current Control. 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Current Harmonic Requirements. 12.3 Linear Current Control with Separated Modulation. 12.4 Modulation Techniques. 12.5 Operating Limits of the Current-Controlled Converter. 12.6 Practical Example. 12.7 Summary. Appendix A Space Vector Transformations of Three-Phase Systems. A.1 Introduction. A.2 Symmetrical Components in the Frequency Domain. A.3 Symmetrical Components in the Time Domain. A.4 Components 0 on the Stationary Reference Frame. A.5 Components dq0 on the Synchronous Reference Frame. Appendix B Instantaneous Power Theories. B.1 Introduction. B.2 Origin of Power Definitions at the Time Domain for Single-Phase Systems. B.3 Origin of Active Currents in Multiphase Systems. B.4 Instantaneous Calculation of Power Currents in Multiphase Systems. B.5 The p-q Theory. B.6 Generalization of the p-q Theory to Arbitrary Multiphase Systems. B.7 The Modified p-q Theory. B.8 Generalized Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory for Three-Phase Power Systems. B.9 Summary. Appendix C Resonant Controller. C.1 Introduction. C.2 Internal Model Principle. C.3 Equivalence of the PI Controller in the dq Frame and the P+Resonant Controller in the Frame. Index. |
C119599485 | Electrical engineering | https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139195065 | field of engineering that deals with electricity | Fundamentals of Modern VLSI Devices | [
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] | Learn the basic properties and designs of modern VLSI devices, as well as the factors affecting performance, with this thoroughly updated second edition. The first edition has been widely adopted as a standard textbook in microelectronics in many major US universities and worldwide. The internationally renowned authors highlight the intricate interdependencies and subtle trade-offs between various practically important device parameters, and provide an in-depth discussion of device scaling and scaling limits of CMOS and bipolar devices. Equations and parameters provided are checked continuously against the reality of silicon data, making the book equally useful in practical transistor design and in the classroom. Every chapter has been updated to include the latest developments, such as MOSFET scale length theory, high-field transport model and SiGe-base bipolar devices. |
C119599485 | Electrical engineering | https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/17/12/r01 | field of engineering that deals with electricity | Energy harvesting vibration sources for microsystems applications | [
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] | This paper reviews the state-of-the art in vibration energy harvesting for wireless, self-powered microsystems. Vibration-powered generators are typically, although not exclusively, inertial spring and mass systems. The characteristic equations for inertial-based generators are presented, along with the specific damping equations that relate to the three main transduction mechanisms employed to extract energy from the system. These transduction mechanisms are: piezoelectric, electromagnetic and electrostatic. Piezoelectric generators employ active materials that generate a charge when mechanically stressed. A comprehensive review of existing piezoelectric generators is presented, including impact coupled, resonant and human-based devices. Electromagnetic generators employ electromagnetic induction arising from the relative motion between a magnetic flux gradient and a conductor. Electromagnetic generators presented in the literature are reviewed including large scale discrete devices and wafer-scale integrated versions. Electrostatic generators utilize the relative movement between electrically isolated charged capacitor plates to generate energy. The work done against the electrostatic force between the plates provides the harvested energy. Electrostatic-based generators are reviewed under the classifications of in-plane overlap varying, in-plane gap closing and out-of-plane gap closing; the Coulomb force parametric generator and electret-based generators are also covered. The coupling factor of each transduction mechanism is discussed and all the devices presented in the literature are summarized in tables classified by transduction type; conclusions are drawn as to the suitability of the various techniques. |
C119599485 | Electrical engineering | https://doi.org/10.1109/ias.1995.530601 | field of engineering that deals with electricity | Multilevel converters-a new breed of power converters | [
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] | Multilevel voltage source converters are emerging as a new breed of power converter options for high-power applications. The multilevel voltage source converters typically synthesize the staircase voltage wave from several levels of DC capacitor voltages. One of the major limitations of the multilevel converters is the voltage unbalance between different levels. The techniques to balance the voltage between different levels normally involve voltage clamping or capacitor charge control. There are several ways of implementing voltage balance in multilevel converters. Without considering the traditional magnetic coupled converters, this paper presents three multilevel voltage source converters: (1) diode-clamp, (2) flying-capacitors, and (3) cascaded-inverters with separate DC sources. The operating principle, features, constraints, and potential applications of these converters are discussed. |
C119599485 | Electrical engineering | https://doi.org/10.1109/tpel.2004.833453 | field of engineering that deals with electricity | Power electronics as efficient interface in dispersed power generation systems | [
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] | The global electrical energy consumption is rising and there is a steady increase of the demand on the power capacity, efficient production, distribution and utilization of energy. The traditional power systems are changing globally, a large number of dispersed generation (DG) units, including both renewable and nonrenewable energy sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic (PV) generators, fuel cells, small hydro, wave generators, and gas/steam powered combined heat and power stations, are being integrated into power systems at the distribution level. Power electronics, the technology of efficiently processing electric power, play an essential part in the integration of the dispersed generation units for good efficiency and high performance of the power systems. This paper reviews the applications of power electronics in the integration of DG units, in particular, wind power, fuel cells and PV generators. |
C203014093 | Immunology | https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0530291100 | branch of medicine studying the immune system | Prospective identification of tumorigenic breast cancer cells | [
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] | Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in United States women, accounting for >40,000 deaths each year. These breast tumors are comprised of phenotypically diverse populations of breast cancer cells. Using a model in which human breast cancer cells were grown in immunocompromised mice, we found that only a minority of breast cancer cells had the ability to form new tumors. We were able to distinguish the tumorigenic (tumor initiating) from the nontumorigenic cancer cells based on cell surface marker expression. We prospectively identified and isolated the tumorigenic cells as CD44 + CD24 −/low Lineage − in eight of nine patients. As few as 100 cells with this phenotype were able to form tumors in mice, whereas tens of thousands of cells with alternate phenotypes failed to form tumors. The tumorigenic subpopulation could be serially passaged: each time cells within this population generated new tumors containing additional CD44 + CD24 −/low Lineage − tumorigenic cells as well as the phenotypically diverse mixed populations of nontumorigenic cells present in the initial tumor. The ability to prospectively identify tumorigenic cancer cells will facilitate the elucidation of pathways that regulate their growth and survival. Furthermore, because these cells drive tumor development, strategies designed to target this population may lead to more effective therapies. |
C203014093 | Immunology | https://doi.org/10.1161/hc0902.104353 | branch of medicine studying the immune system | Inflammation and Atherosclerosis | [
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{
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"display_name": "Cardiology",
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"level": 1,
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{
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"level": 1,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11180"
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] | Atherosclerosis, formerly considered a bland lipid storage disease, actually involves an ongoing inflammatory response. Recent advances in basic science have established a fundamental role for inflammation in mediating all stages of this disease from initiation through progression and, ultimately, the thrombotic complications of atherosclerosis. These new findings provide important links between risk factors and the mechanisms of atherogenesis. Clinical studies have shown that this emerging biology of inflammation in atherosclerosis applies directly to human patients. Elevation in markers of inflammation predicts outcomes of patients with acute coronary syndromes, independently of myocardial damage. In addition, low-grade chronic inflammation, as indicated by levels of the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein, prospectively defines risk of atherosclerotic complications, thus adding to prognostic information provided by traditional risk factors. Moreover, certain treatments that reduce coronary risk also limit inflammation. In the case of lipid lowering with statins, this anti-inflammatory effect does not appear to correlate with reduction in low-density lipoprotein levels. These new insights into inflammation in atherosclerosis not only increase our understanding of this disease, but also have practical clinical applications in risk stratification and targeting of therapy for this scourge of growing worldwide importance. |
C203014093 | Immunology | https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1200694 | branch of medicine studying the immune system | Safety and Activity of Anti–PD-L1 Antibody in Patients with Advanced Cancer | [
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"display_name": "Cancer cell",
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] | Programmed death 1 (PD-1) protein, a T-cell coinhibitory receptor, and one of its ligands, PD-L1, play a pivotal role in the ability of tumor cells to evade the host's immune system. Blockade of interactions between PD-1 and PD-L1 enhances immune function in vitro and mediates antitumor activity in preclinical models. |
C203014093 | Immunology | https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.18.1.767 | branch of medicine studying the immune system | Immunobiology of Dendritic Cells | [
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{
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{
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{
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{
"display_name": "Antigen-presenting cell",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C67662055",
"level": 4,
"score": 0.44127208,
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{
"display_name": "T cell",
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"level": 3,
"score": 0.30592877,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193529"
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] | Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells with a unique ability to induce primary immune responses. DCs capture and transfer information from the outside world to the cells of the adaptive immune system. DCs are not only critical for the induction of primary immune responses, but may also be important for the induction of immunological tolerance, as well as for the regulation of the type of T cell–mediated immune response. Although our understanding of DC biology is still in its infancy, we are now beginning to use DC-based immunotherapy protocols to elicit immunity against cancer and infectious diseases. |
C203014093 | Immunology | https://doi.org/10.1002/path.1570 | branch of medicine studying the immune system | Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis | [
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"display_name": "Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2",
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{
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{
"display_name": "Coronaviridae",
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] | Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is an acute infectious disease that spreads mainly via the respiratory route. A distinct coronavirus (SARS-CoV) has been identified as the aetiological agent of SARS. Recently, a metallopeptidase named angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been identified as the functional receptor for SARS-CoV. Although ACE2 mRNA is known to be present in virtually all organs, its protein expression is largely unknown. Since identifying the possible route of infection has major implications for understanding the pathogenesis and future treatment strategies for SARS, the present study investigated the localization of ACE2 protein in various human organs (oral and nasal mucosa, nasopharynx, lung, stomach, small intestine, colon, skin, lymph nodes, thymus, bone marrow, spleen, liver, kidney, and brain). The most remarkable finding was the surface expression of ACE2 protein on lung alveolar epithelial cells and enterocytes of the small intestine. Furthermore, ACE2 was present in arterial and venous endothelial cells and arterial smooth muscle cells in all organs studied. In conclusion, ACE2 is abundantly present in humans in the epithelia of the lung and small intestine, which might provide possible routes of entry for the SARS-CoV. This epithelial expression, together with the presence of ACE2 in vascular endothelium, also provides a first step in understanding the pathogenesis of the main SARS disease manifestations. |
C203014093 | Immunology | https://doi.org/10.1172/jci59643 | branch of medicine studying the immune system | Macrophage plasticity and polarization: in vivo veritas | [
{
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{
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{
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{
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] | Diversity and plasticity are hallmarks of cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage. In response to IFNs, Toll-like receptor engagement, or IL-4/IL-13 signaling, macrophages undergo M1 (classical) or M2 (alternative) activation, which represent extremes of a continuum in a universe of activation states. Progress has now been made in defining the signaling pathways, transcriptional networks, and epigenetic mechanisms underlying M1-M2 or M2-like polarized activation. Functional skewing of mononuclear phagocytes occurs in vivo under physiological conditions (e.g., ontogenesis and pregnancy) and in pathology (allergic and chronic inflammation, tissue repair, infection, and cancer). However, in selected preclinical and clinical conditions, coexistence of cells in different activation states and unique or mixed phenotypes have been observed, a reflection of dynamic changes and complex tissue-derived signals. The identification of mechanisms and molecules associated with macrophage plasticity and polarized activation provides a basis for macrophage-centered diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. |
C203014093 | Immunology | https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.179.4.1109 | branch of medicine studying the immune system | Efficient presentation of soluble antigen by cultured human dendritic cells is maintained by granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor plus interleukin 4 and downregulated by tumor necrosis factor alpha. | [
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{
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] | Using granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin 4 we have established dendritic cell (DC) lines from blood mononuclear cells that maintain the antigen capturing and processing capacity characteristic of immature dendritic cells in vivo. These cells have typical dendritic morphology, express high levels of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II molecules, CD1, Fc gamma RII, CD40, B7, CD44, and ICAM-1, and lack CD14. Cultured DCs are highly stimulatory in mixed leukocyte reaction (MLR) and are also capable of triggering cord blood naive T cells. Most strikingly, these DCs are as efficient as antigen-specific B cells in presenting tetanus toxoid (TT) to specific T cell clones. Their efficiency of antigen presentation can be further enhanced by specific antibodies via FcR-mediated antigen uptake. Incubation of these cultured DCs with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) or soluble CD40 ligand (CD40L) for 24 h results in an increased surface expression of MHC class I and class II molecules, B7, and ICAM-1 and in the appearance of the CD44 exon 9 splice variant (CD44-v9); by contrast, Fc gamma RII is markedly and sometimes completely downregulated. The functional consequences of the short contact with TNF-alpha are in increased T cell stimulatory capacity in MLR, but a 10-fold decrease in presentation of soluble TT and a 100-fold decrease in presentation of TT-immunoglobulin G complexes. |
C203014093 | Immunology | https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.155.3.1151 | branch of medicine studying the immune system | Immunologic self-tolerance maintained by activated T cells expressing IL-2 receptor alpha-chains (CD25). Breakdown of a single mechanism of self-tolerance causes various autoimmune diseases. | [
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C79484868",
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{
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"score": 0.49571693,
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{
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},
{
"display_name": "T cell",
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"level": 3,
"score": 0.4259839,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193529"
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] | Abstract Approximately 10% of peripheral CD4+ cells and less than 1% of CD8+ cells in normal unimmunized adult mice express the IL-2 receptor alpha-chain (CD25) molecules. When CD4+ cell suspensions prepared from BALB/c nu/+ mice lymph nodes and spleens were depleted of CD25+ cells by specific mAb and C, and then inoculated into BALB/c athymic nude (nu/nu) mice, all recipients spontaneously developed histologically and serologically evident autoimmune diseases (such as thyroiditis, gastritis, insulitis, sialoadenitis, adrenalitis, oophoritis, glomerulonephritis, and polyarthritis); some mice also developed graft-vs-host-like wasting disease. Reconstitution of CD4+CD25+ cells within a limited period after transfer of CD4+CD25- cells prevented these autoimmune developments in a dose-dependent fashion, whereas the reconstitution several days later, or inoculation of an equivalent dose of CD8+ cells, was far less efficient for the prevention. When nu/nu mice were transplanted with allogeneic skins or immunized with xenogeneic proteins at the time of CD25- cell inoculation, they showed significantly heightened immune responses to the skins or proteins, and reconstitution of CD4+CD25+ cells normalized the responses. Taken together, these results indicate that CD4+CD25+ cells contribute to maintaining self-tolerance by down-regulating immune response to self and non-self Ags in an Ag-nonspecific manner, presumably at the T cell activation stage; elimination/reduction of CD4+CD25+ cells relieves this general suppression, thereby not only enhancing immune responses to non-self Ags, but also eliciting autoimmune responses to certain self-Ags. Abnormality of this T cell-mediated mechanism of peripheral tolerance can be a possible cause of various autoimmune diseases. |
C191897082 | Metallurgy | https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1909.0021 | domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals | The tension of metallic films deposited by electrolysis | [
{
"display_name": "Copper",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C544778455",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.7841646,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q753"
},
{
"display_name": "Electroplating",
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] | It is well known that metallic films deposited electrolytically are in many cases liable to peel off if deposited to any considerable thickness. This is the case with nickel which, when deposited over a certain thickness, will curl up into beautiful close rolls, especially if it does not adhere very tightly to the body on which it is deposited. For example, if a piece of glass is silvered by any of the usual silvering solutions, and then nickel is deposited on the silver, it is found that the nickel and silver peel off the glass in close tight rolls almost at once. In ‘Practical Electro-Chemistry,' by Bertram Blount, reference is made on pp. 114 and 272 to the tendency of nickel to peel off, and it is stated that it “will peel—spontaneously and without assignable cause” (p. 272), but that a thick coating can be obtained by keeping the solution at between 50° and 90°C. The late Earl of Rosse tried, about 1865, to make flat mirrors by coating glass with silver chemically, and then electroplating with copper; but he found that, owing to the “contraction” of the copper film, it became detached from the glass. I have had the' same experience in protecting silver 61ms in searchlight reflectors by a film of electro-deposited copper, it being found that if the film of copper is more than 0.01 mm. thick peeling is apt to take place. |
C191897082 | Metallurgy | https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254581 | domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals | A fracture-resistant high-entropy alloy for cryogenic applications | [
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] | A metal alloy that is stronger when cold Metal alloys normally consist of one dominant element, with others in small amounts to improve specific properties. For example, stainless steel is primarily iron with nickel and chromium but may contain trace amounts of other elements. Gludovatz et al. explored the properties of a high-entropy alloy made from equal amounts of chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, and nickel. Not only does this alloy show excellent strength, ductility, and toughness, but these properties improve at cryogenic temperatures where most alloys change from ductile to brittle. Science , this issue p. 1153 |
C191897082 | Metallurgy | https://doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.46.2817 | domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals | Classification of Bulk Metallic Glasses by Atomic Size Difference, Heat of Mixing and Period of Constituent Elements and Its Application to Characterization of the Main Alloying Element | [
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] | Bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) have been classified according to the atomic size difference, heat of mixing (ΔHmix) and period of the constituent elements in the periodic table. The BMGs discovered to date are classified into seven groups on the basis of a previous result by Inoue. The seven groups are as follows: (G-I) ETM/Ln-LTM/BM-Al/Ga, (G-II) ETM/Ln-LTM/BM-Metalloid, (G-III) Al/Ga-LTM/BM-Metalloid, (G-IV) IIA-ETM/Ln-LTM/BM, (G-V) LTM/BM-Metalloid, (G-VI) ETM/Ln-LTM/BM and (G-VII) IIA-LTM/BM, where ETM, Ln, LTM, BM and IIA refer to early transition, lanthanide, late transition, group IIIB–IVB and group IIA-group metals, respectively. The main alloying element of ternary G-I, G-V and G-VII, ternary G-II and G-IV, and ternary G-VI BMGs is the largest, intermediate and smallest atomic radius compared to the other alloying elements, respectively. The main alloying element of ternary BMGs belonging to G-I, G-V, G-VI and G-VII is an element in the atomic pair with the largest and negative value of ΔHmix (ΔHL.N.mix), while the main element of ternary BMGs belonging to G-II and G-IV is independent of the atomic pair with ΔHL.N.mix. The characteristics of the main element derived for the ternary BMGs are directly applicable to multicomponent BMGs belonging to G-I, G-II, G-IV (Mg-based BMGs), G-V and G-VII. The main element can be the larger-sized element in the atomic pair with ΔHL.N.mix or in the same group as the other elements for multicomponent BMGs belonging to G-III, G-IV (Be-containing Zr-based BMG) and G-VI. The main element of BMGs belonging to G-VI tends to change from the element with the smallest atomic radius in a ternary system to an element with a relatively large atomic size in a multicomponent system. The change is due to an increase in glass-forming ability through multicomponent alloying of BMGs belonging to G-VI. The results of the classification of BMGs obtained in the present study are important for further development of BMGs, with the results providing a road map for the development of new BMG compositions. |
C191897082 | Metallurgy | https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2013.09.002 | domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals | Dynamic and post-dynamic recrystallization under hot, cold and severe plastic deformation conditions | [
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] | The evolution of the new microstructures produced by two types of dynamic recrystallization is reviewed, including those brought about by severe plastic deformation (SPD). The microstructural changes taking place under these conditions and the associated mechanical behaviors are described. During the conventional discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (dDRX) that takes place at elevated temperatures, the new grains evolve by nucleation and growth in materials with low to medium stacking fault energies (SFE). On the other hand, new ultrafine grains can be produced in any material irrespective of the SFE by means of SPD at relatively low temperatures. These result from the gradual transformation of the dislocation sub-boundaries produced at low strains into ultrafine grains with high angle boundaries at large strains. This process, termed in situ or continuous dynamic recrystallization (cDRX), is still not perfectly understood. This is because many SPD methods provide data concerning the microstructural changes that take place but little information regarding the flow stress behavior. By contrast, multi-directional forging (MDF) provides both types of data concurrently. Recent studies of the deformation behavior of metals and alloys under SPD conditions, carried out using MDF as well as other SPD methods, are synthesized and the links between the microstructural and mechanical observations are examined carefully. Some models for grain formation under SPD conditions are discussed. Next, the post-dynamic recrystallization behavior, i.e. that of annealing after both dDRX and cDRX, is described. The differing annealing behaviors result from the differences in the natures of the deformed microstructures. Finally, an integrated recrystallization model for these phenomena, i.e. dynamic and static recrystallization of both the continuous and discontinuous types, is presented and discussed. |
C191897082 | Metallurgy | https://doi.org/10.2514/1.18239 | domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals | Nickel-Based Superalloys for Advanced Turbine Engines: Chemistry, Microstructure and Properties | [
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] | The chemical, physical, and mechanical characteristics of nickel-based superalloys are reviewed with emphasis on the use of this class of materials within turbine engines.The role of major and minor alloying additions in multicomponent commercial cast and wrought superalloys is discussed.Microstructural stability and phases observed during processing and in subsequent elevated-temperature service are summarized.Processing paths and recent advances in processing are addressed.Mechanical properties and deformation mechanisms are reviewed, including tensile properties, creep, fatigue, and cyclic crack growth. I. IntroductionN ICKEL-BASED superalloys are an unusual class of metal- lic materials with an exceptional combination of hightemperature strength, toughness, and resistance to degradation in corrosive or oxidizing environments.These materials are widely used in aircraft and power-generation turbines, rocket engines, and other challenging environments, including nuclear power and chemical processing plants.Intensive alloy and process development activities during the past few decades have resulted in alloys that can tolerate average temperatures of 1050 • C with occasional excursions (or local hot spots near airfoil tips) to temperatures as high as 1200 • C, 1 which is approximately 90% of the melting point of the material.The underlying aspects of microstructure and composition that result in these exceptional properties are briefly reviewed here.Major classes of superalloys that are utilized in gas-turbine engines and the corresponding processes for their production are outlined along with characteristic mechanical and physical properties. II. Superalloys in Gas-Turbine EnginesNickel-based superalloys typically constitute 40-50% of the total weight of an aircraft engine and are used most extensively in the combustor and turbine sections of the engine where elevated temperatures are maintained during operation. 1Creep-resistant turbine blades and vanes are typically fabricated by complex investment casting procedures that are essential for introduction of elaborate cooling schemes and for control of grain structure.Such components may contain equiaxed grains or columnar grains, or may be |
C191897082 | Metallurgy | https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2018.107552 | domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals | Additive manufacturing of Ti6Al4V alloy: A review | [
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] | In this paper, the recent progress on Ti6Al4V fabricated by three mostly developed additive manufacturing (AM) techniques-directed energy deposition (DED), selective laser melting (SLM) and electron beam melting (EBM)-is thoroughly investigated and compared. Fundamental knowledge is provided for the creation of links between processing parameters, resultant microstructures and associated mechanical properties. Room temperature tensile and fatigue properties are also reviewed and compared to traditionally manufactured Ti6Al4V parts. The presence of defects in as-built AM Ti6Al4V components and the influences of these defects on mechanical performances are also critically discussed. |
C191897082 | Metallurgy | https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1838615 | domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals | Pitting Corrosion of Metals: A Review of the Critical Factors | [
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] | Pitting corrosion is localized accelerated dissolution of metal that occurs as a result of a breakdown of the otherwise protective passive film on the metal surface. This paper provides an overview of the critical factors influencing the pitting corrosion of metals. The phenomenology of pitting corrosion is discussed, including the effects of alloy composition, environment, potential, and temperature. A summary is then given of studies that have focused on various stages of the pitting process, including breakdown of the passive film, metastable pitting, and pit growth. |
C191897082 | Metallurgy | https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.04.011 | domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals | Fundamentals and advances in magnesium alloy corrosion | [
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] | There remains growing interest in magnesium (Mg) and its alloys, as they are the lightest structural metallic materials. Mg alloys have the potential to enable design of lighter engineered systems, including positive implications for reduced energy consumption. Furthermore, Mg alloys are also emerging as viable biodegradable materials and battery electrodes. In spite of the greatest historical Mg usage at present, the wider use of Mg alloys remains restricted by a number of inherent limitations, including vulnerability to corrosion, poor formability and low creep resistance. This review covers recent research that has led to advances in Mg-alloy corrosion; including the application of contemporary methods for understanding Mg corrosion, the establishment of an electrochemical framework for Mg corrosion, illumination of alloying effects, and attempts at corrosion resistant Mg alloys. A discussion drawing from many sources provides an unbiased focus on new achievements, as well as some contentious issues in the field. The electrochemistry of Mg is reviewed in detail, including so-called anodic hydrogen evolution and cathodic activation. This review also covers atmospheric corrosion, and biodegradable Mg alloys. Finally, past and present trends in the field of Mg corrosion are reviewed, identifying knowledge gaps, whilst attempting to also identify future developments and directions. |
C10138342 | Finance | https://doi.org/10.1162/003355397555163 | academic discipline studying businesses, financing, investments and protection of economic value | Do Investment-Cash Flow Sensitivities Provide Useful Measures of Financing Constraints? | [
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] | No. This paper investigates the relationship between financing constraints and investment-cash flow sensitivities by analyzing the firms identified by Fazzari, Hubbard, and Petersen as having unusually high investment-cash flow sensitivities. We find that firms that appear less financially constrained exhibit significantly greater sensitivities than firms that appear more financially constrained. We find this pattern for the entire sample period, subperiods, and individual years. These results (and simple theoretical arguments) suggest that higher sensitivities cannot be interpreted as evidence that firms are more financially constrained. These findings call into question the interpretation of most previous research that uses this methodology. |
C10138342 | Finance | https://doi.org/10.3386/w1396 | academic discipline studying businesses, financing, investments and protection of economic value | Corporate Financing and Investment Decisions When Firms Have InformationThat Investors Do Not Have | [
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] | This paper considers a firm that must issue common stock to raise cash to undertake a valuable investment opportunity. Management is assumed to know more about the firm's value than potential investors. Investors interpret the firm's actions rationally. An equilibrium model of the issue-invest decision is developed under these assumptions.The model shows that firms may refuse to issue stock, and therefore may pass up valuable investment opportunities.The model suggests explanations for several aspects of corporate financing behavior, including the tendency to rely on internal sources of funds, and to prefer debt to equity if external financing is required. Extensions and applications of the model are discussed. |
C10138342 | Finance | https://doi.org/10.2307/2534426 | academic discipline studying businesses, financing, investments and protection of economic value | Financing Constraints and Corporate Investment | [
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] | Most empirical models of investment rely on the assumption that firms are able to respond to prices set in centralized securities markets (through the of or q). An alternative approach emphasizes the importance of cash flow as a determinant of investment spending, because of a hierarchy, in which internal finance has important cost advantages over external finance. We build on recent research concerning imperfections in markets for equity and debt. This work suggests that some firms do not have sufficient access to external capital markets to enable them to respond to changes in the cost of capital, asset prices, or tax-based investment incentives. To the extent that firms are constrained in their ability to raise funds externally, investment spending may be sensitive to the availability of internal finance. That is, investment may display excess sensitivity to movements in cash flow. In this paper, we work within the q theory of investment, and examine the importance of a financing hierarchy created by capital-market imperfections. Using panel data on individual manufacturing firms, we compare the investment behavior of rapidly growing firms that exhaust all of their internal finance with that of mature firms paying dividends. We find that q values remain very high for significant periods of time for firms paying no dividends, relative to those for mature firms. We also find that investment is more sensitive to cash flow for the group of firms that our model implies is most likely to face external finance constraints. These results are consistent with the augmented model we propose, which takes into account different financing regimes for different groups of firms. Some extensions and implications for public policy are discussed at the end. |
C10138342 | Finance | https://doi.org/10.3386/w2387 | academic discipline studying businesses, financing, investments and protection of economic value | Financing Constraints and Corporate Investment | [
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] | Most empirical models of investment rely on the assumption that firms are able to respond to prices set in centralized securities markets (through the "cost of capital" or "q").An alternative approach emphasizes the importance of cash flow as a determinant of investment spending, because of a "financing hierarchy," in which internal finance has important cost advantages over external finance.We build on recent research concerning imperfections in markets for equity and debt.This work suggests that some firms do not have sufficient access to external capital markets to enable them to respond to changes in the cost of capital, asset prices, or tax-based investment incentives.To the extent that firms are constrained in their ability to raise funds externally, investment spending may be sensitive to the availability of internal finance.That is, investment may display "excess sensitivity" to movements in cash flow.En this paper, we work within the q theory of investment, and examine the importance of a financing hierarchy created by capital-market imperfections.Using panel data on individual manufacturing firms, we compare the investment behavior of rapidly growing firms that exhaust all of their internal finance with that of mature firms paying dividends.We find that q values remain very high for significant periods of time for firms paying no dividends, relative to those for mature firms.We also find that investment is more sensitive to cash flow for the group of firms that our model implies is most likely to face external finance constraints.These results are consistent with the augmented model we propose, which takes into account different financing regimes for different groups of firms.Some extensions and implications for public policy are discussed at the end. |
C10138342 | Finance | https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.1977.tb03277.x | academic discipline studying businesses, financing, investments and protection of economic value | INFORMATIONAL ASYMMETRIES, FINANCIAL STRUCTURE, AND FINANCIAL INTERMEDIATION | [
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] | Numerous markets are characterized by informational differences between buyers and sellers. In financial markets, informational asymmetries are particularly pronounced. Borrowers typically know their collateral, industriousness, and moral rectitude better than do lenders; entrepreneurs possess “inside” information about their own projects for which they seek financing. Lenders would benefit from knowing the true characteristics of borrowers. But moral hazard hampers the direct transfer of information between market participants. Borrowers cannot be expected to be entirely straightforward about their characteristics, nor entrepreneurs about their projects, since there may be substantial rewards for exaggerating positive qualities. And verification of true characteristics by outside parties may be costly or impossible. Without information transfer, markets may perform poorly. Consider the financing of projects whose quality is highly variable. While entrepreneurs know the quality of their own projects, lenders cannot distinguish among them. Market value, therefore, must reflect average project quality. If the market were to place an average value greater than average cost on projects, the potential supply of low quality projects may be very large, since entrepreneurs could foist these upon an uninformed market (retaining little or no equity) and make a sure profit. But this argues that the average quality is likely to be low, with the consequence that even projects which are known (by the entrepreneur) to merit financing cannot be undertaken because of the high cost of capital resulting from low average project quality. Thus, where substantial information asymmetries exist and where the supply of poor projects is large relative to the supply of good projects, venture capital markets may fail to exist. For projects of good quality to be financed, information transfer must occur. We have argued that moral hazard prevents direct information transfer. Nonetheless, information on project quality may be transferred if the actions of entrepreneurs (“which speak louder than words”) can be observed. One such action, observable because of disclosure rules, is the willingness of the person(s) with inside information to invest in the project or firm. This willingness to invest may serve as a signal to the lending market of the true quality of the project; lenders will place a value on the project that reflects the information transferred by the signal. As shown by the seminal work of Akerlof [1970] and Spence [1973], and by the subsequent contributions of Rothschild and Stiglitz [1975] and Riley [1975], [1976], equilibrium in markets with asymmetric information and signalling may have quite different properties from equilibrium either with no information transfer, or with direct and costless information transfer. Signalling equilibria may not exist, may not be sustainable, and may not be economically efficient. In subsequent sections, we develop a simple model of capital structure and financial equilibrium in which entrepreneurs seek financing of projects whose true qualities are known only to them. We show that the entrepreneur's willingness to invest in his own project can serve as a signal of project quality. The resulting equilibrium differs importantly from models which ignore informational asymmetries. The value of the firm increases with the share of the firm held by the entrepreneur. In contrast with Modigliani and Miller [1958], the financial structure of the firm typically will be related to project or firm value even when there are no taxes.1 And firms with riskier returns will have lower debt levels even when there are no bankruptcy costs. Signaling incurs welfare costs by inducing entrepreneurs to take larger equity positions in their own firms than they would if information could be directly transferred; we show, however, that the set of investment projects which are undertaken will coincide with the set which would be undertaken if direct information transfer were possible. Finally, we suggest that financial intermediation, which is difficult to explain in traditional models of financial equilibrium, can be viewed as a natural response to asymmetric information. Consider an investment project which involves a capital outlay K and a future return μ + x ˜ , where µ is the expected end-of-period value of the project and x ˜ is a random variable with zero mean and variance σ 2 . We shall consider an entrepreneur who wants to undertake this investment project and plans to hold a fraction α of the firm's equity, raising the remainder of the equity from other lenders. Throughout our analysis, the firm and the entrepreneur (on personal account) are both assumed to be able to issue debt at the riskless rate.2 The entrepreneur has information that leads him to assign a specific value to µ, but he has no credible way to convey this information directly to other potential shareholders, who have a subjective probability distribution for µ. However, other potential shareholders will respond to a signal by the entrepreneur regarding his evaluation of µ if they know that it is in the self-interest of the entrepreneur to send true signals. The signal which we shall examine is α, the fraction of the equity in the project which is retained by the entrepreneur. This will be taken by other lenders as a (noiseless) signal of the true µ. That is, the market perceives µ to be a function of α. We shall assume that μ(α) is a differentiable function.4 In addition to the possibility of investing in his own project, the entrepreneur can invest in the market portfolio. Define We shall make the “perfect competition” assumption that the project is small relative to the market as a whole; the entrepreneur perceives his decisions with respect to the project to have a negligible effect on the returns and value of his share of the market portfolio. We are not interested in arbitrary functions μ(α); rather, we shall restrict our attention to schedules which have an equilibrium property. More precisely, we define an Condition (5) is a natural notion of equilibrium given competitive capital markets. If the imputed μ(α) were greater than the actual μ of an entrepreneur retaining α, outside investors would on average receive less than the return required for the project's risk, and equity financing would not continue on such terms. If, on the other hand, μ(α) consistently underestimated the entrepreneur's true μ, given α, excess returns would exist for outside investors. Competitive forces would eliminate these excess returns. Thus, for levels of μ for which entrepreneurs undertake their projects, (5) must hold in equilibrium.7 We shall not address the difficult problem of whether an equilibrium schedule μ(α) exists.8 Rather, we shall presume that at least one equilibrium schedule exists, and examine its properties. In the subsequent section, we consider an example in which we can actually compute an equilibrium valuation schedule. Equation (7) can now be used to solve for β as a function of α and μ Substituting this relationship for β into (8) yields a differential equation relating μ and α. Any equilibrium schedule must satisfy this differential equation over the relevant domain. The necessary conditions (8) and (9) will be used to examine properties of equilibrium valuation schedules. But first, we need a definition: An individual's demand for an asset is said to be normal if, in a portfolio choice situation without signaling, the individual will always demand a larger amount of that asset when its price falls. Theorem I.The equilibrium valuation function μ(α) is strictly increasing with α over the relevant domain, if and only if the entrepreneur's demand for equity in his project is normal. Proof 1.See Appendix. I provides a fairly strong characterization of equilibrium schedules: under normal conditions they are monotonically increasing with the fraction of ownership α retained by the entrepreneur. The market reads higher entrepreneurial ownership as a signal of a more favorable project. And the entrepreneur is motivated to choose a higher fraction of ownership in more favorable projects, given the equilibrium valuation function. Theorem II.In equilibrium with signaling by a, entrepreneurs with normal demands will make larger investments in their own projects than would be the case if they could costlessly communicate their true mean. Proof 2.See Appendix. II can be viewed as a welfare result: the “cost” of signaling the true μ to the market through α is the welfare loss resulting from investment in one's own project beyond that which would be optimal if the true μ could be communicated costlessly. Of course, less costly communication may not be possible. And, as argued in the introduction, equilibrium with no communication could result in no projects being undertaken. To examine further aspects of equilibrium valuation schedules and their implications for financial structure, we turn our attention to a specific example. Entrepreneur's expected utility can be expressed in the form The risk adjustment coefficient can be expressed as λ = λ ∗ Cov ( x ˜ , M ˜ ) , where Note that Z will always be nonnegative, and can be interpreted as the specific risk of the project. If the project is independent of the market returns, Cov ( x ˜ , M ˜ ) = 0 and Z is simply the variance of x ˜ . If the market and project returns are perfectly correlated, Z = 0 . In most cases, of course, Z will lie between these extremes. Equilibrium signaling schedules Figure 1 shows some examples of valuation functions satisfying the equilibrium form (15). We will now show that further equilibrium arguments can be used to reduce this family of curves to a single schedule which will be viable in the market. Thus, at α = 0 , schedules such as JJ′ have the property that entrepreneurs with true μ < μ J ( 0 ) could undertake the project, retain zero equity, and be better off than they would if they abandoned the project. Lenders offering the schedule JJ′ would lose money on projects in which the entrepreneur held zero equity. And indeed, even if lenders attach a minimum permissible α > 0 to the schedule JJ′, there will always be some “freeloaders” at α whose μ's are less than those expected by the market. Schedules such as JJ′ therefore will not satisfy the equilibrium condition (5) at their left endpoint. If the schedule KK′ is offered, the same freeloading problem as above may arise at α = 0 , (Since α = 0 implies V K ( 0 ) = K , entrepreneurs with μ < μ K ( 0 ) are indifferent between undertaking (holding zero equity) or not undertaking their projects.) But for α > 0 , no freeloading will take place, since even the smallest amount of required equity holding would reduce potential freeloaders to a level of utility less than that which would result if they did not undertake the project. Now consider schedules below and to the right of KK′, such as LL′. (These schedules do not reach α = 0 because the relevant domain does not include α's associated with levels of μ less than μ*.) Such schedules would indeed satisfy the equilibrium requirement (5). But they will not be competitive with schedule KK′, in the sense that, if KK′ were offered by some lenders when others were offering LL′, all entrepreneurs would do business with lenders offering schedule KK′. This is because the entrepreneur will have a higher level of expected utility along KK′, since the required α to signal any given level of μ is less with KK′ than with LL′. The cost of signaling is less along KK′ than along any other schedule which satisfies the equilibrium requirement everywhere.11 An immediate implication of (17) is Proposition I.A project will be undertaken if, and only if, its true market value, given μ, exceed its cost.12 This result implies that information transfer through signaling possesses a key efficiency property: the set of projects which are undertaken will coincide with that set which would be undertaken if information could be communicated costlessly.13 We now consider the effects of parametric changes on the signaling equilibrium. Proposition II.An increase either in the specific risk Z of the project or in the risk aversion b of the entrepreneur will reduce the entrepreneur's equilibrium equity position α*(μ), for any value of μ at which the project is undertaken. Proof 3.For any fixed value of μ, we have from the equilibrium requirement μ ( α ) = μ A more fundamental question concerns entrepreneurial welfare: does the expected utility “cost” of signaling vary with Z? We can show Proposition III.An increase in specific risk Z results in greater expected utility for the entrepreneur, for any level μ at which the project is undertaken. Proof 4.Tedious calculations show that Thus projects which are “more distinct” (higher specific risk) from the market are relatively easier to signal, in the sense that they result in lower signaling costs in equilibrium. We have shown that in equilibrium the entrepreneur's equity position α in his project is related to the value of his project. We now address the relationship between the value of the project (or firm) V and the financing decision D. In a world of symmetric information, the Modigliani-Miller theorem suggests that there will be no systematic relationship between the financing decision and the value of the firm. In a world with asymmetric information, we show that this will not always be the case. But our results must be interpreted with considerable caution. For the subsequent discussion, we consider the example introduced in the previous section, with the additional assumption that the project's returns are independent of the market returns. This implies cov ( x ˜ , M ˜ ) = 0 , which in turn can be shown to imply that β is independent of α. Thus we can talk of Z as the variance of the project's returns, and can treat β V M as a constant with respect to the choice α. We shall make the assumption that (as both debt and lending are at the riskless rate) the entrepreneur will not simultaneously borrow and lend: borrowing will be done through the firm, and lending will be done privately. Institutional arrangements and (even small) transactions costs can be invoked to support the realism of this argument. Proposition IV.For any level of μ, greater project variance σ X 2 implies lower optimal debt. Proof 5.Differentiating (19) with respect to Z ( = σ X 2 ) , keeping μ constant, yields By our previous analysis, ∂ D / ∂ α > 0 ; by II, d α / d Z < 0 . Since [ log ( 1 − α ) + α ] < 0 for all α > 0 , it follows that d D / d Z < 0 . IV shows that, independent of possible bankruptcy costs, firms with riskier returns will have lower optimal debt levels.15 Consider now the relationship between value V and debt D of seemingly similar projects. By “seemingly similar,” we mean that observers without inside information on μ view the projects as identical. Since both V and D are positive functions of α, and therefore of μ, a regression of value on debt would show a positive relationship. Does this invalidate the Modigliani-Miller theorem that value is independent of capital structure? Not really. In the MM world with symmetric information, a change in D will not change the project's perceived returns, and financial structure will be irrelevant. In a world with asymmetric information in which α can be observed, a change in D with α constant will not change perceived returns, and financial structure will also be irrelevant. But we have argued that observed D, given small transactions costs, will be related to α. And a change in α does give rise to a change in perceived returns and therefore in market value. Thus there is a statistical but not a causal relation between V and D of seemingly similar firms. If transactions costs were sufficiently high, or institutions such that borrowing through the firm entirely precluded lending privately, then D itself could serve as a signal of μ and therefore of firm value, since a choice of D would (through the budget constraint) determine a unique choice of αD as well as α would then be a function of μ and could serve as a signal. But when transactions costs are minimal, D cannot serve as a signal, since entrepreneurs with any μ would be willing to incur small transactions costs to have (say) high D's in order to receive a high project value, while at the same time choosing Y so that α remained at a level appropriate to their true μ. Thus D could not serve as a signal with equilibrium properties. Traditional models of financial markets have difficulty explaining the existence of financial intermediaries, firms which hold one class of securities and sell securities of other types. If transactions costs are not present, ultimate lenders might just as well purchase the primary securities directly and avoid the costs which intermediation must involve. Transactions costs could explain intermediation, but their magnitude does not in many cases appear sufficient to be the sole cause. We suggest that informational asymmetries may be a primary reason that intermediaries exist. For certain classes of asset—typically, those related to individuals, such as mortgages or insurance—information which is not publicly available can be obtained with an expenditure of resources.16 This information can benefit potential lenders; if there are some economies of scale, one might expect organizations to exist which gather and sell information about particular classes of assets. Two problems, however, hamper firms which might try to sell information directly to investors. The first is the appropriability of returns by the firm—the well known “public good” aspect of information. Purchasers of information may be able to share or resell their information to others, without diminishing its usefulness to themselves.17 The firm may be able to appropriate only a fraction of what buyers in totality would be willing to pay. The second problem in selling information is related to the credibility of that information. It may be difficult or impossible for potential users to distinguish good information from bad. If so, the price of information will reflect its average quality. And this can lead to market failure, if entry is easy for firms offering poor quality information. Firms which expend considerable resources to collect good information will lose money because they will receive a value reflecting the low average quality. When they leave the market, the average quality will further fall, and equilibrium will be consistent only with poor quality information, much as Akerlof's market for used cars will result in only “lemons” for sale. Both these problems in capturing a return to information can be overcome if the firm gathering the information becomes an intermediary, buying and holding assets on the basis of its specialized information. The problem of appropriability will be solved because the firm's information is embodied in a private good, the returns from its portfolio. While information alone can be resold without diminishing its returns to the reseller, claims to the intermediary's assets cannot be. Thus, a return to the firm's information gathering can be captured through the increased value (over cost) of its portfolio.18 Of course, a return to information can be gathered only if the buyers of the intermediary's claims believe that the intermediary uses good information. Without some signal of quality, the average return may be low. But, just as in previous sections, this problem can be overcome through signaling. The organizers' willingness to invest in their firm's equity serves as a signal of the quality of the firm's information and the assets selected on the basis of this information. We previously have shown that the financial structure of the firm—the types and amounts of securities it issues—will be related to the owner's equity share. If, as seems often the case, most intermediaries’ assets have low specific risk, IV implies the high degrees of leverage (through debt or deposits) which characterize most intermediaries. It is of interest to note that, once an organization or group of organizations becomes more capable than other lenders of sorting a class of risks, there is a natural tendency for such assets to be sorted—even when the information costs of doing the sorting may be relatively high. Sellers of risks with favorable characteristics wish to be identified, and would deal with an informationally-efficient intermediary rather than with an uninformed set of lenders offering the value of the average risk. With the best risks “peeled off,” the average risk will be less valuable, inducing owners of the next best risks to deal with the intermediary. The end of this chain of logic is that sellers of all types of risks will sell to the intermediary, except perhaps the group at the bottom of the barrel. An open question is whether, in equilibrium, an optimal amount of sorting occurs. R > 0 is required for a regular local maximum of expected utility. For a set of measure zero in which the second-order condition vanished (but higher-order conditions were satisfied), we would have μ α = 0 . k = 0 . In this case, the resulting solution to (A.8), α(0), is the optimal holding of the project by the entrepreneur if he could communicate μ costlessly to the public. k = − [ ( 1 − α ∗ ) μ a ∗ ] E [ U ′ ( W 1 ∗ ) ] where α ∗ = α ∗ ( μ ) , the optimal holding of the project when the market perceives μ through the equilibrium schedule μ(α), and E U ′ ( W 1 ∗ ) is expected utility when α = α ∗ , β = β ∗ . The solution α(k) is simply α*, since (A.8) in this case coincides with the conditions (6) and (7) when (5) holds. We finally observe that, in going from costless communication of μ to signaling, the relevant first-order conditions go from k = 0 to k = − ( 1 − α ∗ ) μ α ∗ E [ U ′ ( W 1 ∗ ) ] < 0 , by I. Since d α / d k < 0 , α will be larger with signalling. |
C10138342 | Finance | https://doi.org/10.1086/296668 | academic discipline studying businesses, financing, investments and protection of economic value | Relationship Lending and Lines of Credit in Small Firm Finance | [
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] | This article examines the role of relationship lending in small firm finance. It examines price and nonprice terms of bank lines of credit extended to small firms. The focus on bank lines of credit allows the examination of a type of loan contract in which the bank-borrower relationship is likely to be an important mechanism for solving the asymmetric information problems associated with financing small enterprises. The authors find that borrowers with longer banking relationships pay lower interest rates and are less likely to pledge collateral. These results are consistent with theoretical arguments that relationship lending generates valuable information about borrower quality. Copyright 1995 by University of Chicago Press. |
C10138342 | Finance | https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-2217(96)00342-6 | academic discipline studying businesses, financing, investments and protection of economic value | Efficiency of financial institutions: International survey and directions for future research | [
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] | This paper surveys 130 studies that apply frontier efficiency analysis to financial institutions in 21 countries. The primary goals are to summarize and critically review empirical estimates of financial institution efficiency and to attempt to arrive at a consensus view. We find that the various efficiency methods do not necessarily yield consistent results and suggest some ways that these methods might be improved to bring about findings that are more consistent, accurate, and useful. Secondary goals are to address the implications of efficiency results for financial institutions in the areas of government policy, research, and managerial performance. Areas needing additional research are also outlined. |
C10138342 | Finance | https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4266(98)00038-7 | academic discipline studying businesses, financing, investments and protection of economic value | The economics of small business finance: The roles of private equity and debt markets in the financial growth cycle | [
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] | This article examines the economics of financing small business in private equity and debt markets. Firms are viewed through a financial growth cycle paradigm in which different capital structures are optimal at different points in the cycle. We show the sources of small business finance, and how capital structure varies with firm size and age. The interconnectedness of small firm finance is discussed along with the impact of the macroeconomic environment. We also analyze a number of research and policy issues, review the literature, and suggest topics for future research. |
C134018914 | Endocrinology | https://doi.org/10.1159/000468530 | medical specialty | Magnesium Replacement Improves the Metabolic Profile in Obese and Pre-Diabetic Patients with Mild-to-Moderate Chronic Kidney Disease: A 3-Month, Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | [
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] | Epidemiological studies have associated low dietary Mg2+ intake with insulin resistance (IR) and increased risk for metabolic syndrome; however, the effect of Mg2+ supplementation on IR has not been adequately investigated. This study aimed to investigate the effects of oral Mg2+ supplementation on insulin sensitivity (IS) and serum lipids.<br />Forty-eight patients with mild uncomplicated hypertension participated in the study. Among them, 24 subjects were assigned to 600 mg of pidolate Mg2+ daily in addition to lifestyle recommendations for a 12-week period, and another 24 age- and sex-matched controls were only given lifestyle recommendations. At baseline and study-end, blood sampling for determination of fasting glucose and insulin levels, serum lipids and other standard laboratory tests, as well as an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) for estimation of IS indices, were performed in all subjects.<br />In the Mg2+ supplementation group the OGTT-derived IS indices of Stumvoll, Matsuda and Cedercholm in were increased between baseline baseline and study-end. In contrast, none of these parameters were changed in the control group. Reductions in total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and triglyceride levels, along with a parallel increase in HDL-cholesterol levels, were evident at study-end in the intervention group, but not in the control group.<br />This study suggests that oral Mg2+ supplementation improves IS and lipid profile in mildly hypertensive patients. These potential beneficial effects of Mg2+ on associated metabolic factors could be helpful for patients with hypertension in terms of overall cardiovascular risk reduction. |
C134018914 | Endocrinology | https://doi.org/10.1172/jci19246 | medical specialty | Obesity is associated with macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue | [
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] | Obesity alters adipose tissue metabolic and endocrine function and leads to an increased release of fatty acids, hormones, and proinflammatory molecules that contribute to obesity associated complications. To further characterize the changes that occur in adipose tissue with increasing adiposity, we profiled transcript expression in perigonadal adipose tissue from groups of mice in which adiposity varied due to sex, diet, and the obesity-related mutations agouti (Ay) and obese (Lepob). We found that the expression of 1,304 transcripts correlated significantly with body mass. Of the 100 most significantly correlated genes, 30% encoded proteins that are characteristic of macrophages and are positively correlated with body mass. Immunohistochemical analysis of perigonadal, perirenal, mesenteric, and subcutaneous adipose tissue revealed that the percentage of cells expressing the macrophage marker F4/80 (F4/80+) was significantly and positively correlated with both adipocyte size and body mass. Similar relationships were found in human subcutaneous adipose tissue stained for the macrophage antigen CD68. Bone marrow transplant studies and quantitation of macrophage number in adipose tissue from macrophage-deficient (Csf1op/op) mice suggest that these F4/80+ cells are CSF-1 dependent, bone marrow-derived adipose tissue macrophages. Expression analysis of macrophage and nonmacrophage cell populations isolated from adipose tissue demonstrates that adipose tissue macrophages are responsible for almost all adipose tissue TNF-alpha expression and significant amounts of iNOS and IL-6 expression. Adipose tissue macrophage numbers increase in obesity and participate in inflammatory pathways that are activated in adipose tissues of obese individuals. |
C134018914 | Endocrinology | https://doi.org/10.1159/000471488 | medical specialty | The Metabolic Phenotype in Obesity: Fat Mass, Body Fat Distribution, and Adipose Tissue Function | [
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] | The current obesity epidemic poses a major public health issue since obesity predisposes towards several chronic diseases. BMI and total adiposity are positively correlated with cardiometabolic disease risk at the population level. However, body fat distribution and an impaired adipose tissue function, rather than total fat mass, better predict insulin resistance and related complications at the individual level. Adipose tissue dysfunction is determined by an impaired adipose tissue expandability, adipocyte hypertrophy, altered lipid metabolism, and local inflammation. Recent human studies suggest that adipose tissue oxygenation may be a key factor herein. A subgroup of obese individuals - the ‘metabolically healthy obese' (MHO) - have a better adipose tissue function, less ectopic fat storage, and are more insulin sensitive than obese metabolically unhealthy persons, emphasizing the central role of adipose tissue function in metabolic health. However, controversy has surrounded the idea that metabolically healthy obesity may be considered really healthy since MHO individuals are at increased (cardio)metabolic disease risk and may have a lower quality of life than normal weight subjects due to other comorbidities. Detailed metabolic phenotyping of obese persons will be invaluable in understanding the pathophysiology of metabolic disturbances, and is needed to identify high-risk individuals or subgroups, thereby paving the way for optimization of prevention and treatment strategies to combat cardiometabolic diseases. |
C134018914 | Endocrinology | https://doi.org/10.1172/jci200319246 | medical specialty | Obesity is associated with macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue | [
{
"display_name": "Adipose tissue",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C171089720",
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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"level": 2,
"score": 0.36680323,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101991"
},
{
"display_name": "White adipose tissue",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C151955695",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.3644391,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q654528"
}
] | Obesity alters adipose tissue metabolic and endocrine function and leads to an increased release of fatty acids, hormones, and proinflammatory molecules that contribute to obesity associated complications. To further characterize the changes that occur in adipose tissue with increasing adiposity, we profiled transcript expression in perigonadal adipose tissue from groups of mice in which adiposity varied due to sex, diet, and the obesity-related mutations agouti (Ay) and obese (Lepob). We found that the expression of 1,304 transcripts correlated significantly with body mass. Of the 100 most significantly correlated genes, 30% encoded proteins that are characteristic of macrophages and are positively correlated with body mass. Immunohistochemical analysis of perigonadal, perirenal, mesenteric, and subcutaneous adipose tissue revealed that the percentage of cells expressing the macrophage marker F4/80 (F4/80+) was significantly and positively correlated with both adipocyte size and body mass. Similar relationships were found in human subcutaneous adipose tissue stained for the macrophage antigen CD68. Bone marrow transplant studies and quantitation of macrophage number in adipose tissue from macrophage-deficient (Csf1op/op) mice suggest that these F4/80+ cells are CSF-1 dependent, bone marrow–derived adipose tissue macrophages. Expression analysis of macrophage and nonmacrophage cell populations isolated from adipose tissue demonstrates that adipose tissue macrophages are responsible for almost all adipose tissue TNF-α expression and significant amounts of iNOS and IL-6 expression. Adipose tissue macrophage numbers increase in obesity and participate in inflammatory pathways that are activated in adipose tissues of obese individuals. |
C134018914 | Endocrinology | https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa011161 | medical specialty | Effects of Losartan on Renal and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Nephropathy | [
{
"display_name": "Medicine",
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{
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{
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},
{
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"level": 2,
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},
{
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"level": 3,
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{
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"level": 2,
"score": 0.47602016,
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},
{
"display_name": "Kidney disease",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2778653478",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.4734504,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1054718"
},
{
"display_name": "Blood pressure",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C84393581",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.46198162,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82642"
},
{
"display_name": "Proteinuria",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2779561371",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.45687854,
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},
{
"display_name": "Urology",
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"level": 1,
"score": 0.44657367,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105650"
},
{
"display_name": "Renal function",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C159641895",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.42805734,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q108377937"
},
{
"display_name": "Endocrinology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C134018914",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.41251975,
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},
{
"display_name": "Angiotensin II",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2908929049",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.36817163,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65963433"
},
{
"display_name": "Gastroenterology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C90924648",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.33647308,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120569"
}
] | Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease. Interruption of the renin–angiotensin system slows the progression of renal disease in patients with type 1 diabetes, but similar data are not available for patients with type 2, the most common form of diabetes. We assessed the role of the angiotensin-II–receptor antagonist losartan in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. |
C134018914 | Endocrinology | https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1611925 | medical specialty | Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Events in Type 2 Diabetes | [
{
"display_name": "Canagliflozin",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2777451236",
"level": 4,
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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{
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{
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"level": 1,
"score": 0.4271769,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11180"
}
] | Canagliflozin is a sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor that reduces glycemia as well as blood pressure, body weight, and albuminuria in people with diabetes. We report the effects of treatment with canagliflozin on cardiovascular, renal, and safety outcomes. |
C134018914 | Endocrinology | https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199602013340503 | medical specialty | Serum Immunoreactive-Leptin Concentrations in Normal-Weight and Obese Humans | [
{
"display_name": "Leptin",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2780613262",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.9671373,
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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"level": 2,
"score": 0.43780544,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q620876"
}
] | Leptin, the product of the ob gene, is a hormone secreted by adipocytes. Animals with mutations in the ob gene are obese and lose weight when given leptin, but little is known about the physiologic actions of leptin in humans. |
C134018914 | Endocrinology | https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa011303 | medical specialty | Renoprotective Effect of the Angiotensin-Receptor Antagonist Irbesartan in Patients with Nephropathy Due to Type 2 Diabetes | [
{
"display_name": "Irbesartan",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2780259554",
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},
{
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},
{
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{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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"level": 1,
"score": 0.49854016,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162606"
},
{
"display_name": "Angiotensin II receptor antagonist",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2780708007",
"level": 5,
"score": 0.49734023,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q285044"
},
{
"display_name": "Urology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C126894567",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.48364723,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105650"
},
{
"display_name": "Placebo",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C27081682",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.4529251,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q269829"
},
{
"display_name": "Kidney disease",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2778653478",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.45094657,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1054718"
},
{
"display_name": "Diabetes mellitus",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C555293320",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.4506361,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12206"
},
{
"display_name": "Nephropathy",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2781184683",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.42789698,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1054718"
},
{
"display_name": "Angiotensin II",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2908929049",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.38772225,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65963433"
},
{
"display_name": "Angiotensin receptor",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C104849204",
"level": 4,
"score": 0.32539243,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q24778533"
}
] | It is unknown whether either the angiotensin-II–receptor blocker irbesartan or the calcium-channel blocker amlodipine slows the progression of nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes independently of its capacity to lower the systemic blood pressure. |
C76155785 | Telecommunications | https://doi.org/10.1109/jsac.2014.2328098 | electronic transmission of information between locations | What Will 5G Be? | [
{
"display_name": "Computer science",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C41008148",
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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"level": 2,
"score": 0.4693977,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1142907"
},
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C153646914",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.4420091,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q535695"
},
{
"display_name": "Key (lock)",
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"level": 2,
"score": 0.4172133,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039"
},
{
"display_name": "Data science",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2522767166",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.3264266,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463"
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] | What will 5G be? What it will not be is an incremental advance on 4G. The previous four generations of cellular technology have each been a major paradigm shift that has broken backward compatibility. Indeed, 5G will need to be a paradigm shift that includes very high carrier frequencies with massive bandwidths, extreme base station and device densities, and unprecedented numbers of antennas. However, unlike the previous four generations, it will also be highly integrative: tying any new 5G air interface and spectrum together with LTE and WiFi to provide universal high-rate coverage and a seamless user experience. To support this, the core network will also have to reach unprecedented levels of flexibility and intelligence, spectrum regulation will need to be rethought and improved, and energy and cost efficiencies will become even more critical considerations. This paper discusses all of these topics, identifying key challenges for future research and preliminary 5G standardization activities, while providing a comprehensive overview of the current literature, and in particular of the papers appearing in this special issue. |
C76155785 | Telecommunications | https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2013.2260813 | electronic transmission of information between locations | Millimeter Wave Mobile Communications for 5G Cellular: It Will Work! | [
{
"display_name": "Extremely high frequency",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C45764600",
"level": 2,
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210973"
},
{
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"level": 2,
"score": 0.6158293,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1379116"
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{
"display_name": "Wireless",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C555944384",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.57378125,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q249"
},
{
"display_name": "Economic shortage",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C194051981",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.5599023,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1337691"
},
{
"display_name": "Mobile telephony",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C95491727",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.5260765,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q992968"
},
{
"display_name": "Mobile broadband",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C78834623",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.5239306,
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C76155785",
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},
{
"display_name": "Broadband networks",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C125599584",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.43221807,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15057100"
},
{
"display_name": "Cellular radio",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2986910011",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.4132142,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17517"
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] | The global bandwidth shortage facing wireless carriers has motivated the exploration of the underutilized millimeter wave (mm-wave) frequency spectrum for future broadband cellular communication networks. There is, however, little knowledge about cellular mm-wave propagation in densely populated indoor and outdoor environments. Obtaining this information is vital for the design and operation of future fifth generation cellular networks that use the mm-wave spectrum. In this paper, we present the motivation for new mm-wave cellular systems, methodology, and hardware for measurements and offer a variety of measurement results that show 28 and 38 GHz frequencies can be used when employing steerable directional antennas at base stations and mobile devices. |
C76155785 | Telecommunications | https://doi.org/10.1109/jiot.2014.2306328 | electronic transmission of information between locations | Internet of Things for Smart Cities | [
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{
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{
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{
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{
"display_name": "Variety (cybernetics)",
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{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C76155785",
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{
"display_name": "The Internet",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C110875604",
"level": 2,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75"
},
{
"display_name": "World Wide Web",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C136764020",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.36497802,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466"
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{
"display_name": "Computer security",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C38652104",
"level": 1,
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] | The Internet of Things (IoT) shall be able to incorporate transparently and seamlessly a large number of different and heterogeneous end systems, while providing open access to selected subsets of data for the development of a plethora of digital services.Building a general architecture for the IoT is hence a very complex task, mainly because of the extremely large variety of devices, link layer technologies, and services that may be involved in such a system.In this paper, we focus specifically to an urban IoT system that, while still being quite a broad category, are characterized by their specific application domain.Urban IoTs, in fact, are designed to support the Smart City vision, which aims at exploiting the most advanced communication technologies to support added-value services for the administration of the city and for the citizens.This paper hence provides a comprehensive survey of the enabling technologies, protocols, and architecture for an urban IoT.Furthermore, the paper will present and discuss the technical solutions and best-practice guidelines adopted in the Padova Smart City project, a proof-of-concept deployment of an IoT island in the city of Padova, Italy, performed in collaboration with the city municipality. |
C76155785 | Telecommunications | https://doi.org/10.1145/128756.128759 | electronic transmission of information between locations | The active badge location system | [
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C2988186277",
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{
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{
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{
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{
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] | A novel system for the location of people in an office environment is described. Members of staff wear badges that transmit signals providing information about their location to a centralized location service, through a network of sensors. The paper also examines alternative location techniques, system design issues and applications, particularly relating to telephone call routing. Location systems raise concerns about the privacy of an individual and these issues are also addressed. |
C76155785 | Telecommunications | https://doi.org/10.3386/w3977 | electronic transmission of information between locations | The Dynamics of Productivity in the Telecommunications Equipment Industry | [
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C204983608",
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{
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{
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] | Technological change and deregulation have caused a major restructuring of the telecommunications equipment industry over the last two decades. Our empirical focus is on estimating the parameters of a production function for the equipment industry, and then using those estimates to analyze the evolution of plant-level productivity. The restructuring involved significant entry and exit and large changes in the sizes of incumbents. Firms' choices on whether to liquidate, and on input quantities should they continue, depended on their productivity. This generates a selection and a simultaneity problem when estimating production functions. Our theoretical focus is on providing an estimation algorithm which takes explicit account of these issues. We find that our algorithm produces markedly different and more plausible estimates of production function coefficients than do traditional estimation procedures. Using our estimates we find increases in the rate of aggregate productivity growth after deregulation. Since we have plant-level data we can introduce indices which delve deeper into how this productivity growth occurred. These indices indicate that productivity increases were primarily a result of a reallocation of capital towards more productive establishments. |
C76155785 | Telecommunications | https://doi.org/10.1109/mcom.2014.6736746 | electronic transmission of information between locations | Five disruptive technology directions for 5G | [
{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C207987634",
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{
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{
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] | New research directions will lead to fundamental changes in the design of future fifth generation (5G) cellular networks. This article describes five technologies that could lead to both architectural and component disruptive design changes: device-centric architectures, millimeter wave, massive MIMO, smarter devices, and native support for machine-to-machine communications. The key ideas for each technology are described, along with their potential impact on 5G and the research challenges that remain. |
C76155785 | Telecommunications | https://doi.org/10.1109/twc.2019.2936025 | electronic transmission of information between locations | Intelligent Reflecting Surface Enhanced Wireless Network via Joint Active and Passive Beamforming | [
{
"display_name": "Beamforming",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C54197355",
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C32022120",
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q797225"
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{
"display_name": "Computer network",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C31258907",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.4097895,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371"
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] | Intelligent reflecting surface (IRS) is a revolutionary and transformative technology for achieving spectrum and energy efficient wireless communication cost-effectively in the future. Specifically, an IRS consists of a large number of low-cost passive elements each being able to reflect the incident signal independently with an adjustable phase shift so as to collaboratively achieve three-dimensional (3D) passive beamforming without the need of any transmit radio-frequency (RF) chains. In this paper, we study an IRS-aided single-cell wireless system where one IRS is deployed to assist in the communications between a multi-antenna access point (AP) and multiple single-antenna users. We formulate and solve new problems to minimize the total transmit power at the AP by jointly optimizing the transmit beamforming by active antenna array at the AP and reflect beamforming by passive phase shifters at the IRS, subject to users' individual signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) constraints. Moreover, we analyze the asymptotic performance of IRS's passive beamforming with infinitely large number of reflecting elements and compare it to that of the traditional active beamforming/relaying. Simulation results demonstrate that an IRS-aided MIMO system can achieve the same rate performance as a benchmark massive MIMO system without using IRS, but with significantly reduced active antennas/RF chains. We also draw useful insights into optimally deploying IRS in future wireless systems. |
C76155785 | Telecommunications | https://doi.org/10.1109/mcom.2016.7470933 | electronic transmission of information between locations | Wireless communications with unmanned aerial vehicles: opportunities and challenges | [
{
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{
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] | Wireless communication systems that include unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) promise to provide cost-effective wireless connectivity for devices without infrastructure coverage. Compared to terrestrial communications or those based on high-altitude platforms (HAPs), on-demand wireless systems with low-altitude UAVs are in general faster to deploy, more flexibly re-configured, and are likely to have better communication channels due to the presence of short-range line-of-sight (LoS) links. However, the utilization of highly mobile and energy-constrained UAVs for wireless communications also introduces many new challenges. In this article, we provide an overview of UAV-aided wireless communications, by introducing the basic networking architecture and main channel characteristics, highlighting the key design considerations as well as the new opportunities to be exploited. |
C77805123 | Social psychology | https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674 | scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors | Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. | [
{
"display_name": "Prejudice (legal term)",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C107062074",
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C2777005476",
"level": 4,
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},
{
"display_name": "Lesbian",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2780540011",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.67572343,
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},
{
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"level": 2,
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},
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C2776001192",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.5112233,
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{
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"level": 1,
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C73282008",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.50621647,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1759895"
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{
"display_name": "Social stigma",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2781437451",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.4554207,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1137326"
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{
"display_name": "Mental illness",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2776674806",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.41737795,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12135"
},
{
"display_name": "Clinical psychology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C70410870",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.35838598,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199906"
}
] | In this article the author reviews research evidence on the prevalence of mental disorders in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (LGBs) and shows, using meta-analyses, that LGBs have a higher prevalence of mental disorders than heterosexuals. The author offers a conceptual framework for understanding this excess in prevalence of disorder in terms of minority stress--explaining that stigma, prejudice, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment that causes mental health problems. The model describes stress processes, including the experience of prejudice events, expectations of rejection, hiding and concealing, internalized homophobia, and ameliorative coping processes. This conceptual framework is the basis for the review of research evidence, suggestions for future research directions, and exploration of public policy implications. |
C77805123 | Social psychology | https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069 | scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors | Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. | [
{
"display_name": "Happiness",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2778999518",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.87000823,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8"
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C15744967",
"level": 0,
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C2780876879",
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{
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{
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"level": 2,
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C197253505",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.41388196,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7256391"
}
] | Caracterización de |
C77805123 | Social psychology | https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040957 | scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors | Construct validity in psychological tests. | [
{
"display_name": "Construct validity",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C49453240",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.76056194,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1592163"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C171606756",
"level": 2,
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C77805123",
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C180747234",
"level": 1,
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{
"display_name": "Clinical psychology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C70410870",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.3190694,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199906"
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] | Validation of psychological tests has not yet been adequately conceptualized, as the APA Committee on Psychological Tests learned when it undertook (1950-54) to specify what qualities should be investigated before a test is published. In order to make coherent recommendations the Committee found it necessary to distinguish four types of validity, established by different types of research and requiring different interpretation. The chief innovation in the Committee's report was the term construct validity.[2] This idea was first formulated by a subcommittee (Meehl and R. C. Challman) studying how proposed recommendations would apply to projective techniques, and later modified and clarified by the entire Committee (Bordin, Challman, Conrad, Humphreys, Super, and the present writers). The statements agreed upon by the Committee (and by committees of two other associations) were published in the Technical Recommendations (59). The present interpretation of construct validity is not official and deals with some areas where the Committee would probably not be unanimous. The present writers are solely responsible for this attempt to explain the concept and elaborate its implications. |
C77805123 | Social psychology | https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x0999152x | scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors | The weirdest people in the world? | [
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] | Abstract Behavioral scientists routinely publish broad claims about human psychology and behavior in the world's top journals based on samples drawn entirely from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. Researchers – often implicitly – assume that either there is little variation across human populations, or that these “standard subjects” are as representative of the species as any other population. Are these assumptions justified? Here, our review of the comparative database from across the behavioral sciences suggests both that there is substantial variability in experimental results across populations and that WEIRD subjects are particularly unusual compared with the rest of the species – frequent outliers. The domains reviewed include visual perception, fairness, cooperation, spatial reasoning, categorization and inferential induction, moral reasoning, reasoning styles, self-concepts and related motivations, and the heritability of IQ. The findings suggest that members of WEIRD societies, including young children, are among the least representative populations one could find for generalizing about humans. Many of these findings involve domains that are associated with fundamental aspects of psychology, motivation, and behavior – hence, there are no obvious a priori grounds for claiming that a particular behavioral phenomenon is universal based on sampling from a single subpopulation. Overall, these empirical patterns suggests that we need to be less cavalier in addressing questions of human nature on the basis of data drawn from this particularly thin, and rather unusual, slice of humanity. We close by proposing ways to structurally re-organize the behavioral sciences to best tackle these challenges. |
C77805123 | Social psychology | https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x | scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors | The Benefits of Facebook “Friends:” Social Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites | [
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] | This study examines the relationship between use of Facebook, a popular online social network site, and the formation and maintenance of social capital. In addition to assessing bonding and bridging social capital, we explore a dimension of social capital that assesses one's ability to stay connected with members of a previously inhabited community, which we call maintained social capital. Regression analyses conducted on results from a survey of undergraduate students (N = 286) suggest a strong association between use of Facebook and the three types of social capital, with the strongest relationship being to bridging social capital. In addition, Facebook usage was found to interact with measures of psychological well-being, suggesting that it might provide greater benefits for users experiencing low self-esteem and low life satisfaction. |
C77805123 | Social psychology | https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464 | scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors | Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. | [
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] | 6.1464) is often used to predict people's behaviors.However, it has shown poor predictive ability potentially because of its typical scoring method (the D score), which is affected by the across-trial variability in the IAT data and might provide biased estimates of the construct.Linear Mixed-Effects Models (LMMs) can address this issue while providing a Rasch-like parametrization of accuracy and time responses.In this study, the predictive abilities of D scores and LMM estimates were compared.The LMMs estimates showed better predictive ability than the D score, and allowed for in-depth analyses at the stimulus level that helped in reducing the acrosstrial variability.Implications of the results and limitations of the study are discussed. |
C77805123 | Social psychology | https://doi.org/10.1080/13504620220145401 | scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors | Mind the Gap: Why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behavior? | [
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] | Abstract Numerous theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain the gap between the possession of environmental knowledge and environmental awareness, and displaying pro-environmental behavior. Although many hundreds of studies have been undertaken, no definitive explanation has yet been found. Our article describes a few of the most influential and commonly used analytical frameworks: early US linear progression models; altruism, empathy and prosocial behavior models; and finally, sociological models. All of the models we discuss (and many of the ones we do not such as economic models, psychological models that look at behavior in general, social marketing models and that have become known as deliberative and inclusionary processes or procedures (DIPS)) have some validity in certain circumstances. This indicates that the question of what shapes pro-environmental behavior is such a complex one that it cannot be visualized through one single framework or diagram. We then analyze the factors that have been found to have some influence, positive or negative, on pro-environmental behavior such as demographic factors, external factors (e.g. institutional, economic, social and cultural) and internal factors (e.g. motivation, pro-environmental knowledge, awareness, values, attitudes, emotion, locus of control, responsibilities and priorities). Although we point out that developing a model that tries to incorporate all factors might neither be feasible nor useful, we feel that it can help illuminate this complex field. Accordingly, we propose our own model based on the work of Fliegenschnee and Schelakovsky (1998) who were influenced by Fietkau and Kessel (1981). |
C77805123 | Social psychology | https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322 | scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors | Self‐determination theory and work motivation | [
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{
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{
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{
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] | Abstract Cognitive evaluation theory, which explains the effects of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation, received some initial attention in the organizational literature. However, the simple dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation made the theory difficult to apply to work settings. Differentiating extrinsic motivation into types that differ in their degree of autonomy led to self‐determination theory, which has received widespread attention in the education, health care, and sport domains. This article describes self‐determination theory as a theory of work motivation and shows its relevance to theories of organizational behavior. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |
C118552586 | Psychiatry | https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/13.2.261 | branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders | The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for Schizophrenia | [
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] | The variable results of positive-negative research with schizophrenics underscore the importance of well-characterized, standardized measurement techniques. We report on the development and initial standardization of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for typological and dimensional assessment. Based on two established psychiatric rating systems, the 30-item PANSS was conceived as an operationalized, drug-sensitive instrument that provides balanced representation of positive and negative symptoms and gauges their relationship to one another and to global psychopathology. It thus constitutes four scales measuring positive and negative syndromes, their differential, and general severity of illness. Study of 101 schizophrenics found the four scales to be normally distributed and supported their reliability and stability. Positive and negative scores were inversely correlated once their common association with general psychopathology was extracted, suggesting that they represent mutually exclusive constructs. Review of five studies involving the PANSS provided evidence of its criterion-related validity with antecedent, genealogical, and concurrent measures, its predictive validity, its drug sensitivity, and its utility for both typological and dimensional assessment. |
C118552586 | Psychiatry | https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005 | branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders | The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging‐Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease | [
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] | The National Institute on Aging and the Alzheimer's Association charged a workgroup with the task of revising the 1984 criteria for Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia. The workgroup sought to ensure that the revised criteria would be flexible enough to be used by both general healthcare providers without access to neuropsychological testing, advanced imaging, and cerebrospinal fluid measures, and specialized investigators involved in research or in clinical trial studies who would have these tools available. We present criteria for all‐cause dementia and for AD dementia. We retained the general framework of probable AD dementia from the 1984 criteria. On the basis of the past 27 years of experience, we made several changes in the clinical criteria for the diagnosis. We also retained the term possible AD dementia, but redefined it in a manner more focused than before. Biomarker evidence was also integrated into the diagnostic formulations for probable and possible AD dementia for use in research settings. The core clinical criteria for AD dementia will continue to be the cornerstone of the diagnosis in clinical practice, but biomarker evidence is expected to enhance the pathophysiological specificity of the diagnosis of AD dementia. Much work lies ahead for validating the biomarker diagnosis of AD dementia. |
C118552586 | Psychiatry | https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617 | branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders | Prevalence, Severity, and Comorbidity of 12-Month DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication | [
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C558461103",
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{
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{
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{
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] | <h3>Background</h3> Little is known about the general population prevalence or severity of<i>DSM-IV</i>mental disorders. <h3>Objective</h3> To estimate 12-month prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of<i>DSM-IV</i>anxiety, mood, impulse control, and substance disorders in the recently completed US National Comorbidity Survey Replication. <h3>Design and Setting</h3> Nationally representative face-to-face household survey conducted between February 2001 and April 2003 using a fully structured diagnostic interview, the World Health Organization World Mental Health Survey Initiative version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. <h3>Participants</h3> Nine thousand two hundred eighty-two English-speaking respondents 18 years and older. <h3>Main Outcome Measures</h3> Twelve-month<i>DSM-IV</i>disorders. <h3>Results</h3> Twelve-month prevalence estimates were anxiety, 18.1%; mood, 9.5%; impulse control, 8.9%; substance, 3.8%; and any disorder, 26.2%. Of 12-month cases, 22.3% were classified as serious; 37.3%, moderate; and 40.4%, mild. Fifty-five percent carried only a single diagnosis; 22%, 2 diagnoses; and 23%, 3 or more diagnoses. Latent class analysis detected 7 multivariate disorder classes, including 3 highly comorbid classes representing 7% of the population. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Although mental disorders are widespread, serious cases are concentrated among a relatively small proportion of cases with high comorbidity. |
C118552586 | Psychiatry | https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021 | branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders | Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): Initial Reliability and Validity Data | [
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{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C2776317618",
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] | ObJective: To describe the psychometric properties of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime version (K-SADS-PL) interview, which surveys additional disorders not assessed in prior K-SADS, contains improved probes and anchor points, includes diagnosis-specific impairment ratings, generates DSM-IfI-R and DSM-IV diagnoses, and divides symptoms surveyed into a screening interview and five diagnostic supplements.Method: Subjects were 55 psychiatric outpatients and 11 normal controls (aged 7 through 17 years).Both parents and children were used as informants.Concurrent validity of the screen criteria and the K-SADS-PL diagnoses was assessed against standard self-report scales.Interrater (n = 15) and test-retest (n = 20) reliability data were also collected (mean retest interval: 18 days: range: 2 to 38 days).Results: Rating scale data support the concurrent validity of screens and K-SADS-PL diagnoses.Interrater agreement in scoring screens and diagnoses was high (range: 93% to 100%).Test-retest reliability l( coefficients were in the excellent range for present and/or lifetime diagnoses of major depression, any bipolar, generalized anxiety, conduct, and oppositional defiant disorder (.77 to 1.00) and in the good range for present diagnoses of posttraumatic stress disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (.63 to .67).Conclusion: Results suggest the K-SADS•PL generates reliable and valid child psychiatric diagnoses.J. |
C118552586 | Psychiatry | https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1965.01720310065008 | branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders | A Self-Rating Depression Scale | [
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] | The fact that there is a need for assessing depression, whether as an affect, a symptom, or a disorder is obvious by the numerous scales and inventories available and in use today. The need to assess depression simply and specifically as a psychiatric disorder has not been met by most scales available today. We became acutely aware of this situation in a research project where we needed to correlate both the presence and severity of a depressive disorder in patients with other parameters such as arousal response during sleep and changes with treatment of the depressive disorder. It was felt that the general depression scales used were insufficient for our purpose and that the more specific scales were also inadequate. These inadequacies related to factors such as the length of a scale or inventory being too long and too time consuming, especially for a patient |
C118552586 | Psychiatry | https://doi.org/10.1159/000350094 | branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders | Molecular Mechanisms of Depression: Perspectives on New Treatment Strategies | [
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] | Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been associated with adverse medical consequences, including cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. Patients with MDD may be classified as having melancholic, atypical, or undifferentiated features. The goal of the present study was to assess whether these clinical subtypes of depression have different endocrine and metabolic features and consequently, varying medical outcomes. |
C118552586 | Psychiatry | https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.64 | branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders | Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. | [
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] | The authors suggest that the most promising route to effective strategies for the prevention of adolescent alcohol and other drug problems is through a risk-focused approach. This approach requires the identification of risk factors for drug abuse, identification of methods by which risk factors have been effectively addressed, and application of these methods to appropriate high-risk and general population samples in controlled studies. The authors review risk and protective factors for drug abuse, assess a number of approaches for drug abuse prevention potential with high-risk groups, and make recommendations for research and practice. |
C118552586 | Psychiatry | https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awr179 | branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders | Sensitivity of revised diagnostic criteria for the behavioural variant of frontotemporal dementia | [
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] | Based on the recent literature and collective experience, an international consortium developed revised guidelines for the diagnosis of behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia. The validation process retrospectively reviewed clinical records and compared the sensitivity of proposed and earlier criteria in a multi-site sample of patients with pathologically verified frontotemporal lobar degeneration. According to the revised criteria, 'possible' behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia requires three of six clinically discriminating features (disinhibition, apathy/inertia, loss of sympathy/empathy, perseverative/compulsive behaviours, hyperorality and dysexecutive neuropsychological profile). 'Probable' behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia adds functional disability and characteristic neuroimaging, while behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia 'with definite frontotemporal lobar degeneration' requires histopathological confirmation or a pathogenic mutation. Sixteen brain banks contributed cases meeting histopathological criteria for frontotemporal lobar degeneration and a clinical diagnosis of behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia, Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies or vascular dementia at presentation. Cases with predominant primary progressive aphasia or extra-pyramidal syndromes were excluded. In these autopsy-confirmed cases, an experienced neurologist or psychiatrist ascertained clinical features necessary for making a diagnosis according to previous and proposed criteria at presentation. Of 137 cases where features were available for both proposed and previously established criteria, 118 (86%) met 'possible' criteria, and 104 (76%) met criteria for 'probable' behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia. In contrast, 72 cases (53%) met previously established criteria for the syndrome (P < 0.001 for comparison with 'possible' and 'probable' criteria). Patients who failed to meet revised criteria were significantly older and most had atypical presentations with marked memory impairment. In conclusion, the revised criteria for behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia improve diagnostic accuracy compared with previously established criteria in a sample with known frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Greater sensitivity of the proposed criteria may reflect the optimized diagnostic features, less restrictive exclusion features and a flexible structure that accommodates different initial clinical presentations. Future studies will be needed to establish the reliability and specificity of these revised diagnostic guidelines. |
C169760540 | Neuroscience | https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1952.sp004764 | scientific study of the central nervous system | A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve | [
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816826"
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] | The Journal of PhysiologyVolume 117, Issue 4 p. 500-544 ArticleFree Access A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve A. L. Hodgkin, A. L. HodgkinSearch for more papers by this authorA. F. Huxley, A. F. HuxleySearch for more papers by this author A. L. Hodgkin, A. L. HodgkinSearch for more papers by this authorA. F. Huxley, A. F. HuxleySearch for more papers by this author First published: 28 August 1952 https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1952.sp004764Citations: 13,747AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Supporting Information Filename Description tjp19521174500-sup-0001-SupMat.pdf4.3 MB Updated original article using the modern convention (Angus Brown, 2019) Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. Volume117, Issue4August 28, 1952Pages 500-544 This article also appears in:Celebrating the Work of Alan Hodgkin and Andrew HuxleyTop Altmetric Papers 2017 RelatedInformation |
C169760540 | Neuroscience | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-016-0001-8 | scientific study of the central nervous system | Ultrastructural Characterization of the Lower Motor System in a Mouse Model of Krabbe Disease | [
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] | Abstract Krabbe disease (KD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by the lack of β- galactosylceramidase enzymatic activity and by widespread accumulation of the cytotoxic galactosyl-sphingosine in neuronal, myelinating and endothelial cells. Despite the wide use of Twitcher mice as experimental model for KD, the ultrastructure of this model is partial and mainly addressing peripheral nerves. More details are requested to elucidate the basis of the motor defects, which are the first to appear during KD onset. Here we use transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to focus on the alterations produced by KD in the lower motor system at postnatal day 15 (P15), a nearly asymptomatic stage, and in the juvenile P30 mouse. We find mild effects on motorneuron soma, severe ones on sciatic nerves and very severe effects on nerve terminals and neuromuscular junctions at P30, with peripheral damage being already detectable at P15. Finally, we find that the gastrocnemius muscle undergoes atrophy and structural changes that are independent of denervation at P15. Our data further characterize the ultrastructural analysis of the KD mouse model, and support recent theories of a dying-back mechanism for neuronal degeneration, which is independent of demyelination. |
C169760540 | Neuroscience | https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.98.2.676 | scientific study of the central nervous system | A default mode of brain function | [
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] | A baseline or control state is fundamental to the understanding of most complex systems. Defining a baseline state in the human brain, arguably our most complex system, poses a particular challenge. Many suspect that left unconstrained, its activity will vary unpredictably. Despite this prediction we identify a baseline state of the normal adult human brain in terms of the brain oxygen extraction fraction or OEF. The OEF is defined as the ratio of oxygen used by the brain to oxygen delivered by flowing blood and is remarkably uniform in the awake but resting state (e.g., lying quietly with eyes closed). Local deviations in the OEF represent the physiological basis of signals of changes in neuronal activity obtained with functional MRI during a wide variety of human behaviors. We used quantitative metabolic and circulatory measurements from positron-emission tomography to obtain the OEF regionally throughout the brain. Areas of activation were conspicuous by their absence. All significant deviations from the mean hemisphere OEF were increases, signifying deactivations, and resided almost exclusively in the visual system. Defining the baseline state of an area in this manner attaches meaning to a group of areas that consistently exhibit decreases from this baseline, during a wide variety of goal-directed behaviors monitored with positron-emission tomography and functional MRI. These decreases suggest the existence of an organized, baseline default mode of brain function that is suspended during specific goal-directed behaviors. |
C169760540 | Neuroscience | https://doi.org/10.1159/000337230 | scientific study of the central nervous system | Amyloid Oligomers Exacerbate Tau Pathology in a Mouse Model of Tauopathy | [
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] | We have extensively analyzed the biochemical and histochemical profiles of the tau protein from the rTg4510 transgenic mouse model in which the animals uniquely develop forebrain tau pathologies similar to those found in human tauopathies. Levels of several soluble phosphorylated tau species were highest at 1 month relative to later time points, suggesting that certain tau hyperphosphorylation events were insufficient to drive tangle formation in young mice. Despite a robust, pre-tangle-like accumulation of phospho-tau in 1-month-old mice, this material was cleared by 3 months, indicating that the young mouse brain either fails to facilitate tau insolubility or possesses an enhanced ability to clear tau relative to the adult. We also found that while heat shock protein expression increased with normal aging, this process was accelerated in rTg4510 mice. Moreover, by exploiting an exon 10 (-) specific antibody, we demonstrated that endogenous mouse tau turnover was slowed in response to human tau over-expression, and that this endogenous tau adopted disease-related properties. These data suggest that a younger brain fails to develop lasting tau pathology despite elevated levels of phosphorylated tau, perhaps because of reduced expression of stress-related proteins. Moreover, we show that the active production of small amounts of abnormal tau protein facilitates dysfunction and accumulation of otherwise normal tau, a significant implication for the pathogenesis of patients with Alzheimer's disease. |
C169760540 | Neuroscience | https://doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5306.1593 | scientific study of the central nervous system | A Neural Substrate of Prediction and Reward | [
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] | The capacity to predict future events permits a creature to detect, model, and manipulate the causal structure of its interactions with its environment. Behavioral experiments suggest that learning is driven by changes in the expectations about future salient events such as rewards and punishments. Physiological work has recently complemented these studies by identifying dopaminergic neurons in the primate whose fluctuating output apparently signals changes or errors in the predictions of future salient and rewarding events. Taken together, these findings can be understood through quantitative theories of adaptive optimizing control. |
C169760540 | Neuroscience | https://doi.org/10.1159/000444713 | scientific study of the central nervous system | Epigenetic Regulations of GABAergic Neurotransmission: Relevance for Neurological Disorders and Epigenetic Therapy | [
{
"display_name": "Reelin",
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] | Reelin, a large glycoprotein secreted by telencephalic GABAergic neurons, plays an important role in neuronal guidance embryonically and in synaptic plasticity postnatally. The reeler heterozygous mouse (+/rl) appears superficially normal but has been of interest as an animal model for psychosis since the discovery that reelin is 50% down-regulated in postmortem psychotic brain. Brain abnormalities in +/rl are similar to psychotic brain and include a reduction in glutamic acid de carboxylase 67 (GAD67), dendritic arbors and spine density in cortex and hippocampus, and abnormalities in synaptic function including long-term potentiation (LTP). In spite of these abnormalities, behavioral abnormalities in +/rl are subtle and controversial. Recent findings indicate that the reelin (RELN) and GAD67 promoters are hypermethylated in GABAergic neurons of psychotic postmortem brain and that DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) is up-regulated. Hypermethlyation of RELN and GAD67 promoters can be induced by treating mice with methionine, and these mice display brain and behavioral abnormalities similar to +/rl. Thus, an animal model that combines genetic heterozygocity with epigenesis holds promise for understanding the role of Reelin down-regulation in psychosis. |
C169760540 | Neuroscience | https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0504136102 | scientific study of the central nervous system | The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks | [
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{
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{
"display_name": "Nerve net",
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] | During performance of attention-demanding cognitive tasks, certain regions of the brain routinely increase activity, whereas others routinely decrease activity. In this study, we investigate the extent to which this task-related dichotomy is represented intrinsically in the resting human brain through examination of spontaneous fluctuations in the functional MRI blood oxygen level-dependent signal. We identify two diametrically opposed, widely distributed brain networks on the basis of both spontaneous correlations within each network and anticorrelations between networks. One network consists of regions routinely exhibiting task-related activations and the other of regions routinely exhibiting task-related deactivations. This intrinsic organization, featuring the presence of anticorrelated networks in the absence of overt task performance, provides a critical context in which to understand brain function. We suggest that both task-driven neuronal responses and behavior are reflections of this dynamic, ongoing, functional organization of the brain. |
C169760540 | Neuroscience | https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/1.1.1 | scientific study of the central nervous system | Distributed Hierarchical Processing in the Primate Cerebral Cortex | [
{
"display_name": "Cerebral cortex",
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"score": 0.62242746,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75839"
},
{
"display_name": "Psychology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C15744967",
"level": 0,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418"
},
{
"display_name": "Cortex (anatomy)",
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2346577"
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{
"display_name": "Neuroscience",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C169760540",
"level": 1,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011"
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{
"display_name": "Psychoanalysis",
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"level": 1,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41630"
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] | Journal Article Preface: Cerebral Cortex Has Come of Age Get access Patricia S. Goldman-Rakic, Patricia S. Goldman-Rakic Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Pasko Rakic Pasko Rakic Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Cerebral Cortex, Volume 1, Issue 1, January 1991, Page 1, https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/1.1.1 Published: 01 January 1991 |
C59822182 | Botany | https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.24.1.1 | science of plant life | COPPER ENZYMES IN ISOLATED CHLOROPLASTS. POLYPHENOLOXIDASE IN <i>BETA VULGARIS</i> | [
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{
"display_name": "Enzyme",
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{
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441"
},
{
"display_name": "Chloroplast",
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{
"display_name": "Copper",
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{
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{
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329"
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{
"display_name": "Biochemistry",
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] | The chloroplast, as the seat of chlorophyll pigments in plants, occupies a unique position in the economy of the green cell.In recent years there has been a renewed interest in the reactions and properties of chloroplasts as a result of the work of HIL (11, 12) and HIL and SCARISBRICK (13,14) who demonstrated that the reaction characteristic of photosynthesis in green plants, the evolution of oxygen, occurs in appreciable quantities in isolated chloroplasts under the influence of light and in the presence of suitable oxidants (2, 7, 8, 26).In the course of an investigation of oxygen evolution by isolated chloro- plasts it was deemed important to explore their enzymatic composition.Of special interest were considered enzymes capable of participating in oxida- tion-reduction reactions, and more particularly, those localized principally, if not entirely, in the chloroplasts.This paper presents evidence that a copper enzyme, polyphenoloxidase (otherwise known as tyrosinase or cate- cholase), is localized in the chloroplasts of spinach beet (chard), Beta vu.'- garis.Methods GROWING OF PLANTS.-Seeds of spinach beet were germinated and grown in sand in flower pots in a greenhouse, heated to prevent the tem- perature from falling below freezing in winter.The pots were watered with a nutrient solution of the following composition (made with local tap water): KNO3-0.01M;Ca(NO3)2-0.002M;NH4H2PO4-0.002M;MgSO4 -0.002M; and A4, a combination of the micronutrients Mn, B, Ca, Zn |
C59822182 | Botany | https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12385 | science of plant life | An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV | [
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{
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{
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{
"display_name": "Zoology",
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{
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840400"
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] | An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification of the orders and families of angiosperms is presented. Several new orders are recognized: Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusiales and Vahliales. This brings the total number of orders and families recognized in the APG system to 64 and 416, respectively. We propose two additional informal major clades, superrosids and superasterids, that each comprise the additional orders that are included in the larger clades dominated by the rosids and asterids. Families that made up potentially monofamilial orders, Dasypogonaceae and Sabiaceae, are instead referred to Arecales and Proteales, respectively. Two parasitic families formerly of uncertain positions are now placed: Cynomoriaceae in Saxifragales and Apodanthaceae in Cucurbitales. Although there is evidence that some families recognized in APG III are not monophyletic, we make no changes in Dioscoreales and Santalales relative to APG III and leave some genera in Lamiales unplaced (e.g. Peltanthera). These changes in familial circumscription and recognition have all resulted from new results published since APG III, except for some changes simply due to nomenclatural issues, which include substituting Asphodelaceae for Xanthorrhoeaceae (Asparagales) and Francoaceae for Melianthaceae (Geraniales); however, in Francoaceae we also include Bersamaceae, Ledocarpaceae, Rhynchothecaceae and Vivianiaceae. Other changes to family limits are not drastic or numerous and are mostly focused on some members of the lamiids, especially the former Icacinaceae that have long been problematic with several genera moved to the formerly monogeneric Metteniusaceae, but minor changes in circumscription include Aristolochiaceae (now including Lactoridaceae and Hydnoraceae; Aristolochiales), Maundiaceae (removed from Juncaginaceae; Alismatales), Restionaceae (now re-including Anarthriaceae and Centrolepidaceae; Poales), Buxaceae (now including Haptanthaceae; Buxales), Peraceae (split from Euphorbiaceae; Malpighiales), recognition of Petenaeaceae (Huerteales), Kewaceae, Limeaceae, Macarthuriaceae and Microteaceae (all Caryophyllales), Petiveriaceae split from Phytolaccaceae (Caryophyllales), changes to the generic composition of Ixonanthaceae and Irvingiaceae (with transfer of Allantospermum from the former to the latter; Malpighiales), transfer of Pakaraimaea (formerly Dipterocarpaceae) to Cistaceae (Malvales), transfer of Borthwickia, Forchhammeria, Stixis and Tirania (formerly all Capparaceae) to Resedaceae (Brassicales), Nyssaceae split from Cornaceae (Cornales), Pteleocarpa moved to Gelsemiaceae (Gentianales), changes to the generic composition of Gesneriaceae (Sanango moved from Loganiaceae) and Orobanchaceae (now including Lindenbergiaceae and Rehmanniaceae) and recognition of Mazaceae distinct from Phrymaceae (all Lamiales). |
C59822182 | Botany | https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0016-8025.2001.00808.x | science of plant life | Comparative physiology of salt and water stress | [
{
"display_name": "Plasmolysis",
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"score": 0.7582241,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898668"
},
{
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12370"
},
{
"display_name": "Salinity",
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},
{
"display_name": "Vacuole",
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"level": 3,
"score": 0.6421553,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q127702"
},
{
"display_name": "Photosynthesis",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C183688256",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.56207013,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11982"
},
{
"display_name": "Shoot",
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"score": 0.47285417,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q220869"
},
{
"display_name": "Osmotic pressure",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C9603476",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.45281592,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193135"
},
{
"display_name": "Botany",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C59822182",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.4113217,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441"
},
{
"display_name": "Biology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C86803240",
"level": 0,
"score": 0.40714395,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420"
},
{
"display_name": "Chemistry",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C185592680",
"level": 0,
"score": 0.3957922,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329"
},
{
"display_name": "Biophysics",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C12554922",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.36211735,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7100"
},
{
"display_name": "Cell biology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C95444343",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.35233888,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7141"
},
{
"display_name": "Horticulture",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C144027150",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.3306565,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48803"
}
] | Abstract Plant responses to salt and water stress have much in common. Salinity reduces the ability of plants to take up water, and this quickly causes reductions in growth rate, along with a suite of metabolic changes identical to those caused by water stress. The initial reduction in shoot growth is probably due to hormonal signals generated by the roots. There may be salt‐specific effects that later have an impact on growth; if excessive amounts of salt enter the plant, salt will eventually rise to toxic levels in the older transpiring leaves, causing premature senescence, and reduce the photosynthetic leaf area of the plant to a level that cannot sustain growth. These effects take time to develop. Salt‐tolerant plants differ from salt‐sensitive ones in having a low rate of Na + and Cl – transport to leaves, and the ability to compartmentalize these ions in vacuoles to prevent their build‐up in cytoplasm or cell walls and thus avoid salt toxicity. In order to understand the processes that give rise to tolerance of salt, as distinct from tolerance of osmotic stress, and to identify genes that control the transport of salt across membranes, it is important to avoid treatments that induce cell plasmolysis, and to design experiments that distinguish between tolerance of salt and tolerance of water stress. |
C59822182 | Botany | https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1364-3703.2011.00783.x | science of plant life | The Top 10 fungal pathogens in molecular plant pathology | [
{
"display_name": "Biology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C86803240",
"level": 0,
"score": 0.8234769,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420"
},
{
"display_name": "Blumeria graminis",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2777734684",
"level": 4,
"score": 0.6417344,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q337796"
},
{
"display_name": "Ustilago",
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"level": 3,
"score": 0.5566055,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2361375"
},
{
"display_name": "Mycosphaerella",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2776131566",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.55506617,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3869075"
},
{
"display_name": "Puccinia",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2776766014",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.51020503,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q305162"
},
{
"display_name": "Botrytis",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2776919067",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.5039527,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134284"
},
{
"display_name": "Powdery mildew",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2779336322",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.45223826,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q934008"
},
{
"display_name": "Plant disease",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C3019235130",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.44067588,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188956"
},
{
"display_name": "Magnaporthe",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2777099928",
"level": 5,
"score": 0.43256426,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6731292"
},
{
"display_name": "Botany",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C59822182",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.41465765,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441"
},
{
"display_name": "Mycosphaerella graminicola",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2780306465",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.41086847,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q138622"
},
{
"display_name": "Botrytis cinerea",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2775867217",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.3849939,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1135851"
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] | The aim of this review was to survey all fungal pathologists with an association with the journal Molecular Plant Pathology and ask them to nominate which fungal pathogens they would place in a 'Top 10' based on scientific/economic importance. The survey generated 495 votes from the international community, and resulted in the generation of a Top 10 fungal plant pathogen list for Molecular Plant Pathology. The Top 10 list includes, in rank order, (1) Magnaporthe oryzae; (2) Botrytis cinerea; (3) Puccinia spp.; (4) Fusarium graminearum; (5) Fusarium oxysporum; (6) Blumeria graminis; (7) Mycosphaerella graminicola; (8) Colletotrichum spp.; (9) Ustilago maydis; (10) Melampsora lini, with honourable mentions for fungi just missing out on the Top 10, including Phakopsora pachyrhizi and Rhizoctonia solani. This article presents a short resumé of each fungus in the Top 10 list and its importance, with the intent of initiating discussion and debate amongst the plant mycology community, as well as laying down a bench-mark. It will be interesting to see in future years how perceptions change and what fungi will comprise any future Top 10. |
C59822182 | Botany | https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1990.tb00476.x | science of plant life | A new method which gives an objective measure of colonization of roots by vesicular—arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi | [
{
"display_name": "Colonization",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2776927270",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.92309093,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q815962"
},
{
"display_name": "Hypha",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C90080823",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.814855,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193129"
},
{
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"score": 0.7237129,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420"
},
{
"display_name": "Eyepiece",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C130336943",
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"score": 0.6939576,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193516"
},
{
"display_name": "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2781026492",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.6100869,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q520825"
},
{
"display_name": "Fungus",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2779678110",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.5278197,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q764"
},
{
"display_name": "Botany",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C59822182",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.5231258,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441"
},
{
"display_name": "Arbuscular mycorrhizal",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C3019047414",
"level": 4,
"score": 0.48391348,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q520825"
},
{
"display_name": "Phyllosphere",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C205626393",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.46994263,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2089263"
},
{
"display_name": "Mycorrhiza",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C2778464884",
"level": 4,
"score": 0.4417245,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q99974"
}
] | SUMMARY Previously described methods to quantify the proportion of root length colonized by vesicular‐arbuscular (VA) mycorrhizal fungi are reviewed. It is argued that these methods give observer‐dependent measures of colonization which cannot be used to compare, quantitatively, roots examined by different researchers. A modified method is described here to estimate VA mycorrhizal colonization on an objective scale of measurement, involving inspection of intersections between the microscope eyepiece crosshair and roots at magnification × 200; it is referred to as the magnified intersections method. Whether the vertical eyepiece crosshair crosses one or more arbuscules is noted at each intersection. The estimate of colonization is the proportion of root length containing arbuscules, called the arbuscular colonization (AC). The magnified intersections method also determines the proportion of root length containing vesicles, the vesicular colonization (VC), and the proportion of root length containing hyphae, the hyphal colonization (HC). However, VC and HC should be interpreted with caution because vesicles and hyphae, unlike arbuscules, can be produced in roots by non‐mycorrhizal fungi. |
C59822182 | Botany | https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcn125 | science of plant life | Photosynthesis under drought and salt stress: regulation mechanisms from whole plant to cell | [
{
"display_name": "Photosynthesis",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C183688256",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.895934,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11982"
},
{
"display_name": "Biology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C86803240",
"level": 0,
"score": 0.73964894,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420"
},
{
"display_name": "Salinity",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C129513315",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.56353325,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179615"
},
{
"display_name": "Soil salinity",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C141650431",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.5254302,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q754836"
},
{
"display_name": "Ecophysiology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C137265123",
"level": 3,
"score": 0.43782446,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q295425"
},
{
"display_name": "Plant physiology",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C161221295",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.41126236,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185973"
},
{
"display_name": "Agronomy",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C6557445",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.40872243,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173113"
},
{
"display_name": "Botany",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C59822182",
"level": 1,
"score": 0.40830463,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441"
}
] | Background Plants are often subjected to periods of soil and atmospheric water deficits during their life cycle as well as, in many areas of the globe, to high soil salinity.Understanding how plants respond to drought, salt and co-occurring stresses can play a major role in stabilizing crop performance under drought and saline conditions and in the protection of natural vegetation.Photosynthesis, together with cell growth, is among the primary processes to be affected by water or salt stress.† Scope The effects of drought and salt stresses on photosynthesis are either direct (as the diffusion limitations through the stomata and the mesophyll and the alterations in photosynthetic metabolism) or secondary, such as the oxidative stress arising from the superimposition of multiple stresses.The carbon balance of a plant during a period of salt/water stress and recovery may depend as much on the velocity and degree of photosynthetic recovery, as it depends on the degree and velocity of photosynthesis decline during water depletion.Current knowledge about physiological limitations to photosynthetic recovery after different intensities of water and salt stress is still scarce.From the large amount of data available on transcript-profiling studies in plants subjected to drought and salt it is becoming apparent that plants perceive and respond to these stresses by quickly altering gene expression in parallel with physiological and biochemical alterations; this occurs even under mild to moderate stress conditions.From a recent comprehensive study that compared salt and drought stress it is apparent that both stresses led to down-regulation of some photosynthetic genes, with most of the changes being small (ratio threshold lower than 1) possibly reflecting the mild stress imposed.When compared with drought, salt stress affected more genes and more intensely, possibly reflecting the combined effects of dehydration and osmotic stress in salt-stressed plants. |
C59822182 | Botany | https://doi.org/10.1006/anbo.1997.0400 | science of plant life | Characterization and Distribution of Water-repellent, Self-cleaning Plant Surfaces | [
{
"display_name": "Epicuticular wax",
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{
"display_name": "Trichome",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C56221022",
"level": 2,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1125215"
},
{
"display_name": "Wax",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C153033020",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.7750869,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124695"
},
{
"display_name": "Water repellent",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C3017910388",
"level": 2,
"score": 0.7097194,
"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2326110"
},
{
"display_name": "Cuticle (hair)",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C30055919",
"level": 2,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1566548"
},
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C68928338",
"level": 3,
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},
{
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},
{
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"level": 2,
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{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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"level": 3,
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] | During the last 20 years, a wealth of data dealing with scanning electron microscopy of plant surfaces has been published. The ultrastructure of epidermal surfaces has been investigated with respect to taxonomic, as well as functional aspects. Within the latter, water-repellency has received much attention and has been well documented. Water-repellency is based on surface roughness caused by different microstructures (trichomes, cuticular folds and wax crystals), together with the hydrophobic properties of the epicuticular wax. In addition, contaminating particles are carried away by water droplets, resulting in a cleaned surface (Lotus-effect). Therefore, rough, waxy leaves are not only water-repellent but anti-adhesive with respect to particulate contamination. Based on 200 water-repellent plant species, the present paper surveys micromorphological characteristics of anti-adhesive plant surfaces. Leaves that are permanently water-repellent can be differentiated by distictively convex to papillose epidermal cells and a very dense layer of epicuticular waxes. Leaves that are water-repellent for only a limited period of time have only slightly convex epidermal cells and often have a less dense wax layer. Finally, an overview is given on the occurrence of water-repellency among different life forms and within different habitats. Water-repellency is concentrated in herbaceous species, while it is rare in trees. Among different habitats, subtropical regions, wetlands and disturbed areas appear to have more species with water-repellent leaves. The importance of roughness and water-repellency, respectively, as the basis of an anti-adhesive, self-cleaning surface, in comparison to other functions of microstructures, is discussed. |
C59822182 | Botany | https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-313x.1997.11061187.x | science of plant life | Subcellular localization of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> in plants. H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> accumulation in papillae and hypersensitive response during the barley—powdery mildew interaction | [
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{
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},
{
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},
{
"display_name": "Plant cell",
"id": "https://openalex.org/C156203801",
"level": 3,
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"wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1056194"
},
{
"display_name": "Peroxidase",
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},
{
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},
{
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"id": "https://openalex.org/C59822182",
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},
{
"display_name": "Cell biology",
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},
{
"display_name": "Fungus",
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},
{
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] | Active oxygen species (AOS) are believed to have important roles in plants in general and in plant—pathogen interactions in particular. They are believed to be involved in signal transduction, cell wall reinforcement, hypersensitive response (HR) and phytoalexin production, and to have direct antimicrobial effects. Since current methods are inadequate for localizing AOS in intact plant tissue, most studies have been conducted using cell suspension culture/elicitors systems. 3,3‐diaminobenzidine (DAB) polymerizes instantly and locally as soon as it comes into contact with H 2 O 2 in the presence of peroxidase, and it was found that, by allowing the leaf to take up this substrate, in‐vivo and in‐situ detection of H 2 O 2 can be made at subcellular levels. This method was successfully used to detect H 2 O 2 in developing papillae and surrounding haloes (cell wall appositions) and whole cells of barley leaves interacting with the powdery mildew fungus. Thus, H 2 O 2 can be detected in the epidermal cell wall subjacent to the primary germ tube from 6 h after inoculation, and subjacent to the appressorium from 15 h. The earliest time point for observation of H 2 O 2 in relation to epidermal cells undergoing HR is 15 h after inoculation, first appearing in the zones of attachment to the mesophyll cells underneath, and eventually in the entire epidermal cell. Furthermore, it was observed that proteins in papillae and HR cells are cross‐linked, a process believed to be fuelled by H 2 O 2 . This cross‐linking reinforces the apposition, presumably assisting the arrest of the pathogen. |
C171250308 | Nanotechnology | https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1102896 | field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on atomic and (supra)molecular scale | Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films | [
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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] | We report a naturally-occurring two-dimensional material (graphene that can be viewed as a gigantic flat fullerene molecule, describe its electronic properties and demonstrate all-metallic field-effect transistor, which uniquely exhibits ballistic transport at submicron distances even at room temperature. |
C171250308 | Nanotechnology | https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0502848102 | field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on atomic and (supra)molecular scale | Two-dimensional atomic crystals | [
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{
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{
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{
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] | We report free-standing atomic crystals that are strictly 2D and can be viewed as individual atomic planes pulled out of bulk crystals or as unrolled single-wall nanotubes. By using micromechanical cleavage, we have prepared and studied a variety of 2D crystals including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides, and complex oxides. These atomically thin sheets (essentially gigantic 2D molecules unprotected from the immediate environment) are stable under ambient conditions, exhibit high crystal quality, and are continuous on a macroscopic scale. |
C171250308 | Nanotechnology | https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1171245 | field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on atomic and (supra)molecular scale | Large-Area Synthesis of High-Quality and Uniform Graphene Films on Copper Foils | [
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{
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] | Graphene has been attracting great interest because of its distinctive band structure and physical properties. Today, graphene is limited to small sizes because it is produced mostly by exfoliating graphite. We grew large-area graphene films of the order of centimeters on copper substrates by chemical vapor deposition using methane. The films are predominantly single-layer graphene, with a small percentage (less than 5%) of the area having few layers, and are continuous across copper surface steps and grain boundaries. The low solubility of carbon in copper appears to help make this growth process self-limiting. We also developed graphene film transfer processes to arbitrary substrates, and dual-gated field-effect transistors fabricated on silicon/silicon dioxide substrates showed electron mobilities as high as 4050 square centimeters per volt per second at room temperature. |
C171250308 | Nanotechnology | https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1147241 | field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on atomic and (supra)molecular scale | Mussel-Inspired Surface Chemistry for Multifunctional Coatings | [
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{
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{
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] | We report a method to form multifunctional polymer coatings through simple dip-coating of objects in an aqueous solution of dopamine. Inspired by the composition of adhesive proteins in mussels, we used dopamine self-polymerization to form thin, surface-adherent polydopamine films onto a wide range of inorganic and organic materials, including noble metals, oxides, polymers, semiconductors, and ceramics. Secondary reactions can be used to create a variety of ad-layers, including self-assembled monolayers through deposition of long-chain molecular building blocks, metal films by electroless metallization, and bioinert and bioactive surfaces via grafting of macromolecules. |
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