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44,991,782	Life's Shop Window	1,167,661,819	1914 silent drama film directed by J. Gordon Edwards	[ "1910s American films", "1914 directorial debut films", "1914 drama films", "1914 films", "1914 lost films", "American black-and-white films", "American silent feature films", "Films based on British novels", "Films directed by J. Gordon Edwards", "Lost American drama films", "Silent American drama films" ]	Life's Shop Window is a 1914 American silent drama film directed by J. Gordon Edwards and starring Claire Whitney and Stuart Holmes. It is a film adaptation of the 1907 novel of the same name by Annie Sophie Cory. The film depicts the story of English orphan Lydia Wilton (Whitney), and her husband Bernard Chetwin (Holmes). Although Wilton's marriage is legitimate, it was conducted in secret, and she is accused of having a child out of wedlock. Forced to leave England, she reunites with her husband in Arizona. There, she is tempted by infidelity with an old acquaintance, Eustace Pelham, before seeing the error of her ways and returning to her family. Life's Shop Window was the first film produced by both William Fox and his Box Office Attraction Film Company, the main corporate predecessor to Fox Film. Several reviewers approved of the film's expurgated treatment of the novel's plot, although opinions of the quality of the film itself were mixed. It proved very popular upon its initial release in New York, and that success was used to advertise the film elsewhere. Like many of Fox's early works, it was likely lost in the 1937 Fox vault fire. ## Plot Bernard Chetwin is a boarder at John Anderson's farm in England. He is unimpressed by Anderson's spoiled daughter Bella, but is attracted to their orphaned servant, Lydia Wilton. She tells him of her dreams for a happier life, and they fall in love. Wilton also meets Eustace Pelham, who introduces her to his philosophy of "life's shop window": that many people make life decisions on purely superficial grounds. Chetwin marries Wilton in a secret ceremony. Intending to establish a farm to support his new family, Chetwin leaves the English countryside for Arizona. Concerned about the dangers of frontier territory, he travels without his newlywed wife, intending to send for her later. When she gives birth to Chetwin's child, Anderson's wife refuses to accept evidence of her marriage, and throws her out of the farm for having a child out of wedlock. She takes the infant with her to Arizona and reunites with Chetwin at his ranch. The demands of managing the ranch consume all of Chetwin's time, leaving Wilton to feel neglected and unloved. One day, a traveler is injured near the ranch, whom she recognizes as Pelham. Pelham courts her, taking advantage of her loneliness. Although she admits she does not love him, he convinces her to abandon her family and run away with him. As she is preparing to depart, she is confronted by Starlight, an Indian woman who works as a servant on the ranch, who reminds Wilton of the needs of her child. She spurns Pelham and returns to her family. Eventually, Chetwin forgives her and devotes more of his time to her. Pelham may have been killed by Starlight, although his ultimate fate is left unclear. ## Cast - Claire Whitney as Lydia Wilton - Stuart Holmes as Bernard Chetwin - Walter Hitchcock as Eustace Pelham - Theresa Michelena as Starlight ## Production Annie Sophie Cory, writing as Victoria Cross, was a popular but controversial British New Woman novelist. Adultery and female sexuality are common themes in her works, which often reversed the expected gender roles of the time, permitting female desire to motivate the plot. Elizabeth Bisland described Lydia, the main character of Cory's 1907 novel Life's Shop Window, as "a very modernist heroine", comparing her to a more socially successful Hester Prynne. Like many of Cross's novels, it attracted controversy, and was banned for a time by the Circulating Libraries Association in the United Kingdom. Life's Shop Window had already become the basis of a successful play, based on an expurgated version of the novel's plot. In 1914, William Fox was operating the successful film distributor Box Office Attraction Film Company. Box Office purchased films from studios such as Balboa Amusement Producing Company, showing them in Fox's New York area theaters and renting prints to exhibitors elsewhere in the country. Life's Shop Window may have originally been considered for production in this manner. However, Fox decided he was unwilling to depend on others for the products his business required, and instead prepared to produce his own films under the Box Office Attraction Film Company name. He purchased the Éclair film studio in Fort Lee, New Jersey and property in Staten Island, arranged for actors and crew, and began production with an adaptation of an established work, as was common at the time. Rights to the film adaptation were purchased for \$100. Like the theatrical adaptation, Mary Asquith's screenplay removed much of the book's controversial sexual elements, censorship intended to make Fox's nascent studio appear more respectable to the industry. Fox selected J. Gordon Edwards to direct, in what may have been his directorial debut; credit for the earlier St. Elmo is disputed, with sources disagreeing whether Edwards or Bertram Bracken directed. Filming for Life's Shop Window took place at a farm on the Staten Island property, and possibly in the Fort Lee studio. The budget for this five-reel feature film was small, with the cost of production reported as \$4,500 or \$6,000; Fox would exaggerate the cost of production to over thirty times its true value in later advertising. At the time, films of comparable length generally required between \$20,000 and \$30,000 to produce. Film historian Terry Ramsaye reported that Fox was not pleased with the completed film and initially declared: "Let's burn the damn thing", before being convinced to allow its release. Life's Shop Window premiered at the Academy of Music in New York on October 20, 1914, although it did not receive its official release until November 19. ## Reception and legacy Contemporary reviews were mixed. Moving Picture World's film critic W. Stephen Bush called the film "first-class" despite problems with the plot, cinematography, and the "unbelievably poor" music accompaniment at the Academy of Music. He also remarked on the censorship of the novel's plot, stating that "not even the sternest of moralists can find anything objectionable" in the film. Fox's response was published the following week, in which he praised Bush's review and committed to avoiding "the salacious or the sex drama". Peter Milne of Motion Picture News also praised the decision to make a "clean" adaptation of the novel, as well as the film's realism. However, Variety gave the film a negative review that criticized its editing, its direction, and Whitney's acting ability, suggesting that the film would profit solely on the name of the book it adapted. Despite some critical reviews, the film was popular, especially with women, and financially successful. Double-file lines over a block long were reported for opening-week showings at the Audubon Theatre in New York. After the incorporation of the Fox Film Corporation, distribution of this film continued under the new company's name. The success of the initial New York showings featured in subsequent advertising, as did Fox's greatly inflated claims of the cost of production. The 1937 Fox vault fire destroyed most of Fox's silent films, probably including Life's Shop Window. The Library of Congress is not aware of any extant copies. ## See also - List of lost silent films (1910–1914)	[ "## Plot", "## Cast", "## Production", "## Reception and legacy", "## See also" ]	1,552	38,085
7,096,161	You Know My Name	1,162,708,629	null	[ "2006 singles", "2006 songs", "Casino Royale (2006 film)", "Chris Cornell songs", "Interscope Records singles", "Music videos directed by Michael Haussman", "Song recordings produced by Chris Cornell", "Songs from James Bond films", "Songs written by Chris Cornell", "Songs written by David Arnold" ]	"You Know My Name" is the theme song of the 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale, performed by American musician Chris Cornell, who wrote and produced it jointly with David Arnold, the soundtrack's composer. The film producers chose Cornell because they wanted a strong male singer. Cornell and Arnold tried to make the song a replacement theme for the character instead of the "James Bond Theme" reflecting the agent's inexperience in Casino Royale, as well as an introduction to Daniel Craig's grittier and more emotional portrayal of Bond. The track was leaked onto the Internet on September 20, 2006, and later released as an official single on November 13, 2006 through Interscope Records. It charted in many countries, notably peaking at No. 7 on the UK singles chart. It sold 148,000 copies in 2006 in the UK, and has sold 323,000 digital copies and garnered 3.5 million streams in the U.S. as of 2017. Reviews of the song were positive; it won the Satellite Award and the World Soundtrack Award, and was nominated for a Grammy Award. It was not included in the Casino Royale soundtrack, but appeared on Cornell's second solo album, Carry On. ## Composition and recording Lia Vollack, Sony Pictures's President of Music, called Chris Cornell inviting him to make a song for the new Bond movie, which would "reflect the dramatic new direction of James Bond", with a "strong male singer". Cornell thought it was a strange offer, considering that he was American, and assumed he would perform a secondary song instead of the main theme. Cornell declared he liked the Bond movies, particularly the ones with Sean Connery, but that he "wasn't really a big fan of the last several movies". But Daniel Craig's casting as James Bond intrigued him, and he decided to accept. He then went to Prague to visit the film's shooting location, and was impressed with its emotional content when he was shown a rough cut. In Prague he also met the film's composer, David Arnold, who suggested writing a song "that echoed the film score". The composers started their writing separately, Cornell in his apartment in Paris, and Arnold in his house in London. Cornell said, "It is difficult, I think, to write lyrics for a character, so really I just kind of wandered around for about a month not thinking about it too much, until I sort of formulated some idea of a way that I could approach it, where I'm kind of relating to what's in the character in the movie. And because this particular Bond is very edgy, but also has a lot of emotional depth, it's a lot easier." Later the two musicians met to share their ideas, and according to Arnold "it was almost like we wrote two parts of the same song." Cornell wrote lyrics, to which Arnold added some lines and later music. Some of Arnold's ideas included the song's title, the heavy introduction, and "having the same genetic material as the Bond theme, but in a different order and in a different shape". After a demo of the song was approved by the film's producers, both musicians recorded the full version in AIR Studios London. Cornell and Arnold recorded the guitar and bass parts themselves and hired a session musician for the drums. They were finished by the time Casino Royale wrapped its principal photography on July 21, 2006, and Arnold played it at the wrap party. Afterwards he mixed in the orchestral parts. Speaking to the film music fan site Maintitles, Arnold said he wanted "You Know My Name" to be a substitute for the "James Bond Theme", to represent Bond's immaturity. The song's motif is heard throughout the film, and the classic theme plays only during the end credits to signal the end of his character arc. Arnold felt the song should tie closer to the score, and have the "DNA of the James Bond music". The musical arrangement tried to create "the right blend of rock aggression and sophisticated instrumentation", with Cornell describing it as "more up-tempo and a little more aggressive than any other Bond theme has been, maybe since Paul McCartney's 'Live and Let Die'." Cornell stated that the biggest two influences on "You Know My Name" were Tom Jones, who performed the theme for Thunderball, and Paul McCartney, who composed and performed the theme for Live and Let Die. "I decided that I was going to sing it like Tom Jones, in that crooning style. I wanted people to hear my voice," Cornell said. "And 'Live and Let Die' is a fantastic song. Paul McCartney wouldn't have written it if not for that movie. I [also] wanted to write a song in its own universe. I knew I'd never have it again — a big orchestra — so I wanted to have fun with it." Cornell did not put the film's title in the lyrics, because he "couldn't imagine it fitting into a song lyric that would come out of my mouth". And he jokingly stated "Casino Royale didn't make a good rock title, but I would write a song named Octopussy just for fun". Before producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced on July 26, 2006, that Cornell was performing the theme for Casino Royale, various names were reported in the media, including some reports that other performers claimed they were working on the song. Some names mentioned were Tina Turner, who previously sang "GoldenEye" for the 1995 Bond film of the same name, and Tony Christie. The lyrics try to illustrate Bond's psyche in Casino Royale, described by Cornell as a conflicted and tough spy with more emotional depth, not the "superconfident, seemingly invincible, winking kinda ladies' man superspy" of the previous incarnations. Cornell tried to focus on the existential dilemmas and possible sacrifices of secret agents: "There's an isolation in that; the stakes are very high. I've done a lot of living in my 42 years, and it wasn't hard for me to relate to that." The song was also an introduction to the character, even though he has been in many previous movies—hence the title "You Know My Name"—dealing with Bond's actions such as his first assassination, "introducing himself to what may be the rest of his life and how he will live it and what it will mean." ## Release Three versions of "You Know My Name" were produced. The "Main Version" took the primary spot of the single release. A "Pop Mix" was used in the music video, featured on the Carry On album, and appeared on German singles as the second track. "Film Versions" were more orchestral and used in the Casino Royale's opening and closing credits. The song was leaked on the internet on September 20, 2006. The first version, the grittier one which was leaked and not used in the movie, was made available for download on iTunes Store on November 13, 2006. It debuted on the UK Single Download Chart at \#20 on November 22, 2006. It was released as a stand-alone single on December 14, 2006, with a new acoustic version of the Soundgarden song "Black Hole Sun" on the B-side. The German, Dutch and Australian versions of the single have a second version of "You Know My Name" (called the Pop Mix) as a B-side. This version was used for the music video, and is on Chris Cornell's solo album Carry On. The orchestral version in the film's opening titles has not been commercially released. The song is the first Bond theme not to be included on its film's soundtrack album. Cornell declared that it happened because he wanted the song to be "his", and since he wrote "You Know My Name" in midst of recording the solo album Carry On, he felt the song belonged to the album. In 2008, it was included in the compilation The Best of Bond... James Bond. The song's music video was directed by Michael Haussman, who tried to compare "the lives of a professional spy and a rock star". It premiered on MTV's Making the Video on October 31, 2006. ### Covers - Finnish rock band Poets of the Fall covered the song in 2008 for the compilation CD Livenä Vieraissa. - A cappella group the Amalgamates from Tufts University perform an all vocal version of the song on their album Prime. ## Reception ### Critical response "You Know My Name" received critical acclaim, with critics feeling it fit well in the film. Film reviewer James Berardinelli considered the song to "sound eerily like something by John Barry"; DVD Verdict's review praised the song, describing it as "working remarkably well in the film's context, lyrically and sonically", and Cinefantastique called it "the best Bond theme song in years, [that] captures the full-blooded glory of classics like 'Goldfinger'". Entertainment Weekly listed "You Know My Name" on a list of Academy Award snubs for Best Original Song, describing it as "a musically suave, lyrically ominous rock tune that is perfect for Casino Royales dark reboot of the spy franchise". Among music critics, Billboard described it as "the best Bond theme since 'A View to a Kill'", praising the minimal production; on its review of Carry On, the magazine considered "You Know My Name" to be the best track of the album, describing it as "some of Cornell's most uncomplicated and accessible music to date"; the BBC's unnamed reviewer considered that Cornell's voice "weighs down" the song; ### Commercial "You Know My Name" was released in the winter of 2006 and became the most successful song from Chris Cornell on the rock charts, and arguably Cornell's most recognizable and popular one. It peaked at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 64 on the Billboard Pop 100 chart. In Europe, "You Know My Name" charted in several markets and peaked at number 7 in the UK Singles Chart, his highest placement in that country (including bands Cornell was a part of). ### Accolades Chris Cornell won both the Satellite Award and the World Soundtrack Award for "You Know My Name" in 2007, and garnered a Grammy Award nomination for Best Song Written For Motion Picture, Television Or Other Visual Media the following year. The song also received a first-round nomination in the Best Original Song category for the 2006 Academy Awards, but did not qualify for the final list of nominees. ## Track listing 1 1. "You Know My Name" 4:02 2. "Black Hole Sun" (Acoustic) 4:38 2' 1. "You Know My Name" 4:02 2. "You Know My Name" (Pop Mix) 3. "You Know My Name" (Video) ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## See also - Outline of James Bond	[ "## Composition and recording", "## Release", "### Covers", "## Reception", "### Critical response", "### Commercial", "### Accolades", "## Track listing", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## Certifications and sales", "## See also" ]	2,291	27,295
66,188,232	Karma (Anxhela Peristeri song)	1,172,085,175	2021 single by Anxhela Peristeri	[ "2020s ballads", "2021 singles", "2021 songs", "Albanian-language songs", "Eurovision songs of 2021", "Eurovision songs of Albania", "Festivali i Këngës songs", "Music videos shot in Kosovo", "Pop ballads", "Songs written by Kledi Bahiti", "Universal Music Group singles" ]	"Karma" is a song by Albanian singer and songwriter Anxhela Peristeri. It was composed by Kledi Bahiti and written by Olti Curri, with the production handled by Bahiti and Dimitris Kontopoulos. The song was released as a single for digital download and streaming in various countries on 9 March 2021 by Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH) and Universal. Incorporating modern and traditional elements, it is a Balkan-influenced pop ballad backed by string instruments. The song's Albanian-language lyrics makes reference to the principle of karma, portraying the inner turmoil of a woman who finds guilt for her world falling apart within herself. "Karma" represented Albania in the Eurovision Song Contest 2021 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, after winning the national selection format Festivali i Këngës in December 2020. During the contest in May 2021, Albania finished 10th in the second semi-final, receiving 112 points, and qualified for the final, finishing 21st with 57 points. Peristeri's red, black, and turquoise-toned performance featured clouds of smoke and a display of flashing alternating lights, with the LED screens creating a stormy atmosphere. Music critics gave widely positive reviews of "Karma" upon its release, praising the nature, Peristeri's vocal delivery and stage presence. An accompanying music video was uploaded to the Eurovision Song Contest's YouTube channel on 1 March 2021. Filmed in Kosovo, it portrays Peristeri impersonating two different guises, representing the conceptions of glorifying and regretting the past. For further promotion, the singer performed the song on multiple radio and television stations in Albania and Kosovo, as well as in Greece and San Marino. ## Background and composition Upon her winning the 59th edition of Festivali i Këngës in late December 2020, Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH) announced Peristeri with the song "Karma", which was composed by Albanian artist Kledi Bahiti and written by songwriter Olti Curri, as the Albanian representative for the Eurovision Song Contest 2021. Bahiti and Curri had previously been involved in the creation of several singles by Peristeri, including "E çmëndur", the winning entry of the 19th edition of Kënga Magjike in 2017. For the purpose of her scheduled Eurovision Song Contest participation, "Karma" was revamped and further produced by Bahiti and Greek composer Dimitris Kontopoulos. RTSH and Universal released "Karma" for digital download and streaming in various territories on 9 March 2021. The song has been described as a dramatic Balkan-influenced mid-tempo pop ballad, blending modern and traditional Albanian elements. For the revamp, its instrumentation was modified with the electric guitar being replaced by string instruments. In reference to the principle of karma, the song's Albanian-language lyrics relay on the inner turmoil of a woman who finds guilt for her world falling apart within herself. Lyrics include: "Zoti nuk ma fal, bota mbi mua ra, më ike ti, më ikën miqtë, as dritë nuk ka." (God doesn't forgive me, the world fell on me, you ran away from me, my friends ran away, there is no light.) ## Reception "Karma" was met with widespread acclaim from music critics. The staff of Aussievision characterised the song as a "timeless-sounding" ballad, with several individuals commending Peristeri's "power" vocals as well as the song's "eclectic" instrumentation and "traditional" orchestration. Multiple critics from Wiwibloggs also positively reviewed the song, applauding the singer's vocal delivery, stage presence and the lyrics. While expressing praise towards the song's production and instrumentation, Wiwibloggs' William Lee Adams elaborated: "[Karma's revamp] has preserved the meaning and feeling of the original, but enhanced it through production that makes it feel more contemporary, more Albanian, and more in-your-face." On a similar note, Anita from Eurovision Union highlighted the revamp of the song and concluded that it is more powerful, more outstanding and a "stronger contender" for a Eurovision Song Contest qualification. The song further received a nomination for the Best Vocals at the 2021 Eurovision Awards. Commercially, "Karma" failed to enter the ranking on the Flemish Ultratop 50 chart, but was registered on the Ultratip Bubbling Under. ## Promotion and music video Ahead of the Eurovision Song Contest, "Karma" was promoted in Albania and Kosovo with several television appearances by Peristeri on ABC News, Klan Kosova, Ora News and Televizioni Klan (TV Klan) as well as for radio interviews on Radio Televizioni 21 (RTV21) and Top Channel. Her promotional phase on other European television and radio stations continued on the Greek Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT) and Open TV as well as on Sammarinese RTV. She also performed the song during the virtual events at the British Wiwi Jam, Spanish PrePartyES and Croatian Adriatic Pre Party between March and May 2021. An accompanying music video was uploaded to the YouTube channel of the Eurovision Song Contest on 1 March 2021 at 20:00 (CET), with a preview of it released a few days prior. Filmed by Imagine Films and Onima in Kosovo, it portrays Peristeri impersonating two different guises, corresponding to the conceptions of glorifying and regretting the past. ## At Eurovision Song Contest ### Before Rotterdam RTSH organised the 59th edition of Festivali i Këngës as the national selection format in December 2020 to designate the Albanian representative for the Eurovision Song Contest 2021 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. "Karma" was performed for the first time during the contest's first semi-final held on 21 December 2020. Following her qualification for the final, Peristeri emerged as the winner of the contest and was declared as the nation's entrant for the Eurovision Song Contest 2021. In choosing to perform the song in Albanian, the singer explained that she had always thought that if she won, she would perform in Albanian. She further announced on the same occasion that "Karma" would precede a revamp before the contest in Rotterdam. As of the European Broadcasting Union's (EBU) prevention plan against a COVID-19-cancellation of the Eurovision Song Contest 2020, each participant was required to record a live-on-tape performance of their planned entry in a location of their choice prior to the event. The tape was set to be broadcast during the live shows of the contest in case the artist was unable to travel to the contest venue to perform its song due to pandemic restrictions or related reasons. Most of the unused live-on-tape performances, including Peristeri's, were unveiled after the contest on 28 and 29 May 2021 as part of Eurovision Song Celebration shows. ### In Rotterdam The 65th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest took place at Rotterdam Ahoy in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, and consisted of two semi-finals on 18 and 20 May and the final on 22 May 2021. As of the Eurovision rules, each participating countries, except the host nation and the "Big Five", which consists of , , , and the , are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals to compete for the final, although the top 10 countries from each semi-final progress to the grand final. Prior to the contest, Albania was set to perform in the second half of the second semi-final at 11th position, succeeding and preceding . In the second-semi-final, the country was one of the 10 nations to be announced as having qualified for the final, ranking 10th with 112 points. Subsequently, Albania was placed to perform at second position, succeeding and preceding . In the final, the country finished in 21st place at the end of the voting, receiving a total of 57 points and having received 10 from the televoters of and , and 12 from the juries of . Peristeri's performance of "Karma" for the Eurovision Song Contest was directed by Swedish artistic director Sacha Jean-Baptiste. The singer wore a short steel-sequined silver dress with tassels made of crystals, designed by Kosovo-Albanian fashion designer Kujta and Meri. Peristeri performed alone on stage as the main focus throughout the show, with the lights shining down on her several occasions. Her performance began with the silhouette of herself against a red and black LED backdrop, with a red beam of light and clouds of smoke rising at the onset of the instrumentation. It continued with Peristeri creating alternating circles of light through hand movements behind her until she pushed it away with her hand. During a large portion of the performance, the LED emphasis was on red, with flashing lights alternating back and forth between red and turquoise. As the song progressed towards the end, the backdrop turned grey and white to create a stormy effect, which was visually amplified by smoke effects on stage around the singer. The performance was met with generally positive reviews from critics. Euro Voxx writer Jessica Cole lauded Peristeri's stage presence and applauded the staging, calling it "full of fire and power [...] overall epic". Boris Meersman from ESC United concluded that the performance "demanded [the] attention from the start and retained it until the end", and considered Albania as a dark horse in the contest. ESC Bubble's David Clues commended it as a "masterpiece" and went on to highlight the "impressive" light display and camera angles. Padraig from Wiwibloggs felt that Peristeri occasionally "looked a little lonely on stage" but perceived "a feeling of momentum building around the entry". ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal. - Anxhela Peristeri – vocals - Kledi Bahiti – background vocals, composing, instrumentalist, producing - Dimitris Kontopoulos – producing - Aris Binis – mixing - Aurel Thëllimi – background vocals - Denis Hima – instrumentalist - Mateus Frroku – background vocals - Vis Shkodrani – instrumentalist Locations - Gred Music Records – engineering - Sweetspot Productions – mastering ## Track listing - Digital download and streaming 1. "Karma" – 2:59 2. "Karma (Karaoke Version)" – 2:57 ## Release history	[ "## Background and composition", "## Reception", "## Promotion and music video", "## At Eurovision Song Contest", "### Before Rotterdam", "### In Rotterdam", "## Credits and personnel", "## Track listing", "## Release history" ]	2,258	8,843
1,872,736	Apex predator	1,173,808,619	Predator at the top of a food chain	[ "Apex predators", "Predation" ]	An apex predator, also known as a top predator, is a predator at the top of a food chain, without natural predators of its own. Apex predators are usually defined in terms of trophic dynamics, meaning that they occupy the highest trophic levels. Food chains are often far shorter on land, usually limited to being secondary consumers – for example, wolves prey mostly upon large herbivores (primary consumers), which eat plants (primary producers). The apex predator concept is applied in wildlife management, conservation, and ecotourism. Apex predators have a long evolutionary history, dating at least to the Cambrian period when animals such as Anomalocaris dominated the seas. Humans have for many centuries interacted with apex predators including the wolf, birds of prey, and cormorants to hunt game animals, birds, and fish respectively. More recently, humans have started interacting with apex predators in new ways. These include interactions via ecotourism, such as with the tiger shark, and through rewilding efforts, such as the proposed reintroduction of the Iberian lynx. ## Ecological roles ### Effects on community Apex predators affect prey species' population dynamics and populations of other predators, both in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Non-native predatory fish, for instance, have sometimes devastated formerly dominant predators. A lake manipulation study found that when the non-native smallmouth bass was removed, lake trout, the suppressed native apex predator, diversified its prey selection and increased its trophic level. As a terrestrial example, the badger, an apex predator, preys upon and also competes with the hedgehog, a mesopredator, for food such as insects, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and the eggs of ground-nesting birds. Removal of badgers (in a trial investigating bovine tuberculosis) caused hedgehog densities to more than double. Predators that exert top-down control on organisms in their community are often considered keystone species. ### Effects on ecosystem Apex predators can have profound effects on ecosystems, as the consequences of both controlling prey density and restricting smaller predators, and may be capable of self-regulation. They are central to the functioning of ecosystems, the regulation of disease, and the maintenance of biodiversity. When introduced to subarctic islands, for example, Arctic foxes' predation of seabirds has been shown to turn grassland into the tundra. Such wide-ranging effects on lower levels of an ecosystem are termed trophic cascades. The removal of top-level predators, often through human agency, can cause or disrupt trophic cascades. For example, a reduction in the population of sperm whales, apex predators with a fractional trophic level of 4.7, by hunting has caused an increase in the population of the large squid, with trophic level over 4 (carnivores that eat other carnivores). This effect, called mesopredator release, occurs in terrestrial and marine ecosystems; for instance, in North America, the ranges of all apex carnivores have contracted whereas those of 60% of mesopredators have grown in the past two centuries. ### Conservation Because apex predators have powerful effects on other predators, herbivores, and plants, they can be important in nature conservation. Humans have hunted many apex predators close to extinction, but in some parts of the world, these predators are now returning. They are increasingly threatened by climate change. For example, the polar bear requires extensive areas of sea ice to hunt its prey, typically seals, but climate change is shrinking the sea ice of the Arctic, forcing polar bears to fast on land for increasingly long periods. Dramatic changes in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem were recorded after the gray wolf, both an apex predator and a keystone species (one with a large effect on its ecosystem), was reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park in 1995 as a conservation measure. Elk, the wolves' primary prey, became less abundant and changed their behavior, freeing riparian zones from constant grazing and allowing willows, aspens, and cottonwoods to flourish, creating habitats for beaver, moose, and scores of other species. In addition to their effect on prey species, the wolves' presence also affected one of the park's vulnerable species, the grizzly bear: emerging from hibernation, having fasted for months, the bears chose to scavenge wolf kills, especially during the autumn as they prepared to hibernate once again. The grizzly bear gives birth during hibernation, so the increased food supply is expected to produce an increase in the number of cubs observed. Dozens of other species, including eagles, ravens, magpies, coyotes, and black bears have also been documented as scavenging from wolf kills within the park. ## Human trophic level Ecologists have debated whether humans are apex predators. For instance, Sylvain Bonhommeau and colleagues argued in 2013 that across the global food web, a fractional human trophic level (HTL) can be calculated as the mean trophic level of every species in the human diet, weighted by the proportion that that species forms in the diet. This analysis gives an average HTL of 2.21, varying between 2.04 (for Burundi, with a 96.7% plant-based diet) and 2.57 (for Iceland, with 50% meat and fish, 50% plants). These values are comparable to those of non-apex predators such as the anchovy or pig. However, Peter D. Roopnarine criticized Bonhommeau's approach in 2014, arguing that humans are apex predators and that the HTL was based on terrestrial farming where indeed humans have a low trophic level, mainly eating producers (crop plants at level 1) or primary consumers (herbivores at level 2), which as expected places humans at a level slightly above 2. Roopnarine instead calculated the position of humans in two marine ecosystems, a Caribbean coral reef and the Benguela system near South Africa. In these systems, humans mainly eat predatory fish and have a fractional trophic level of 4.65 and 4.5, respectively, which in Roopnarine's view makes those humans apex predators. In 2021, Miki Ben-Dor and colleagues compared human biology to that of animals at various trophic levels. Using metrics as diverse as tool use and acidity of the stomach, they concluded that humans evolved as apex predators, diversifying their diets in response to the disappearance of most of the megafauna that had once been their primary source of food. ## Evolutionary history Apex predators are thought to have existed since at least the Cambrian period, around 500 million years ago. Extinct species cannot be directly determined to be apex predators as their behavior cannot be observed, and clues to ecological relationships, such as bite marks on bones or shells, do not form a complete picture. However, indirect evidence such as the absence of any discernible predator in an environment is suggestive. Anomalocaris was an aquatic apex predator, in the Cambrian. Its mouthparts are clearly predatory, and there were no larger animals in the seas at that time. Carnivorous theropod dinosaurs including Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus have been theorized to have been apex predators, based on their size, morphology, and dietary needs. A Permian shark, Triodus sessilis, was discovered containing two amphibians (Archegosaurus decheni and Cheliderpeton latirostre), one of which had consumed a fish, Acanthodes bronni, showing that the shark had lived at a trophic level of at least 4. Among more recent fossils, the saber-tooth cats, like Smilodon, are considered to have been apex predators in the Cenozoic. ## Interactions with humans ### Hunting Humans hunted with apex predators in the form of wolves, and in turn with domestic dogs, for 40,000 years; this collaboration may have helped modern humans to outcompete the Neanderthals. Humans still hunt with dogs, which have often been bred as gun dogs to point to, flush out, or retrieve prey. The Portuguese Water Dog was used to drive fish into nets. Several breeds of dog have been used to chase large prey such as deer and wolves. Eagles and falcons, which are apex predators, are used in falconry, hunting birds or mammals. Tethered cormorants, also top predators, have been used to catch fish. ### Ecotourism Ecotourism sometimes relies on apex predators to attract business. Tour operators may in consequence decide to intervene in ecosystems, for example by providing food to attract predators to areas that can conveniently be visited. This in turn can have effects on predator population and therefore on the wider ecosystem. As a result, provisioning of species such as the tiger shark is controversial, but its effects are not well established by empirical evidence. Other affected apex predators include big cats and crocodiles. ### Rewilding In some densely populated areas like the British Isles, all the large native predators like the wolf, bear, wolverine and lynx have become extirpated, allowing herbivores such as deer to multiply unchecked except by hunting. In 2015, plans were made to reintroduce lynx to the counties of Norfolk, Cumbria, and Northumberland in England, and Aberdeenshire in Scotland as part of the rewilding movement. The reintroduction of large predators is controversial, in part because of concern among farmers for their livestock. Conservationists such as Paul Lister propose instead to allow wolves and bears to hunt their prey in a "managed environment" on large fenced reserves; however, this undermines the objective of rewilding.	[ "## Ecological roles", "### Effects on community", "### Effects on ecosystem", "### Conservation", "## Human trophic level", "## Evolutionary history", "## Interactions with humans", "### Hunting", "### Ecotourism", "### Rewilding" ]	2,035	12,325
27,028,788	Siege of Malacca (1641)	1,162,058,258	Dutch siege against Portugal in Malacca, Malaysia	[ "1641 in Portuguese Malacca", "Battles involving Portugal", "Battles involving the Dutch Republic", "Battles of the Dutch–Portuguese War", "Conflicts in 1641", "Portuguese Malacca" ]	The siege of Malacca (3 August 1640 – 14 January 1641) was a siege initiated by the Dutch East India Company and their local allies of Johor against Portugal's colony at Malacca. It ended in a Portuguese surrender and, according to Portugal, the deaths of thousands of Portuguese individuals. The roots of the conflict began in the late 16th century, when the Dutch arrived in the vicinity of Malacca. From there, they began occasional attacks against the Portuguese colony, including multiple failed sieges. In August of 1640, the Dutch began their last siege, which took a heavy toll on both sides, with disease and starvation rampant. Finally, after the loss of a few major commanders and numerous troops, the Dutch stormed the citadel, completely ending Portugal's control of the city. Ultimately, however, the new colony was of little importance to the Dutch compared to their previously existing local territory, Batavia. ## Background Malacca, constructed by the Malays in the 1400s, was a significant hub of trade toward the beginning of the 16th century. It was conquered by the Portuguese Empire in 1511, and was noted for its wealth and prestige by Portuguese officer Duarte Barbosa. Historian ShawnaKim Lowey-Ball has argued that Portugal's exploitation of the division between Hindus and Muslims led to Malacca's economic decline and loss of the status it once held under their rule. Another issue caused by Portugal was the reformed government it introduced, which attempted to impose Catholicism, create a singular currency, and monopolise the spice trade. The arrival of the Dutch in Aceh in 1598 further disturbed the balance of power in the area. Rumours of what they had done to the inhabitants of Bantam led Portuguese merchants to describe them as pirates. The Dutch were also fiercely protective of the new trading area they had gained. ### Prior conflicts The Dutch East India Company had been seeking greater dominance of the East Indies for decades before the invasion. Besides the Portuguese, their rivals included the Malays, the Javanese, and the Acehnese. Cornelis Matelief began a siege in 1606, but was forced to lift it prematurely. Another siege attempt was launched in 1608 by Pieter Willemsz Verhoeff, but similarly ended in failure. More unsuccessful attempts occurred during 1623–1627. Occasional vessels continued to arrive in the years that followed, seeking to harass the Portuguese forces. Cornelis Symonz van der Veer was a leader of these attacks, attacking vessels and blocking the transport of supplies. ## Preparation After years of intermittent conflict, the Dutch East India Company had amassed a force of 2,000 Europeans at Batavia by August 1639, with the intent of sending the troops to Malacca. They also formed an alliance with the local ruler of Aceh, who readily offered to support their expedition, planned for November or December. The expedition was postponed, however, due to both overseas conflict in Ceylon and friction between the rulers of Aceh and Johor. Despite the aggressive behaviour of Aceh's leader toward Johor's, the latter was willing to forgive, and help take down the Portuguese at Malacca. Despite this, the ruler of Aceh remained unwavering, while Johor prepared its forces, including six shallops. In October, the Dutch conducted a raid and captured several prisoners, including a nobleman named Louis Pacheco, and some livestock, then exchanging seven of the captives for four imprisoned Dutch not long afterwards. In early May 1640, the government of Batavia resolved to capture Malacca, whether by negotiation or violence. The previous commander, Cornelis Symonz van der Veer, had died since then, so Sergeant Major Adriaen Antonisz was sent in his place. The Portuguese were led by Governor Manuel de Sousa Coutinho. Their city was heavily fortified, with 32-foot-high (9.8 m) walls that could stand bombardment from both sides. The citadel possessed 70 heavy guns and between 40 and 50 lighter ones. The Portuguese garrison consisted of 260 men, although the Dutch claimed that the best soldiers in the defence were the native and mixed-racial inhabitants, who numbered about 2000–3000 in total. They also claimed that only a powerful European army was capable of bringing it down. ## Battle On 3 August 1640, the Dutch East India Company landed twelve companies, a total of 600 men, including 130 sailors. They were then organised into three battalions of four companies each. They had support from Javanese and Bandanese allies, as well as Mardijkers, who numbered 95 in all. Their Johor allies brought 500–600 men of their own. These troops moved to the Portuguese citadel to meet another 200 pro-Dutch Europeans, with a similar amount of natives. Despite Portuguese bombardment, they were able to drive the Portuguese forces past two lines of trenches, all the way to the walls of a suburb near the city. There, they captured the Portuguese guns, as well as one mixed-race individual, two European women, and two European children. Portugal began to burn the houses near the city, while the Dutch set up new positions with guns in the suburb. As the siege continued, the Dutch received more troops and supplies from Batavia, including sailors, soldiers, pigs, oranges, sugar, and more. The Dutch maintained the siege despite losses to sickness. Europeans and natives clashed intermittently on both sides through September and October. According to a letter that reached Batavia in mid-November, famine was beginning to overtake the city, with defectors leaving it daily, while the siege remained strong. The Dutch troops praised their Malay allies for their taking of cattle and fruit from the Portuguese. Both allies struggled to traverse the area, as the swamp environment around the city required wading through waist-deep water, entirely impossible to cross at high tide. At this time, the Dutch claimed to have 2,063 men, 400 of them native. Adriaen Antonisz, their commander, fell sick around this time, and eventually died after eighteen days of illness. He was succeeded by Jacob Cooper. Cooper died of plague on 3 January, about a month after the third commander in line, Pieter van den Broeke, who perished on 3 December. Despite their losses, the Dutch did not lose faith, and on 5 January 1641, Minne Williemsz Caertekoe, their new commander, declared their council had decided that the next Wednesday would be reserved for fasting and prayer, in preparation to storm the citadel. About 650 Dutch troops successfully seized the citadel on 14 January. Caertekoe was sick at the time, so Sergeant Major Johannes Lamotius led their forces. The Portuguese claimed to have lost 7,000 people, although it was not specified whether this figure referred to combatants, civilians, or both. The Dutch declared a loss of just under one thousand. ## Aftermath The Portuguese prisoners taken by the Dutch East India Company were greatly disappointed by the defeat, as they believed it would severely harm their position in the East Indies. Some of the wealthier Portuguese were allowed to take their riches and slaves and leave for Goa unharmed. Contrary to a story circulated for centuries afterwards, there is no historical evidence that the Portuguese governor was paid by the Dutch to betray his people. According to this story, the Dutch killed him immediately after to avoid having to spend the money, although Dutch reports state he died of illness two days after Malacca's conquest, receiving Catholic rites and proper military honours. Iskandar Thani, the Sultan of Aceh, who had been furious at the inclusion of Johor in the invasion, died by poisoning that January. He had had numerous enemies, both within and outside of his domain. Johor did not request any part in the city's administration, leaving it entirely to the Dutch, as their main goal had been to drive the Portuguese out. The Dutch continued to focus on their existing colony of Batavia, putting little time or energy into their newly acquired Malacca. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, the Dutch exchanged it with the United Kingdom for British Bencoolen. ## See also - Malay-Portuguese conflicts	[ "## Background", "### Prior conflicts", "## Preparation", "## Battle", "## Aftermath", "## See also" ]	1,741	19,183
44,234,965	Sakakibara Kenkichi	1,041,310,950	Japanese martial artist	[ "1830 births", "1894 deaths", "Japanese swordfighters" ]	Sakakibara Kenkichi (Japanese: 榊原鍵吉, 19 December 1830 – 11 September 1894), was a Japanese samurai and martial artist. He was the fourteenth headmaster of the Jikishinkage school of sword fighting. Through his Jikishinkage contacts he rose to a position of some political influence; he taught swordsmanship at a government military academy and also served in the personal guard of Japan's last two shōguns. After the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate Sakakibara was instrumental in preserving traditional Japanese sword techniques in the early Meiji Era. Despite his eventual opposition to the practice of sword fighting for sport, his work during this period laid the foundations for the modern sport of kendo. In his later years he taught a number of noted martial artists, and was honoured by the All Japan Kendo Federation after his death. ## Early life Sakakibara was born on the fifth day of the eleventh month of Bunsei (19 December 1830) into the Sakakibara clan; his given name at birth was Tomoyoshi (友善). His family lived in the village of Otsuwa near modern-day Tokyo. He started studying Kashima Shinden Jikishinkage-ryū with Otani Nobutomo in 1843. He proved proficient in that style, and was granted a menkyo kaiden (licence of mastery) by Otani in 1856, despite his family being too poor to pay for it. He was later to become the fourteenth headmaster of the school. As a talented swordsman, he once duelled with Yamaoka Tesshū; the two men faced off for over forty minutes without moving, before sheathing their swords with neither striking a blow. ## Edo period In 1856 Sakakibara was appointed as a professor at the Kōbusho (講武所), a shogunate-sponsored military academy. He received this post through the auspices of his teacher Otani, who had himself been granted a teaching position there. In this role, Sakakibara was noticed by the shōgun Tokugawa Iemochi, who appointed Sakakibara as his bodyguard and fencing instructor. He also married Taka, the daughter of the shōgun's personal retainer Iwajiro Mihashi. In order that his headmastery of the Jikishinkage-ryū would not interfere with his duties to the shōgun, his student Matsuoka Katsunosuke was temporarily placed in charge of the school. By 1863, Sakakibara was a head keeper at Edo Castle and received a stipend of 300 ryō per year. He resigned from this post in 1866, after Iemochi's death and started a dojo in Kurumazaka (a neighbourhood of Edo, now part of modern Ueno). ## Meiji period Despite his connections to the shogunate, at the Battle of Ueno in 1868 Sakakibara did not participate in the fighting between the pro-shogunate and Imperial forces, considering it to be his duty to guard the Kan'ei-ji temple. He did, in fact, rescue the Imperial Prince Kitashirakawa Yoshihisa (who was at the time the abbot of Kan'ei-ji) from the Shōgitai, physically carrying him away from the combat. Sakakibara subsequently returned to the service of the Tokugawa family as Captain of the Guard under Tokugawa Iesato, whom he served until 1870. After the Meiji Restoration Sakakibara was offered a position with the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department, which he refused out of loyalty to Iemochi. He was, however, part of the group of fencers who created the forms for the Keishichō-ryū (警視庁流), the style of sword fighting created in 1868 for use by the police, and he worked briefly as a prison guard at the police headquarters. The new Meiji Government had banned the carrying of swords and in 1876 banned the practice of duelling, and so traditional swordsmanship was no longer popular. Sakakibara tried to find new ways of promoting kenjutsu. His motives may have been financial, as without a sponsor he, like many other martial artists of the era, was suffering from penury – his poverty was such that he had to accept help from his wife's uncle Katsu Kaishū in constructing a residence. He began organising gekiken kogyo (撃剣興行, "sword combat performances"), feeling that such public competitions would instil an appreciation for the art of the swordsman in their audiences. He started an organisation called the Gekken Kaisha (撃剣会社, "Fencing Society"), which, inspired by the popularity of sumo wrestling, organised these contests. The first public kogyo organised by Sakakibara's group took place in April 1873, and lasted for over a week. Other martial artists, witnessing the success of the Gekken Kaisha, followed suit. As part of his public performances Sakakibara occasionally demonstrated a tameshigiri technique called kabuto wari (兜割り, "helmet breaking"), which involved slicing through a steel helmet with a single stroke of the sword. In 1887 he performed this before the Emperor Meiji, as part of a demonstration organised by one of the Emperor's relatives. Of the three sword masters present who attempted this cut, Sakakibara was the only one to succeed in cutting the helmet, despite the fact that he had been unable to make the cut in practice attempts. Despite the success of the gekiken kogyo performances, in his later years Sakakibara regretted their development. In his view, the rules and strictures of gekiken were perverting kenjutsu into new forms that were no longer relevant to battlefield combat. He disdained the point-scoring swordsmanship of other kendoka of his era, ignoring light touches by his opponents in order to deliver his own powerful strikes. Nonetheless, the gekiken kogyo practices which he began created an interest in fencing which led ultimately to the development of modern kendo. ## Later life In his later years Sakakibara returned to coach and train in his dojo in Kurumazaka, after trying his hand unsuccessfully at running a kōdan (講談, "storytelling") theatre and an izakaya (居酒屋) (bar). Those who trained at the Kurumazaka dojo included Naitō Takaharu, who was to become head of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, and foreigners such as Austrian ambassador and fencing expert Heinrich von Siebold, and German Erwin Bälz, physician to the Japanese Imperial Family. Takeda Sōkaku, the founder of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, also studied with Sakakibara at Kurumazaka. On New Year's Day of 1894, Sakakibara passed on the Jikishinkage headmastership to his disciple Jirokichi Yamada. Sakakibara died of heart failure due to beriberi on 11 September the same year, at the age of 63. He was entombed at Saiō-ji temple Yotsuya, Tokyo and given the posthumous Buddhist name Gikōin Jōzan Yamatoō Koji (義光院杖山倭翁居士). In 2003 he was inducted into the All Japan Kendo Federation's Kendo Hall of Fame (剣道殿堂).	[ "## Early life", "## Edo period", "## Meiji period", "## Later life" ]	1,654	28,059
38,833,659	Strange Tales (pulp magazine)	1,143,900,710	US pulp fantasy magazine	[ "Defunct science fiction magazines published in the United States", "Fantasy fiction magazines", "Magazines disestablished in 1933", "Magazines established in 1931", "Magazines published in Maryland", "Magazines published in New York City", "Magazines published in Pennsylvania", "Pulp magazines", "Weird fiction" ]	Strange Tales (cover-titled Strange Tales of Mystery and Terror) was an American pulp magazine first published from 1931 to 1933 by Clayton Publications. It specialized in fantasy and weird fiction, and was a significant competitor to Weird Tales, the leading magazine in the field. Its published stories include "Wolves of Darkness" by Jack Williamson, as well as work by Robert E. Howard and Clark Ashton Smith. The magazine ceased publication when Clayton entered bankruptcy. It was temporarily revived by Wildside Press, which published three issues edited by Robert M. Price from 2003 to 2007. ## Publication history and contents Fantasy and occult fiction had often appeared in popular magazines prior to the twentieth century, but the first magazine to specialize in the genre, Weird Tales, appeared in 1923 and by the 1930s was the genre's industry leader. Strange Tales, launched in 1931 by Clayton Publications as a direct rival to Weird Tales, was one of a handful of magazines to seriously challenge for leadership of the field. It was edited by Harry Bates, who also edited Clayton's Astounding Stories of Super Science, which had begun publication the previous year. Strange Tales was launched as a fantasy magazine, but like Weird Tales it often published science-fiction stories, although unlike its rival its focus was on action stories rather than strange ideas. The title was originally planned to be Strange Stories, but Macfadden Publications, who had published True Strange Stories in 1929, challenged the title and forced Clayton to change it. Bates paid two cents per word, a higher rate than Weird Tales, and attracted noted writers of the day. The magazine published "Wolves of Darkness" by Jack Williamson, "Murgunstruum" by Hugh B. Cave, and "Cassius" by Henry Whitehead. Clark Ashton Smith contributed five stories, including "The Return of the Sorcerer" in the first issue, and Edmond Hamilton and August Derleth also appeared in the magazine. Robert E. Howard, later to become famous as the author of the Conan the Barbarian stories, sent several stories to Strange Tales; some of the stories Bates rejected, such as "The Thing on the Roof" and "The Horror from the Mound", later appeared in Weird Tales, but Bates accepted "The People of the Dark" after asking for revisions, and it was published in the June 1932 issue. Howard also sold "The Valley of the Lost" to Bates, but it had not yet appeared when Clayton went bankrupt, and did not finally see publication until the 1960s. H.P. Lovecraft submitted several stories to Bates in early 1931, before the first issue had appeared, but the only work of his that appeared in Strange Tales was Henry Whitehead's "The Trap", part of which had been ghostwritten by Lovecraft, and which appeared in the March 1932 issue. In one of Lovecraft's letters he comments that he would not contribute to Strange Tales because "Bates couldn't guarantee me immunity from the copy-slasher's shears and blue pencil", but unpublished letters of his make it clear that his stories were too atmospheric and lacking in action for Bates. Lovecraft's response was dismissive, and he was subsequently contemptuous of both Bates and Clayton in his letters. The cover art for all seven covers was painted by Hans Wessolowski, under his professional name of "Wesso". Science-fiction historian Robert Weinberg asserts that Strange Tales published better material than Weird Tales during its short run, and fellow historian Mike Ashley regards it as a "close rival" to Weird Tales. When Clayton went bankrupt in 1933, Astounding Stories was sold to Street & Smith, which planned to revive Strange Tales as well but ultimately did not. Some material acquired for this planned revival appeared in the October 1933 issue of Astounding instead. Between 2003 and 2007, Wildside Press brought out three further issues, undated and numbered 8 through 10, edited by Robert M. Price. The contents included stories by L. Sprague de Camp, Richard Lupoff, and John Betancourt, and a reprint of "The Devil's Crypt", a story by E. Hoffmann Price that had appeared in Strange Detective Stories. ## Bibliographic details The full title was Strange Tales of Mystery and Terror, and the magazine is sometimes indexed under this title. Each issue was 144 pages long and priced at US\$0.25 (equivalent to about \$5 in 2022). The seven issues were divided into two volumes of three and a final volume of a single issue. A reprint anthology in facsimile format, also titled Strange Tales, appeared in 1976 from Odyssey Press, edited by Diane Howard, William H. Desmond, John Howard, and Robert K. Wiener. In addition, all stories from the first four issues, and most from the next two, were reprinted in four magazines edited by Robert A.W. Lowndes from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s: Magazine of Horror, Startling Mystery Stories, Weird Terror Tales, and Bizarre Fantasy Tales. The three Wildside Press revival issues were 112 pages, 92 pages, and 58 pages long, respectively; the size increased with each issue, from digest size, to pulp magazine size, to an oversized magazine size. They were not printed on pulp paper. Between 2004 and 2008 Wildside also reissued three of the original magazines in facsimile format; the issues chosen were dated March and October 1932, and January 1933. Adventure House has reprinted all 7 issues in facsimile format.	[ "## Publication history and contents", "## Bibliographic details" ]	1,167	18,030
5,671,098	Gliese 876 c	1,170,108,308	Gas giant orbiting Gliese 876	[ "Aquarius (constellation)", "Exoplanets detected by radial velocity", "Exoplanets discovered in 2001", "Exoplanets in the Gliese Catalog", "Giant planets in the habitable zone", "Gliese 876" ]	Gliese 876 c is an exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf Gliese 876, taking about 30 days to complete an orbit. The planet was discovered in April 2001 and is the second planet in order of increasing distance from its star. ## Discovery At the time of discovery, Gliese 876 was already known to host an extrasolar planet designated Gliese 876 b. On January 9, 2001, it was announced that further analysis of the star's radial velocity had revealed the existence of a second planet in the system, which was designated Gliese 876 c. The orbital period of Gliese 876 c was found to be exactly half that of the outer planet, which meant that the radial velocity signature of the second planet was initially interpreted as a higher eccentricity of the orbit of Gliese 876 b. ## Orbit and mass Gliese 876 c is in a 1:2:4 Laplace resonance with the outer planets Gliese 876 b and Gliese 876 e: for every orbit of planet e, planet b completes two orbits and planet c completes four. This leads to strong gravitational interactions between the planets, causing the orbital elements to change rapidly as the orbits precess. This is the second known example of a Laplace resonance, the first being Jupiter's moons Io, Europa and Ganymede. The orbital semimajor axis is only 0.13 AU, around a third of the average distance between Mercury and the Sun, and is more eccentric than the orbit of any of the major planets of the Sun's Solar System. Despite this, it is located in the inner regions of the system's habitable zone, since Gliese 876 is such an intrinsically faint star. A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Gliese 876 c is that only a lower limit on the planet's mass can be obtained. This is because the measured mass value depends on the inclination of the orbit, which is not determined by the radial velocity measurements. However, in a resonant system such as Gliese 876, gravitational interactions between the planets can be used to determine the true masses. Using this method, the inclination of the orbit can be determined, revealing the planet's true mass to be 0.72 times that of Jupiter. ## Characteristics Based on its high mass, Gliese 876 c is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface. Since it was detected indirectly through its gravitational effects on the star, properties such as its radius, composition, and temperature are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to Jupiter and an environment close to chemical equilibrium, the planet is predicted to have a cloudless upper atmosphere. Gliese 876 c lies at the inner edge of the system's habitable zone. While the prospects for life on gas giants are unknown, it might be possible for a large moon of the planet to provide a habitable environment. Unfortunately tidal interactions between a hypothetical moon, the planet, and the star could destroy moons massive enough to be habitable over the lifetime of the system. In addition it is unclear whether such moons could form in the first place. This planet, like b and e, has likely migrated inward. ## See also - Appearance of extrasolar planets - Eccentric Jupiter - Gliese 581 - List of nearest stars	[ "## Discovery", "## Orbit and mass", "## Characteristics", "## See also" ]	681	3,917
12,207,303	Woodhull Freedom Foundation	1,168,964,816	Non-profit organization advocating for sexual freedom	[ "Charities based in Washington, D.C.", "Civil liberties in the United States", "Human rights organizations based in the United States", "Privacy organizations", "Sexuality in the United States" ]	The Woodhull Freedom Foundation, also known as Woodhull Sexual Freedom Alliance, is an American non-profit organization founded in 2003 that advocates for sexual freedom as a fundamental human right. The organization is based in Washington, D.C., United States. Named after an influential member of the American woman's suffrage movement, Victoria Woodhull, its focus includes analyzing groups and individuals that seek to perpetuate a culture of sexual repression. Sexual Freedom Day, officially recognized in 2011 in Washington, DC, and held every September 23, celebrates the birthday of Victoria Woodhull. The Woodhull Freedom Foundation (WFF) has held the Sexual Freedom Summit annually since 2010. Organization members have included LGBT activist Jeffrey Montgomery, former chairwoman of the United States Commission on Civil Rights Mary Frances Berry, writer Eric Rofes, lawyer Lawrence G. Walters, and activist Dan Massey. In the furtherance of activities relating to its goals, the organization has allied itself with groups including the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, the American Civil Liberties Union, the Gay and Lesbian Activists Alliance, the Tully Center for Free Speech at Syracuse University, National Coalition Against Censorship, the Heartland Institute, National Association of Scholars, American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression, Accuracy in Academia, and the American Council of Trustees and Alumni. An academic paper in the Journal of Homosexuality characterized the organization as one "that addresses both international and national sexual freedom issues as well as a host of other health and human rights issues." ## History ### Foundation: 2003 The organization was founded in 2003 with the name Woodhull Freedom Foundation. It began with a focus on global and domestic human rights, specifically looking at sexual freedom. It is named for Victoria Woodhull (1838–1927), the first woman to own a company on Wall Street and to run for President of the United States. Its focus includes examining the stakeholders that maintain a climate of sexual repression. The organization releases an annual report in September on "Sexual Freedom Day" called the "State of Sexual Freedom", which describes goals towards increasing sexual freedom. Woodhull's public relations representative Jeffrey Montgomery told the Washington Blade that their goals intersected with human rights: "Woodhull is the organization at the intersection of all sexual freedom issues because of the common core value of fundamental human rights. ... Without sexual freedom all personal freedoms are at risk." Woodhull tracks laws and regulations pertaining to sexual activity in the United States. ### Early activities: 2004–2009 In 2004, Woodhull joined with the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in devoting resources towards analyzing old regulations used to harass LGBT people. The purpose of the study was to analyze existing regulations in the United States with regards to sexual activity, and simultaneously to foster ties between those against sexual repression and LGBT organizations. In 2005, Woodhull again coordinated with the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in order to organize an event known as "Red, White and Leather for Independence Day", in which over 30 leather bars in 17 cities took part. Writer Eric Rofes served on the board of Woodhull before passing away in 2006. In 2007, its Sexual Freedom Day was commemorated with a discussion group examining the idea of sexual freedom as a segment of human rights. Sexual Freedom Day took place in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as the first event of its kind on October 6, 2007 and included "a fund raiser featuring the Peek-a-Boo Revue and DJ Johanna Constantine and DJ Roots and Groove." In July 2008, when the American Family Foundation called for a McDonald's boycott after the fast food restaurant said it would join the National Gay and Lesbian Chamber of Commerce, Woodhull's executive director announced a "buycott" asking those interested in supporting the restaurant to purchase additional meals. Woodhull joined with the American Civil Liberties Union and other groups in 2009 on an amici curiae brief before the U.S. Supreme Court in the case, Federal Communications Commission v. Fox Television Stations. On November 29, 2009, the Cleveland Leather Awareness Weekend (CLAW) organized a leather dance reception in San Diego, California, so as to raise money for charitable purposes to assist the activities of Woodhull. ### Recent work: 2010–present The organization gave its 2010 Victoria Woodhull Sexual Freedom Award on September 23 of that year to Kushaba Moses Mworeko, an individual from Uganda who sought asylum in the United States due to his sexual orientation. Author Hardy Haberman was a board member of Woodhull in 2011. On November 17, 2011, Woodhull worked with the DC Trans Coalition, the Gay and Lesbian Activists Alliance, Gender Rights Maryland, Get Equal DC, Helping Individual Prostitutes Survive (HIPS), the Rainbow Response Coalition, and Transgender Health Empowerment to form a coalition sponsoring a "Transgender Day of Action" in Washington, D.C., that highlights examples of mistreatment of transgender people by law enforcement. The event served as a precursor to the Transgender Day of Remembrance which followed on November 20. In January 2012, the organization joined with other groups including the Tully Center for Free Speech at Syracuse University, National Coalition Against Censorship, the Heartland Institute, National Association of Scholars, Alliance Defense Fund Center for Academic Freedom, Feminists for Free Expression, American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression, Accuracy in Academia, and the American Council of Trustees and Alumni to send a letter asking the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights to use the precedent of the 1999 Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education case to apply a definition of harassment for academic institutions (so as not to harm freedom of speech). In 2012, Buck Angel served on the organization's Board of Directors of the organization, and sexologist Megan Andelloux served as an advisory board member. Lawrence G. Walters was the general counsel for Woodhull in 2012. On June 28, 2018, attorneys for Woodhull filed the first legal challenge to the unconstitutional SESTA/FOSTA legislation. According to Ricci Levy, President & CEO of Woodhull, "FOSTA chills sexual speech and harms sex workers. It makes it harder for people to take care of and protect themselves". In August 2019, Woodhull's Sexual Freedom Summit celebrated its 10th Anniversary. ## Reception An academic paper by Susan Wright in the Journal of Homosexuality about those who faced discrimination due to sadomasochism (SM) described Woodhull as an organization "that addresses both international and national sexual freedom issues as well as a host of other health and human rights issues." Wright noted Woodhull dedicates its focus towards changing regulations and existing laws. ## Vicki Sexual Freedom Awards 2022 - Shanna Katz Kattarri - Al Vernacchio 2020 - Cyndee Clay - Joan Price 2019 - Kate Kendell - Nadine Smith 2018 - Caroline Bettinger-López - Mia Mingus 2017 - Willie J. Parker, MD, MPH, MSc - Loretta J. Ross 2016 - Megan Andelloux - Kenyon Farrow - Carol Leigh - Dr.Scout 2015 - John D'Emilio - Diego Miguel Sanchez - Monica Raye Simpson 2014 - Carol Queen - Cory Silverberg - Pam Spaulding 2013 - Nobel Peace Prize nominee Mandy Carter - Heather Corinna - Matt Foreman 2012 - Amber Hollibaugh - Jeffrey Montgomery - Dr. Esther Perel 2011 - Ajamu Baraka - First Amendment attorney Robert (Bob) Corn-Revere - Carmen Vasquez 2010 - Deborah Taj - Bina Aspen - Martine Rothblatt - Kushaba "Moses" Mworenko - Susan Wright ## See also - Freedom of speech - Fundamental rights - Human rights - National Coalition for Sexual Freedom - Nitke v. Gonzales - Sexual Freedom League - Sexual repression - US Human Rights Network	[ "## History", "### Foundation: 2003", "### Early activities: 2004–2009", "### Recent work: 2010–present", "## Reception", "## Vicki Sexual Freedom Awards", "## See also" ]	1,734	6,319
12,602,589	John Adams (drummer)	1,172,392,181	Cleveland Indians superfan (1951–2023)	[ "1951 births", "2023 deaths", "AT&T people", "Baseball spectators", "Cleveland Indians", "Cleveland State University alumni", "Cleveland State University faculty", "Musicians from Cleveland", "People from Brecksville, Ohio", "Sports musicians" ]	John Joseph Adams (October 9, 1951 – January 30, 2023) was an American who was regarded as a superfan of the Cleveland Indians, a Major League Baseball team based in Cleveland, Ohio. Adams played his bass drum in the bleacher seats during nearly every Indians home game from late August 1973 through 2019, which brought him positive recognition from the Indians and other organizations. He was involved in several ceremonial first pitches, he and his drum received free season tickets from the Indians, and the team gave away bobbleheads with his likeness. ## Drumming Adams first drummed at an Indians game on August 24, 1973, at Cleveland Stadium. Twenty-one years old at the time, he stated that he brought his bass drum to that first game because he wanted to add to the noise of "seat banging", a tradition at Cleveland Stadium in which fans would bang folding seats against their bases during tense moments in the game. But Adams preferred to sit in the bleachers, where there were no seats to bang. During the game, Bob Sudyk, a reporter for the Cleveland Press, interviewed Adams and asked if he was going to drum again at the following game. Adams said no, but Sudyk wrote in his article that he would. According to Adams, "not to make a liar out of Bob, I showed up with my drum, and then I came to the next game and the next game and the next game." The Indians' promotions director at the time, Jackie York, also approached Adams and asked him to play at every game. Adams formally declined but continued to attend games with his drum. From then on, Adams sat in the highest bleacher seat in left-center field with his bass drum; through the 2019 season, he missed only 37 home games in 47 seasons. Adams played at Cleveland Stadium until October 1993, when the Indians played their last game there. The following spring he moved with the team to its new ballpark, Jacobs Field (renamed Progressive Field in 2008). Adams played the drum at his 3,000th game on April 27, 2011. Adams continued to use the same 26-inch (66 cm)-wide bass drum he began with in 1973. He stated that he bought it earlier on the same day he began bringing it to games, as part of a set for \$25 either at a garage sale or through a "swap-and-shop publication". It had the same head on the side of the drum that Adams does not beat, but Adams stated that he would replace the other side about twice a year and also go through about three sets of mallets each year. During games, Adams tended to drum at particular moments: when the Indians took the field at the beginning of the game, if the Indians had runners in scoring position, if the Indians were tied or trailing near the end of the game, or if they were winning at the top of the ninth inning. Because of his drumming, Adams became a celebrity and he was nicknamed Big Chief Boom-Boom by Indians radio announcer Herb Score. Adams drummed until the end of the 2019 season. No fans could attend any major league games during the 2020 season because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and due to health issues, Adams was unable to attend any games in 2021 or 2022, the last seasons during his lifetime. ### Recognition Adams was recognized by the Cleveland Guardians and other organizations for his long commitment to the team. On October 4, 2007, he threw out the ceremonial first pitch for the Indians' first game in the 2007 American League Division Series, against the New York Yankees. After Adams drummed at his 3,000th game on April 27, 2011, the Indians celebrated it the following Saturday, on April 30, 2011, by incorporating Adams in the ceremonial first pitch and putting on a pregame parade featuring Adams's fellow Indians fans carrying bongos, snares, and plastic toy drums. For the ceremonial first pitch, Adams swung at the ball with his drum from home plate after it was thrown by former Indians player Joe Charboneau. On August 24, 2022, the 49-year anniversary of when he started drumming at Cleveland baseball games, the team—now renamed the Guardians—announced that Adams had been inducted into the Cleveland Guardians Distinguished Hall of Fame, and that a bronze replica of his drum, attached to his seat, would be on display in their stadium. By 2009, the team gave Adams two complimentary season tickets for him and his drum, although Adams continued to buy two additional season tickets himself. In 2006, the Indians gave out bobblehead dolls depicting Adams. Instead of having a movable head, his bobblehead had arms that moved up and down. In 2008, he won the Hilda Award, which is awarded annually by The Baseball Reliquary "to recognize distinguished service to the game by a baseball fan" and is named in memory of Hilda Chester, a dedicated fan of the Brooklyn Dodgers. In April 2012, Great Lakes Brewing Company, a Cleveland-based brewery and brewpub, released a product called Rally Drum Red Ale in honor of Adams and Opening Day. Adams also had a plaque located by his seat, on which he was described as the team's "#1 Fan". ## Personal life and death John Joseph Adams was born in Cleveland in 1951. He attended both Saint Ignatius High School in Cleveland and Parma Senior High School in Parma, Ohio, where he played bass drum in band before graduating from high school in 1969. In 1975, he graduated from Cleveland State University. Three years later, he married Kathleen Murray, who he met at a game; they later divorced. Adams worked on computer systems for AT&T until being laid off in October 2016. In 1978, he began volunteering at Cleveland State University, where he taught an aquatics class for people with disabilities. Adams also volunteered his time as a member of the Kiwanis service club and the community emergency response team in his hometown and taught cardiopulmonary resuscitation and water safety. He lived in the Cleveland suburb of Brecksville, Ohio. Adams suffered from health issues beginning in December 2020, including emergency triple bypass surgery and thyroid issues. He died in Cleveland on January 30, 2023, at age 71. His funeral mass was held at the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist in downtown Cleveland on February 4, 2023. Adams willed his bass drum to the Guardians, and they sent a pair of his mallets to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown, New York. On August 24, 2023, the fiftieth anniversary of the first game Adams drummed at, the team announced that the bleachers at Progressive Field would be named for Adams starting in the 2024 season.	[ "## Drumming", "### Recognition", "## Personal life and death" ]	1,454	44,264
624,058	Gerard (archbishop of York)	1,106,753,971	Eleventh-century Chancellor of England and Archbishop of York	[ "1108 deaths", "11th-century English Roman Catholic bishops", "12th-century English Roman Catholic archbishops", "Archbishops of York", "Bishops of Hereford", "Burials at York Minster", "Lord chancellors of England", "Norman clerics given benefices in England", "Year of birth missing" ]	Gerard (died 21 May 1108) was Archbishop of York between 1100 and 1108 and Lord Chancellor of England from 1085 until 1092. A Norman, he was a member of the cathedral clergy at Rouen before becoming a royal clerk under King William I of England and subsequently his son King William II Rufus. Gerard was appointed Lord Chancellor by William I, and he continued in that office under Rufus, who rewarded him with the Bishopric of Hereford in 1096. Gerard may have been with the king's hunting party when William II was killed, as he is known to have witnessed the first charter issued by the new king, Henry I of England, within days of William's death. Soon after Henry's coronation Gerard was appointed to the recently vacant see of York, and became embroiled in the long-running dispute between York and the see of Canterbury concerning which archbishopric had primacy over England. Gerard managed to secure papal recognition of York's claim to jurisdiction over the church in Scotland, but he was forced to agree to a compromise with his counterpart at Canterbury, Anselm, over Canterbury's claims to authority over York, although it was not binding on his successors. In the Investiture Controversy between the king and the papacy over the right to appoint bishops, Gerard worked on reconciling the claims of the two parties; the controversy was finally resolved in 1107. Gerard was a patron of learning, to the extent that he urged at least one of his clergy to study Hebrew, a language not commonly studied at that time. He himself was a student of astrology, which led to suggestions that he was a magician and a sorcerer. Partly because of such rumours, and his unpopular attempts to reform his cathedral clergy, Gerard was denied a burial inside York Minster after his sudden death in 1108. His successor as archbishop subsequently had Gerard's remains moved into the cathedral church from their initial resting place beside the cathedral porch. ## Early life and career Gerard was the nephew of Walkelin, Bishop of Winchester, and Simon, Abbot of Ely. His parents were Osbert and Anna, and his brother Peter was also a royal clerk. The places and times of his birth and upbringing are unknown; he is documented as cantor of Rouen Cathedral, and precentor of the same cathedral, although the dates of his appointments to either office are unrecorded. By 1091 he had become archdeacon of Rouen. He served in the royal chancery under successive kings of England, William I and William II. ## Bishop of Hereford Gerard was appointed Lord Chancellor of England in 1085, and was present at William I's deathbed in 1087. He continued as Chancellor to William Rufus until 1092; what precipitated his loss of office is unclear. He retained the king's trust, for Rufus employed him in 1095 along with William Warelwast on a diplomatic mission to Pope Urban II regarding Archbishop Anselm receiving the pallium, the sign of an archbishop's authority. Rufus offered to recognise Urban as pope rather than the antipope Clement III in return for Anselm's deposition and the delivery of Anselm's pallium into Rufus' custody, to dispose of as he saw fit. The mission departed for Rome in February 1095 and returned by Whitsun with a papal legate, Walter the Cardinal Bishop of Albano, who had Anselm's pallium. The legate secured Rufus' recognition of Urban, but subsequently refused to consider Anselm's deposition. Rufus resigned himself to Anselm's position as archbishop, and at the king's court at Windsor he consented to Anselm being given the pallium. Although not yet ordained, Gerard was rewarded with the Bishopric of Hereford, and he was consecrated by Archbishop Anselm on 8 June 1096; his ordination as a deacon and priest had taken place the previous day. He assisted at the consecration of St Paul's Cathedral in London on 9 June 1096. He may have been a member of the hunting party in the New Forest on 2 August 1100 when Rufus was killed, as he witnessed King Henry I's coronation charter – now known as the Charter of Liberties – three days later at Winchester, close by the New Forest. Gerard was present at Henry's coronation that same day, along with Maurice, Bishop of London. Henry was probably crowned by Maurice, but the medieval chronicler Walter Map states that Gerard crowned Henry in return for a promise of the first vacant archbishopric. Gerard may have assisted Maurice in the coronation ceremony. ## Archbishop Gerard became Archbishop of York in December 1100. No source mentions him being invested by the king, but as Anselm urged Pope Paschal II to give Gerard his pallium, which he would have been unlikely to do if Gerard had been invested by Henry, that possibility seems remote. At Whitsun in 1101 King Henry I, with Anselm's support, deprived Ranulf Flambard, Bishop of Durham, of the lands of the see of Durham, because Ranulf had defected to Henry's elder brother Robert Curthose, who also claimed the English throne. Gerard then deposed Ranulf from his bishopric. Soon after his translation to York, Gerard began a long dispute with Anselm, claiming equal primacy with the Archbishop of Canterbury and refusing to make a profession of canonical obedience to Anselm, part of the long Canterbury–York dispute. At the 1102 Council of Westminster, Gerard reportedly kicked over the smaller chair provided for him as Archbishop of York, and refused to be seated until he was provided with one as large as Anselm's. He travelled to Rome in 1102 to receive his pallium from the pope, to whom he presented the king's side against Anselm in the controversy surrounding investitures. The pope decided against the king, but Gerard and two other bishops reported that the pope had assured them that the various papal decrees against the lay investiture of bishops would not be enforced. Their claim was denied by Anselm's representatives and the pope, who excommunicated Gerard until he recanted. Gerard secured papal recognition of York's metropolitan see for the Scots. He subsequently consecrated Roger as Bishop of Orkney, but refused to consecrate Thurgot to the see of St Andrews because Thurgot would not recognise the primacy of York. Gerard gave generously to the monasteries of his diocese; the medieval chronicler Hugh the Chantor stated that Thomas II, Gerard's successor, accused Gerard of having dissipated the diocese's endowment. King Olaf I of Man and the Isles wrote to "G", Archbishop of York, asking for the consecration of "our bishop" by York, but it does not appear to have taken place under Gerard or his successor. During the first four years of Henry's reign Gerard was one of the king's chief advisors, along with Robert of Meulan, Count of Meulan in Normandy and later Earl of Leicester. Gerard was one of Henry's greatest supporters among the bishops during the Investiture Crisis. In 1101 Gerard witnessed a treaty between Henry and Robert, the Count of Flanders, which sought as far as possible to distance Robert from any future conflict between Henry and his elder brother Robert Curthose, or between Henry and King Philip I of France. After Gerard's return from Rome he restored Ranulf Flambard to the see of Durham. In 1102 Anselm refused to consecrate three bishops, two of whom had received investiture from the king; Gerard offered to consecrate them instead, but all except one refused. From 1105 onwards Gerard slowly began to embrace the papal position on investiture of bishops, which opposed laymen investing bishops with the symbols of episcopal authority. As part of his change of position, Gerard withdrew from court to care for his diocese. Towards the end of 1105 Gerard attempted to join Bohemond of Antioch, who was assembling a crusading force in France, but it appears that King Henry prevented Gerard's departure. In 1106 Gerard wrote to Bohemond that he was still preparing to go on crusade, but he never did. At about the same time, Gerard was working to find a mutually acceptable resolution to the Investiture Crisis, writing a number of letters and other works supporting Anselm's and the pope's position. By 1107 King Henry and Anselm had reached an agreement settling the dispute. Gerard agreed to a compromise on the matter of obedience to Anselm. King Henry proposed that Anselm accept a witnessed oath from Gerard that he would remain bound by the profession he made to Anselm on his consecration as Bishop of Hereford. Gerard made this oath at the Council of Westminster in 1107. It was a victory for Canterbury, but not a complete one, as Gerard avoided making a written profession, and it was specific to Gerard, not to his office. Gerard continued to oppose Anselm's attempts to assert Canterbury's primacy, but the two were reconciled before Gerard's death. Gerard also had an uneasy relationship with his cathedral chapter, after attempting to reform his cathedral clergy by forcing them to give up their wives and concubines and become ordained priests. He wrote to Anselm in 1103 complaining of the intransigence of his clergy and envying Anselm's better relations with Canterbury's chapter, which was composed of monks instead of the secular canons who made up York Minster's chapter. In this correspondence, Gerard complained that some of the York canons refused to be ordained as priests, thereby hoping to avoid taking the vow of celibacy. He also accused them of accepting prebends but refusing to live or work at the cathedral, and of focusing on a narrow legal definition of celibacy without actually being celibate. The canons' argument was that they were only required not to maintain women in their own houses, but they were not forbidden to visit or entertain women in houses belonging to others. It was not only Gerard who complained about the relationship between himself and his canons; the latter accused Gerard of impoverishing York by making gifts of lands to others. ## Death and legacy Gerard was an associate of the anonymous author of the Quadripartitus and the Leges Henrici Primi, two 12th-century law books. The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury charged Gerard with immorality, avarice and the practice of magic. Gerard encouraged at least one of his clergy to study Hebrew, a language not normally studied at the time. Some chroniclers considered his ownership of a Hebrew psalter to be disturbing, seeing it as a sign of heresy or secret Judaism. Among the sins that Malmesbury imputed to him was the study of Julius Firmicus Maternus, a late Roman astrologer, every morning, which to Malmesbury meant that Gerard was a sorcerer. Malmesbury further claimed that Gerard was "lewd and lustful". In Gerard's favour, Anselm regarded him as learned and highly intelligent. Some verses composed by Gerard survive in unpublished form, now in the British Library manuscript collection as part of manuscript Cotton Titus D.xxiv. A collection of his letters circulated in the mid-12th century, part of a bequest made to Bec Abbey in 1164 by Philip de Harcourt, the Bishop of Bayeux, but it is now lost. Gerard died suddenly on 21 May 1108, at Southwell, on his way to London to attend a council. His body was found in an orchard, next to a book of "curious arts", his copy of Julius Firmicus. His canons refused to allow his burial within his cathedral, but their hostility probably owed more to Gerard's attempts to reform their lifestyle than to his alleged interest in sorcery. Gerard was at first buried beside the porch at York Minster, but his successor, Thomas, moved the remains inside the cathedral church.	[ "## Early life and career", "## Bishop of Hereford", "## Archbishop", "## Death and legacy" ]	2,523	39,231
751,686	White House FBI files controversy	1,117,158,892	Political scandal of the Clinton administration	[ "1996 controversies in the United States", "1996 in American politics", "1996 scandals", "Clinton administration controversies", "Hillary Clinton controversies", "Presidential scandals in the United States" ]	The White House FBI files controversy of the Clinton Administration, often referred to as Filegate, arose in June 1996 around improper access in 1993 and 1994 to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, director of the White House's Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background reports concerning several hundred individuals without asking permission. The revelations provoked a strong political and press reaction because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations, including top presidential advisors. Under criticism, Livingstone resigned from his position. Allegations were made that senior White House figures, including First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, may have requested and read the files for political purposes, and that the First Lady had authorized the hiring of the underqualified Livingstone. The matter was investigated by the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee, the Senate Judiciary Committee, and the Whitewater Independent Counsel. In 1998, Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr exonerated President Bill Clinton as well as the First Lady of any involvement in the matter. In 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray issued his final report on Filegate, stating that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter and no credible evidence that senior White House figures or the First Lady had requested the files or had acted improperly or testified improperly regarding Livingstone's hiring. A separate lawsuit on the matter brought by Judicial Watch, a conservative watchdog group, lingered on for years and was dismissed by a federal judge in 2010. ## Improper use of files issue "Filegate" began on June 5, 1996, when Republican Pennsylvania Congressman William F. Clinger, Jr., chair of the House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, announced that the committee had found, during their ongoing "Travelgate" investigations, that FBI background reports on Travelgate figure Billy Dale had been delivered to the White House. The following day, the White House delivered to the committee hundreds of other such files related to White House employees of the Reagan Administration and George H. W. Bush Administration, for which Craig Livingstone, director of the White House's Office of Personnel Security, had improperly requested and received background reports from the FBI in 1993 and 1994, without asking permission of the subject individuals. Estimates ranged from 400 to 700 to 900 unauthorized file disclosures. The incident caused an intense burst of criticism because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations, including top figures such as James Baker, Brent Scowcroft, and Marlin Fitzwater. Initial White House explanations for what had happened varied, but generally characterized it as a series of mistakes made without bad intent and offered apologies to those affected. President Clinton said that, "It appears to have been a completely honest bureaucratic snafu." However, his Republican opponent in the ongoing 1996 presidential election, Senator Bob Dole, compared it to the enemies list kept by the Nixon administration. Republicans made other charges, including that the White House was trying to dig up damaging information about Republicans in general and that the file transfer was motivated by a desire to slander Dale and other White House Travel Office officials in order to justify their dismissal. On June 18, 1996, Attorney General Janet Reno asked the FBI to look into it; FBI Director Louis Freeh acknowledged that both the FBI and especially the White House had committed "egregious violations of privacy" (in some cases the background reports contained information about extramarital affairs, trangressions with the law, and medical issues). On June 21 Reno decided it was a conflict of interest for the U.S. Department of Justice to further investigate the matter, and thus recommended that it be folded into the overall umbrella of the Whitewater investigations, under charge of Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr. In any case, Starr had already begun looking into it. On June 26, 1996, Clinger's Government Reform and Oversight Committee held hearings on the matter. Livingstone, who announced his resignation at the start of his testimony that day, and his assistant, Anthony Marceca, insisted during the committee's hearings that the mishandled files were a result of a bureaucratic mixup and that no improper motivations were behind it. They said that when the George H. W. Bush administrative staff left the White House in January 1993, they had taken all the files of the Office of Personnel Security with them for use in the Bush Library, as they were permitted to do under law. The OPS staff were trying to rebuild these records to include those of permanent White House employees who remained to work in the Clinton administration; Marceca, a civilian investigator for the Army, had been hired for this task. In doing so, they received an outdated list from the Secret Service of White House employees, which included many names who were no longer employees. This list was then given to the FBI and the personnel background files returned as a result. Lisa Wetzl, another assistant, testified that she discovered the mistake in mid-1994 and destroyed the request list. Also called to testify were former White House counsel Bernard Nussbaum and former associate counsel William H. Kennedy III. Livingstone, Nussbaum, and Kennedy all offered apologies to those whose files had been obtained. On September 24, 1996, the Government Reform and Oversight Committee approved, on party lines, an interim report on the affair, blasting the Clinton Administration for a "cavalier approach" towards sensitive security procedures and saying that further investigation was necessary to determine if the events surrounding the files handling were "a blunder, the result of colossal incompetence, or whether they are established to be more serious or even criminal." The Committee does not seem to have ever issued a final report. The Senate Judiciary Committee was also involved in investigating the matter, holding hearings beginning June 29, 1996, and focussing on allegations that White House was engaged in a "dirty tricks" operation reminiscent of the Nixon administration. Looking into accusations that senior White House officials or the First Lady may have inappropriately perused the files, in October 1996, Republican committee chair Orrin Hatch requested that the FBI do a fingerprint analysis of them. On November 3, 1996, the FBI informed the committee that no fingerprints of either the First Lady or any other named senior official were on the files. ## Who hired Livingstone issue A secondary question of the Filegate controversy revolved around what the Office of Personnel Security was, who had authorized the hiring of Livingstone, and whether he was qualified for the job. The Office was not responsible for actual White House security, as that was the charge of the United States Secret Service, nor did it perform background checks on potential White House employees, a task done by the FBI, nor did it keep the regular personnel files of employees, which were held in a different office within the White House. Rather, its role was to keep track of who was employed by the White House, make sure their security clearances were up to date, and give security briefings to new hires. Nevertheless, Livingstone seemed to lack qualifications for even this position; he had worked on a number of Democratic Party campaigns and transitions, including being an advance man for the Clinton-Gore 1992 campaign, and his only prior job in the "security" field was that of a local bar bouncer at a Washington, D.C., night club. (At the congressional hearings, Livingstone objected to "false and unfair caricatures of who I am. [...] I have worked hard for little or no pay in political campaigns for candidates who I felt would make this country a better place to live.") Initially, White House officials could not explain why Livingstone was hired, nor who had hired him. After a week of uncertainty, Clinton aide George Stephanopoulos told ABC News that White House deputy counsel Vince Foster had initially hired Livingstone on a temporary basis, and that after Foster's death, associate counsel Kennedy had taken Livingstone on. An FBI document suggested that Livingstone had been given his position because First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton was a friend of Livingstone's mother and recommended him. Hillary Clinton stated that while she was once photographed with the mother in a large group, she did not know her. Hillary Clinton was briefly deposed at the White House by the Independent Counsel regarding this matter on January 14, 1998. (That same day, the same Office of the Independent Counsel staff were listening to taped conversations of Linda Tripp and Monica Lewinsky; the Lewinsky scandal was soon to break.) In 1999, Clinton gave a sworn statement that she had nothing to do with Livingstone's hiring. Livingstone also stated under oath there was no truth to the supposed hiring relationship. Hillary Clinton would later refer to the whole files matter as a "pseudoscandal". ## Official findings On November 19, 1998, Independent Counsel Starr testified before the House Judiciary Committee in connection with the Impeachment of Bill Clinton over charges related to the Lewinsky scandal. Here, for the first time, Starr exonerated both President Clinton and the First Lady of complicity in the FBI files matter, saying "while there are outstanding issues that we are attempting to resolve with respect to one individual [we] found no evidence that anyone higher [than Livingstone or Marceca] was in any way involved in ordering the files from the FBI. Second, we have found no evidence that information contained in the files of former officials was used for an improper purpose." (Starr also chose this occasion to clear President Clinton in the Travelgate matter, and to say that he had not committed impeachable wrongdoing in the Whitewater matter; Democrats on the committee immediately criticized Starr for withholding all these findings until after the 1998 Congressional elections.) In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray, Starr's successor, issued the office's final report on the matter, as part of a concerted effort to wrap up all Whitewater-related cases before the end of Bill Clinton's term. Ray determined that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter. It attributed the improper collection of the files by Marceca due to his having an outdated Secret Service list of White House passes, as Marceca had originally claimed. It stated that even though Marceca's statements were sometimes "contradictory and misleading", they were "sufficiently transparent" and there was insufficient evidence to prove that Anthony Marceca had made false statements to Congress during his testimony. The report ascribed the FBI files matter to "a failure of process at many levels," saying that the Secret Service had provided critically erroneous data, and that this was compounded by the White House's informal process of requesting sensitive information by "inexperienced, untrained, and unsupervised personnel with backgrounds as political operatives." Based on an investigation that included the prior fingerprint analysis, the report further stated that: > there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official, or First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, was involved in seeking confidential Federal Bureau of Investigation background reports of former White House staff from prior administrations of President Bush and President Reagan. Ray's report also concluded that there was no credible evidence that Bernard Nussbaum testified falsely about not having discussed Livingstone's hiring with the First Lady, and found as well that there was no personal relationship between the First Lady and Livingstone that had formed the basis for his hiring. ## Judicial Watch lawsuit Separately from the Independent Counsel investigation, Judicial Watch, a conservative watchdog group, engaged in long-running litigation over the White House personnel file controversy. It was initially filed in September 1996 and sought \$90 million in damages. Judicial Watch's Cara Leslie Alexander et al. vs. Federal Bureau of Investigation et al. class action lawsuit, filed on behalf of five low-level former members of the Reagan and George H. W. Bush Administrations, alleged that Livingstone, along with Anthony Marceca and William Kennedy, obtained the files and then rifled through them. Judicial Watch in particular alleged that Kennedy had abused the FBI background report process. Judicial Watch founder and Clintons antagonist suprême Larry Klayman attracted enough attention with the case to have the recurring Larry Claypool character modeled after him on the television series The West Wing. As late as January 2000, Judicial Watch was filing affidavits in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia under Judge Royce C. Lamberth related to the case. In December 2002 Judicial Watch obtained a ruling from Judge Lamberth that recently uncovered White House e-mails be searched for possible evidence in the lawsuit. Klayman said, "Hillary Clinton was the mastermind of Filegate. She will not escape justice." Klayman and Judicial Watch had a severe falling out in 2003, however, and several years went by with little or nothing happening in the lawsuit. On March 9, 2010, Judge Lamberth dismissed the case. The judge asserted that the plaintiffs, despite years of opportunity, had failed to provide any evidence that the affair was a grand conspiracy rather than a bureaucratic mistake, and said that "this court is left to conclude that with the lawsuit, to quote Gertrude Stein, 'there's no there there.'" Nussbaum, one of the defendants, derisively said "No kidding" when informed of the dismissal. Media reports concluded that, fourteen years after the initial events were set in motion, Filegate was finally over. In May 2010, Judicial Watch filed an appeal of the dismissal with the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, but the Court of Appeals affirmed the dismissal on November 14, 2011, thereby bringing the case to an end.	[ "## Improper use of files issue", "## Who hired Livingstone issue", "## Official findings", "## Judicial Watch lawsuit" ]	2,807	6,442
31,419,873	Day of the Moon	1,167,147,866	null	[ "2011 British television episodes", "Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon", "Doctor Who pseudohistorical serials", "Doctor Who stories set on Earth", "Eleventh Doctor episodes", "Fiction set in 1969", "Fiction set in 1970", "Television episodes directed by Toby Haynes", "Television episodes set in Florida", "Television episodes set in the 1960s", "Television episodes set in the 1970s", "Television episodes set in the White House", "Television episodes written by Steven Moffat", "Works about the Apollo program" ]	"Day of the Moon" is the second episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Written by show runner Steven Moffat, and directed by Toby Haynes, the episode was first broadcast on 30 April 2011 on BBC One in the United Kingdom and on BBC America in the United States. The episode is the second of a two-part story that began with "The Impossible Astronaut" on 23 April. In 1969 America, alien time traveller the Doctor (Matt Smith) along with his companions Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill), archaeologist River Song (Alex Kingston) and FBI agent Canton Everett Delaware III (Mark Sheppard), attempt to lead the human race into a revolution against the Silence, a religious order of aliens who cannot be remembered after they are encountered. "The Impossible Astronaut" and "Day of the Moon" were designed to be a darker opener to the series and were partially filmed in the United States, a first for the programme. Moffat was keen on incorporating Area 51, the Apollo 11 Moon landing, and President Richard Nixon (played by Stuart Milligan) into the plot. The episode received final viewing figures of 7.3 million in the UK. It received generally positive reviews from critics, though many worried about the number of questions that had been left unanswered. ## Plot ### Synopsis The Eleventh Doctor and his allies, Amy, Rory, River Song and ex-FBI agent Canton Everett Delaware III, escape the girl in the space suit, and spend three months tracking down the alien religious order the Silence and find they exist across the entire planet, and have the ability to place post-hypnotic suggestions in humans they encounter. While the Doctor alters part of the Command Module Columbia of Apollo 11, Canton and Amy visit a nearby orphanage in Florida, hoping to find where the girl in the space suit was taken from. The Silence kidnaps Amy, taking her to an underground control room. Canton shoots and wounds one of the creatures, and from it the Doctor learns the Silence's name. Analysing the now-empty space suit, River realises that the girl possesses incredible strength to have forced her way out of it, and that the suit's advanced life-support technology would have called President Richard Nixon as the highest authority figure on Earth when the girl got scared. The Doctor realises why the Silence have been controlling humanity; by guiding their technological advances, they have influenced humanity into the Space Race for purposes of building a space suit, which must somehow be crucial to their intentions. Meanwhile, Canton interrogates the captured Silence member, who mocks humanity for treating him when "...you should kill us all on sight". Canton records this using Amy's mobile phone. The Doctor tracks down Amy's location, and lands the TARDIS in the Silence's control room five days later. As River and Rory hold the Silence at bay, the Doctor shows them the live broadcast of the Moon landing. As they watch, the Doctor uses his modification of the Apollo command module Columbia to insert Canton's recording of the wounded Silence member into the footage of the landing. Because of this message, humans will now turn upon the Silence whenever they see them. The group frees Amy and departs in the TARDIS, while River kills all the Silence in the control room. Amy, telling the Doctor that while she is not pregnant, she worries that if she is pregnant, her travels in the TARDIS might affect her child's development. As the trio sets off, the Doctor discreetly uses the TARDIS scanner to attempt to determine if Amy is pregnant. Six months later, the girl in the space suit is in New York, dying. She starts to regenerate to fix her body. ### Continuity The Silence's 'time engine' set was previously used in "The Lodger". The Doctor describes it as "very Aickman Road", a reference to the house the ship occupied in that episode. When the Silence reveals their name to the Doctor, the Doctor has flash-backs to "The Eleventh Hour" and "The Vampires of Venice", the first mentions of the Silence. The "Eye Patch Lady" (Frances Barber) appears for the first time in this episode, and makes similar appearances in "The Curse of the Black Spot" and "The Rebel Flesh" before her connection to Amy is revealed in "The Almost People". The Doctor uses the TARDIS's scanners to detect Amy's alternating pregnancy state. The Doctor repeats the scan with the same results in "The Curse of the Black Spot" and "The Rebel Flesh". The Doctor and Rory discuss both being present at the fall of Rome. As an Auton, Rory guarded the Pandorica from the Roman era to the present day in "The Big Bang", and the First Doctor indirectly instigated the Great Fire of Rome in The Romans (1965). The Doctor is held captive in Area 51, which he had visited previously in the Tenth Doctor animated serial Dreamland. ## Production Steven Moffat, head writer of the new series, said before broadcast that this would be one of the darkest openers to a series ever done for Doctor Who. Director Toby Haynes believed that the darker episodes like "The Impossible Astronaut" and "Day of the Moon" would allow the series to get into "more dangerous territory." The creation of the Silence was partly inspired by the figure from Edvard Munch's 1893 painting The Scream. Introducing the alien villains became a "big challenge" for the producers; it would tie in with the loose "silence will fall" arc that carried through the fifth series. Moffat did not wish to end the arc in the previous series, as he felt it would be "more fun" to continue it. Elsewhere in the episode, Delaware was written to be deceptively antagonistic towards the protagonists, which was based on actor Mark Sheppard's past as villains for his work in American television. Moffat was also keen on the idea of having the Doctor imprisoned with a beard in Area 51. Smith wore a glued-on beard, which was difficult to peel off. Incorporating Nixon into the plot was accidental; Moffat wanted to set the story during the Moon landing and looked up the United States president during the time. He was initially disappointed that it was such a "rubbish one" and briefly considered using a generic, unnamed president, such as the one seen in "The Sound of Drums". However, he thought it "didn't feel right for a story partly about real events" and realised it could be fun to use Nixon. He believed there was something "comically awkward" about him, and it would be interesting for the Doctor to have to work with someone he did not like. The episode makes references to the Watergate scandal and David Frost. Many of the opening scenes of the episode were filmed on location in the United States. The sequence where Delaware chases Amy was shot in the Valley of the Gods in Utah. Gillan found it difficult to run because of the altitude. The scene in which Amy confronts Canton was originally watched by three Silence in the script, but this did not make it to the film version. The sequence where Delaware chases Rory was shot at the Glen Canyon Dam in Arizona. The Dam sequence was the final scene to be shot in the States. "The Impossible Astronaut" and "Day of the Moon" marked the first time that Doctor Who has filmed principal photography footage within the United States. The sequence where Delaware chases River in New York City was shot in central Cardiff. A set was later constructed in a studio for the jump sequence, and Kingston was replaced by a stunt woman to perform the jump. The scenes set in Area 51 were filmed in a large disused hangar in South Wales. The Florida orphanage was filmed at the abandoned Troy House in Monmouthshire. To add the effect that a storm is outside the building, the production crew placed rain machines outdoors and flashing lights to simulate lightning. The Silence were portrayed by Marnix van den Broeke and other performers. The masks caused vision difficulties for the performers, who had to be guided by two people when they had to walk. Van den Broeke did not provide the voices of the Silence, as it was replaced during post-production. The control room set used from "The Lodger" was used again for this episode. Moffat wanted the set to be used again, feeling it would be a suitable Silence base. The set was adapted to give it a darker, evil feel. ## Broadcast and reception "Day of the Moon" was first broadcast on BBC One on 30 April 2011 at 6 pm and on the same date on BBC America in the United States. Initial overnight ratings showed that the episode had been watched by 5.4 million viewers, a decrease of 1.1 million from the previous week. The episode received final ratings of 7.3 million viewers on BBC One, seventh for the week on that channel. It received an Appreciation Index of 87, considered "excellent". ### Critical reception The episode was met with generally positive reviews from television critics. Dan Martin of The Guardian praised the episode for its "action, tension, horror and River Song in a business suit," but felt it "sags a little around the middle." Martin believed the scenes with Amy and Delaware in the orphanage were the "fear factor" of the episode. He later rated it the fourth best episode of the series, though the finale was not included in the list. Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy stated "after the sensational opening gambit that kicked off the series premiere, it's perhaps unsurprising that 'Day of the Moon' starts with a similarly thrilling onslaught of action." Jeffery was positive towards the nano-recorder, which provided the episode with "a number of unsettling moments in which characters listen back to their own terrified exclamations about the Silents." However, Jeffery felt the final scenes "expose this episode's chief flaw — quite simply, too much is left unresolved." In conclusion, the reviewer stated "While 'The Impossible Astronaut' aced the set-up, 'Day of the Moon' falters slightly in providing the resolution." Jeffery rated the episode four stars out of five. Tom Phillips of Metro stated that "Amy and Canton's sojourn to the orphanage was not just a high-mark for sheer skin-crawling horror on recent mainstream telly — that image of The Silence nesting on the ceiling like cadaverous bat-people will live on in the nightmares of many, many children — but also genuinely, properly weird." Dave Golder from SFX thought that although the series was "shaping up to be like no other before it, as the show moves even further away from its traditional series of sequential standalone stories format and more towards Lost style storytelling", that the episode "is no mere exercise in delayed gratification. You want fun? You want creepy? You want action? You've got it – all not-so-neatly tied up with a neat bow tie." Golder went on to state that "once again we're treated to some outstanding direction, glorious performances, near flawless FX and gorgeous locations ... "Day Of The Moon" is huge fun, effortlessly entertaining, beguilingly bat's-arse and blessed with a cliffhanger so jawdroppingly unexpected it's bound to keep viewers hooked". He gave the episode a rating of four out of five stars. IGN reviewer Matt Risley rated the episode 9 out of 10, saying it "maintained the thrills, chills and scalp-scratching plot twists of "The Impossible Astronaut", whilst somehow tweaking its predecessor's thundering pace into 45 minutes of near-perfectly plotted TV." When comparing it to "The Impossible Astronaut", he said it was "scarier, creepier...and more action packed in every way...[and] also managed to leave things on a suitably epic, mythos-expanding note." He concluded, "the show as a whole has a brand new energy, and we can't wait to see where Who goes from here." Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph was more critical with the episode, stating, "having set up an interesting cliffhanger last week, it was a tad annoying that Steven Moffat did his trick again of taking a swerve with the pre-credits section of this week's episode, and more supposed shock value with the shootings of Amy and Rory," but also more annoyed "that what exactly was going on here, and how it was influenced by the events of the previous episode, were never exactly explained, leaving the audience to fill in the blanks." Fuller believed that the plot and ending "only raised more questions than answers," believing that the overarching storyline would "require the audience's concentration over many weeks; any casual viewer tuning in this week, and I suspect not a few fans, will have been left baffled by the goings-on," but still felt the episode "was interesting and showed just how, when the writers use their imagination, Doctor Who can tell stories in a way little else on television can." ## See also - Apollo 11 in popular culture	[ "## Plot", "### Synopsis", "### Continuity", "## Production", "## Broadcast and reception", "### Critical reception", "## See also" ]	2,718	20,976
1,085,698	The One with the Prom Video	1,168,244,218	null	[ "1996 American television episodes", "Friends (season 2) episodes", "Television episodes about proms", "Television episodes directed by James Burrows" ]	"The One with the Prom Video" is the fourteenth episode of the second season, and the 38th episode overall, of the American television situation comedy Friends, which first aired on NBC on February 1, 1996. The episode focuses on the main characters watching Monica (Courteney Cox) and Rachel (Jennifer Aniston) getting ready for their high-school prom in the titular video. A subplot sees Joey (Matt LeBlanc), now earning more income, buying roommate Chandler (Matthew Perry) an unusual gift. The episode was directed by James Burrows and written by Alexa Junge and features guest stars Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles as Jack and Judy Geller, Michael Ray Bower as Monica's date, and Patrick Kerr as the restaurant manager. ## Plot Joey, now earning substantial money after landing a role on Days of Our Lives, gives Chandler a gaudy gold bracelet as thanks for paying for head shots and food in the past. Chandler mocks it when it scares off a potential date, upsetting Joey when he overhears. Chandler promises to never take it off again but discovers it slipped off his wrist at some point and is now missing. He buys a replacement, but the original is found by Rachel shortly afterwards at Central Perk. He gives one to Joey, repairing their friendship. Monica struggles to find a job after being fired. After a disastrous restaurant interview where the manager has a food play fetish, she relents to Ross' prodding to ask for money from their parents Jack and Judy, who have visited the apartment to bring boxes of her possessions. Though Judy is disappointed she was fired, Jack encourages her to use her savings from her bank account and assures her that they will be there to lend money to her whenever she needs it. Despite this encouragement, Ross ends up writing her a check. Ross continues to seek forgiveness from Rachel after insulting her, but she tells him that they as a couple will never happen. Whilst looking through the box her parents brought, Monica finds a video of her and Rachel getting ready for their senior prom. The friends decide to watch the video, although Ross objects to everyone seeing the tape. On the video, Rachel's date, Chip Matthews, has not arrived, and Monica refuses to go to the prom without her. Judy convinces Ross to wear Jack's tuxedo and take Rachel to the prom himself. Ross reluctantly agrees, but by the time he is dressed and ready to go, Chip has arrived and the girls leave. The video ends with Ross looking disappointed and dejected. Rachel, touched by Ross' gesture, gets up and passionately kisses him, forgiving him for what happened between them. Monica later watches the video alone which features her and Jack dancing before the prom. It suddenly cuts to Jack and Judy making love in bed, which disgusts her. ## Production The producers had kept Ross and Rachel from being together throughout the first season, eventually bringing them together in the second-season episode "The One Where Ross Finds Out", only to split them up in the following episode. Writer Alexa Junge incorporated many of her own experiences into the script, in particular Phoebe's line about Ross and Rachel being "lobsters", something Junge's husband once said. Aniston wore a false nose for the scenes in the video while Cox wore a "fat suit". While a previous episode had already established Monica as being overweight as a child, this was the first on-screen appearance of "Fat Monica" (the fat suit made frequent return appearances). Rachel's large nose was added because Junge believed that the characters "were so good-looking, you wanted to feel they had some realness in their past". At first, Schwimmer did not want to wear the afro wig and mustache because he thought he would look like Gabe Kaplan in Welcome Back, Kotter (a similarity referenced in the episode). He relented because it enabled him to "tap into a part of himself that was very vulnerable and shy" and incorporate it into his performance. An early script draft featured a scene in the prom video in which an episode of All My Children is on in the background. The scene was intended to feature the character "Bryce", played by Gunther (as revealed in "The One Where Eddie Won't Go"). ## Reception In 1997, TV Guide ranked this episode \#100 on their list of the "100 Greatest Episodes of All Time". "The One with the Prom Video" received acclaim from critics. Entertainment Weekly rates the episode "A", welcoming the return of Burrows as director and calling the prom video "witty character development disguised as a standard flashback." The authors of Friends like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friends write that it is "a watershed in the history of the show" and "It's the sign of a good show that they can switch so effortlessly from comedy to pathos to romance in one short scene." Robert Bianco wrote in USA Today in 2004, "If any one outing can take credit for moving Friends from good to great, it's Prom Video" and describes the resolution as an "ingenious, unexpected twist." The episode is popular among fans of the series. It appeared on one of the first region 1 "best of" DVD releases and is one of the two episodes to feature an audio commentary on the region 1 DVD release of the complete second season. In a poll conducted shortly before the series finale, "The One with the Prom Video" was voted the best episode of Friends, with 1.6 million people polling on the Internet. The episode is the favorite of Schwimmer, who liked the comedic and emotional origins of the Ross/Rachel relationship, as well as the exchange between Monica and Chandler as she defends her weight on the video. In 2014, Gawker published a list of every episode of Friends ranked from \#236 through \#1. "The One With The Prom Video" was ranked as the \#1 best episode on the list.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Reception" ]	1,220	3,976
13,298,928	Cöln-class cruiser	1,167,731,486	Class of light cruisers of the German Imperial Navy	[ "Cruiser classes", "Cöln-class cruisers", "World War I cruisers of Germany" ]	The Cöln class of light cruisers was Germany's last class commissioned before her defeat in World War I. Originally planned to comprise ten ships, only two were completed; Cöln and Dresden. Five more were launched, but not completed: Wiesbaden, Magdeburg, Leipzig, Rostock and Frauenlob, while another three were laid down but not launched: Ersatz Cöln, Ersatz Emden and Ersatz Karlsruhe (for the last three, the names quoted were only provisional titles to be used during construction, and the three would have received other names at their launch if that had taken place). The design was a slightly modified version of the preceding Königsberg class. Cöln and Dresden joined the High Seas Fleet in 1918, which limited their service careers. They were assigned to the II Scouting Group, and participated in an abortive fleet operation to Norway to attack British convoys. They were to have led attacks on British merchant traffic designed to lure out the British Grand Fleet and force a climactic fleet battle in the final days of the war, but the Wilhelmshaven Mutiny forced the cancellation of the plan. The two ships were interned and eventually scuttled in Scapa Flow in June 1919. Both Dresden and Cöln remain on the bottom of Scapa Flow. ## Design By 1916, thirteen German light cruisers had been lost in the course of World War I. To replace them, the Kaiserliche Marine ordered ten new cruisers built to a modified Königsberg-class design. All ten ships were laid down in 1915 and 1916. Cöln was built by the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Bremen. Wiesbaden and Rostock were built at AG Vulcan in Stettin, and Leipzig, Ersatz Cöln, and Ersatz Emden were ordered from the AG Weser dockyard in Bremen. Dresden and Magdeburg were built at the Howaldtswerke shipyard in Kiel, while Frauenlob and Ersatz Karlsruhe were built by the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel. Cöln and Dresden, the only two ships to be completed, were launched on 5 October 1916 and 25 April 1917, respectively. Wiesbaden was launched on 3 March 1917 and was five months away from completion when she was canceled in December 1918. Magdeburg followed on 17 November 1917; she was nine months from being finished when she was canceled. Leipzig was launched on 28 January 1918 and canceled seven months from completion. Rostock followed on 6 April, and also was seven months away from being finished. Frauenlob, the last ship of the class to be launched, on 16 September, was about thirteen months away from completion when she was canceled. The last three ships were canceled while still on the slipway. ### General characteristics and machinery The ships of the class were 149.80 meters (491 ft 6 in) long at the waterline and 155.50 m (510 ft 2 in) long overall. They had a beam of 14.20 m (46 ft 7 in) and a draft of 6.01 m (19 ft 9 in) forward and 6.43 m (21 ft 1 in) aft. The ships had a designed displacement of 5,620 metric tons (5,530 long tons), and at full load, they displaced 7,486 t (7,368 long tons). Their hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames. The hulls were divided into twenty-four watertight compartments and incorporated a double bottom that extended for forty-five per cent of the length of the keel. The ships had a complement of 17 officers and 542 enlisted men. They carried several smaller vessels, including one picket boat, one barge, one cutter, two yawls, and two dinghies. The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats, having gentle motion. The ships were highly maneuverable and had a tight turning radius, but lost speed going into a turn; in hard turns, they lost up to sixty percent of their speed. They were stern-heavy. Their propulsion systems consisted of two sets of steam turbines, which drove a pair of screw propellers that were 3.50 m (11 ft 6 in) in diameter. Steam was provided by eight coal-fired and six oil-fired Marine-type water-tube boilers. The boilers were ducted into three funnels amidships. Electrical power was provided by two turbo generators and one diesel generator, which had a total output of 300 kilowatts at 220 volts. Steering was controlled by a single, large rudder. The engines were rated to produce 31,000 shaft horsepower (23,000 kW) for a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). On trials, Cöln reached 48,708 shp (36,322 kW) and a top speed of 29.3 kn (54.3 km/h; 33.7 mph), while Dresden made 49,428 shp (36,858 kW) and 27.8 kn (51.5 km/h; 32.0 mph). Coal storage was 300 t (300 long tons; 330 short tons) as designed, though up to 1,100 t (1,100 long tons; 1,200 short tons) could be carried. Fuel oil was initially 200 t (200 long tons; 220 short tons), and could be similarly increased to 1,050 t (1,030 long tons; 1,160 short tons). At a cruising speed of 12 kn (22 km/h; 14 mph), Cöln could steam for approximately 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km; 6,900 mi), while Dresden could steam for 5,400 nmi (10,000 km; 6,200 mi) at the same speed. At a higher speed of 25 kn (46 km/h; 29 mph), the range fell considerably, to 1,200 nmi (2,200 km; 1,400 mi). ### Armament and armor The ship was armed with eight 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, four were located amidships, two on either side, and two were arranged in a super firing pair aft. Aboard Cöln, the forward pair of amidships guns were placed on the forecastle deck, while on the rest of the ships in the class, they were placed one deck lower, on the upper deck. These guns fired a 45.3-kilogram (100 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second (2,800 ft/s). The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees, which allowed them to engage targets out to 17,600 m (57,700 ft). They were supplied with 1,040 rounds of ammunition, for 130 shells per gun. The ships also carried three 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels, though one was removed in 1918. These guns fired a 10 kg (22 lb) shells at a muzzle velocity of 750 to 770 m/s (2,500 to 2,500 ft/s). She was also equipped with four 50 cm (19.7 in) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes in deck-mounted swivel launchers amidships. The ships were also outfitted to carry up to 200 mines. The Cöln class ships were protected by an armor belt composed of Krupp cemented steel. It was 60 mm (2.4 in) thick amidships and 18 mm (0.71 in) forward. The stern was not protected by armor. The armored deck was 20 mm (0.79 in) thick in the stern, 40 mm (1.6 in) thick amidships, and 60 mm thick forward. Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof. The main battery guns were protected with 50 mm (2.0 in) thick gun shields. ## Ships of the class ## Service history After their commissioning, Cöln and Dresden joined the High Seas Fleet. They were assigned to the II Scouting Group, alongside the cruisers Königsberg, Pillau, Graudenz, Nürnberg, and Karlsruhe. The ships were in service in time for the major fleet operation to Norway in 23–24 April 1918. The I Scouting Group and II Scouting Group, along with the Second Torpedo-Boat Flotilla were to attack a heavily guarded British convoy to Norway, with the rest of the High Seas Fleet steaming in support. The Germans failed to locate the convoy, which had in fact sailed the day before the fleet left port. As a result, Admiral Reinhard Scheer broke off the operation and returned to port. In October 1918, the two ships and the rest of the II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy. Cöln, Dresden, Pillau, and Königsberg were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary while the rest of the Group were to bombard targets in Flanders, to draw out the British Grand Fleet. Scheer intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy, in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany, whatever the cost to the fleet. On the morning of 29 October 1918, the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day. Starting on the night of 29 October, sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied. During the sailors' revolt, the crew of the battleship Markgraf refused to move out of Dresden's way; she aimed one of her 30.5 cm (12.0 in) gun turrets at Dresden, but then backed down and let Dresden leave the port. The ship then went to Swinemünde, where she was partially scuttled and subsequently re-floated and returned to seaworthy condition. The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation. When informed of the situation, the Kaiser stated, "I no longer have a navy." Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918, most of the High Seas Fleet's ships, under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow. Cöln and Dresden were among the ships interned. ### Postwar fates The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty. Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919, which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty. Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd, Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity. On the morning of 21 June, the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers, and at 11:20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships. Cöln sank at 13:50 and was never raised for scrapping. Dresden also remains at the bottom of Scapa Flow. The eight ships that were not completed by the end of the war were formally stricken from the naval register on 17 November 1919. The navy considered selling the vessels for conversion into cargo ships, even those like Ersatz Karlsruhe that had had little work done; according to the proposals, they would have received diesel engines from unfinished U-boats. By 1920, the Deutsches Petroleumgesellschaft had acquired the rights to the ships, planning to convert them into oil tankers, and this plan was approved by the Naval Inter-Allied Commission of Control, which specified that any military features in the ships (to include side and deck armor and torpedo bulkheads) were to be removed and destroyed by 31 July 1921. By this time, Wiesbaden and Rostock had been towed to Lübeck, where conversion work had started. Their old machinery had been removed by November 1920 and their military features had been cut away by the NIACC deadline. Magdeburg had been similarly demilitarized at Howaldtswerke. The conversion program eventually fell apart, however, and all of the vessels were broken up. Magdeburg was sold on 28 October 1921 and broken up the next year at Kiel-Nordmole. Leipzig and Rostock were sold in 1921 and scrapped in Hamburg. Frauenlob was towed to the Deutsche Werke shipyard in 1921 and broken up. Ersatz Karlsruhe was dismantled on the slipway in 1920, and Ersatz Cöln and Ersatz Emden were sold on 21 and 25 June 1921, respectively. Both vessels had been launched at some point to clear the slipway, and by August 1920, Ersatz Emden had been towed to Bremen. Both ships were scrapped in 1921 in Hamburg.	[ "## Design", "### General characteristics and machinery", "### Armament and armor", "## Ships of the class", "## Service history", "### Postwar fates" ]	2,819	44,632
11,619,449	Fountain of the Great Lakes	1,170,885,404	Bronze sculpture by Lorado Taft	[ "1913 establishments in Illinois", "1913 sculptures", "Allegorical sculptures in Illinois", "Bronze sculptures in Illinois", "Fountains in Illinois", "Outdoor sculptures in Chicago", "Relocated buildings and structures in Illinois", "Sculptures by Lorado Taft", "Sculptures in the Art Institute of Chicago", "Sculptures of children in Illinois", "Sculptures of women in Illinois", "Statues in Chicago" ]	Fountain of the Great Lakes, or Spirit of the Great Lakes Fountain, is an allegorical sculpture and fountain by Lorado Taft. The bronze artwork, created between 1907 and 1913, depicts five women arranged so that the fountains waterfall recalls the waterflow through the five Great Lakes of North America. In the Great Lakes, the waterflow begins in Lake Superior at 600 feet (180 m) above sea level and continues eastward through each lake until it reaches Lake Ontario. The Fountain is one of Taft's best known works. It is located in the public South McCormick Memorial Court of the Art Institute of Chicago, in the Chicago Loop. The fountain was originally installed facing south where it remained until 1963, when it was moved next to the Morton Wing addition facing west. In its original location it was visible from the Jackson and Michigan Avenue intersection once known as "route center" to the south. The fountain was commissioned by the Benjamin Ferguson fund and one surface references the title B. F. Ferguson Fountain of the Great Lakes. There is a relief sculpture of Benjamin Ferguson on the rear panel that has been hidden from view since the fountain was moved. As the first commission from the Ferguson Fund, it experienced various funding delays. Additionally, the legal environment for land use in Grant Park was in flux at the time the commission was made, which caused delays in location selection. Once erected, the fountain received largely positive reviews, but a few critics questioned symbolism of the sculpture. Others were caught up in sociopolitical subtexts of the day, with regard to obscenity laws as it related to public art and this semi-nude work. ## Background Benjamin Ferguson's 1905 \$1 million charitable trust gift to "memorialize events in American History" funded The Fountain, and many other public works in Chicago. As the city attempted to determine a policy for the fund's use, Taft argued for fountains, allegorical statuary, discreetly placed portrait busts, and the adornment of bridges and park entrances in order to create long-lasting beauty in addition to supporting the style of art he pursued. By September 1905 his name was linked in the press to the fund as a possible deserving recipient of its first commission. During the 1905–1906 year he began to place greater emphasis on sculpture in the classes he taught at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, while simultaneously refining earlier allegorical. The fountain is Taft's response to Daniel Burnham's complaint at the Columbian Exposition in 1893 that the sculptors charged with ornamenting the fairgrounds failed to produce anything that represented the great natural resources of the west, especially the Great Lakes. In Spring 1902, Taft had assigned his students a work entitled Spirit of the Great Lakes. Five women had molded individual figures in response to an assignment and joined them in a tiered group with an imagined waterflow from the containers that they held. By mid-January 1906, Taft cast a plaster version, which he exhibited to Ferguson Fund Trestee Charles L. Hitchinson on January 17 at Taft's Midway Studios. By the end of January, The Art Institute of Chicago displayed the work during its annual local works exhibition. It gained support during its four-week display and won the Chicago Municipal Art League top sculpture award, and along with two other bust works he won the Society of Chicago Artists' Medal for general excellence. The Municipal art League exhibition chairperson, Mrs. William F. Grower, decided to form a subcommittee to help satisfy public support for the work to be the first Ferguson fund commission. However, even after the probate court released the bequest to the trustees on May 23, 1906, no commission was made because the trustees were undecided between a statuary and a portrait commission. Additionally, Grant Park has been protected since 1836 by "forever open, clear and free" legislation that has been affirmed by several Illinois Supreme Court rulings. Aaron Montgomery Ward twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park and to keep it from building new ones. The second suit was still pending in 1906 and the legal cloud regarding deliberations of architectural limitations in Grant Park caused inaction. While the trustees remained silent, Taft sought wider public support by publishing a picture of Spirit of the Great Lakes in Century Magazine, which drew interest from Buffalo, New York as a host of the final work. By February 1907, Buffalo Illustrated Times published a cover with an image of the work and a caption describing the anticipation of the Beautifying Buffalo Society for obtaining the work for the city. However, by the end of 1907 Taft and his connections with the Trust Fund resolved his commission. On October 31, 1907, the Ferguson Trust Board voted Taft a commission, and on December 16, he signed a \$38,000 contract to commence work. The commission was the first commission from the Ferguson fund. Despite the financial agreement it would be some time before a determination of a site for the work. Ward's suit continued to loom over the deliberations. One proposal was to locate it in Grant Park south of the Art Institute and another was to locate it at the 35th Street and Grand Boulevard (Now Martin Luther King, Jr. Drive) intersection that now hosts the Chicago Landmark and National Register of Historic Places-listed Victory Monument. The 1909 Art Institute annual report mentioned a proposal for a sunken garden with a focal fountain south of the institute. Legal issues regarding land use intensified in 1910, and the Art Institute began to make modest plans for the fountain almost attached to the south wall of its own building. For the next few years there was little mention of the fountain as Taft focused on other work. Then in May 1913, the fountain model at Taft's Midway Studios was disassembled and taken to Jules Berchem's foundry for bronze casting. Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge designed the base for the sculpture. It was subsequently assembled by mid-August in preparation for a September 9, 1913 dedication date. In 1963 with the construction of the new Morton wing of the Art Institute of Chicago Building, the fountain was moved from its south facing position adjacent to the original building that was visible from the Historic Michigan Boulevard District to the west wall of the new wing in a position facing westward. The sculpture was positioned so that the plaque on the back, which reads that the "fund must be used for erecting and maintaining enduring statuary and monuments", is no longer legible. Although Taft is now better remembered for his books such as The History of American Sculpture, which is regarded as the first comprehensive work on the subject in the title, he was in his day well known for portraits and allegorical public sculpture, especially public fountains. The fountain was produced in the period following his assignment to design sculptures for William Le Baron Jenney's Horticultural Building when he designed several large-scale public works, including Fountain of Time. At the time of the dedication, Taft described the Ferguson Fund commission to sculpt the fountain as a turning point in his career that led to increased publicity, more commissions, and growing recognition in the community, which combined to give him the encouragement for further commitment to the arts. He hoped that the Fountain of the Great Lakes would mark a new era of civic beautification and that it would also mark the beginning of the Chicago school of sculpture. The dream that Chicago would be the epicenter of the sculpting universe had been bred during the World's Columbian Exposition twenty years earlier and rekindled with the Ferguson bequest. Fountain of the Great Lakes was a major career accomplishment for Taft, which propelled him beyond the level of a portraitist. ## Critical response The general opinion of Fountain of the Great Lakes was positive with some describing it as a cultural achievement for Taft and Chicago. The detractors conceded that as a figural composition, it was ideal in an Old World way. Critics voiced concern over the sculpture's confusion and decorum. One of the basic problems for the critics was the propriety of the symbolism of artistic and attractive bronze figures posed as bodies of water. There had for some time been discussion of the depictions representing relative elevations and the flows of the waters as they seem to do. There were grumblings for closer association of the figures to the lakes by use of physical features, directional orientation and definite contours. Harriet Monroe, a general supporter of Taft's artistic efforts, was disappointed in the lack of representative geographic configuration and the lack of spirit of the lakes as inland seas. With respect to this specific piece she had gone from being an ardent supporter who felt the model was "stupendous" to finding herself in "doubt" about the work. Taft's human form depictions of the lake failed to capture the imagery of contemporary literature as it related to the power and fury of nature and the heroism of those struggling against those forces in works such as those of Hamlin Garland, Charles Eugene Banks, Willa Cather, or Robert Morss Lovett. Taft's representations of Lakes with quiet trickling water was in keeping with his general theme of quiet dignity for public sculpture. On the day of the dedication the Chicago Daily News expressed this point with a photomontage juxtaposition of Taft's fountain and Lake Michigan in all its fury. After one got past the symbolism of the ladies as lakes, complaints existed about the lack of recognition of the contemporary form of female representation in art and literature which had gone from the Lillian Russell-type to the Gibson Girl to the Lillie Langtry image while Taft had apparently chosen "packing house ladies" as his female form. When Taft presented live depictions of his sculptures with quintets of women, he faced complaints that three of his five sculptural compositions had nude upper torsos, while his live representations were fully clothed. The degree to which nudity in public art was more for the "sake of nudity than for the sake of art." was a contemporary issue involving confiscated Paul Chabas fully nude painting, the Roman Catholic Church, critics, art dealers and collectors. All this led to a 1913 amendment to the Chicago municipal obscenity laws proposed by Mayor of Chicago Carter Harrison, Jr. to the Chicago City Council, which passed three months before the dedication of Taft's partially nude fountain. Chicago Tribune writers stood behind Taft's fountain using humor against what they described as a "streak of over-accentuated puritanism" that could adversely affect public art. Taft had Beaux-Arts training that lent itself well to allegorical sculpture. For Fountain of the Great Lakes, Taft claimed an inspiration from the Greek mythology. Danaus ordered his 49 daughters to kill their husbands and condemned them to delivering water to a bottomless vessel in Hades. This was in keeping with Taft's penchant for classical inspiration although this was a loose association where the number of daughters was reduced from 49 to 5 and the artist's task did not seem to be nearly as cruel as the mythological one. ## See also - List of public art in Chicago	[ "## Background", "## Critical response", "## See also" ]	2,303	10,097
32,327,496	Russian ironclad Pervenets	1,082,708,557	Imperial Russian Navy's Pervenets-class broadside ironclad	[ "1863 ships", "Ironclad warships of the Imperial Russian Navy", "Maritime incidents in August 1863", "Naval ships of Russia", "Ships built in Leamouth" ]	The Russian ironclad Pervenets (Russian: Первенец) was a broadside ironclad built for the Imperial Russian Navy in Britain during the 1860s. The ship had to be built abroad as no Russian shipyard had mastered the techniques required to build iron-hulled armored vessels. She was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and never left Russian waters. Pervenets served with the Gunnery Training Detachment for her entire career until she was reduced to reserve in 1904. She was disarmed and stricken the following year and finally sold in 1908. After the end of the Russian Civil War, the ship was reacquired by the Soviets in 1922 and used to transport and store coal, a role she performed until discarded in the late 1950s. However, she was apparently not scrapped until the early 1960s. ## Design and description The ship was designed as a coast defense vessel to protect the approaches to Saint Petersburg and was referred to as a "self-propelled armored floating battery". As such, a heavy armament and protection were the most important factors in the ship's design. No Russian shipyard could build iron-hulled, ironclad warships, therefore Pervenets was ordered from Great Britain. Her name means firstborn and refers to the Tsesarevich, heir to the Russian Empire. Pervenets was 220 feet (67.1 m) long overall, with a beam of 53 feet (16.2 m) and a designed draft of 14 feet 6 inches (4.4 m). She displaced 3,277 long tons (3,330 t) and her iron hull had a pronounced tumblehome. Pervenets was fitted with large rams at bow and stern; the stern ram also serving to protect her rudder and propeller. The ship did not steer well and had "an unpredictable habit of suddenly lurching to one side or another", probably as a result of poor water flow to the rudder. She required six men to man her wheel and her total crew numbered 459 officers and men. Originally intended to use a refurbished engine from the steam ship of the line Konstantin, Pervenets received a three-cylinder horizontal return-connecting-rod steam engine built by the British firm of Maudslay, Sons and Field. Rated at 1,000 indicated horsepower (750 kW), it drove a single 10-foot-5-inch (3.2 m) propeller. Steam was provided by four rectangular fire-tube boilers. During sea trials on 28 July 1863, the engine produced a total of 1,067 indicated horsepower (796 kW) and gave the ship a maximum speed of 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph). During later trials in the Baltic Sea, Pervenets reached 8.5 knots (15.7 km/h; 9.8 mph). The ship carried a maximum of 500 long tons (510 t) of coal, but her endurance is unknown. She was schooner-rigged with three masts; the lower masts were iron and the topmasts and yards were made from pine. Pervenets was completed with 26 of the most powerful guns available to the Russians, the 7.72-inch (196 mm) 60-pounder smoothbore gun. Twenty-four were mounted on the broadside and two guns were placed in pivot mounts on the upper deck to serve as chase guns. Unfortunately, it proved to be incapable of penetrating 4.5 inches (114 mm) of wrought iron armor at a distance of only 200 yards (183 m) during trials in 1859–60. The 60-pounders on the broadside were entirely replaced by a dozen 8-inch (203 mm) rifled guns in 1874, while the chase guns were replaced by two four-barreled 3.42-inch (87 mm) 4-pounder guns. The entire ship's side was protected with wrought-iron armor 4.5 inches thick that reduced to 4 inches (102 mm) beginning 30 feet (9.1 m) from the ship's ends. It was backed by 10 inches (254 mm) of teak and extended 4 feet (1.2 m) below the waterline. The ship's hull was divided by six watertight transverse and two longitudinal bulkheads for protection against underwater damage. The hull had a tumblehome of 27° to help deflect shells. The open-topped conning tower was also protected by 4.5 inches of armor. ## Service Pervenets was ordered from the Thames Iron Works in Blackwall, London on 18 November 1861 because it was an experienced builder of iron-hulled ships and had begun construction of the broadside ironclad HMS Minotaur a few months earlier. Russian naval architects and workmen were sent to London to learn the techniques used by the British shipyard. Construction of the ship actually began the following month and she was launched on 18 May 1863. While running sea trials on 6 August 1863 at Woolwich, Pervenets accidentally rammed the training ship HMS Warspite, although little damage was inflicted. Escorted by the steam frigate General Admiral, she left for Russia two days later with a British crew. The ship reached Kronstadt on 17 August and was fitted out there. Pervenets entered service on 28 July 1864 and was assigned to the Baltic Fleet. Including delivery and fitting out costs, she cost a total of 917,000 rubles. The ship was assigned to the Gunnery Training Detachment for her entire career and was frequently rearmed to train officers and men on some of the latest guns to enter service. In 1881 she mounted ten 8-inch and two 6-inch (152 mm) rifled breech loaders on her gun deck and carried two more 6-inch rifles on the upper deck as chase guns. Also on her upper deck, sometimes mounted on platforms that extended over her bulwarks, were a 9-inch (229 mm) mortar, a 2.5-inch (64 mm) Baranov gun, a 1.75-inch (44 mm) Engstrem gun, two 1-inch (25 mm) Palmcrantz auto-cannon, and a Hotchkiss gun of uncertain caliber, either 37 millimeters (1.5 in) or 47 millimeters (1.9 in). The mortar was removed in 1881 as it strained the ship's structure. By 1890, these guns had been replaced by two 120-millimeter (4.7 in), two 47 mm, and four 37 mm guns. Pervenets rolled heavily in service, therefore bilge keels were fitted during the winter of 1864–65, the first used on a Russian ship. On 15 August 1869, she was taking part in an exercise off Hogland with Kreml, Oleg, Petropavlovsk and Vityaz when Kreml rammed Oleg, which sank with the loss of 16 of her 445 crew. Pervenets rescued some of the survivors. To alleviate the cramped conditions of the steersmen, the ship's wheel was transferred from the gun deck to a platform that spanned her bulwarks in front of the mizzenmast in 1871. In 1872 she evaluated the Davydov fire-control system that could fire all guns electrically and indicated to the gunners where their guns should be aimed. The conning tower was removed in 1876–77 and new boilers were installed. These increased the engine's power to 1,300 indicated horsepower (970 kW) and Pervenets reached 8.5 knots on sea trials. She was reclassified as a coast defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and was placed in reserve on 23 December 1904. The ship was disarmed the following year and stricken from the Navy List on 15 September 1905. Turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal, she was sold on 8 September 1908 and renamed Barge No. 1 (Barzha No. 1). The Soviets acquired the ship on 30 June 1922 and she was used to transport coal to Kronstadt. Barzha No. 1 was transferred to the Baltic Fleet on 7 August 1925 for use as a coal hulk. She was renamed KP-3 on 1 January 1932, K-41999 on 12 July 1943 and VSN-491000 on 16 May 1949. The ship was discarded in the late 1950s, but was apparently not scrapped until the early 1960s.	[ "## Design and description", "## Service" ]	1,846	15,855
70,976,904	Castro Sweep	1,158,016,506	1989 police riot in San Francisco	[ "1989 in LGBT history", "1989 in San Francisco", "1989 riots", "Castro District, San Francisco", "Crimes in San Francisco", "Discrimination against LGBT people in the United States", "History of LGBT civil rights in the United States", "LGBT civil rights demonstrations", "LGBT history in San Francisco", "LGBT-related riots", "LGBT-related scandals", "October 1989 events in the United States", "Police brutality in the United States", "Riots and civil disorder in California" ]	The Castro Sweep is a police riot that occurred in the Castro District of San Francisco on the evening of October 6, 1989. The riot, by about 200 members of the San Francisco Police Department (SFPD), followed a protest held by ACT UP, a militant direct action group responding to the concerns of people with AIDS. Earlier that day, members of ACT UP had marched from the Federal Building to the Castro District to protest the United States government's actions during the ongoing AIDS pandemic. During the march, police officers made several arrests. After the march ended at the intersection of Castro and Market Street, more protestors and onlookers met and staged sit-ins and die-ins. At around 8 p.m., the police declared the gathering an unlawful assembly and began to clear the streets. By 10 p.m., the police had withdrawn from the area and protestors later dispersed. Fifty-three people were arrested, while 14, including four officers, were injured. In the aftermath of the sweep, LGBT news media coverage compared the event to the 1969 Stonewall riots, another notable instance of violent confrontation between police and members of the LGBT community. San Francisco Police Chief Frank Jordan responded to the sweep by suspending, demoting, or reassigning officers who had been involved, while San Francisco Mayor Art Agnos called the event "unacceptable" and urged victims to file complaints with the SFPD's Office of Citizens Complaints. In later lawsuits, the city paid out about \$200,000 to victims in settlements. ## Background The California city of San Francisco has historically been a center of LGBT culture in the United States and has a large LGBT community. Notable gay villages in the city have included the area along Polk Street, Tenderloin, and the Castro District. The city also has a history of violent confrontations between members of the LGBT community and the San Francisco Police Department (SFPD), with notable examples including the Compton's Cafeteria riot in 1966 and the White Night riots in 1979. During the 1980s, the city's LGBT community was severely affected by the AIDS pandemic, which disproportionately affected men who have sex with men. During this decade, in view of what many LGBT activists saw as a lack of response from the federal government of the United States and other public bodies, several support and advocacy groups for people with AIDS were established, including the Gay Men's Health Crisis and the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP). Throughout the late 1980s, ACT UP led several large-scale protests and demonstrations to both draw attention to the AIDS crisis and to pressure governments to contribute more towards combatting the disease. ## ACT UP protest ### March through San Francisco On Friday, October 6, 1989, ACT UP activists in San Francisco organized a march through the city to protest government inaction with regards to the AIDS pandemic. It was part of a nationwide day of protest conducted by ACT UP, and one of several protest activities conducted by the organization that year. In San Francisco, the march was planned to start at the Federal Building in the city's Civic Center and travel to Harvey Milk Plaza at the intersection of Castro and Market Street in the Castro District. Along the way, the protestors would make stops at the City Hall and the San Francisco Mint. Over one hundred people were present at the beginning of the march, which commenced around 5 p.m. In previous ACT UP demonstrations, the SFPD would typically assign a small number of officers to aid in traffic control and ensure the protestor's safety, but during the October 6 march, the police presence was much greater than it had been at prior events. Shortly after leaving the plaza of the Federal Building and beginning the march to the Castro District, many officers on foot and several on police motorcycles began to follow along with the marchers. Additionally, the police brought several police vans with them. According to a march participant, while in previous marches the police would close off a single lane to traffic, the police this time ordered the marchers to keep only to the sidewalk. The police made their first arrest of the day about one block from the Federal Building when Bill Haskell, the tactical coordinator and police liaison for the ACT UP protestors, walked into the street to talk to the officers. He was thrown to the ground and handcuffed before being taken into a police van and charged with resisting arrest and blocking the street. According to historian Emily K. Hobson, the arrest of one of the march's coordinators was a police tactic that "weakened [the] marchers' ability to communicate with one another and to respond to officers' presence". Police continued to strictly enforce the sidewalk rules for the duration of the march, which lasted for 30 city blocks, with many marchers chanting, "First Amendment under attack! What do we do? ACT UP! Fight back!" About halfway through the march, organizers stopped for a brief address to the protestors, reminding them of the AIDS-related goal of the protest and to continue in spite of the police's actions. ### Gathering at Castro and Market Streets The march ended around 7 p.m. as the protestors approached the intersection of Castro and Market streets. During other ACT UP marches, it had been customary for a brief gathering to be held at the intersection, with organizers giving brief speeches and protestors chanting while some police officers would direct traffic on foot. However, when the march finally reached the intersection, there were several hundred police officers present. According to Gerard Koskovich, a journalist present during the march, "When I got there I saw the single largest mass of San Francisco police officers I had ever seen at that point. The entire intersection of Castro and Market streets was filled with officers standing in rank". The police blocked the protestors from assembling at the intersection and redirected them along Castro Street, where about fifty protestors joined hands in a sit-in. Additionally, twenty protestors staged a die-in on the street. Despite the police presence, Koskovich and many other protestors did not think that there would be a serious confrontation with the police, as there had not been a violent largescale confrontation between police and LGBT individuals in the Castro District since the White Night riots about a decade ago. As the protesting continued, more onlookers and other participants arrived, with the number of people present swelling to around 500 or 600. By this time, the focus of the protesting activity had shifted to the intersection of Castro and 17th Street, where several protestors locked arms and waited to be arrested. Additionally, many protestors had begun spray-painting parts of the road with body outlines as an homage to the NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt, which, at the time, was headquartered about two blocks away. They also added slogans, such as "Profits=Death" and "Black People Die Faster". During this time, some protestors also began chanting, "SFPD racist, sexist, anti-gay. SFPD go away". According to Koskovich, the point where things turned violent began when someone knocked over a parked police motorcycle. Following this, an officer clubbed a protestor on their shoulder, and shortly thereafter other officers joined in and began to club protestors. ## Police riot At around 8 p.m., the police announced that the gathering was an unlawful assembly and began to march shoulder-to-shoulder down Castro Street towards 18th Street. Many of the officers wore riot gear, and several people on the streets were attacked by officers wielding nightsticks. Officers ordered individuals to remain inside nearby buildings and announced that anyone on the streets or sidewalks faced arrest. The Reverend Jim Schexnayder, the director of HIV/AIDS services for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oakland, was on Castro Street at the time and was ordered into a nearby building by a SFPD officer. About 200 officers, representing approximately half of all SFPD officers on duty at the time, participated in the sweep, which covered about 7 city blocks. During the sweep, protestors began to chant the helmet badge number of a police officer who had assaulted a nineteen-year-old at the rally, rendering him unconscious and in need of several stitches. According to Koskovich, the police regrouped around 9 p.m. and continued their sweep. By about 10 p.m., police had left the area, with many of the protestors remaining on the streets. Following this, some ACT UP members gathered at the intersection of Castro and 18th and, after some cheering, left the area as well. ## Aftermath The incident was the first police riot in the Castro District since the White Night riots of 1979. In total, SFPD officers arrested 53 individuals, while 14 people, including 4 police officers, were injured. Several of the protestors who were arrested were charged with assault. The following night, about 1,500 people took the streets of the Castro District as a show of resistance against the police actions the previous night. The same day, San Francisco Mayor Art Agnos released a statement to the Bay Area Reporter, a local LGBT newspaper, saying that the police's actions on October 6 were "unacceptable". He also urged individuals who were harassed or in some way victims of the police's actions to file formal complaints with the SFPD's Office of Citizens Complaints. On Sunday, October 8, the spray-painted slogans and body outlines were painted over by the police. The event was widely covered by the LGBT news media. The following week, the headline for the Bay Area Reporter read, "Castro Held Hostage". The New York City-based LGBT news magazine OutWeek reported on the event in several issues published later that month. In their coverage, they compare the event to the 1969 Stonewall riots, a watershed moment in LGBT history that saw patrons of a gay bar in New York City fight back against police officers during a police raid. ### Police and city response Five days after the sweep, ACT UP issued a response in which they called for the resignation of the San Francisco Chief of Police Frank Jordan, a plan for public accountability, and disciplinary actions against officers who had been involved. The SFPD responded to the sweep by either suspending, demoting, or reassigning some of the officers who had been involved. Chief Jordan reprimanded Deputy Chief Frank Reed, who was head of the SFPD's Patrol Bureau, and Captain Richard Fife was moved to the Traffic Bureau. Jordan was also going to demote Deputy Chief Jack Jordan, his brother, but Jack resigned before he could do so. Captain Richard Cairns, who had been the tactical squad leader on the night of the sweep, was placed on administrative duty and later suspended from the SFPD for beating several protestors with his nightstick. Cairns objected to the suspension and later sued the city for its handling of his disciplinary case, arguing that he had acted in self-defense. The SFPD also made changes to its guidelines regarding their liaisons to the LGBT community after the event. According to the GLBT Historical Society, the disciplinary hearings "revealed the weakness of the city’s civilian police oversight system", and they said that protests from the LGBT community regarding police accountability for the sweep would continue for the next three years. Several protestors received payments from the city due to damages sustained in the sweep, as a group of citizens who had been present at the sweep later sued the city and settled out of court, with the city paying out about \$200,000. ### Later history Since the event, the GLBT Historical Society has held several panel discussions about the sweep and its aftermath, including one on the 20th anniversary of the sweep in 2009 and another on the 30th anniversary in 2019. A vigil was held at the site of the sweep on the 25th anniversary in 2014. Speaking about the impact of the sweep in 2019, assistant editor John Ferrannini of the Bay Area Reporter wrote that "The Castro Sweep deepened divisions between the LGBT community and the police, which had already been frayed by decades of harassment in bars, the assassination of gay Supervisor Harvey Milk by former police officer and disgruntled ex-supervisor Dan White in 1978, and the subsequent White Night riots the following year". In 2014, when asked by the Bay Area Reporter if another incident such as the sweep could occur, San Francisco Police Chief Greg Suhr stated, "I would say very, very plainly 'Not on my watch.' That's a phrase we use in the police department when we say we're committed to something just absolutely not happening. ... We're a different police department". Several historians have theorized about the rationale for the police action on the night of the sweep. According to Hobson, the sweep may have been in retaliation for a September 1989 event held by another AIDS-advocacy group at the San Francisco Opera. Additionally, it may have been caused by ACT UP's opposition to Mayor Agnos's plans for a new baseball stadium in the city. In a 2002 article, Koskovich stated that, six months prior to the sweep, ACT UP members had chased police officers out of the Castro District during the funeral of AIDS activist Terry Sutton, which may have led to a police reprisal on October 6. ## Explanatory notes ## General and cited sources	[ "## Background", "## ACT UP protest", "### March through San Francisco", "### Gathering at Castro and Market Streets", "## Police riot", "## Aftermath", "### Police and city response", "### Later history", "## Explanatory notes", "## General and cited sources" ]	2,735	30,107
65,401,194	Keiji Nishioka	1,170,286,150	Japanese botanist	[ "1933 births", "1992 deaths", "20th-century Japanese botanists", "Bhutan–Japan relations", "Scientists from Seoul" ]	Dasho Keiji Nishioka (Japanese: 西岡京治, Nishioka Keiji; 14 February 1933 – 21 March 1992) was a Japanese botanist. He was dispatched to the Kingdom of Bhutan by the Japanese Government to help modernise the Bhutanese agricultural sector. Nishioka worked in Bhutan as an agriculture expert for 28 years, from 1964 till his death in 1992. Nishioka's work helped improve the cultivation of rice and vegetables in Bhutan's Paro and Zhemgang dzongkhags (districts). He also participated in civic infrastructure development efforts in Zhemgang. ## Early life Keiji Nishioka was born to Tatsuzo Nishioka and Toshie Nishioka in Seoul, Japanese Korea, on 14 February 1933. He was the oldest of four children. In Seoul, then called Keijou, he attended Sakuragaoka Primary School. The family moved to Osaka, Japan, after the Japanese defeat in the Second World War and the subsequent decolonisation of Korea. In Osaka, Nishioka studied in Yao Junior High School. In 1952, Nishioka entered the Naniwa University to study agriculture. In 1959 he married Satoko Nikai, of Nishinomiya, Hyōgo Prefecture. The couple had two children. ## Life in Bhutan In 1958, Sasuke Nakao, one of Nishioka's professors at the Osaka Prefecture University, went to Bhutan as the first official visitor from Japan. The Prime Minister (Lyonchhen) of Bhutan at the time, Jigme Palden Dorji, asked Nakao for an agricultural expert to help Bhutan modernise its agricultural sector. The lack of developed bilateral relations between Japan and Bhutan at this time prevented any plans from materialising. This problem was solved when Bhutan joined the Colombo Plan in 1962 and thus became entitled to receive aid from other member states in the Plan, which included Japan. On Nakao's recommendation, Nishioka, now an agricultural expert with the Japanese Overseas Technical Cooperation Agency, went to Bhutan in July 1964. ### Paro In 1966, Nishioka, along with three apprentices, established an experimental farm in Bondey in Paro dzongkhag. In this farm, Nishioka grew rice and vegetables such as peas, radishes, pumpkins and cabbages using seeds he had brought from Japan. The farm was successful, growing in size and profitability, even supplying food to guests at the 1974 coronation of the Fourth Druk Gyalpo (King) of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck. Nishioka's contributions helped improve paddy cultivation and the use of greenhouses. He also encouraged farmers to sell their food in the open market, including in places outside Paro like Thimphu and Phuntsholing. ### Zhemgang Nishioka, along with ten apprentices from the Bondey farm, went to Panbang in the Lower Kheng region of Zhemgang dzongkhag in March 1976, as a part of an Integrated Development Project for Zhemgang. The natives of this region mostly practised shifting cultivation in the forests, with no permanent settlements. Nishioka worked to make the region more developed. He ordered the clearing of forests and the settlement of the shifting cultivators in villages in the cleared areas. The region around the present-day village of Sonamthang in Zhemgang was converted from forest to 146 acres of paddy fields on Nishioka's orders. At the end of Bhutan's Fourth Five-Year Plan, 65 households whose members had contributed to the clearing and cultivation of the region were awarded land there, creating Sonamthang village. Other villages created this way were Thinleygang, Laling, Marangduth, Tunkudema and Pantang. Nishioka also introduced the cultivation of agarwood and cardamom trees for use as cash crops. Nishioka's efforts led to an increase in the standards of living of people in Zhemgang, reportedly improving communities' self-sufficiency in foodgrains. Nishioka was active in the field of infrastructure development in Zhemgang. He oversaw the building of 17 suspension bridges and mobilised people's participation in the construction of canals, roads and health clinics. ## Awards and titles For his contributions to Bhutan, Nishioka was conferred the title of Dasho by the Druk Gyalpo, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, in 1980. He was the first foreigner to have received the title Dasho. He was posthumously awarded the Druk Thugsey medal, the highest civilian award in Bhutan, in 1999. ## Death Nishioka died on 21 March 1992 in Thimphu, at the age of 59. He was given a state funeral on 26 March. ### Legacy and commemoration Nishioka is remembered as the 'father of modern agriculture' in Bhutan. In Panbang, he is remembered as 'Japan sahib' among the elderly. A suspension bridge in Panbang—the Nishioka zam—is named after him. In Paro, a Buddhist stupa called the Dasho Nishioka chorten, is dedicated to Nishioka. In June 2014, on the completion of fifty years' cooperation between Japan and Bhutan, a museum was inaugurated in Paro in Nishioka's memory.	[ "## Early life", "## Life in Bhutan", "### Paro", "### Zhemgang", "## Awards and titles", "## Death", "### Legacy and commemoration" ]	1,174	19,012
12,041,592	1268–1271 papal election	1,173,110,237	null	[ "1268", "1268 in Europe", "1269", "1269 in Europe", "1270", "1270 in Europe", "1271", "1271 in Europe", "13th-century Catholicism", "13th-century elections", "Papal elections", "Viterbo Papacy" ]	The 1268–71 papal election (from November 1268 to 1 September 1271), following the death of Pope Clement IV, was the longest papal election in the history of the Catholic Church. This was due primarily to political infighting between the cardinals. The election of Teobaldo Visconti as Pope Gregory X was the first example of a papal election by "compromise", that is, by the appointment of a committee of six cardinals agreed to by the other remaining ten (this method was attempted once before, in the 1227 papal election, but the choice of the committee refused the honor and the full group of cardinals proceeded to elect the pope). The election occurred more than a year after the magistrates of Viterbo locked the cardinals in, reduced their rations to bread and water, and removed the roof of the Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo where the election took place. As a result of the length of the election, during which three of the twenty cardinal-electors died and one resigned, Gregory X promulgated the papal bull Ubi periculum on 7 July 1274, during the Second Council of Lyon, establishing the papal conclave, whose rules were based on the tactics employed against the cardinals in Viterbo. The first election held under those rules is sometimes viewed as the first conclave. ## Cardinal electors The dynamic of the conclave was divided between the French Angevin cardinals, mostly created by Pope Urban IV, who were amenable to an invasion of Italy by Charles of Anjou, and the non-French (mostly Italian) cardinals whose numbers were just sufficient to prevent a French pope from being elected. Clement IV's crowning of Charles of Anjou as King of Naples and Sicily, previously a papal fief, had cemented the influence of the French monarchy in the Italian peninsula and created an intense division within the College of Cardinals between those who opposed and supported French influence, and by extension, ultramontanism. Conradin, the last ruler of the House of Hohenstaufen, had been beheaded in Naples just a month before the death of Clement IV. At the death of Clement IV there were twenty cardinals in the Sacred College. One cardinal (Rodolphe of Albano) was absent throughout and died during the vacancy. The other nineteen cardinals participated in the election in 1269, but two died before the cardinals settled on a new pope. † denotes a cardinal elector who died during the election. ### Absent cardinals ## Parties in the College of Cardinals According to contemporary accounts in the Annales Piacentines the College of Cardinals was divided into adherents of Charles d'Anjou (pars Caroli) and the Imperial party (pars Imperii), but the exact reconstruction of these parties is very difficult. It is almost certain that this account is inaccurate when it claims that pars Caroli had six (or seven, in another place in that account) members, including Giovanni Gaetano Orsini and Ottobono Fieschi, while pars Imperii had eleven (or ten) members, Riccardo Annibaldi, Ottaviano Ubaldini and Uberto Coconati among them. Certainly five cardinals, namely Ottobono Fieschi, Guillame de Bray, Anchero Pantaleone, Simon Monpitie de Brie and Odo of Châteauroux belonged to the Angevin faction. But if Giovanni Gaetano Orsini was really one of their leaders, then his relatives Matteo Orsini Rosso and Giacomo Savelli should also be added here, and since Henry of Segusio is also likely to have belonged to this faction, its true size would have amounted to nine cardinals. The imperial party, on the contrary, could not have had more than ten members, including two who had died during the sede vacante. According to Sternfeld it is possible to identify not only two, but as many as four parties in the Sacred College, of which two were pars Caroli and pars Imperii in the strict sense, while the remaining two represented the factions inside the Roman aristocracy: - Angevin party (pars Caroli), that included Ottobono Fieschi, Guillame de Bray, Anchero Pantaleone, Simon Monpitie de Brie, probably Odo of Châteauroux and possibly Henry of Segusio, though the last two certainly represented moderate attitude - Ghibeline party (pars Imperii), that included John of Toledo, Simone Paltinieri, Ottaviano Ubaldini, Uberto Coconati, and probably also Guy de Castella and two cardinals who had died in the election (Giordano Pironti and István Báncsa) - Orsini faction - party of Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, which included Matteo Orsini Rosso and Giacomo Savelli - Annibaldi faction - party of Cardinal Riccardo Annibaldi, which included also his relatives Annibale Annibaldi and Goffredo da Alatri Nevertheless, it seems that these four parties actually formed two blocs in the election: Annibaldi joined pars Imperii, while Orsini aligned himself with pars Caroli. ## Procedure The cardinals began the election by meeting and voting once a day in the Episcopal Palace in Viterbo, before returning to their respective residences; tradition dictated that the election should take place in the city where the previous pope died, if the late pontiff had died outside Rome. There is little reliable data about the candidates proposed during almost three years of deliberations; certainly cardinals Odo of Châteauroux, John of Toledo, Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, Ottaviano Ubaldini, Riccardo Annibadi and Ottobono Fieschi were counted among the papabili. According to later accounts, not supported by the contemporary sources, after two months, the cardinals nearly elected Philip Benizi, general of the Servite Order, who had come to Viterbo to admonish the cardinals, but fled to prevent his election. Also the candidature of Saint Bonaventure had allegedly been proposed. Modern scholars treat these accounts with scepticism, considering them as products of invention of the hagiographers of these two saints. Charles of Anjou was in Viterbo for the entirety of the election; Philip III of France visited the city in March 1271. In late 1269, after several months of deadlock during which the cardinals had met only intermittently, Ranieri Gatti, the Prefect of Viterbo, and Albertus de Montebono, the Podesta, ordered (some sources say, at the urging of Saint Bonaventure) the cardinals sequestered in the Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo until a new pope was elected. On 8 June 1270, the cardinals addressed a Diploma to the two magistrates asking that Henry of Segusio, Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, be dismissed from the "Palatio discooperto" ("the uncovered Palace") owing to his ill health and his having already renounced his right to vote. Some sources say that a makeshift roof was reassembled after the cardinals threatened to put the entire city of Viterbo under interdict. According to the account of Onofrio Panvinio, Cardinal John of Toledo suggested that the roof be removed ("Let us uncover the Room, else the Holy Ghost will never get at us"—the first recorded reference to the notion that the Holy Spirit should guide cardinal electors), which the two magistrates readily obliged. Other sources say it was Charles of Anjou who orchestrated the reduction of the diet of the cardinals to bread and water and the removal of the roof of the Papal Palace. ### The Committee Under pressure from Philip III of France and other rulers, on 1 September 1271, the cardinals agreed to cede their authority to a committee of six. The committee included two cardinals of the faction of Orsini (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini and Giacomo Savelli), three Ghibelines (Simone Paltinieri, Ottaviano Ubaldini and Guy de Castella) and Cardinal Riccardo Annibaldi, while Angevin cardinals seem to have been entirely marginalized. The committee chose an Italian from Piacenza, Teobaldo Visconti, a non-cardinal, who was then in Acre with the retinue of Edward (the eldest-son of Henry III of England) as papal legate to the Ninth Crusade. Informed of his election, Visconti departed on 19 November 1271 and reached Viterbo on 12 February 1272, where he took the name Gregory X. He entered Rome on 13 March 1272 and was ordained a priest on 19 March 1272. He was consecrated a bishop and crowned on 27 March 1272 in St. Peter's Basilica. During the final leg of his journey, from Brindisi on 11 January 1272, Visconti was accompanied by Charles of Anjou. ## Legacy The techniques employed against the dilatory cardinals in Viterbo formed the basis for the canon law of papal conclaves as laid out in the papal bull Ubi periculum of Pope Gregory X, promulgated during the Second Council of Lyon on 7 July 1274. Popular accounts of the conclave, as early as those of French historian Georges Goyau, neglect to mention the political intrigue of Charles I of Naples or his nephew, Philip III of France, as the masterminds of the hardships employed by the "citizens of Viterbo." Designed both to accelerate future elections and reduce outside interference, the rules of Ubi periculum provide for the cardinal electors to be secluded for the entirety of the conclave, including having their meals passed through a small opening, and for their rations to be reduced to a single meal at the end of three days, or bread and water (with a little wine) after eight days. Cardinals also do not collect from the Apostolic Camera any payments they might otherwise receive during the conclave. The stringent rules of Ubi periculum were used in the conclaves that elected Pope Innocent V (January 1276) and Pope Adrian V (July 1276), lasting one and nine days respectively. However, at the urgings of the College, the newly elected Adrian V suspended those rules on 12 July 1276—indicating that he wished to revise it—and died on 18 August without having promulgated a revised version. Therefore, the election of Pope John XXI (August–September 1276) did not follow Ubi periculum, and John XXI promulgated another bull, Licet felicis recordationis, formally revoking Ubi periculum. The next five papal elections—1277 (Pope Nicholas III), 1280—1281 (Pope Martin IV), 1285 (Pope Honorius IV), 1287—1288 (Pope Nicholas IV), and 1292—1294 (Pope Celestine V)—occurred sans conclave, often at great length. Celestine V, whose election took two years and three months, reinstated the conclave with a series of three decrees, and his successor, Pope Boniface VIII restored the conclave by his "Regulae Iuris".	[ "## Cardinal electors", "### Absent cardinals", "## Parties in the College of Cardinals", "## Procedure", "### The Committee", "## Legacy" ]	2,411	29,898
6,931,813	Indiana State Road 930	1,064,840,708	Highway in Indiana	[ "Lincoln Highway", "State highways in Indiana", "Transportation in Allen County, Indiana", "Transportation in Fort Wayne, Indiana", "U.S. Route 30" ]	State Road 930 (SR 930) is an Indiana State Road that runs between Fort Wayne and New Haven in the US state of Indiana. The 12.97 miles (20.87 km) of SR 930 serve as a connection with U.S. Route 30 (US 30) through these two cities between the beginning of the concurrency with Interstate 69 (I-69) in Fort Wayne and the end of its concurrency with I-469 in New Haven. All of the highway is listed on the National Highway System. Various sections are urban two-lane highway, urbanized four-lane divided highway, and urbanized six-lane divided highway. The highway passes through industrial and commercial properties. SR 930 was designated in 1998, and replaced segments of US 30 in Fort Wayne and New Haven that were formerly part of the Lincoln Highway in the 1920s, as well as Coliseum Boulevard, which was designated as part of US 30 in the 1950s. ## Route description SR 930's western terminus is at an interchange with I-69, US 24, US 30, and US 33. The highway heads southeast on Goshen Road from the interchange towards Coliseum Boulevard as a six-lane divided highway, passing between commercial properties and woodland. The route turns east onto Coliseum Boulevard as a four-lane undivided road with a center turn lane, passing through commercial and industrial properties. The highway has an at-grade railroad crossing with a single-track rail line. After the railroad crossing, the road has an intersection with US 27, and continues passing through commercial properties. After US 27, the highway passes by Glenbrook Square and beings to turns southeast at Clinton Street. The road narrows to a four-lane divided highway at Parnell Avenue and passes by the Allen County War Memorial Coliseum. Then, the road crosses the St. Joseph River and has a traffic light at North Anthony Boulevard. The highway passes between the Indiana University – Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW) and Ivy Tech Community College campuses, before coming to a traffic light at Crescent Avenue. East of Crescent Avenue, the road enters mainly residential areas of town until the route begins to curve due south toward an intersection with Vance Avenue. After this turn, the route becomes a six-lane divided highway and passes through mainly commercial properties with some woodland. The highway has a traffic light at East State Boulevard and Lake Avenue, before narrowing back to a four-lane divided highway. The road crosses over the Maumee River and the Norfolk Southern Railroad tracks, in a mainly wooded area with some industrial properties. After the railroad tracks, SR 930 leaves Coliseum Boulevard at an interchange with Washington Boulevard. The highway heads east-southeast toward New Haven as a four-lane divided highway, passing through commercial properties. The road crosses over another set of Norfolk Southern railroad tracks and turns due east at New Haven Avenue. After New Haven Avenue, the highway enters the commercial area of New Haven as a four-lane highway with a center turn lane. The route has a traffic light at Lincoln Highway, and SR 930 heads southeast, bypassing downtown New Haven. Southeast of Lincoln Highway, SR 930 is a two-lane highway passing through a mix of commercial and residential properties. The road becomes a four-lane divided highway at Minnich Road, just west of the I-469. The eastern terminus of SR 930 is at I-469, where US 30's concurrency with I-469 ends, and US 30 continues east along the same road where SR 930 ends. The entire length of SR 930 is included as a part of the National Highway System (NHS), a network of highways that are identified as being important for the economy, mobility and defense of the nation. SR 930 is maintained by the Indiana Department of Transportation (INDOT), like all other state roads in the state. The department tracks the traffic volumes along all state highways as a part of its maintenance responsibilities using a metric called average annual daily traffic (AADT), a calculation of the traffic level along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year. In 2010, INDOT figured that lowest traffic levels were the 14,700 vehicles and 2,640 commercial vehicles used the highway daily on a section between Hartzell Road and I-469 in New Haven. The peak traffic volumes were 45,210 vehicles and 1,630 commercial vehicles AADT along the section of SR 930 between Coldwater Road and North Clinton Street in Fort Wayne. ## History In 1913, the Lincoln Highway was planned to pass through some of the areas that later became SR 930. These sections include the segment of Goshen Road in Fort Wayne now used by SR 930, and the section of what is now SR 930 between Maumee Road and Lincoln Highway in New Haven. The Lincoln Highway was opened in 1915 and passed through downtown Fort Wayne and New Haven. In 1917, Main Market route number 2 was the given number to the Lincoln Highway in Indiana. In 1926, US 30 was commissioned to follow SR 2 through Fort Wayne and New Haven. In addition, US 24 was concurrent with US 30 from Washington Boulevard in Fort Wayne and Lincoln Highway in New Haven. Then, in the 1950s, Coliseum Boulevard was built as a "circumurban" highway, and US 30 was rerouted onto it to bypass the downtown area of Fort Wayne. In 1998, US 24 and US 30 were rerouted onto I-69 and I-469 and the route that became SR 930, including Coliseum Boulevard, was to be decommissioned. INDOT tried to give the route to local control, but Allen County, the city of Fort Wayne, and the City of New Haven did not have funds for the roadway. This led INDOT to commission the route as SR 930. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	1,235	9,494
30,744,416	Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep?	1,126,891,458	null	[ "2010 American television episodes", "Fiction about shapeshifting", "Fringe (season 3) episodes" ]	"Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep?" is the fourth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe, and the 47th episode overall. The first half of the third season alternated entire episodes between the parallel universe (the "Other Side") and the prime universe ("Our Side"). "Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep?" took place in the prime universe, and involved several shapeshifters, including Thomas Jerome Newton (Sebastian Roché), who is eventually captured. Meanwhile, Fauxlivia (Anna Torv) attempts to maintain her cover and minimize the damage. The episode was written by David Wilcox and Matthew Pitts, while Kenneth Fink served as director for the hour. It first aired on October 14, 2010 in the United States to an estimated 5.22 million viewers. It received mostly positive reviews, as many critics praised the plot's focus on the shapeshifters. ## Plot In the prime universe, U.S. senator James Van Horn (Gerard Plunkett), who has been reviewing the Fringe division's activities, is hospitalized following a car accident. While he's in the hospital, Thomas Jerome Newton (Sebastian Roché) arrives and shoots him in the face, then escapes. The Fringe team discover that Van Horn was a shapeshifter. Walter (John Noble) finds that the body is still alive to some degree through a second "brain" on his back, and hopes to use Van Horn's wife Patricia (Shannon Cochran) to try to awaken it and study the shapeshifter more. Fauxlivia (Anna Torv), still posing as the prime universe's Olivia (Torv), informs Newton of this development. Newton contacts a second shapeshifter, Ray (Marcus Giamatti), to infiltrate the secured location where Van Horn's body is being held to remove the data disc that Walter will ultimately find. Ray regrets the possibility of having to leave his current identity, a police officer with a wife and son. Meanwhile, Peter (Joshua Jackson) and Fauxlivia discover that Van Horn has acquired a number of records on the personnel of the Fringe team, and likely has used the information to aid the parallel universe's Walternate (Noble). At the secured facility, Fauxlivia is able to clear Peter, Astrid (Jasika Nicole) and Walter from the lab in order to allow Ray access to the lab. Ray continues to avoid shifting to a new body. Walter returns to the lab to confirm a theory and is interrupted by Ray. Ray successfully removes the data device, knocks out Walter, and flees to give it to Newton. When Ray requests to be able to return to his family, Newton kills him near his home, but by this time, the Fringe division has identified Ray and have converged on his address. On spotting Newton, they engage in a car chase, eventually damaging Newton's car. Fauxlivia recovers Van Horn's data disc from Newton and hides it before taking Newton into custody. Sometime later, Fauxlivia visits Newton in a high-security prison, and passes him the equivalent of a suicide pill that causes him to self-destruct and bleed out mercury. Fauxlivia realizes Peter has become suspicious of her actions, and sleeps with him to draw away his attention. ## Production The episode was co-written by co-executive producer David Wilcox and J. J. Abrams' assistant, Matthew Pitts. CSI: Crime Scene Investigation veteran Kenneth Fink served as director, his only Fringe credit to date. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, executive producer Jeff Pinkner explained the role of the shapeshifters in the two universes, "The shapeshifters are Walternate's 'soldiers.' Part organic, part mechanical — they 'bleed' mercury — and are able to take the shape of any human that they kill. Walternate sent them here years ago (they were able to cross universes safely because they're not human) to act as sleeper agents". "Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep?" featured the second appearance of guest actor Gerard Plunkett as Senator Van Horn, as well as the first appearance of Marcus Giamatti as a shapeshifter. It was the last episode with guest star Sebastian Roché (who played the villain Thomas Jerome Newton). Despite his character's death, executive producer J. H. Wyman hinted in a later Twitter post that Roché may return. As with other Fringe episodes, Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children, focusing on the science seen in "Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep?", with the intention of having "students learn about memory, which is the ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences." ## Cultural references The episode title "Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep" refers to the Philip K. Dick science fiction novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, which was later adapted into the film Blade Runner. The novel dealt with what it means to be human, exploring how faking an emotion long enough can actually develop into real feelings, much like in the episode where two shapeshifters first pretended but then developed feelings for their victims' families. While Peter is drinking in a bar, science fiction movie The Invisible Boy is playing on a television in the background, with the character Robby the Robot visible. During the episode, Walter makes two requests in order to provide "brain stimulation" to the deceased Senator Van Horn: a portrait of former president George W. Bush, and a copy of Hump Magazine. ## Reception ### Ratings "Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep?" was watched by 5.22 million viewers in the United States, with 3.2/5 share among all households and a 2/5 share for viewers aged 18–49. SFScope reviewer Sarah Stegall commented that because of the show's low ratings "it is almost at the point where it would be a top-rated show on cable; but these are not good numbers for broadcast TV." Time shifted viewing increased the episode's ratings by 45 percent among adults, resulting in a rise from 2.0 to 2.9. ### Reviews The episode received mostly positive reviews. Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought the episode continued the series' season three "hot streak", but wished the promo had not spoiled Senator Van Horn being a shapeshifter. Hanson also did not fully buy into the Peter-Fauxlivia relationship, as he expected Peter to realize something different about her. Noel Murray from The A.V. Club loved the shapeshifter focus of the episode and graded it an A−, explaining it was a "very strong episode" that "brings back one of my favorite Fringe concepts: those crazy super-powered shapeshifters". MTV's Josh Wigler also enjoyed the shapeshifter plot, and wrote that "the latest episode of Fringe marks four fantastic installments in a row, instantly establishing season three as having the strongest opening act of any other previous year in the science fiction series. Fringe has reinvented itself by drastically altering just one ingredient in the show's successful format — namely, the true identity of Olivia Dunham — to create something wholly new and amazing". Television Without Pity gave the episode an A−. Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker enjoyed the episode, writing that "this week's Fringe contained everything I love about the show, from LSD to the great villain Thomas Jerome Newton. [The episode] didn't use its Philip K. Dick-shifted title as a coy joke — it really was about the dreams of shapeshifters, dreams and hopes which took a variety of forms". Open Salon praised Torv's performance this season, and thought it was a "very thought-provoking episode, with some major implications for Peter and Olivia's relationship moving forward". Alex Zalben of UGO Networks, however, called the episode the "first clunker of the season" because despite approving of the plot and the acting, the "writing was uniformly obvious, stilted and kind of terrible... there were more head-slappingly stupid moments than I could count". SFScope's Sarah Stegall noted similarities to the film Blade Runner, and predicted that the consummation of their relationship would cause Peter to discover Fauxlivia's true identity.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Reception", "### Ratings", "### Reviews" ]	1,736	8,846
7,935,138	She's Madonna	1,171,969,685	2007 single by Robbie Williams	[ "2006 songs", "2007 singles", "Chrysalis Records singles", "Cultural depictions of Madonna", "EMI Records singles", "Music videos directed by Johan Renck", "Musical tributes to Madonna", "Pet Shop Boys songs", "Robbie Williams songs", "Songs about actors", "Songs about cross-dressing", "Songs about musicians", "Songs written by Chris Lowe", "Songs written by Neil Tennant", "Songs written by Robbie Williams" ]	"She's Madonna" is a song by British singer Robbie Williams with the duo Pet Shop Boys, from his seventh studio album, Rudebox (2006). The track was released as its third and final international single on 5 March 2007 by Chrysalis Records. The subject matter of the song is a reference to the conversation Williams had with his ex-girlfriend Tania Strecker, over the reason her former boyfriend Guy Ritchie gave, for leaving her for American singer Madonna. Williams had played the recording to Madonna shortly after writing it, receiving a positive reaction. Musically, "She's Madonna" was inspired by Kraftwerk's 1983 single, "Tour de France". The composition consists of a "gurgling" electro backing, over which Williams sings the lyrics, talking about his fascination with Madonna. It received positive feedback for its musical aspects and the production by Pet Shop Boys. The song had minor chart placement in Williams' home turf United Kingdom, but reached the top five of the record charts in many European nations, attaining Gold certifications in Denmark and Germany. A music video for the track was released in April 2007, directed by Johan Renck whose main inspiration behind it was to portray the paranoia one faces onstage. It features a plethora of well-known drag queens, and showed Williams himself in full drag queen regalia. The video received mostly negative reception from critics. ## Background "She's Madonna" is a collaboration between Williams and Pet Shop Boys, and served as the fifth and final single from Williams' seventh studio album, Rudebox (2006). By the time the single was supposed to be released, he had just come out from rehab following his addiction problems. "She's Madonna" was inspired by a conversation Williams had with his ex-girlfriend Tania Strecker, who told the story of how her boyfriend, British director Guy Ritchie, left her for American singer Madonna. Strecker quoted Ritchie as saying, "Look, you know I really love you, but she's Madonna." Williams considered the song to be one of Rudebox's lighter moments, clarifying that the track did not have a tongue in cheek connotation about it. Rather it literally spoke about his fantasies for Madonna and he was happy with the song's outcome. According to Contactmusic.com, Williams had played the song to Madonna shortly after writing it, receiving a positive reaction. ## Composition Musically, the song was inspired by Kraftwerk's 1983 single, "Tour de France". After playing the track, Williams asked Pet Shop Boys if they can include something inline in "She's Madonna", following which the latter song was composed. The track starts with a "gurgling" electro backing over which Williams sings the lyrics, talking about his fascination with Madonna, "We're having drinks with Kate and Stella, Gwyneth's here and she's brought her fella". Michael Hubbard from musicOMH described the lyrics as a "wannabe anthem/love letter" to Madonna. According to the sheet music of the song, it is composed in common time with a temp of 124 beats per minute. Williams' vocals range from C<sub>4</sub> to G<sub>5</sub> and the track has a s basic sequence of F–A–Gm<sub>7</sub>–C as the chord progression. "She's Madonna" was the subject of a controversy after singer Ashley Hamilton claimed that he came up with part of the song with Williams. ## Critical reception Upon its release in the United Kingdom on 5 March 2007, "She's Madonna" received generally positive reviews from music critics. Nick Levine from Digital Spy awarded it three out of five stars, noting that the track was a kind of "damage control" for Williams' fallen public image following his rehabilitation. "Who'd have guessed he'd sound so comfortable—his most convincing in years, actually—singing about one of the few people in the world who's more famous than him [Madonna]?", Levine concluded. Alexis Petridis from The Guardian described the track as a "brilliant, icy meditation on fame's corrupting power". NME's Priya Elan listed "She's Madonna" as one of Williams' most "bonkers song ever", along with three other songs from Rudebox: "The 80's", "The 90's" and "The Actor". Hubbard explained that the Pet Shop Boys brought an "added spray of sheen to the glacially excellent" song, and working with them brought some "credibility" to it. Julie Broadfoot from BBC Music described "She's Madonna" as a "weird but fun tune". Lauren Murphy from Entertainment website noted that Pet Shop Boys' own musical influence was prevalent in the track, with its "sparse, spacey glow and not least on synth-laden tongue-in-cheek homage" of the song. In an overall negative review for Rudebox, Ed Power from Hot Press magazine wrote that it was not until as the "album lurches towards its midpoint does some calm descend. 'She's Madonna', coasting on a glossy Pet Shop Boys production job, is a misty eyed ballad in the tradition of Williams' finest—i.e. slushiest—work". The song received further negative feedback from David Hutchison of Attitude magazine, during a retrospective review for the album. He theorized that Williams' random choice of cover version of songs gave it a feeling of being an old mixtape. This was vividly noticeable in the "outrageous break-up fantasy played out over icy synths and euphoric hand-claps" of "She's Madonna". ## Chart performance In the United Kingdom, "She's Madonna" debuted outside the top 10 of the UK Singles Chart, at number 16. It was Williams' lowest-peaking single since "Sin Sin Sin" (2006) peaked at number 22. "She's Madonna" quickly descended down the charts, being present only for three weeks in total. It had a better chart placement in Scotland, where it entered the top 10 at number 9. In Ireland it debuted at number 38 and was present only for one week on the chart. Across Europe, the song had better chart placements, and reached the top five of the charts in Belgium (Flanders), Denmark, Germany, Italy, Netherlands and Spain, remaining on the charts for multiple weeks. It received Gold certifications from Denmark and Germany, for shipment of 15,000 and 150,000 copies of the single, respectively. Although the song was not released in the United States, promotional CDs were sent to DJs and hence it charted on Billboard's Dance Club Songs, reaching a peak of number 12. ## Music video The music video features Williams as a professional drag queen in full regalia, as well as performing with drag queens in a nightclub, dressed in a white jacket. His hairstyle and the wig was compared to those of Lily Allen and Uma Thurman's wig in the film Pulp Fiction (1994). Alexis Arquette appeared as one of the drag queens, along with RuPaul's Drag Race contestant Tammie Brown. The video was directed by Johan Renck. Despite media speculation, Williams did not imitate Madonna in the video, nor did she appear in it. Renck explained that the main inspiration behind the video was to portray the paranoia one faces onstage. > With a past as a musician, I remember sometimes feeling like the audience was against me while I was on stage [...] Even if that wasn't noticeable in any way, I still felt as if they all disliked me, or at least, misunderstood me, deep inside. That paranoia was kind of firmly rooted inside of me—the fear of being the wrong artist in front of the wrong audience. Thus, the idea for 'She's Madonna' deals with that. The video opens with an interview with Williams, where he is asked about his real persona and his stage one. Then it cuts to him dressing up in a suit and going onstage to sing the song in front of an audience of drag queens. Thomas Rogers from Salon criticized the video for portraying drag queens like "patients in a mental ward" as well as the interview sequence, which he felt equated drag queens as people with multiple personality disorder. A writer for Metro questioned "Is Robbie trying to send us a message? Or has he just got extremely carried away playing dress up in his mother's wardrobe." ## Track listings - UK CD single 1. "She's Madonna" – 4:16 2. "Never Touch That Switch" (Switch Remix) – 5:06 - UK maxi-single 1. "She's Madonna" – 4:16 2. "She's Madonna" (Chris Lake Remix) – 7:58 3. "She's Madonna" (Kris Menace Vocal Re-Interpretation) – 4:24 4. "She's Madonna" (Kris Menace Dub) – 5:37 - UK DVD single 1. "She's Madonna" (video) 2. "Never Touch That Switch" (Nightmoves Remix audio) – 6:52 3. "Never Touch That Switch" (Dark Horse Remix audio) – 4:33 ## Credits and personnel Credits are adapted from the Rudebox album booklet. Studios - Recorded and mixed at Sarm West (London, England) - Mastered at Metropolis Studios (London, England) Personnel - Robbie Williams – writing, lead vocals - Pet Shop Boys – production - Neil Tennant – writing - Chris Lowe – writing, programming - Pete Gleadall – programming - Tim Weidner – mixing, engineering - Tony Cousins – mastering ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications	[ "## Background", "## Composition", "## Critical reception", "## Chart performance", "## Music video", "## Track listings", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "## Certifications" ]	2,034	13,230
10,227,206	No. 457 Squadron RAAF	1,068,345,927	Royal Australian Air Force squadron	[ "Australian Article XV squadrons of World War II", "Military units and formations disestablished in 1945", "Military units and formations established in 1941" ]	No. 457 Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fighter squadron of World War II. Equipped with Supermarine Spitfire fighters, it was formed in England during June 1941 under Article XV of the Empire Air Training Scheme. The squadron was transferred to Australia in June 1942 and saw combat in the South West Pacific Area before being disbanded in November 1945. The squadron saw combat against both Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan during the war. From March to May 1942 it was based in southern England and flew missions over German-occupied France during which it shot down at least five Luftwaffe aircraft. After being deployed to Australia, No. 457 Squadron was based near Darwin as part of No. 1 Wing RAAF and intercepted several Japanese raids on Allied bases in northern Australia between March and November 1943. The squadron remained at Darwin and saw almost no combat during 1944, but moved to Morotai and later Labuan in 1945 from where it attacked Japanese positions in the Netherlands East Indies and Borneo as part of Allied offensives in these areas. ## History ### Britain No. 457 Squadron was formed at RAF Baginton in England on 16 June 1941. It was equipped with Supermarine Spitfires and was the second RAAF fighter unit to be formed in England after No. 452 Squadron. The establishment of both these squadrons formed part of an expansion of RAF Fighter Command which sought to improve its ability to defend Britain from a renewed German air offensive and to conduct offensive operations over occupied Europe. At the time of its formation the squadron's commanding officer, Squadron Leader Peter Malam Brothers, both flight commanders and all members of the ground crew were British, but most pilots were Australian. The squadron's ground crew component had been formed at RAAF Station Williamtown in Australia on 10 June, and departed for England on 7 August. On the same day No. 457 Squadron moved to RAF Jurby and thence to RAF Andreas, which were both situated on the Isle of Man to undertake training. While at the Isle of Man the squadron trained both its own pilots and pilots from other squadrons for operational duties, and for a time functioned as an operational training unit at RAF Andreas. It also escorted Allied convoys in the Irish Sea, but did not make contact with German aircraft. By October all the British pilots other than Brothers and the flight commanders had been replaced by Australians. The squadron's ground crew arrived in Britain during October and November, making it an almost entirely Australian unit. In March 1942 the squadron moved to RAF Redhill, Surrey where it assumed No. 452 Squadron's front line duties as part of No. 11 Group RAF. These included shipping protection patrols, escorting bombers, conducting fighter sweeps over northern France and contributing to the air defence of southern England. Fighter Command had received authorisation to launch a full-scale offensive campaign against German air units shortly before No. 457 Squadron arrived at Redhill, and it became part of this effort. The squadron first saw action on 26 March when Brothers shot down a Bf 109 during a multi-squadron fighter sweep over France, though one of its Spitfires was lost in this action. By the end of its first week of operations No. 457 Squadron had shot down three German aircraft and inflicted damage on several others and it went on to conduct 32 operations over German territory by 26 April. These operations often encountered fierce opposition, and German Fw 190 fighters proved superior to the Spitfire Mark Vs that No. 457 Squadron was equipped with. The squadron scored its last victory over Europe on 29 April, though fighter sweeps over France continued until almost the end of May. On 28 May 1942 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill agreed to an Australian Government request to dispatch three fully equipped Spitfire squadrons to Australia to reinforce the RAAF. The squadrons selected were the Australian No. 452 and No. 457 Squadrons as well as the British No. 54 Squadron RAF. Accordingly, No. 457 Squadron was withdrawn from operations on 28 May to prepare to be redeployed to Australia. By this time its pilots had been credited with five confirmed "kills" and another four "probables" and damaging seven aircraft. On 20 June the squadron left England on board the MV Stirling Castle, which was also carrying the men of No. 452 and No. 54 Squadrons. ### Darwin The Stirling Castle arrived at Melbourne on 13 August. After being given 14 days leave the squadron's personnel reassembled at Richmond, New South Wales on 6 September. On 7 October it became part of No. 1 Wing RAAF along with No. 54 and No. 452 Squadrons. Most of the Spitfires intended for the wing had been diverted to the Middle East during the voyage to Australia, however, and the squadron initially only had CAC Wirraway and Ryan ST aircraft for training purposes. No. 457 Squadron was fully equipped with Spitfires by November and moved to Camden on the 7th of the month where it continued an intensive training program. In December the squadron was informed that it would be deployed to Darwin in the Northern Territory to counter the Japanese air raids against the town. The squadron's advance party departed on 31 December, and the main body followed by sea on 12 January 1943. No. 457 Squadron commenced air operations from Batchelor Airfield on 20 January and moved to Livingstone Airfield on the last day of the month. No. 457 Squadron first saw combat against the Japanese in March 1943. Although the squadron was scrambled a number of times in February, it did not claim its first "kill" until 7 March when two Spitfires shot down a Mitsubishi Ki-46 "Dinah" reconnaissance aircraft near Darwin. On 15 March No. 1 Wing's three squadrons intercepted a large raid on Darwin, and No. 457 Squadron shot down two A6M Zeros and damaged another of the fighters. The squadron was also credited with damaging a Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" bomber and claimed another three Zeros as "probables". No further Japanese aircraft were encountered over northern Australia until May. During this period No. 457 Squadron practiced tactics and cooperation with RAAF and Australian Army units. Flying was normally limited to just one hour each day, however. On 2 May No. 1 Wing responded to a major Japanese raid on Darwin. In the resulting air battle No. 457 Squadron shot down one fighter and claimed another two "probables", but lost two Spitfires. Overall, the RAAF suffered 14 Spitfires destroyed or damaged while claiming only six "kills", and the operation was not considered a success. Seven days later No. 457 Squadron deployed a detachment of six Spitfires to Milingimbi Island after the island's airfield was attacked. This detachment intercepted Japanese raids on 10 and 28 May, shooting down two Zeros and two Bettys for the loss of three Spitfires. The squadron also continued to take part in operations over the Darwin region, seeing combat on a number of occasions. During the last major battle near the town on 6 July No. 457 Squadron shot down a Zero and damaged five Bettys, but lost three Spitfires. Japanese air activity over northern Australia dropped away after 6 July, and No. 457 Squadron saw little further combat. As a result, the squadron's personnel suffered greatly from boredom. No. 457 Squadron scored its next "kills" on 17 August, when its aircraft shot down three of the four Dinahs sent over Darwin that day; the fourth was destroyed by No. 1 Wing's acting commander, Wing Commander Clive Caldwell. The squadron shot down another two Dinahs on 20 August. On 7 September No. 1 Wing intercepted a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft escorted by 20 fighters. In the ensuing battle No. 457 Squadron shot down four Zeros without loss. On 4 November No. 457 Squadron deployed six Spitfires to Drysdale River Mission Airfield, and two days later they intercepted and damaged a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft. The squadron maintained a detachment at Drysdale River Mission until December, when No. 54 Squadron assumed this duty. During the early hours of 12 November three No. 457 Squadron Spitfires were part of a force which intercepted a raid on Darwin. No. 457 Squadron pilot Flying Officer John Smithson made the only interception and destroyed two Betty bombers. The attack on 12 November was the final Japanese raid on the Darwin area. As a result, No. 1 Wing's flying squadrons had little to do and the pilots became bored. No. 457 Squadron conducted little operational flying until 8 March 1944, when it and No. 452 Squadron were ordered to Perth, Western Australia in response to fears that a Japanese naval force would raid the area. The squadrons departed Darwin on 9 March and arrived at RAAF Station Guildford (modern Perth Airport) three days later after flying through very difficult weather conditions. No attack eventuated, however, and the squadron returned to Livingstone Airfield between 23 and 28 March. The squadron next saw action on 18 April when two of its Spitfires took part in an attack on a Japanese radar station in the Babar Islands. In May 1944, No. 1 Wing's headquarters and No. 57 and 457 Squadrons were deployed to Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia to protect the facilities which had been established to refuel the British Eastern Fleet before Operation Transom, during which the fleet attacked Surabaya, Java. No. 457 Squadron departed for Exmouth Gulf on 10 May and returned to its new base at Sattler Airfield on the 24th of the month. The squadron again provided a detachment at Drysdale River Mission from 1 June 1944 and began to be reequipped with Mark VIII Spitfires on 2 July. ### Morotai and Labuan On 1 July 1944 No. 452 and No. 457 Squadrons were transferred to the newly formed No. 80 Wing RAAF. This wing had been established to support a planned offensive from Darwin into the Netherlands East Indies (NEI). The offensive was cancelled in June, but this was not communicated to the wing, which continued to train for the operation until August. After the operation was cancelled the wing and its squadrons had no purpose, but continued to conduct training exercises as a means of maintaining morale. In November the wing was informed that it was to move to Morotai island in the NEI to take part in Allied offensives in the region. No. 457 Squadron's movement to Morotai was delayed until early 1945. The squadron's ground crew departed Darwin by sea on 18 January and arrived on the island on 1 February. The Spitfires departed Sattler on 6 February and arrived at Morotai two days later. No. 457 Squadron flew its first operations from Morotai on 10 February. The squadron's main roles in this period were to conduct ground attack missions against Japanese camps and shipping as well as escorting other aircraft engaged in attacking these targets. This involved a heavy workload, and the squadron flew over 293 operational sorties between February and the end of April. From May No. 457 Squadron's Spitfires began using dive bombing tactics as well as strafing targets with their guns. No. 457 Squadron participated in the Borneo Campaign during the final months of the war. On 27 May it was ordered to prepare for deployment, and on 5 June its personnel and equipment sailed for Labuan island off the north-west coast of Borneo. During this operation the squadron was attached to No. 81 Wing. The Spitfires departed Morotai on 17 June and commenced operations from Labuan two days later alongside No. 76 Squadron RAAF with the primary roles of providing air support to Allied troops in the area and air defence for the island. On 20 June two No. 457 Squadron fighters shot down a Dinah; this was the squadron's first "kill" since 12 November 1943. Operations against the Japanese continued until the end of the war on 15 August 1945. During the war 25 of the squadron's Australian personnel were killed. Following the Japanese surrender No. 457 Squadron initially remained at Labuan. During this period it flew security patrols as well as training exercises and air tests. The squadron's serviceable aircraft left Labuan on 9 October for Oakey, Queensland and arrived there on the last day of the month. No. 457 Squadron was officially disbanded at Labuan on 7 November 1945. Following the war the squadron was awarded the battle honours "Fortress Europe, 1940–1944", "Pacific, 1941–1945", "Darwin, 1941–1944", "Morotai", "Borneo, 1945" and "Defence of Britain, 1940–1945". ## Aircraft operated No. 457 Squadron operated the following aircraft: ## Squadron bases No. 457 Squadron operated from the following bases and airfields: ## Commanding officers No. 457 Squadron was commanded by the following officers:	[ "## History", "### Britain", "### Darwin", "### Morotai and Labuan", "## Aircraft operated", "## Squadron bases", "## Commanding officers" ]	2,768	3,443
1,785,360	Crybaby (Mariah Carey song)	1,166,062,283	2000 single by Mariah Carey	[ "1999 songs", "2000 singles", "Columbia Records singles", "Mariah Carey songs", "Music videos directed by Sanaa Hamri", "Snoop Dogg songs", "Songs about heartache", "Songs written by Aaron Hall (singer)", "Songs written by Mariah Carey", "Songs written by Snoop Dogg", "Songs written by Teddy Riley", "Songs written by Timmy Gatling", "Sony Music singles" ]	"Crybaby" is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey featuring American rapper Snoop Dogg. It was released on April 17, 2000 by Columbia Records as a double A-side with "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)". It was written by Carey and Snoop Dogg, and produced by the former and Damizza for Carey's seventh studio album, Rainbow (1999). It serves as the album's fourth single. It features Snoop Dogg throughout the song's bridge and is built around a sample of the 1988 song "Piece of My Love," originally performed by Guy and written by Teddy Riley, Aaron Hall, Timmy Gatling and Gene Griffin. Throughout the song, the protagonist reveals the struggles of dealing with insomnia and thoughts of a past relationship during the night, as she spirals out of control and declares "I gotta get me some sleep." The song was the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label Sony Music Entertainment, due to their lack of promotion of it as a commercial single. It, alongside its A-side "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" were not eligible to chart on the Billboard Hot 100, due to the charts rules at the time of their release. Eventually, the song was able to attain a peak of twenty eight, Carey's first single to miss the top twenty. The song's music video features Carey spending a restless night in her apartment, throwing wine and cereal while trying to "get some sleep." Snoop Dogg makes an appearance in the video through a television monitor. Carey performed the song live during her Rainbow World Tour, in support of the album and its singles. ## Background and composition "Crybaby" was recorded during the summer of 1999 in Capri, Italy. The song is composed in common time in the key of D minor and features instrumentation from the guitar and piano. The song moves at a tempo of 79 beats per minute. Carey's vocal range throughout the song ranges from the low note of B<sub>2</sub> to the high note of F<sub>5</sub>. "Crybaby" features a rap verse from Snoop Dogg, and incorporates heavy usage of background vocals. The song's lyrics find the protagonist struggling with insomnia due to thoughts of a past lover throughout the night, not allowing her to sleep. According to Carey, the song also has a more personal message, relating to the difficulty of getting rest with such a work-filled schedule. She claimed that through writing, recording, and producing her music, as well as all the promotional appearances, it became increasingly difficult for her to unwind and sleep at night. At one point in the song, Carey sings "I gotta get me some sleep," before finishing the final chorus. The song was recorded very quickly in late June due to contractual obligations In her 2020 memoir The Meaning of Mariah Carey, Carey revealed that the song's lyrics were inspired by the angst she felt after her 1997 romance with baseball star Derek Jeter abruptly ended. ### Label dispute ## Reception ### Critical reception Critical reviews for "Crybaby" were positive. Danyel Smith from Entertainment Weekly called the song "sexy" and wrote "[Snoop Dogg]'s words tumble like dice across her velvety vocals." Editor from Rolling Stone, Arion Berger, also complimented "Crybaby," especially the way Snoop Dogg's verses blended with Carey's vocals. Berger called his rap verses "fittingly careless." Robert Christgau, an editor from The Village Voice, commented that the song was "not real R&B thrush," but wrote "its good enough to fake it." While reviewing Rainbow, Dara Cook from MTV wrote that "Mariah amazes," on the song also calling the collaboration "Snoop Dogg enhanced." Cook wrote further "Perhaps culled from remnant Derek Jeter-directed rage, a frenzied and fed-up Mariah aggravates herself into a soulful, improvisational tizzy." ### Commercial performance "Crybaby" was released as the third single from Rainbow in 2000, as a double A-side with "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)". "Can't Take That Away" was emphasized at Top 40 Mainstream radio stations and "Crybaby" at mainstream urban stations. It was intended that the former would chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the latter would focus on the R&B charts. The songs had very limited airplay, and because Billboard magazine rules at that time stipulated that the song from a double A-side with the most airplay (in this case, "Crybaby") would be credited only, "Crybaby" was eligible to chart. Double A-sided singles were credited together on the charts until 1998, when the Hot 100 changed from a "singles" chart to a "songs" chart, and consequently every song was credited individually. "Crybaby" did not appear on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart. It debuted on the Hot 100 at number 28 following its release as a commercial single, but its minimal airplay prevented it from climbing higher. It remained in the top forty for two weeks and on the chart for seven weeks, becoming Carey's first single to miss the US top twenty. ## Music video The song's music video was directed by Sanaa Hamri, who also directed the video for "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)." Both videos were shot back to back, and were released simultaneously to music programs and channels for immediate circulation. The video begins with Carey lying in her bed, as she receives a text message from Snoop Dogg reading "Yo what's happening? What you crying for? Now you know you look 2 damn good 2 be crying... Come here... Holla at a playa DPG style... Ya know," to which Carey responds "I can't sleep." As the video progresses as the lyrics continue, it appears to be 5 AM, and Carey is still unable to sleep. She lies in bed with the lamp on, pondering on thoughts of a past lover until she takes a bath. Afterwards, she makes her way to the kitchen, and begins pouring an abundant amount of cereal and milk into a bowl, spilling it over the counter in a restless rage. As the scene finishes, Snoop's face is seen on a small monitor, directing his verse to Carey in the video. As the last chorus plays, Carey becomes restless and tosses a champagne glass and bottle at a large window, shattering it and sending glass around the living room. The video ends with Carey lying down on the couch one more, attempting to sleep once more. ## Live performances Carey performed "Crybaby" live during every show on the Rainbow World Tour. For the song's performances, the stage was set with a large bed, pillows and comforters, as well as a small desk and homely props. Carey, dressed in pajamas, sang while re-enacting segments of the video. During her performance at Madison Square Garden on April 11, 2000, she threw the audience small stuffed bears and completed the song while lying in the bed on stage. After the song's bridge, Snoop's pre-recorded verse was played over the background vocals. The song was also performed on select nights of The Elusive Chanteuse Show tour in 2014. The most recent performance of the song however, was on Carey Vegas residency, The Butterfly Returns. ## Track listing and formats - US CD Single 1. "Crybaby" (Radio Edit) – 4:31 2. "Crybaby" (Album Version) – 5:19 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the Rainbow liner notes. - Mariah Carey – songwriting, co-producer, vocals - Snoop Dogg – songwriting, vocals - Damizza – co-production - Teddy Riley – songwriting - Aaron Hall – songwriting - Timmy Gatling – songwriting - Gene Griffin – songwriting - Nicki Richards – backing vocals - Ronnie King – Moog - Michael Scheshingen – mixer - Ashburn Bernie Miller – engineer - Brian Nolen – MIDI editor - Jeff Burns – assistant engineer - Pete Karem – assistant engineer - Bod Ludwig – mastering ## Charts ## Release history	[ "## Background and composition", "### Label dispute", "## Reception", "### Critical reception", "### Commercial performance", "## Music video", "## Live performances", "## Track listing and formats", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "## Release history" ]	1,740	2,026
31,716,306	Steam devil	1,132,968,617	Type of whirlwind	[ "Types of cyclone", "Wind" ]	A steam devil is a small, weak whirlwind over water (or sometimes wet land) that has drawn fog into the vortex, thus rendering it visible. They form over large lakes and oceans during cold air outbreaks while the water is still relatively warm, and can be an important mechanism in vertically transporting moisture. They are a component of sea smoke. Smaller steam devils and steam whirls can form over geyser basins even in warm weather because of the very high water temperatures. Although observations of steam devils are generally quite rare, hot springs in Yellowstone Park produce them on a daily basis. Steam devils have only been reported and studied since the 1970s. They are weaker than waterspouts and distinct from them. The latter are more akin to weak tornadoes over water. ## Naming Steam devils were first reported by Lyons and Pease in 1972 concerning their observations of Lake Michigan in January 1971. This month was a particularly cold one for Wisconsin (one of the coldest in the 20th century) which, combined with Lake Michigan staying mostly ice-free, produced good conditions for steam devil formation. Lyons and Pease named steam devils by comparison to the dust devils on land to which they have a comparable size and structure. They were also motivated by the need to distinguish steam devils from the much more powerful waterspout whose land equivalent is the tornado. Lyons and Pease wrote their article with the aim of persuading the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to include steam devils in the International Field Year for the Great Lakes which was imminently to occur in 1972–3. ## Appearance Steam devils are vortices typically about 50 to 200 metres in diameter, essentially vertical, and up to 500 metres high. The general shape is like a small waterspout but they should not be considered related. Steam devils rotate with a cyclonic direction of motion, but not very fast or powerfully, usually just a few rotations per minute, and sometimes apparently not at all. There is usually a well-defined inner part of the rotating column of steam and a more ragged outer part from which clumps of steam often detach. Rather smaller steam devils can form over small lakes, especially the warm water in the hot springs of geyser basins. In these cases typical dimensions are a metre or so diameter, but can vary from less than 0.1 to 2 metres, and a height of 2 to 30 metres with a somewhat faster rotation of 60 rpm or so. The central core of the steam devil can be clear, in the same sense that the centre of a dust devil is clear of dust. The core is around 10% of the width of the rotating column. The sky above the steam devils may be clear, or there may be cumulus clouds present. In some cases the steam devils may rise directly into the cumulus, in these cases the cumulus may actually be caused by the steam devils - see below. Steam devils are a rare and short-lived phenomenon, typically surviving no more than three or four minutes, and the smaller ones over hot springs dissipating in a matter of seconds. Steam devils can become detached from their base and be blown downstream by the wind. On small bodies of water such as hot springs this can mean that the steam devil ends up over land away from the water altogether. Such steam devils continue to rotate even after they have become detached from the source of heat, but will soon dissipate. Very small steam devils may have a poorly defined column and no identifiable clear inner core. Such vortices are more properly called steam whirls by analogy with the dust whirls of land. ## Formation A precondition for the formation of steam devils is the presence of a layer of moist air on the water with the misty air (called arctic steam fog) being drawn upwards into fog streamers (non-rotating columns of steam fog). For this to happen the body of water must be unfrozen, and thus relatively warm, and there must be some wind of cold, dry air to form the fog. The cold air is warmed by the water and is humidified by evaporation. The warmed air begins to rise, and as it does so is cooled adiabatically by the falling pressure causing the water vapour content to condense out into fog streamers. For steam devils to form the air above the body of water must be very cold, and a fairly brisk (over 25 mph) wind of dry air needs to be blowing across the surface of the water. The temperature difference between the water and the air needs to be quite marked; the steam devils in figure 1 were forming with an air temperature of -21 °C (-6 °F) and a water temperature of 0.5 °C (33 °F) - a difference of 22 °C (39 °F). Under these conditions the air rises so energetically that the air flow becomes unstable and vortices start to form. Fog streamers drawn into the vortices render the vortices visible and they then become steam devils. The steam fog tends to form irregular hexagonal cells in the horizontal plane which are elongated in the direction of the wind. In this honeycomb arrangement, three cells meet at a junction, and it is in these places that the steam devils form. This effect of vortex formation at the vertices of hexagonal cells is an example of vertex vortices. The layer of cumulus seen above steam devils during cold air outbreaks on Lake Michigan and elsewhere may not be coincidental. Airborne radar studies during cold air outbreaks on the lake have shown that some steam devils penetrate through the thermal internal boundary layer (below which convective circulation takes place) and may be more significant for thermal mixing than normal convection, transporting moist air vertically above the convection boundary. The resulting large scale view is a layer of arctic steam fog close to the water surface, a layer of cumulus just above the convection boundary and a regular array of steam devils joining the two. ## Occurrences Steam devils are seen on the Great Lakes in early winter. They occur in the Atlantic off the coast of the Carolinas when cold air from the continent blows across the Gulf Stream. Steam devils can occur on small lakes and even over hot springs, but rather more rarely than on large bodies of water. It is also possible for steam devils to form over wet land if the air is cold and the sun is heating the ground. Small steam devils occur at some of the larger hot springs in Yellowstone Park where a layer of steam fog hangs over the pools and wind can start to lift it up into fog streamers. One such example is the Grand Prismatic Spring in the Yellowstone Midway Geyser Basin. The air temperature can be high in terms of human comfort when the steam devils form. In 1982 a cluster of seventeen steam devils was observed when the air temperature was between 17 and 21 °C. Although this is much higher than, for instance, the temperature of the air over the Great Lakes, the water temperature is also proportionately higher, being very close to boiling, so the temperature difference is still 79 °C. Another well known location in Yellowstone, the Old Faithful geyser, produces horizontal steam devils. In all, Yellowstone probably has the most frequent occurrences of accessible steam devils anywhere. Several steam devils are produced every hour at the most productive locations. Steam devils over geyser basins were first reported by Holle in 1977. ## See also - Fire whirl - Gustnado - Landspout - Sea smoke - Dust devil	[ "## Naming", "## Appearance", "## Formation", "## Occurrences", "## See also" ]	1,594	36,930
47,656,050	French destroyer Jaguar	1,057,595,227	French Chacal-class destroyer	[ "1923 ships", "Chacal-class destroyers", "Maritime incidents in May 1940", "Ships built in France", "World War II shipwrecks in the English Channel" ]	The French destroyer Jaguar was a Chacal-class destroyer (contre-torpilleur) built for the French Navy during the 1920s. She spent most of her pre-World War II career as a flagship for various destroyer units. The ship was assigned convoy escort duties in the Atlantic after the start of the World War II in September 1939 until she was badly damaged during a collision in January 1940. Five months later, after her repairs were completed, she was committed to the English Channel after the Battle of France began in May 1940. Jaguar was torpedoed by German E-boats on 23 May and had to beach herself; her wreck was written off as unrepairable. ## Design and description The Chacal-class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone-class destroyers. They had an overall length of 126.8 meters (416 ft 0 in), a beam of 11.1 meters (36 ft 5 in), and a draft of 4.1 meters (13 ft 5 in). The ships displaced 2,126 metric tons (2,092 long tons) at standard and 2,980–3,075 metric tons (2,933–3,026 long tons) at deep load. They were powered by two geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by five du Temple boilers. The turbines were designed to produce 50,000 metric horsepower (37,000 kW; 49,000 shp), which would propel the ship at 35.5 knots (65.7 km/h; 40.9 mph). During her sea trials on 18 May 1926, Jaguar's turbines provided 57,850 metric horsepower (42,550 kW; 57,060 shp) and she reached 35.27 knots (65.32 km/h; 40.59 mph) for a single hour. The ships carried 530 metric tons (522 long tons) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3,000 nautical miles (5,600 km; 3,500 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime. Jaguar was unique among the Chacals in being fitted to serve as a flagship and equipped to accommodate the admiral and his staff of four officers. The main armament of the Chacal-class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm Modèle 1919 guns in single mounts, one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel. The guns were numbered '1' to '5' from front to rear. Their anti-aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships. The ships carried two above-water triple sets of 550-millimeter (21.7 in) torpedo tubes. A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern; these housed a total of twenty 200-kilogram (440 lb) depth charges. They were also fitted with four depth-charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100-kilogram (220 lb) depth charges. ## Construction and career Jaguar, named after the eponymous feline, was ordered on 18 April 1922 from the Arsenal de Lorient. She was laid down on 24 August 1922 on No. 7 slipway, launched on 17 November 1923, completed on 7 October 1926 and entered service on 19 November. Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub-contractors. Even before she was formally completed, she participated in a Baltic cruise in mid-1926 and visited Dakar, French West Africa in December. She made another port visit in April 1927 at Seville, Spain. The following month she was one of the ships that escorted Gaston Doumergue, President of France, across the English Channel during his state visit to Britain. Jaguar then accompanied the light cruiser Lamotte-Picquet as she visited Dakar and Buenos Aires, Argentina between June and September. The ship became the flagship of the Group of Torpedo Boat Flotillas (later redesignated as the 1st Torpedo Boat Flotilla) of the 1st Squadron (1ere Escadre), based at Toulon, on 1 May 1928. Two months later, she hosted Doumerge as he reviewed the fleet off Le Havre on 3 July. Two years later, the ship participated in the naval review at Algiers on 10 May 1930 commemorating the centenary of the first French landing in Algeria on 13 June 1830. The four depth charge throwers were removed in 1932. About two years later, the 75-millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13.2-millimeter (0.5 in) anti-aircraft machineguns. Jaguar became the flagship of the 2nd Torpedo Boat Flotilla of the 2nd Squadron (2e Escadre) at Brest on 5 July 1935. After completing their maneuvers, the combined Brest and Toulon squadrons, including Jaguar, were reviewed in the Baie de Douarnenez by the Naval Minister, François Piétri, on 27 June 1936. The following year, the ship participated in the fleet review by the new Navy Minister, Alphonse Gasnier-Duparc, off Brest on 27 May 1937. The ship was relieved as flagship on 26 September, but temporarily resumed her former role from 1 March to 22 June 1939 while Bison was under repair after a collision. When the war started in September 1939, Jaguar belonged to the 2nd Large Destroyer Division (2e division de contre-torpilleur) (DCT) with her sisters Chacal and Léopard. Between October and December, the ship had two depth-charge throwers reinstalled, No. 3 gun removed, and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability. She was assigned to the Western Command (Forces maritimes de l'Ouest) for convoy escort duties from October to January 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca, French Morocco, and Le Verdon-sur-Mer. On the night of 16/17 January 1940, Jaguar was accidentally rammed by the British destroyer Keppel. The collision killed one crewman aboard the French ship and Keppel's bow penetrated all the way to Jaguar's midline. The ship was able to reach Brest on 19 January to begin repairs that lasted until early May. She had a British Type 123 ASDIC installed in March and was fitted with degaussing equipment the following month. After the beginning of the Battle of France on 10 May, the 2nd DCT was transferred to the English Channel to support British forces there. On 23 May, entering Dunkirk harbor with a demolition team aboard, Jaguar was struck by a torpedo fired by either the E-boat S-21 or S-23. The detonation killed 13 men and wounded 23; the ship had to be beached at Malo-les-Bains lest she sink, and was written off.	[ "## Design and description", "## Construction and career" ]	1,567	27,627
485,621	HMS Howe (32)	1,154,913,575	King George V-class battleship of the Royal Navy	[ "1940 ships", "King George V-class battleships (1939)", "Ships built on the River Clyde", "World War II battleships of the United Kingdom" ]	HMS Howe (pennant number 32) was the last of the five British King George V-class battleships of the Royal Navy. Built by Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, she was laid down on 1 June 1937 and launched 9 April 1940. She was originally to have been named Beatty but this was changed to Howe, after Admiral Richard Howe. Howe was completed on 29 August 1942 after her building time was extended, as supplies were diverted to work of a higher priority such as the construction and repair of merchant ships and escort ships. Like her sister-ship HMS Anson, Howe spent most of her career in the Arctic providing cover for Russian convoys. In 1943, Howe took part in Operation Husky and bombarded Trapani naval base and Favignana in support of the Allied landings. Along with King George V, Howe escorted two surrendered Italian battleships to Alexandria. Howe was also sent to the Pacific and attached to the British Pacific Fleet (Task Force 113), where she provided naval bombardments for the Allied landings at Okinawa on 1 April 1945. After the war, Howe spent four years as flagship of the Training Squadron at Portland, before she was placed in reserve in 1950. The battleship was marked for disposal in 1957, sold for scrap in 1958 and broken up by 1961. ## Construction In the aftermath of the First World War, the Washington Naval Treaty was drawn up in 1922 in an effort to stop an arms race developing between Britain, Japan, France, Italy and the United States. This treaty limited the number of ships each nation was allowed to build and capped the tonnage of all capital ships at 35,000 tons. These restrictions were extended in 1930 through the Treaty of London, however, by the mid-1930s Japan and Italy had withdrawn from both of these treaties and the British became concerned about a lack of modern battleships within their navy. As a result, the Admiralty ordered the construction of a new battleship class: the King George V class. Due to the provisions of both the Washington Naval Treaty and the Treaty of London, both of which were still in effect when the King George Vs were being designed, the main armament of the class was limited to the 14-inch (356 mm) guns prescribed under these instruments. They were the only battleships built at that time to adhere to the treaty and even though it soon became apparent to the British that the other signatories to the treaty were ignoring its requirements, it was too late to change the design of the class before they were laid down in 1937. The keel of Howe, the last ship of the King George V class, was laid on 1 June 1937 at the Fairfield Shipyard in Govan. She was originally to have been named HMS Beatty, after Admiral David Beatty, commander of the British battlecruiser squadron at the Battle of Jutland, but the name was changed to HMS Howe, after Admiral Richard Howe. Howe was launched on 9 April 1940 and completed on 20 August 1942. She carried improved anti-aircraft armament and radar equipment as a result of lessons already learned in World War II. ## Design Howe displaced 39,150 long tons (39,780 t) as built and 44,510 long tons (45,220 t) fully loaded. She had an overall length of 744 feet 11.5 inches (227.1 m), a beam of 103 feet (31.4 m) and a draught of 29 feet 6 inches (9.0 m). Her designed metacentric height was 6 feet 1 inch (1.85 m) at normal load and 8 feet 1 inch (2.46 m) at deep load. The ship was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving four propeller shafts. Steam was provided by eight Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers, which normally delivered 100,000 shaft horsepower (75,000 kW) but could produce 110,000 shp (82,000 kW) at emergency overload. This gave Howe a top speed of 27.62 knots (51.15 km/h; 31.78 mph). The ship carried 4,210 long tons (4,300 t) of fuel oil. She also carried 183 long tons (200 t) of diesel oil, 262 long tons (300 t) of reserve feed water and 442 long tons (400 t) of freshwater. At full speed Howe had a range of 2,600 nautical miles (4,800 km; 3,000 mi) at 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph). ### Armament Howe mounted 10 BL 14-inch (356 mm) Mk VII guns. The 14-inch guns were mounted in one Mark II twin turret forward and two Mark III quadruple turrets, one forward and one aft. The guns could be elevated 40 degrees and depressed 3 degrees. Training arcs were: turret "A", 286 degrees; turret "B", 270 degrees; turret "Y", 270 degrees. Training and elevating was done by hydraulic drives, with rates of two and eight degrees per second, respectively. A full gun broadside weighed 15,950 pounds (7,230 kg), and a salvo could be fired every 40 seconds. The secondary armament consisted of 16 QF 5.25-inch (133 mm) Mk I guns which were mounted in eight twin mounts, weighing 81 tons each. The maximum range of the Mk I guns was 24,070 yd (22,010 m) at 45 degrees with HE shell at 2,672 ft/s (814 m/s), the anti-aircraft ceiling was 49,000 feet (14,935.2 m). The guns could be elevated to 70 degrees and depressed to 5 degrees. The nominal rate of fire was ten to twelve rounds per minute, but in practice the guns could only fire seven to eight rounds per minute. Upon commissioning, along with her main and secondary batteries, Howe carried 48 QF 2 pdr 1.575-inch (40.0 mm) Mk.VIII "pom-pom" anti-aircraft guns and 18 20 mm (0.8 in) Oerlikon AA guns ## Operational history ### Home Fleet Howe joined the Home Fleet on 30 August 1942, her building time extended, owing to more urgent demands of the industry. Like her sister ship Anson, she spent the early years of her combat career in Arctic waters, covering convoys bound for Russia. On 31 December 1942, Howe and her sister ship King George V provided distant cover for convoy RA 51, which safely arrived in Loch Ewe on 9 January 1943. Howe and King George V also provided distant cover for convoy RA 53 on 1 March 1943 and helped to recover merchantmen whose ships had been sunk. In 1943 Howe was transferred to Gibraltar with King George V to take part in Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily; the US battleships Alabama and South Dakota substituted for their absence from the Home Fleet. The two British ships shelled Trapani naval base and Favignana during 11–12 July. Based in Algiers, the pair also offered cover during Operation Avalanche—the Allied landings at Salerno—setting out on 7 September. On 14 September Howe and King George V escorted the surrendered Italian battleships Vittorio Veneto and Italia to Alexandria. By the end of October 1943, Howe and King George V had returned to Britain. At the end of year, Howe underwent a long overhaul at Devonport, where a number of alterations were made. Her anti-aircraft armament was increased, changes were made to her radar, and her watertight integrity in the stern was improved. Modifications were accomplished in the officers and crew quarters for operations in tropical climates; these included changes in insulation, and the extensive use of air-conditioning equipment. ### Pacific operations On 8 August 1944, Howe arrived at Trincomalee in Ceylon to join the Eastern Fleet. She was the first modern British battleship to be deployed in eastern waters since the loss of Prince of Wales in December 1941. Howe was put into action quickly, providing cover for carrier based air operations against targets in Sumatra. In December she moved to Sydney, where she sailed to Auckland, New Zealand, to show the flag. In February 1945, Howe and King George V sailed from Sydney to begin operations in earnest in the Pacific theatre; together with four carriers, five cruisers and fifteen destroyers, they made up Task Force 113. The first major undertaking for Task Force 113 (now redesignated TF.57) was Operation Iceberg—offshore support for the US landings at Okinawa—which got under way on 1 April 1945. The force was subjected to sporadic Japanese kamikaze attacks, but the two ships emerged unscathed from these actions. Howe's anti-aircraft batteries also succeeded in shooting down an attacking kamikaze plane. The two ships' principal roles were air defence and land bombardment, the latter being carried out very accurately, particularly by Howe against anti-aircraft installations on the island of Miyako, half way between Okinawa and Formosa. ### Post war By the first week of June 1945, Howe was back in Sydney, and almost immediately it was decided to send her for a refit in Durban. It was here that she saw out the remainder of the war. She was relocated back to Portsmouth by January 1946. In 1951, Howe was placed in reserve and towed to Devonport. She was ordered scrapped in 1957. On 27 May 1958, Howe was towed to Inverkeithing to be broken up by Thos. W. Ward. The Royal Navy presented the ship's bell to St Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh. In 2012, it was reported that parts from one of the gun turrets may still exist, having been re-used as a turntable at Dounreay nuclear laboratory. ## Refits During her career, Howe was refitted on several occasions to bring her equipment up to date: ## Artefacts A large model of HMS Howe, from her builder around the time she was laid down, is on display in the Riverside Museum in Glasgow.	[ "## Construction", "## Design", "### Armament", "## Operational history", "### Home Fleet", "### Pacific operations", "### Post war", "## Refits", "## Artefacts" ]	2,200	14,599
65,943,604	4F case	1,135,787,571	Spanish judicial scandal	[ "2000s in Barcelona", "2010s in Barcelona", "Anarchism in Spain", "Squatting in Spain" ]	The 4F case concerns the events of 4 February 2006 in Barcelona, in which a policeman patrolling outside a rave was paralyzed after being hit by a falling object and nine people were arrested in consequence. At a trial two years later, seven people were convicted, one of whom was then pardoned. On appeal to the Supreme Court, the sentences were lengthened and one person committed suicide. The 4F case caused controversy and resulted in a film, Ciutat Morta, which argued that those convicted were not responsible for the policeman's injury. The film was viewed over 500,000 times when screened on Catalan television, which then created a further debate both about the case and more general issues such as police violence and gentrification in Barcelona. New mayor Ada Colau pledged to reform the Guàrdia Urbana and an investigation decided not to overturn the convictions. ## 4 February On the night of Saturday, 4 February (4F) 2006, a rave was happening at the Anarkopenya squat at 55 Calle Sant Pere Mès Baix in the Ciutat Vella district of Barcelona. It had been occupied since 2002. When the Guàrdia Urbana (municipal police) patrolled the area, objects including flowerpots were thrown from the roof. One policeman was hit on the head and fell unconscious. He became tetraplegic and has never spoken publicly about the events. The police began to arrest people on the street including three men of Latin American ancestry with European passports, namely Alex Cisternas, Rodrigo Lanza and Juan Pintos. In total, there were nine arrests. According to the later testimony of Lanza and Pintos, the three men were beaten and tortured at the police station; their injuries were so bad that they were taken to Hospital del Mar [es]. At the hospital, the police officers encountered Patricia Heras and Alfredo Pestenas, who had gone there after a bicycle crash elsewhere in the city; they checked their phones and decided to arrest them also. ## Trial At trial in 2008, seven people were convicted of their charges and were sentenced to between three and five years in prison. Mayor Joan Clos had said on 5 February 2006 that the policeman had been injured by a flowerpot thrown from the roof of the squat. If he had given evidence to that effect, the prosecution case would have fallen apart, but he changed his story to say that the policeman was hit by a stone. A forensic report which confirmed that the policeman had been hit by an object falling from above was submitted to trial but ignored by the judge. The group of three men had already served two years and therefore could be released, then on appeal to the Supreme Court of Spain their sentences were increased so they went back to jail. Cisternas was sent to Cárcel Modelo in Madrid. Despite the two having been charged and convicted together, Alfredo Pestenas was pardoned and Patricia Heras was not. She received a three-year sentence and whilst on release in April 2011, she killed herself by jumping off a balcony. ## Ciutat Morta Soon after Heras had committed suicide in 2011, Xavier Artigas and Xapo Ortega met at the beginning of the 15M movement at Plaça de Catalunya and decided to make a short film commemorating her life. This project then became the film Ciutat Morta. It challenged the official narrative about the events of 4 February and suggested the people convicted were not guilty of any offences, but rather guilty of being "incívicos", namely people who were considered "uncivil" since they were assumed to be skateboarders, street drinkers, sex workers or squatters. The film accuses the police, the justice system and the doctors of permitting torture. It premiered at a squatted cinema and when it was eventually shown on Catalan television in 2015, it received over 500,000 views. After the directors mentioned the testimony of an anonymous witness who knew who the person who had thrown the projectile and could testify that it was not any of the people convicted, calls were made to re-open the case. A representative of the Colegio de Abogados de Barcelona (Barcelona Bar Association) said there were now enough reasons to do so. Mayor Xavier Trias affirmed his faith in the actions of the police and Jordi Hereu who at the time had been responsible for security said he had taken the right actions, but if there was new evidence it should be looked at. The city council asked the public prosecutor to watch the film to see if the case should be reopened, a motion supported by Cs, ERC, ICV and Guanyem Barcelona. The Catalan Parliament then recommended that the convictions were reviewed. A demonstration was held on 4 February 2015 in which thousands of people marched through Barcelona to mourn the death of Heras and to denounce the 4F convictions. ## Later convictions Two of the police officers alleged to have beaten up the three Latin American men were Bakari Samyang and Victor Bayona. In October 2014, they were themselves convicted and imprisoned for assaulting and torturing a student from Trinidad and Tobago who was the son of a diplomat. In 2006, the two off-duty police officers had been challenged by the student because they were harassing a woman in a bar. They took him to a police station and tortured him, resulting in an official complaint. The two officers were imprisoned for two years and three months. Rodrigo Lanza was imprisoned for five years after a 2017 barfight in Zaragoza with a man who had been a member of the far-right party Falange Española de las JONS since the 1980s. The man was struck and fell over, later dying of his injuries. In 2020, Lanza's sentence was increased to 20 years and two years later it was reduced to 18.5. ## Legacy The 4F case and Ciutat Morta generated a lengthy public debate, which broadened from the voicing of concerns regarding the innocence of those convicted into a discussion about the moral state of the city of Barcelona. As part of the gentrification of Barcelona, Mayor Joan Clos had introduced the Plan for the Promotion of Civic Virtues which penalised behaviours such as begging, skateboarding, public urination and prostitution. Framing these actions as a matter of public hygiene, almost 150 fines were issued every day. The 4F case challenged this discourse and an investigation by journalists from La Directa which accompanied the film Ciutat Morta noted that it was curious that a building owned by the city council of Barcelona, which was in a residential area and had been occupied purely for raves without a connection to the political squatting movement, had been tolerated for several years without being evicted. The journalists suggested it had been deliberately left alone in order to make the neighbours move away as part of a gentrification process. On the issue of police violence, a professor of social anthropology asserted there had been no change in police tactics since the end of the Franco dictatorship. Amnesty International released a report in 2007 which condemned both the impunity of police officers from prosecution and the bias of judges. Under a new administration led by Ada Colau, the city council of Barcelona pledged to make a new behavioural code for the Guàrdia Urbana which would encompass video surveillance in all custody areas and the right for arrestees to see a doctor unaccompanied by an officer. An investigation into police wrongdoing was stymied by the disappearance of all documents related to the case and as of 2017, no convictions had been overturned. The policeman struck by the projectile was awarded the Police Merit Cross in 2013. The book Ciutat Morta: Cronica del Caso del 4F (Dead City: Chronicle of the 4F Case) was released exactly ten years after the original incident. The 4F case returned to the attention of local media in 2020, when the city council refused to withdraw its prize of the City Award of Barcelona [ca] for the directors of the film, following the increase in the sentence for Rodrigo Lanza's Zaragoza conviction.	[ "## 4 February", "## Trial", "## Ciutat Morta", "## Later convictions", "## Legacy" ]	1,701	12,130
8,960,520	Holby City (series 1)	1,150,117,746	British medical drama television series	[ "1999 British television seasons", "Holby City series" ]	The first series of the British medical drama television series Holby City commenced airing in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 12 January 1999, and concluded on 9 March 1999. The show was created by Mal Young and Tony McHale as a spin–off from the BBC medical drama Casualty, intended to follow the treatment of patients from Casualty as they were transferred onto the hospital's surgical wards. McHale served as the programme's lead writer throughout the first series, which ran for nine episodes. Young cast actors who were already established names in the acting industry, particularly from a soap opera background. Several cast members shadowed real surgeons and nurses in preparation for their roles to increase the show's realism. The series received mixed reviews from critics. It was compared favourably with Casualty, but received negative reviews in which it was contrasted poorly with the American medical drama ER. The series première attracted 10.72 million viewers, falling to 8.51 million by the series finale. The series focuses on the hospital's cardithoracic ward, Darwin. Department heads and consultant surgeons Anton Meyer (George Irving) and Muriel McKendrick (Phyllis Logan) clash frequently over patient care and division of beds. Tension arises between nurses Julie Fitzjohn (Nicola Stephenson) and Jasmine Hopkins (Angela Griffin) over the position of Darwin ward sister. Registrar Nick Jordan (Michael French) clashes professionally with his estranged wife Karen Newburn (Sarah Preston), and pursues relationships with registrar Kirstie Collins (Dawn McDaniel) and theatre sister Ellie Sharpe (Julie Saunders). Ward clerk Paul Ripley (Luke Mably) resigns after being caught kissing a comatose patient, and house officer Victoria Merrick (Lisa Faulkner) begins taking amphetamines to cope with the pressures of work. In the series finale, Jasmine is stabbed by thieves, and Nick endeavours to save her life in theatre. ## Production Holby City was created by Tony McHale and Mal Young as a spin–off from the long–running BBC medical drama Casualty. Young wanted to explore what happened to patients treated in Casualty once they were taken away to the hospital's surgical wards. While Casualty's scope is limited to "accident of the week" storylines about patients entering hospital, Holby City allowed the possibility of storylines about long–term care, rather than immediate life and death decisions. Although both shows are set in the same hospital, the Casualty set in Bristol was not large enough to encompass the surgical ward and operating theatre required for Holby City, so the series was produced at the BBC Elstree Centre just north of London. As a result, some crossover scenes had to be shot twice, first on the Casualty set and then again at Elstree, with cast members travelling between the two locations. McHale wrote the series' first episode, and served as the show's lead writer. Holby City premiered on 12 January 1999 on BBC One. Its first series ran for nine episodes of 50 minutes in length, which were broadcast first in the 8.10 pm, then 8 pm timeslot on Tuesdays. ## Cast ### Overview The first series of Holby City featured an ensemble cast of characters in the medical profession, who worked on the hospital's Darwin Ward. Phyllis Logan and George Irving played consultants Muriel McKendrick and Anton Meyer. Michael French and Dawn McDaniel appeared as registrars Nick Jordan and Kirstie Collins, while Lisa Faulkner played senior house officer Victoria Merrick. Sarah Preston and Angela Griffin played ward sisters Karen Newburn and Jasmine Hopkins. Nicola Stephenson appeared as nurse Julie Fitzjohn, and Ian Curtis played senior staff nurse Ray Sykes. Julie Saunders played theatre sister Ellie Sharpe, and Luke Mably appeared as ward clerk Paul Ripley. Logan, Saunders and Mably all departed from Holby City during the course of the series. The series also included walk–on performances by Casualty cast members, including Derek Thompson as nurse Charlie Fairhead, and guest appearances by characters first seen in Casualty, whose treatment was continued on Holby City. In casting the first series of Holby City, Young—who had previously worked on the soap operas Brookside and Family Affairs—selected actors who were already established names in the acting industry, particularly from a soap opera background. French had starred in the BBC's EastEnders, while Stephenson and Faulkner had starred in Brookside. Griffin had also appeared in ITV's Coronation Street. Young explained: "Some of the best performances on screen have come out of soaps in the past few years. There is a fantastic amount of talent on those shows." Cast members observed the staff at real hospitals in preparation for their roles. Stephenson and Griffin spent time at Watford Hospital, where they underwent a crash course in nursing basics, including handling bed pans and learning to make beds with hospital corners. Irving observed coronary artery bypass surgery performed at Papworth and Middlesex Hospital, while French shadowed a consultant and registrar at Papworth Hospital, observing a heart bypass and lung biopsy procedure. Young explained that viewers believe in Casualty and trust the show to be realistic, and that he wanted Holby City to be the same in that regard. ### Main characters - Ian Curtis as Ray Sykes - Lisa Faulkner as Victoria Merrick (from episode 2) - Michael French as Nick Jordan - Angela Griffin as Jasmine Hopkins - George Irving as Anton Meyer - Phyllis Logan as Muriel McKendrick (episodes 2−9) - Luke Mably as Paul Ripley (until episode 2) - Dawn McDaniel as Kirstie Collins - Sarah Preston as Karen Newburn (from episode 2) - Julie Saunders as Ellie Sharpe (until episode 9) - Nicola Stephenson as Julie Fitzjohn ### Recurring and guest characters - Jan Anderson as Chloe Hill (episode 1−2) - Alex Avery as Carl (from episode 5) - Fraser James as Peter Ellis (episodes 1 and 6) - Vincenzo Pellegrino as Derek "Sunny" Sunderland (episodes 1−2, 8−9) - Derek Thompson as Charlie Fairhead (episode 1) - Jonathan Kerrigan as Sam Colloby (episode 2) - Susan Cookson as Julie Day (episode 9) - Claire Goose as Tina Seabrook (episode 3) ## Reception The series received mixed reviews from critics. Graham Keal of the Birmingham Post wrote of the first episode: "Heretical as it might seem, I liked Holby City more than Casualty, not least because the formula is so much more flexible and unpredictable." The Mirror's Charlie Catchpole wrote that he was "sick of the sensitive, hand–wringing, non–judgmental do–gooders who mope around the A&E department in Casualty", praising in comparison the "pushy, ambitious, cynical and generally thoroughly unpleasant surgeons" in Holby City. Sam Wollaston of The Guardian received the series positively, writing: "Holby City has everything you want from a hospital drama: good–looking staff, a bit of love interest, a dishy doc, the odd current issue (no beds, badly–paid nurses) and bits where you have to look away", deeming it: "Pretty good, really." Kathleen Morgan of the Daily Record praised the casting of French and Griffin, writing: "It will take a couple of episodes before both actors shake off their soapy history, but with some decent plots and good lines, they should make the grade." Morgan deemed Irving the star of the show, and commented: "With Irving in the driving seat, Holby City looks like it is on the right track." Andrew Billen of the New Statesman also found Irving as Meyer the series' "most compelling character", though deemed Holby City mediocre and its storylines "safely unoriginal". Billen compared Holby City negatively to the American medical drama ER, opining that the former show has a meandering pace in comparison to the latter's briskness, and that ER has a higher calibre of actors. The Sunday Herald also compared the series unfavourably to ER, writing that Holby City served to highlight ER's "true sophistication". Morgan refuted these negative comparisons, however, writing that: "The sign of great drama is when a scriptwriter and director can make a symphony out of a few notes and Holby City's creators have done that. It doesn't have the budget of ER, but it is proving just as compelling." ## Episodes	[ "## Production", "## Cast", "### Overview", "### Main characters", "### Recurring and guest characters", "## Reception", "## Episodes" ]	1,795	23,327
54,398,048	Nun danket all und bringet Ehr	1,167,849,616	Christian hymn by Paul Gerhardt	[ "17th-century hymns in German", "Hymn tunes", "Hymns by Paul Gerhardt", "Lutheran hymns" ]	"Nun danket all und bringet Ehr" (Now thank all and bring honour) is a German Lutheran hymn in nine stanzas, with a text written by Paul Gerhardt. It was first published in 1647, in Johann Crüger's Praxis pietatis melica which was the first publication of hymns by Gerhardt. In the 1653 edition, Crüger added a melody that he composed. As a general song of thanks, the song has appeared in several hymnals, including the German Protestant hymnal Evangelisches Gesangbuch and the Catholic hymnal Gotteslob. It has inspired musical settings by composers from the 17th to the 21st century. Johann Sebastian Bach used the first stanza in a cantata, however with the melody of "Lobt Gott, ihr Christen alle gleich", Hugo Distler composed a chorale cantata, and Günter Berger based a toccata for organ on it. ## History When Paul Gerhardt wrote "Nun danket all und bringet Ehr", he was 40 years old, had completed his theological studies but had not found a suitable position as a pastor yet. He worked as a private teacher in Berlin. The Thirty Years' War was in its final year. Nonetheless, he wrote a hymn of praise, in nine stanzas of four lines each. The song is related to a biblical passage, , expressing thanks and praise to God, and requesting further help. The same passage was the basis for the 1630 hymn "Nun danket all Gott" by Martin Rinckart, and several compositions of the 17th century. For the Lutheran Gerhardt, music was an image of heavenly bliss, and the laws of composition an image of the order of creation ("Als überzeugtem Lutheranerwar für ihn die Musik gleichsam ein vorweggenommenes Abbild himmlischer Herrlichkeit, die musikalischen Gesetze Sinnbild für die göttliche Ordnung der Schöpfung"), as he expressed in stanzas eight to eleven of his "Geh aus, mein Herz, und suche Freud". "Nun danket all und bringet Ehr" was published by Johann Crüger who was the church musician at the Nikolaikirche in Berlin. It appeared in Crüger's hymnal Praxis pietatis melica in the (lost) 1647 edition, among the first 18 songs by Gerhardt to be published, which also include the Passion hymn "Ein Lämmlein geht und trägt die Schuld", the Easter hymn "Auf, auf, mein Herz, mit Freuden", the morning song "Wach auf, mein Herz, und singe", and the evening song "Nun ruhen alle Wälder". In the 1653 edition of the hymnal, which contained 80 songs by Gerhardt, it was printed with a melody by Crüger. The hymn was sung to conclude all-day peace celebrations in Leipzig on 21 March 1763, for the Treaty of Hubertusburg. In the German Protestant hymnal Evangelisches Gesangbuch, it appears as EG 322. In the Catholic hymnal Gotteslob, it is GL 403 with stanzas 1, 2, 5, 6, 8 and 9. ## Text The text in German follows the Protestant hymnal Evangelisches Gesangbuch. Translations, which follow the rhythm rather than the literal meaning, were made by Pamela Dellal and Charles Stanford Terry. ## Melodies and settings When Crüger published the hymn in the 1647 edition of his hymnal Praxis pietatis melica, it was possibly without a melody. The hymn appears in the 1653 edition with a melody by Crüger and a figured bass. The melody is close to tunes from the Genevan Psalter, for Psalm 75 and Psalm 97, which also express thanks. The first two lines are connected, and the other two lines form a similar rhythmic pattern, with the climax at the beginning of the third line. In 1657/58, Crüger composed a four-part setting, using the melody and bass line. The tune is comfortable for congregational singing, and has been adopted for many other hymns. It became known as "Gräfenberg", which appears in 173 hymnals. The hymn is part of the Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch with the melody of "Lobt Gott, ihr Christen alle gleich". It is this melody that Johann Sebastian Bach set to close his cantata Dem Gerechten muß das Licht, BWV 195. In current German hymnals, the hymn appears with Crüger's melody. Hugo Distler composed a chorale cantata, No. 2 of his Op. 11. Ulrich Metzner composed Toccata sopra 'Nun danket all und bringet Ehr' in 2009. Günter Berger [de] wrote an organ piece, subtitled Tanz-Toccata für Orgel, published by Strube-Verlag [de] in 2015. Gaël Liardon wrote five chorale preludes in 2013.	[ "## History", "## Text", "## Melodies and settings" ]	1,099	3,524
30,663,552	William Charles Osman Hill	1,153,917,699	British anthropologist and anatomist (1901–1975)	[ "1901 births", "1975 deaths", "20th-century British anthropologists", "20th-century British zoologists", "Alumni of the University of Birmingham", "British anatomists", "British expatriate academics in Sri Lanka", "Cryptozoologists", "People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham", "Primatologists" ]	Dr William Charles Osman Hill FRSE FZS FLS FRAI (13 July 1901 – 25 January 1975) was a British anatomist, primatologist, and a leading authority on primate anatomy during the 20th century. He is best known for his nearly completed eight-volume series, Primates: Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy, which covered all living and extinct primates known at the time in full detail and contained illustrations created by his wife, Yvonne. Schooled at King Edward VI Camp Hill School for Boys in Birmingham and University of Birmingham, he went on to publish 248 works and accumulated a vast collection of primate specimens that are now stored at the Royal College of Surgeons of England. ## Early life and education William Charles Osman Hill was born on 13 July 1901 the son of James Osman Hill and his wife Fanny Martin. He was educated first at King Edward VI Camp Hill School for Boys in Birmingham, and later obtained his degrees from the University of Birmingham. During medical school, also at the University of Birmingham, he won three junior student prizes and the Ingleby Scholarship in Midwifery. He obtained his primary medical degrees in 1924, and the same year took on the role of lecturer in zoology. Osman Hill earned his MD with honours in 1925. He also earned his Ch. B while in medical school. ## Career Upon graduation, Osman Hill continued his role as a lecturer at the University of Birmingham under an apprenticeship until 1930, but teaching anatomy instead of zoology. In 1930, his career took shape when he moved to Sri Lanka, then known as Ceylon, to become both Chair of Anatomy and Professor of Anatomy at the Ceylon Medical College (more recently named Faculty of Medicine of the University of Colombo or Colombo Medical School). His position allowed him to pursue anthropological studies of the indigenous Veddah people and comparative anatomy of primates. During this time, he began developing a private menagerie of exotic and native species. Consisting mostly of a variety of primates and parrots, the collection reported included several types of cockatoo (family Cacatuidae), red-fan parrots (Deroptyus accipitrinus), eclectus parrots (Eclectus roratus), star tortoises (genus Geochelone), leopard tortoises (Stigmochelys pardalis), Galápagos tortoises (Chelonoidis nigra), and ruddy mongooses (Herpestes smithii). Osman Hill held this position in Ceylon for 14 years, returning to the UK after being appointed as Reader in Anthropology at the University of Edinburgh in 1945. Upon his departure from Ceylon, his menagerie was divided between the London Zoo and the National Zoological Gardens of Sri Lanka. Five years later in 1950, he became prosector for the Zoological Society of London and remained there for twelve years. When he left the London Zoo in 1962, the old prosectorium that has been his office was closed, many preserved biological specimens were discarded, and the era of anatomists working at the London Zoo—starting from the time of Richard Owen—came to a close. Between 1957 and 1958, Osman Hill also acted as a visiting scholar at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. Later in 1958, primatologist Jane Goodall studied primate behaviour under him in preparation for her studies of wild chimpanzees. In 1962, he was hired as the assistant director of the Yerkes National Primate Research Center (YNPRC) in Atlanta after being turned down for the position of director. The Royal Society of Edinburgh honoured him as a fellow in 1955 and for his contributions to science awarded him both its gold medal and the Macdougal-Brisbane Prize. Upon his retiring from YNPRC in 1969, the Royal College of Surgeons of England made him a Hunterian Trustee. Following retirement, Osman Hill divided his time between his home at Folkestone and his continued work at the University of Turin. His relentless work in anatomy ended only during the final stages of his terminal illness, after he had had three years of increased illness as well as diabetes. ## Publications During his career, Osman Hill wrote 248 publications, all academic journal articles or chapters in books based primarily upon his own observations. His first paper, which discussed the comparative anatomy of the pancreas, was published in 1926. In all, his works, which continued being published until the year of his death, focused on the anatomy and behaviour of humans, primates, and other mammals. Osman Hill is best known for writing Primates: Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy, an eight-volume series that aimed to include all living and extinct primates. Published by Edinburgh University between 1953 and 1974, the series was the culmination of 50 years of his scientific research and thought. Each volume, starting with the strepsirrhines, covered its subjects exhaustively, including native and scientific nomenclature, anatomical structure, genetics, behaviour and palaeontology. The books were illustrated with both photographs and drawings, most of which were made by his wife, Yvonne. The series was known for its breadth and depth, however it was never completed. Projected as a nine-volume set, Osman Hill died in 1975, leaving his magnum opus unfinished. With five sections of the final volume written, including material on the taxonomy and most of the anatomy of langurs, it was hoped that his widow would be able to follow through with plans to prepare and publish them. However, she died one year later. This monographic series often received praise for its encyclopaedic content, but was also criticised for occasional omissions, errors, and lack of specificity. ### Selected publications The eight volumes for which Osman Hill is best remembered were - Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy (1953–1974) - - - - - - - - The following is a list of other selected publications written by Osman Hill between 1926 and 1974. ## Legacy Osman Hill is remembered as a "distinguished anatomist", "eminent primatologist", and the foremost authority on primate anatomy of his time. However, he did not consider himself a primatologist, but instead related best to old-school anatomists and naturalists, who studied the entire biological world and considered their own observations and recordings as sufficient. To these ends, he used his curiosity and broad knowledge of natural history. Osman Hill was remembered for his skill at dissection, and was noted for his ability to make quick, but accurate sketches of the anatomical features his scalpel revealed. He is also remembered for his work as a "painstaking investigator", physician, and anthropologist. In his honour, two species have been named after him: Osman Hill's mangabey (Lophocebus osmani ) and the Colombo wolf snake (Lycodon osmanhilli ). The Primate Society of Great Britain named their Osman Hill Medal award after him. The award is given every two years for distinguished contributions to primatology. He is responsible for describing one subspecies of black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata), the southern black-and-white ruffed lemur (V. v. editorum) in 1952; one subspecies of toque macaque (Macaca sinica), the highland toque macaque (M. s. opisthomelas) in 1942; one subspecies of red slender loris (Loris tardigradus), the Horton Plains slender loris (L. t. nycticeboides) in 1942; and two subspecies of grey slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus), the highland slender loris (L. l. grandis) in 1932 and the dry zone slender loris (L. l. nordicus) in 1933. His extensive collection of biological primate specimens, which included tissues and skeletons, is preserved at the Royal College of Surgeons of England. ## Personal life Osman Hill married his wife, Yvonne Stranger, a barrister, in 1947. Yvonne, the only daughter of Harold Stranger KC, MP, was not only his devoted wife, but also a collaborator and illustrator of his works. The couple preferred a small, close-knit circle of friends, and the dinners they hosted for their friends included the best wines and exotic dishes, such as python stew. Yvonne died close to a year after her husband. Osman Hill was described in a memorial published in the International Journal of Primatology (1981) as being "short and rotund, with twinkling blue eyes, a quiet manner, and a strong sense of humor." He was particularly remembered for his eagerness to help young researchers. In the Journal of Medical Primatology he was described as an "entertaining companion with a quick and ready wit." In another memorial, published in the Journal of Anatomy in 1975, he was described as friendly and tolerant, as well as "a merry man, vigorous, of humane culture, having the humour and good sense natural to those bred in the Provinces: a good Englishman." He was known to value simple citizenship and academics, and held small regard for people who "aspired to monarchy." At Yerkes in Atlanta, some staff members viewed him as "the archetypical English scholar-gentleman who viewed those from the 'colonies' as a step below the British." In the British Who's Who, Osman Hill named field ornithology, botany, photography, and travel as his recreations. Other casual interests included drugstore ice cream, good eating, old buildings, and gardening with his wife.	[ "## Early life and education", "## Career", "## Publications", "### Selected publications", "## Legacy", "## Personal life" ]	2,084	9,331
25,725,050	DMT Azul	1,166,745,493	Mexican professional wrestler (born 1982)	[ "1983 births", "21st-century professional wrestlers", "AAA World Trios Champions", "CMLL World Tag Team Champions", "Living people", "Masked wrestlers", "Mexican National Trios Champions", "Mexican male professional wrestlers", "NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Champions", "Professional wrestlers from Mexico City", "The Crash Heavyweight Champions", "Unidentified wrestlers" ]	DMT Azul (born December 20, 1982) is the best known ring name of a Mexican Luchador Enmascarado, or masked professional wrestler. He is currently signed to Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide. Azul is best known for his time in Mexican professional wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL). He originally wrestled under the ring name El Romano but in 2009 he was given a new name and mask, Metro, a ring name that had been used by at least three other CMLL wrestlers before 2009. The "Metro" ring character was sponsored by the Mexico City Metro newspaper, incorporating the newspapers logo and color scheme (red and gold) in the mask and wrestling trunks. In early 2012 he was given a new image and ring name, dropping the sponsored ring name to become Diamante Azul instead. Diamante Azul is Spanish for "Blue Diamond". Diamante Azul's real name is not a matter of public record, as is often the case with masked wrestlers in Mexico where their private lives are kept a secret from the wrestling fans. He is a former NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Champion, CMLL World Tag Team Champion with Atlantis and winner of the 2012 Leyenda de Azul tournament. ## Professional wrestling career While the wrestler who would later become known as Diamante Azul has never revealed his birth name, he did unveil that he was born on December 20, 1982. Lucha libre has a long-held tradition of not revealing the birth name of masked wrestlers unless they are later unmasked. Due to the secretive nature of lucha libre it is possible that he made his wrestling debut prior to 2007 under a masked or unmasked identity that has not been revealed yet. The future Diamante Azul was trained for his professional wrestling career by Tony Salazar and Franco Columbo at Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre's (CMLL) wrestling school in Mexico City, Mexico. He made his official professional wrestling debut in 2007 under the ring name "El Romano" (Spanish for "The Roman"). He wore a mask fashioned after a Galea or Roman Soldier helmet and the original plan was for him to team up with Méssala and Calígula, two long time CMLL wrestlers who used similar Roman soldier ring characters. He only worked intermittently as El Romano in 2007 and 2008, disappearing for long stretches of time to receive further training from Salazar and Columbo. ### Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (2009–2021) #### Metro (2009–2012) On January 7, 2009, he made his debut under a new mask and ring name "Metro". The Metro character was sponsored by the major Mexico City newspaper of the same name, incorporating the newspapers logo and color scheme (Red and gold) in both the mask and the trunks worn. The "Metro" ring character was introduced in 2006 and had previously been given to young wrestlers who had yet to establish their own ring character. Throughout 2009 Metro worked in low card matches on CMLL shows, slowly advancing up the ranks to sometimes working in the semi-main event on a few shows. On December 19, 2009, it was announced by the Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico Distrito Federal ("The Mexico City Boxing and Wrestling commission") that the trio known as Poder Mexica ("Mexican Power") had been stripped of the Mexican National Trios Championship because Black Power) left CMLL, thus breaking up the team. The Commission also announced an eight team tournament to crown new trios champions. The first part of the tournament took place on December 22, 2009, and the second part of the tournament occurred on December 29. Metro was teamed up with Mascara Dorada and Stuka, Jr. for the first time ever and defeated Los Guerreros Tuareg (Arkangel de la Muerte, Loco Max and Skándalo) in the first round and Los Cancerberos del Infierno (Virus, Euforia and Polvora) in the second round to qualify for the finals. The bottom bracket took place on December 29, 2009, and saw the team of Poder Mexica (Sangre Azteca, Dragón Rojo, Jr. and Misterioso, Jr.) qualify for the final. On January 6, 2010, Mascara Dorada, Stuka, Jr. and Metro defeated Poder Mexica to become the new Mexican National Trios Champions, Metro's first professional wrestling championship. Since he was one third of the Mexican National Trios Championship team, Metro participated in the 2010 Universal Championship tournament, a 16-man tournament featuring CMLL recognized champions. Metro was part of "Block B" that competed on the August 6, 2010 Super Viernes show. He was the first wrestler eliminated in the seeding battle royal and then lost to Héctor Garza, then-reigning CMLL World Heavyweight Champion, in the first round. On November 18, 2010, Máscara Dorada announced that he was relinquishing his part of the Mexican National Trios Championship due to holding three other championships at the same time. Metro and Stuka, Jr.'s new partner would be determined in an online poll. On December 20, 2010, CMLL announced that Delta had won the poll and was now one third of the championship team, alongside Metro and Stuka, Jr. On January 9, 2011, Metro, Delta and Stuka, Jr. lost the Mexican National Trios Championship to Ángel de Oro, Diamante and Rush, who were the three other options in the online poll. On November 16, Metro formed a new group with Shocker and CMLL newcomers Titán and Tritón. #### Diamante Azul (2012–2021) On February 16, 2012, Metro was repackaged under the ring name "Diamante Azul" (Blue Diamond). He was given a blue mask, trunks and a cape, which all closely resembled the mask and ring gear of lucha libre legend Blue Demon and his successor Blue Demon, Jr. On the August 3 Super Viernes show, Diamante Azul and Atlantis defeated Dragón Rojo, Jr. and Último Guerrero to win the CMLL World Tag Team Championship. On the October 12 Super Viernes show, Diamante Azul won the 2012 Leyenda de Azul tournament, a tournament named after Blue Demon. On November 11, 2012, New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) announced that Diamante Azul and Rush would team up under the name CMLL Asesino (CMLL Assassins) for the 2012 World Tag League, that would take place from November 20 through December 2. On November 13, 2012, Atlantis and Demonio Azul lost their tag team championship to El Terrible and Tama Tonga. Diamante Azul and Rush entered the World Tag League on November 21, defeating former four-time IWGP Tag Team Champions Tencozy (Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Satoshi Kojima) in their opening match. Diamante and Rush ended the tournament on November 28, 2012, with just four points after victories over Tencozy and Masato Tanaka and Yujiro Takahashi, finishing in the last place in Group B, after losses to the teams of Toru Yano and Takashi Iizuka, K.E.S. (Lance Archer and Davey Boy Smith, Jr.), Manabu Nakanishi and Strongman and finally Shelton Benjamin and MVP. Diamante Azul and Rush finished their tour with a pay-per-view show on December 2, losing to Jado and Yoshi-Hashi in a tag team match, with Diamante Azul once again being the one pinned for the win. Diamante Azul teamed up with Rudo Euforia for the 2013 Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increibles ("National Incredible Pairs Tournament") where the concept was that rivals would team up for a tag team tournament. The team would defeat Ángel de Oro and Ephesto in the first round of the tournament, but lost to Atlantis and Último Guerrero in the second round. On June 4, Diamante Azul defeated Rey Bucanero to win the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship, his first singles championship. In November 2014, Diamante Azul moved to France with his family. After not returning to CMLL for three months, the promotion stripped him of the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship in February 2015. In June 2015 Diamante Azul returned to CMLL, earning the right to face Rey Bucanero for the NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship that he had previously been stripped off, but lost the match. He worked for CMLL in June and July 2015, then was not seen in a CMLL ring until November 2015. Diamante Azul returned to Mexico May 2016, resuming his work with CMLL as well as the CMLL-affiliated Elite Pro promotion. In his first match back in Mexico he competed for the Elite Heavyweight Championship in an eight-man battle royal. Diamante Azul was the fourth man eliminated by eventual match and championship winner Cibernético. On June 5, Diamante Azul teamed up with Atlantis once more, with the team losing to reigning CMLL World Tag Team Champions Negro Casas and Shocker. On June 9, 2016, Diamante Azul worked as a rudo (a heel, someone who portrays the bad guy in wrestling) for the first time as he teamed up with Mr. Niebla and Rey Escorpión, losing to the team of Golden Magic, Ángel de Oro and Carístico. The following show he was back to working on the tecnico side (the "face" side, those that portray the good guys). In the fall of 2016 Diamante Azule was one of sixteen participants in the 2016 Leyenda de Azul ("The Blue Legend") torneo cibernetico elimination match. Unlike the 2012 Leyenda de Azul, Diamante Azul was eliminated about half-way through the match. On March 17, 2017, at Homenaje a Dos Leyendas, Diamante Azul defeated Pierroth in a Mask vs. Mask Lucha de Apuestas. On September 1, Diamante Azul won the 2017 International Gran Prix by last eliminating Michael Elgin. On March 13, 2018, Azul lost the Occidente Heavyweight Championship against Furia Roja. Diamante Azul would left CMLL in May 2021, since he felt his career in CMLL was going to nowhere. ### Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (2021–present) On May 1, 2021, Diamante Azul made his debut in rival promotion debut AAA at Rey de Reyes event attacking Psycho Clown, Chessman and Pagano. That same fight he allied himself with Puma King and Sam Adonis forming a stable called La Empresa (The Enterprise). ### International Wrestling Revolution Group (2021–present) Azul would makes his debut for International Wrestling Revolution Group on May 5, 2021, now going as DMT Azul. On May 9, Azul faced El Hijo de Canis Lupus in a match for the IWRG Rey del Ring championship. Azul was disqualified when he performed a Piledriver on Hijo de Canis Lupus. Since it's a banned move in Mexico, Lupus won the title. ## Metro: A shared identity Several CMLL wrestlers have worked under the sponsored ring name "Metro", the most recent Metro was generally referred to as "Metro (III)" in writing but none of them are officially numbered nor promoted as separate wrestlers. - Metro (I) – The first Metro who used the name in 2005 and 2006. Later wrestled under the name Fabián el Gitano until his death. - Metro (Guadalajara) – Worked as Metro around the same time as Metro I, but only worked in CMLL's Farm league in Guadalajara, Jalisco. Now works under the ring name Azazel. - Metro (II) – Worked as Metro in 2006 and 2007. Currently wrestles as Neutrón. ## Championships and accomplishments - Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre \CMLL World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Atlantis, with Valiente \Distrito Federal Heavyweight Championship (1 time) \Mexican National Trios Championship (1 time) – with Stuka, Jr. and Máscara Dorada/Delta \Mexican National Heavyweight Championship (1 time) \NWA World Historic Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) \Occidente Heavyweight Championship (1 time) \International Gran Prix (2017) \Leyenda de Azul (2012) \Torneo Parejas Increíbles Puebla (2019) – with Tiger - Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide - AAA World Trios Championship (1 time) – with Puma King and Sam Adonis - Pro Wrestling Illustrated \Ranked No. 228 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2019 - The Crash Lucha Libre - The Crash Heavyweight Championship (1 time, current) ## Luchas de Apuestas record	[ "## Professional wrestling career", "### Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (2009–2021)", "#### Metro (2009–2012)", "#### Diamante Azul (2012–2021)", "### Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (2021–present)", "### International Wrestling Revolution Group (2021–present)", "## Metro: A shared identity", "## Championships and accomplishments", "## Luchas de Apuestas record" ]	2,909	20,385
59,114,584	Come Out and Play (Billie Eilish song)	1,143,210,635	2018 single by Billie Eilish	[ "2010s ballads", "2018 singles", "2018 songs", "Billie Eilish songs", "Interscope Records singles", "Pop ballads", "Song recordings produced by Finneas O'Connell", "Songs written by Billie Eilish", "Songs written by Finneas O'Connell" ]	"Come Out and Play" is a song by American singer-songwriter Billie Eilish. It was released for digital download and streaming as a single on November 20, 2018, through Darkroom and Interscope Records. Eilish wrote the song with its producer, her brother Finneas O'Connell. A lullaby-influenced midtempo pop ballad, Eilish's lyrics within the song address several topics, including her attempting to beg a friend to no longer hide away. The song was released alongside a festive commercial for technology company Apple, for which it is used as the soundtrack. Eilish included the song in the Japanese edition of her debut When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? (2019). The song received mainly positive reviews from music critics, several of whom praised the music and lyrics. The song charted in various countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, and reached the top 40 in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Ireland. It was later included on the Japanese edition of Eilish's debut studio album, When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? (2019), along with her single "When I Was Older". ## Background and release Eilish and her brother Finneas O'Connell were approached by Apple, with the company sending them an early version of a festive commercial entitled "Holiday — Share Your Gifts". The siblings then wrote the song based around the theme of the advert, recording it in their parent's home using a Mac and Logic Pro X recording studio software. The track premiered on Zane Lowe's Beats 1 radio show on November 20, 2018. "Come Out and Play" was released for digital download and streaming through the record labels Interscope Records and Darkroom on the same day as a single. The song was later included on the Japanese edition of Eilish's debut studio album, When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? in December 2019. "Come Out and Play" was written by the singer and O'Connell, and the latter solely produced the track. Mastering and mixing was handled by the studio personnel John Greenham and Rob Kinelski, respectively. ## Composition and lyrical interpretation According to Musicnotes.com, "Come Out and Play" runs at a moderately slow tempo of 72 beats per minute (BPM), and is played in the key of C major. Eilish's vocals span a range between the notes of G<sub>3</sub> and A<sub>4</sub>. Critical commentary described the song as a lullaby-influenced mid-tempo pop ballad. Randall Colburn of Consequence of Sound said the song features "a few gentle guitar notes" and further includes a "gauzy ambiance, and textured percussion" in its instrumentation. In an interview with Beats 1, Eilish stated: "We had never written a song about empowering yourself. Your talent and what you love is a gift to you. Whether or not you're good at it, it doesn't matter. If it's something you enjoy, share it." Lyrically, the song features Eilish trying to beg a friend to no longer hide away, tying in with the theme of the Apple commercial in which the song is used. She encourages someone to break out of their comfort zone and overcome fears: "You don't have to keep it quiet/And I know it makes you nervous/But I promise you, it's worth it/To show 'em everything you kept inside/Don't hide, don't hide." Shea Lenniger of Billboard mentioned that Eilish's vocals sound "so soft that it sounds like a lullaby": "Look up, out of your window/See snow, won't let it in though/Leave home, feel the wind blow/'Cause it's colder here inside in silence/You don't have to keep it quiet." The positive messages not only illustrated in the ad but the song itself encourage people to embrace their talents and gifts no matter what they may be. The track leaves its listeners with the message of this: you never know what opportunities lie ahead if you just put yourself out there. Ivy Sandoval writing for Soundigest, stated "the song encourage[s] people to embrace their talents and gifts no matter what they may be. It leaves listeners with the message of this: you never know what opportunities lie ahead if you just put yourself out there." ## Reception and promotion "Come Out and Play" was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. Idolator's Mike Nied called the song a "serious win" and said he would not be surprised if "the track dominate[d] streaming services". Katherine Gillespie of Paper stated that the song is "designed for listening to while staring out the window at falling snow and twinkling lights". The song was praised by Insider's Claudia Willen, who called the track "heartwarming" and felt its lyrics "[do] [their] best to encourage someone to break out their comfort zone and overcome their fears". Colburn called it a "heartfelt" and "subdued", while Patrick Doyle called "come out and play" a "sprawling ballad". Milca P., writing for HotNewHipHop, commented the "dark undertones that compose Eilish's image, a Christmas song seems out of place in her catalog" but that "[Eilish] effectively layers her sound into a calming and appropriate ballad fit for any time of year". Kirsten Spruch of Billboard commended the lyrical content, which, according to her, "hit the nail on the head with the festive lyrics and sounds". Sandoval labeled the song as a "soft tune" with "clever and fun lyrics mixed with Eilish’s soft yet powerful voice makes the song perfectly balanced". Josie Balka of iHeartRadio stated she thinks "you may love it as much as I do". The song debuted at number 69 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It also peaked at number 47 on the UK Singles Chart. The song further charted in Australia, Austria, Canada, Ireland, Latvia, the Netherlands, and Sweden. The song has notably been awarded a platinum certification by Music Canada (MC) with sales of over 80,000. Apple released an animated video for the track. In the video, the characters are scared to show their talents to the world while Eilish sings the lyrics, "You'll never know until you try it/ You don't have to keep it quiet." Thomas Smith from NME said the video "interprets those emotions and the resulting clip in the most delicate of ways, allowing hushed vocals to lead the track through to its seismic and life-affirming finale". ## Live performances In December 2019, Eilish performed "Come Out and Play" live at the Steve Jobs Theater for the first annual Apple Music Awards after she won artist of the year, with O'Connell playing the acoustic guitar. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal. - Billie Eilish – vocals, songwriter - Finneas O'Connell – producer, songwriter - John Greenham – mastering engineer - Rob Kinelski – mixer ## Charts ## Certifications	[ "## Background and release", "## Composition and lyrical interpretation", "## Reception and promotion", "## Live performances", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts", "## Certifications" ]	1,512	13,410
39,818,837	Nyanyi Sunyi	1,092,528,265	Book by Amir Hamzah	[ "1937 poetry books", "Amir Hamzah", "Indonesian poetry", "Poetry collections" ]	Njanji Soenji (Republican Spelling: Njanji Sunji; Perfected Spelling: Nyanyi Sunyi; Indonesian for "Songs of Solitude" or "Songs of Silence") is a 1937 poetry collection by Amir Hamzah. Written some time after the poet was forced to marry the daughter of the Sultan of Langkat instead of his chosen love in Java, this collection consists of 24 titled poems and pieces of lyrical prose, none of which are dated. First published in the magazine Poedjangga Baroe, the collection has been republished as a stand-alone book several times. Analysis of Nyanyi Sunyi has focused on the theme of God and His relationship to humanity, as well as of aspects of human existence: fate, dissatisfaction, and escape. Literary critics H.B. Jassin and Zuber Usman view the collection as an attempt to address Amir’s worldly problems. The collection has been noted as difficult to read owing to its usage of rarely used Malay and Javanese terms and basis in Islamic culture and Malay history. Despite this, Nyanyi Sunyi has been described as freer in its form than traditional Malay poetry, with what poet Chairil Anwar termed "compactly violent, sharp, and yet short" sentences which brought a new style to the Indonesian language. ## Background Amir Hamzah (1911–1946) was a Dutch-educated Malay writer of noble descent and devout Muslim. He was well-oriented in traditional Malay literature, with favourites including historical texts such as Hikayat Hang Tuah, Syair Siti Zubaidah, and Hikayat Panca Tanderan. Amir likewise read works of Arabic, Persian, and Hindu literature. As a result, he had an extensive vocabulary. Poet Laurens Koster Bohang considers the poems included in Nyanyi Sunyi as having been written between 1933 and 1937, while Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw dates the poems to 1936 and 1937. The time was one of great emotional turmoil for Hamzah, who was required to marry the daughter of the Sultan of Langkat, who had funded his studies in Java. At the time Amir had reportedly fallen in love with a Javanese woman while studying, and was forced to leave her. ## Contents Njanji Sunji consists of twenty-four titled pieces and an untitled quatrain. Indonesian literary documentarian H.B. Jassin classifies eight of the works as lyrical prose, with the remaining thirteen as poems. None of the works in Nyanyi Sunyi (and indeed none of Amir's other works) are dated. At the end of the book is a couplet, reading "Sunting sanggul melayah rendah / sekaki sajak seni sedih", which American poet and translator Burton Raffel translates as "A flower floating in a loose knot of hair / Gave birth to my sorrowful poems". The poems within the collection are: Untitled poems 1. Untitled quatrain ("Sunyi Itu Duka"; "Silence is Sorrow") Titled poems 1. "Padamu Jua" ("For You Too") 2. "Barangkali" ("Perhaps") 3. "Hanya Satu" ("Only One") 4. "Permainanmu" ("Your Games") 5. "Tetapi Aku" ("But I") 6. "Karena Kasihmu" ("Because of Your Love") 7. "Sebab Dikau" ("Because of You") 8. "Doa" ("Prayer") 9. "Hanyut Aku" ("I Float") 10. "Taman Dunia" ("World Park") 11. "Terbuka Bunga" ("Open Flowers") 12. "Mengawan" ("Climb to the Sky") 13. "Panji Dihadapanku" ("Banners in My Sight") 14. "Memuji Dikau" ("Praising You") 15. "Kurnia" ("Gift") 16. "Doa Poyangku" ("Prayer of My Ancestors") 17. "Turun Kembali" ("Descend Again") 18. "Batu Belah" ("Split Stone") 19. "Didalam Kelam" ("In Darkness") 20. "Ibuku Dehulu" ("My Mother, Before") 21. "Insyaf" ("Aware") 22. "Subuh" ("Morning Prayers") 23. "Hari Menuai" ("Harvest Day") 24. "Astana Rela" ("Palace of Resignation") ## Form The poems in Nyanyi Sunyi, unlike much of Amir's earlier work, generally did not follow the traditional pantun and syair format of four lines of four words. Teeuw notes that some, such "Batu Belah", followed traditional European forms such as the ballad. Others were more free-form, leaning towards prose poetry. Amir's diction depends heavily on old Malay terms which saw little contemporary use. He also borrows heavily from other Indonesian languages, particularly Javanese and Sundanes. The choice of words was influenced by the need for rhythm and metre, as well as symbolism related to particular terms. Ultimately, however, Amir is freer in his language use than traditional poets. Indonesian critic Bakri Siregar writes that the result is "a beautiful wordplay". Translator John M. Echols writes that the poems are "difficult reading even for Indonesians", while poet Chairil Anwar described the works as "obscure poetry" which could not be understood by persons without an understanding of Islam and Malay history. Indonesian literary scholar Muhammad Balfas notes that the work also has many allusions to religious texts, both Islamic and Christian. Anwar opined that Amir, through Nyanyi Sunyi, brought a new style to the Indonesian language, with its "compactly violent, sharp, and yet short" sentences. In a 1945 article he wrote (translation by Raffel), "Before Amir (Hamzah) one could call the old poetry a destructive force; but what a bright light he shone on the new language". ## Themes Religion and God are omnipresent throughout the collection, as evidenced from the first poem, "Padamu Jua". Amir often uses the word "Tuhan" ("God"). However, unlike his earlier poems which used it in a similar manner to "Dewa" ("Deity"), in Nyanyi Sunyi the word is used as understood in Abrahamic religions, such as Amir's own Islam; Amir shows influences from Sufism. In some cases, writes Teeuw, Amir treats God almost as a lover, using familiar terms such as "engkau" ("you") to address Him. However, Amir recognises that he cannot be one with God. Jassin writes that Amir seems aware of his own smallness before God, acting as a puppet for God's will; Teeuw notes that Amir recognises that he would not exist if God did not. This is not to say that Amir accepts his lower position in relation to God; in several cases, Jassin writes, Amir shows a feeling of dissatisfaction over his own lack of power and protests God's absoluteness. Teeuw likewise notes a sense of dissatisfaction throughout the poems, writing that Amir seems to treat God as an entity that "only toys with humans, allowing them to be pushed aside and erased". Elsewhere Teeuw writes that Amir questions fate and the need for him to separate from his love. Aside from themes of God and religion, Amir also shows an awareness of his own humanity, recognising his own instincts and drives. Jassin writes that "Amir's song is the song of a man's soul", showing sadness and joy which do not acknowledge class or creed. Teeuw notes a sense of distrust, a feeling that – having once lost his love – there is no reason Amir will not lose his next lover. Indonesian critic Zuber Usman, meanwhile, discusses the theme of love lost in relation to religion, writing that the loss of his Javanese lover led Amir closer to God. Jassin writes that Amir uses "sunyi" ("silence") as a way to address his worldly problems: regarding time, his own identity, God, and love. According to Jassin, by the end of the compilation physical love has drifted towards a spiritual one, with the answers supplied originating from the supernatural. Ultimately, however, Jassin concludes that Amir's soul has not reached maturity; he considers the collection's last poem, "Astana Rela", as but a temporary escape. Jassin finds that the theme of religion is likewise meant as an escape from Amir's worldly sorrows, an opinion echoed by Usman. ## Publication Nyanyi Sunyi was first published in the November 1937 issue of Poedjangga Baroe, a literary magazine which Amir had helped establish. It was later published as a standalone book, and by 1949 it had seen its third printing. In 1941 Amir published another collection of poems, entitled Buah Rindu ("Fruits of Longing"), which consisted mostly of his earlier works. Jassin notes that the works in Nyanyi Sunyi appear more developed and mature than those in the later collection. Teeuw notes that the later collection was more explicitly about romantic love, rather than the religious love of Nyanyi Sunyi.	[ "## Background", "## Contents", "## Form", "## Themes", "## Publication" ]	1,965	21,929
72,722,551	Smoking on My Ex Pack	1,173,257,404	null	[ "2022 songs", "American hip hop songs", "SZA songs", "Songs written by SZA", "Songs written by Skip Scarborough" ]	"Smoking on My Ex Pack" is a song by American singer-songwriter SZA from her second studio album, SOS (2022). The second of the album's three rap tracks, it is a boom bap song with a chipmunk soul production style, fusing hard-hitting drum beats with a sped-up sample of Webster Lewis's "Open Up Your Eyes" (1981). Before SOS, SZA had been known as an R&B artist who made "sad girl" music, a narrative she wanted to dispel because she viewed it as reductive. She found the R&B categorization in particular racially insensitive. As such, she wanted to experiment with "aggressive" hip hop music for SOS, leading to the conception of "Smoking on My Ex Pack". Its producer was Jay Versace, to whom SZA credited her first attempts at rap music. In the lyrics, SZA makes braggadocious comments about her sexual desirability and ridicules her past lovers in various ways, for instance insulting their penises. Her rapping originally lasted for over two minutes, but she had the song cut in half because she was unsure if the rapping was good enough. Critics in contemporary reviews felt otherwise and found the songwriting effectively harsh and the flow satisfactory, believing it showcased SZA's potential to become a proper rapper. Some deemed "Smoking on My Ex Pack" a highlight of SOS or of her discography. After the album's release, the song charted in the US and Canada, reached number 71 on the Billboard Global 200, and was included in the set list of the SOS Tour. ## Background SZA released her debut studio album, Ctrl, in 2017. Primarily an R&B album that deals with themes like heartbreak, it received widespread acclaim for SZA's vocals and the eclectic musical style, as well as the emotional impact and confessional nature of its songwriting. The album brought SZA to mainstream fame. Critics credit it with establishing her status as a major figure in contemporary pop and R&B music and pushing the boundaries of the R&B genre. Her next studio album was highly anticipated by fans and music critics alike, and she alluded to its completion as early as August 2019, during an interview with DJ Kerwin Frost. From April to May 2022, SZA told media outlets that she had recently finished the album in Hawaii and said that it was coming soon. Wanting to experiment with genres she had not yet incorporated in her discography, she envisioned it to be an amalgamation of disparate musical styles, or in her words, "a little bit of everything". While some tracks were balladic or soft, certain others had an "aggressive" sound. Apart from the "traditional" R&B that had been a staple of SZA's past works, the album also contained prominent elements of hip hop music. ## Music and production SZA wanted to include rap as a major element of her second studio album, SOS (2022). The media tended to categorize her as an R&B artist, and she staunchly disagreed with the description. In her view, she was forced into the label because she was a Black woman, to which she asserted: "I love making Black music, period. Something that is just full of energy. Black music doesn't have to just be R&B [...] Why can't we just be expansive and not reductive?" According to Punch, president of SZA's record label Top Dawg Entertainment, SZA recorded an "[extended play]'s worth" of strictly rap records during the making of SOS. The final product contains three rap tracks—one in the beginning, one in the end, and one in the middle. The rap track in the middle is "Smoking on My Ex Pack". Its composition incorporates chipmunk soul, a production style that uses looped, sped-up samples of soul music; in the case of "Smoking on My Ex Pack", the song sampled is Webster Lewis's "Open Up Your Eyes" (1981). "Smoking on My Ex Pack" is a boom bap song, built around hard-hitting drum beats. Jay Versace, a record producer and former comedian, produced "Smoking on My Ex Pack". Versace, whom SZA credits with getting her interested in creating "aggressive" rap music, created the beat sometime in 2022. It was three years after the two first met up for the album's recording sessions. Versace was inspired by the boom bap music he had heard growing up, much of which played on his car radio when he was driving with his father. For "Smoking on My Ex Pack", he wanted SZA's take on these childhood songs: "I literally made that for her [...] That was specifically for her." Versace chose to sample "Open Up Your Eyes" because of his interest in love ballads from the latter half of the 20th century, citing the "really crazy instrumentation in their music". He particularly liked the song's horns and vocals, so he created the sample in Ableton and formed a beat around it. Once he finished, he sent the audio file to SZA, who started writing the lyrics almost immediately. About the production, she texted him: "Your beats are so easy to write to. Why am I already writing lyrics right now?" ## Lyrics SZA said that while creating SOS, she learned that sometimes she could act like a villainous "bitch" and she had to come to terms with this perception of herself. According to her, many songs on the album centered around themes of revenge and "being pissed" to a degree that she had never felt before. She described how these feelings manifested in its tracks: "It is in the way I say no [...] It's in the fucked up things that I don't apologize for." Versace encouraged her to "talk her shit" on "Smoking on My Ex Pack", the lyrics to which she wrote to dispel a narrative that she only made "sad girl music". Its initial version was over two minutes long, but SZA scrapped the song's first half because she did not feel confident enough in her rapping skills. The released version of "Smoking on My Ex Pack" is 1 minute and 23 seconds long. Spin compared its lyrics to blind items, or articles that do not disclose the identity of their subject and are frequently gossip pieces. Braggadocio is also a major element of the songwriting. In the song's verse, SZA communicates her desirability to men and announces "them hoe accusations weak" and "them bitch accusations true". After revealing how she embodies those traits by saying she presents an unfriendly attitude and has sex with men she calls heart throbs, she finds various ways to insult her past lovers. SZA raps about having "your favorite rapper" blocked on social media, saying she heard a rumor that his "dick was wack". Certain athletes, who try to flirt in her messages and incessantly ask she text them back but to no avail, are other subjects whom she targets. Her lesser side, she reasons, loves to taunt people, explaining her refusal to make exceptions for any of the men she does not acknowledge. She rejects an ex-boyfriend seeking to rekindle their relationship, through the lines "he screamin', 'Gеt back together', I'm screamin', 'Back of thе bus, trick!'" The lyrics contain a comparison between SZA's former romantic partners and Sideshow Bob, a character from The Simpsons who is a clown and a criminal: > > Got you talkin' crazy Abracadabra, you niggas Sideshow I'm Bobbin' like Psycho ## Release During a Billboard cover story published in November 2022, SZA revealed that the album's release date was scheduled for sometime during the following month. She posted the album's track list on Twitter on December 5, and SOS was released four days later. Out of 23 songs, "Smoking on My Ex Pack" appears as the eleventh track. The song charted in Canada, the United States and its component Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, and the Billboard Global 200 upon the album's release. In April 2023, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. One month after the album's release, American rapper Latto performed a freestyle rap over the beat of "Smoking on My Ex Pack", to which SZA reacted positively. On Instagram, she wrote, "OH ITS UPPPPPP [sic]", paired with a heart emoji. The song had its live performance debut during the SOS Tour, performed while SZA went backstage for an outfit change, which the stage screen captured. ## Critical reception Critics were positive about SZA's experimenting with rap on "Smoking on My Ex Pack", lauding it for showcasing her more confident side. They welcomed its lyrics for marking a departure from her other works, which primarily focused on angst and vulnerability, and its placement between tracks that, by contrast, focused on SZA's insecurities about her relationships. Much of the praise focused on the harshness and unfiltered nature of her songwriting. They found it clever, funny, or emotionally impactful. Shaad D'Souza of The Guardian wrote: the [SOS] lyrics that stick out to me aren't the deeply sad ones that seem to be the basis for a lot of 2am tweets and TikTok captions, but the ones that call bullshit on ideas that SZA should have to be respectable or 'real'." Other music journalists wrote that "Smoking on My Ex Pack" best exemplified the album's lyrical motif of begrudging disapproval towards SZA's ex-partners and was the album's "most stank-face-inducing" track. Another point of commentary was SZA's flow and delivery, attributes that led many critics to think her first attempts at rap music demonstrated her potential to become a good rapper. In the words of The Sydney Morning Herald's Giselle Au-Nhien Nguyen: "she takes to rapping for the first time and she sounds like a natural, with impeccable flow and a healthy dose of venom." For this reason, Steffanee Wang of Nylon and Precious Fondren of HipHopDX called "Smoking on My Ex Pack" a highlight of SOS—Fondren recommended that readers play it on repeat. Some critics liked how the harsh rapping in "Smoking on My Ex Pack" juxtaposed the soft sound of the album tracks that come before it. Paul Attard, Slant Magazine writer, argued that this provided the album's otherwise weak middle section some much-needed catharsis. "Smoking on My Ex Pack", for critics Jason P. Frank of Vulture and Robyn Mowatt of Okayplayer, was a highlight of SZA's discography. Encouraging SZA to make more lyrically similar songs, Frank wrote: "in the context of her career, it's also a flex; her best is not her limit — it's the floor." In Complex, Ecleen Luzmila Caraballo listed the "Smoking on My Ex Pack" rap verse as one of the best of 2022 and wrote that SZA's usage of wordplay further strengthened her lyrics. She and Frank, however, took issue with the song's length, feeling "Smoking on My Ex Pack" did not reach its full potential due to its shortness. ## Credits Adapted from the liner notes of SOS Recording and management - Engineered at Westlake Studio A (Los Angeles, California) - Mixed at The Gift Shop (Los Angeles) - Mastered at Becker Mastering (Pasadena, California) - Contains a sample of "Open Up Your Eyes" as performed by Webster Lewis, written by Skip Scarborough and Raina Taylor, published by Warner Chappell Music, Inc. (BMI) and Raina Bundy (Raina Bundy Publishing Designee) (BMI), used courtesy of Sony Music Entertainment. Personnel - Solána Rowe (SZA) vocals, songwriting - Jahlil Gunter (Jay Versace) songwriting, production - Skip Scarborough songwriting - Raina Taylor songwriting - Dylan Neustadter engineering - Rob Bisel engineering - Josh Deguzman engineering (for mix) - Syd Tagle assistant engineering - Jon Castelli mixing - Dale Becker mastering - Katie Harvey assistant mastering - Noah McCorkle assistant mastering ## Charts ## Certification	[ "## Background", "## Music and production", "## Lyrics", "## Release", "## Critical reception", "## Credits", "## Charts", "## Certification" ]	2,590	44,121
442,044	The Atlas of Middle-earth	1,134,372,206	1981 book by Karen Wynn Fonstad	[ "1981 books", "Books about Middle-earth", "Fictional atlases", "Middle-earth locations" ]	The Atlas of Middle-earth by Karen Wynn Fonstad is an atlas of J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional realm of Middle-earth. It was published in 1981, following Tolkien's major works The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, and The Silmarillion. It provides many maps at different levels of detail, from whole lands to cities and individual buildings, and of major events like the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. The maps are grouped by period, namely the First, Second, and Third Ages of Middle-earth, with chapters on The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. A final chapter looks at geographic themes such as climate, vegetation, population, and languages around Middle-earth. The atlas has been warmly received by Tolkien scholars, who have called it both authorized and magisterial, providing in particular a comprehensive set of thematic maps of Middle-earth. ## Context Karen Wynn Fonstad earned a master's degree in Geography, specializing in cartography, from the University of Oklahoma, and worked as Director of Cartographic Services at the University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh before she focused on raising children and writing atlases of fictional worlds. Middle-earth is the fictional world created by the philologist and fantasy author J. R. R. Tolkien and presented in his bestselling books The Hobbit (1937) and The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955). Tolkien provided overview maps for each book. ## Book ### Publication history The Atlas of Middle-earth was first published in hardback by Houghton Mifflin in the United States in 1981. A revised and updated second edition was published in 1991, after Christopher Tolkien had edited and published eight volumes of The History of Middle-earth following his father's death. HarperCollins republished the revised edition in London in 1994, reprinting it in 1999, 2016, and 2017. ### Approach The Atlas of Middle-earth provides many detailed maps of the lands described in Tolkien's books. The maps are treated as if they are of real landscapes, drawn according to the rules of a real atlas. For each area the history of the land is taken into account, as well as geography on a larger scale; from there maps are drawn. Fonstad's discussion includes suggestions as to the geology that could explain various formations, and points that are contradictory between multiple accounts. Fonstad explains in the atlas, and in her article about it, how she came to decide on such matters. For example, she compares the western Emyn Muil with its two ridges to the Weald with its pair of inward-facing downs (an anticline). City maps and floor plans for important buildings are included. For example, the city of Minas Tirith is mapped on a single page, the main map giving a perspective view of the whole city, while three insets show the nearly-circular plan of the city, a plan of the citadel in the innermost circle, and a labelled cutaway drawing of the White Tower at the centre of the citadel. A page of text describes the city's geography. Further maps are given of significant events, such as the Battle of the Pelennor Fields in front of Minas Tirith. ### Content The maps are organised first by period, with chapters on the First, Second, and Third Ages of Middle-earth. A chapter covers regional maps, and a short chapter focuses on The Hobbit. A major chapter follows the action in The Lord of the Rings. The book ends with a chapter of thematic maps, illustrating the landforms, climate, vegetation, population, and languages of Middle-earth. ## Reception The Tolkien scholar Verlyn Flieger records that she persuaded Fonstad to write an account for Tolkien Studies of how she researched and created the maps for her Atlas of Middle-earth. Fonstad, while seriously ill, accordingly prepared her last article, "Writing 'TO' the Map" in her final months. Flieger stated "We mourn her passing and we honor her work". The editor of Tolkien Studies, David Bratman, notes that the atlas provides historical, geological, and battle maps, with a detailed commentary and explanation of how Fonstad approached the mapping task from the available evidence. Michael Brisbois, also in Tolkien Studies, describes the atlas as "authorized", while the cartographers Ina Habermann and Nikolaus Kuhn take Fonstad's maps as defining Middle-earth's geography. The Tolkien scholar Luke Shelton calls the book the more popular of the two atlases of Middle-earth, the other being Barbara Strachey's more specific Journeys of Frodo. In his view, the book isn't perfect "but it is certainly helpful", not least as it covers the First and Second Ages. Stentor Danielson, a Tolkien scholar, notes that Tolkien did not provide the same "detailed textual history" to contextualise his maps as he did for his writings. Danielson suggests that this has assisted the tendency among Tolkien's fans to treat his maps as "geographical fact". He calls Fonstad's atlas "magisterial", and comments that like Tolkien, Fonstad worked from the assumption that the maps, like the texts, "are objective facts" which the cartographer must fully reconcile. He gives as an instance the work that she did to make the journey of Thorin's company in The Hobbit consistent with the map, something that Tolkien found himself unable to do. Danielson writes that in addition, Fonstad created "the most comprehensive set" of thematic maps of Middle-earth, presenting geographic data including political boundaries, climate, population density, and the routes of characters or armies. ## See also - Tolkien's maps	[ "## Context", "## Book", "### Publication history", "### Approach", "### Content", "## Reception", "## See also" ]	1,168	34,604
12,855,019	Meteorological history of Hurricane Dean	1,165,836,059	null	[ "Hurricane Dean", "Meteorological histories of individual tropical cyclones", "Tropical cyclones in 2007" ]	The meteorological history of Hurricane Dean began in the second week of August 2007 when a vigorous tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa into the North Atlantic ocean. Although the wave initially experienced strong easterly wind shear, it quickly moved into an environment better suited for tropical development and gained organization. On the morning of August 13, the National Hurricane Center recognized the system's organization and designated it Tropical Depression Four while it was still more than 1,500 mi (2,400 km) east of the Lesser Antilles. A deep layered ridge to its north steered the system west as it moved rapidly towards the Caribbean and into warmer waters. On August 14 the depression gained strength and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dean. By August 16, the storm had intensified further and attained hurricane status. Hurricane Dean continued to intensify as it tracked westward through the Lesser Antilles. Once in the Caribbean Sea, the storm rapidly intensified to a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. Weakening slightly, it brushed the southern coast of Jamaica on August 19 as a Category 4 hurricane and continued towards the Yucatán Peninsula through even warmer waters. The favorable conditions of the western Caribbean Sea allowed the storm to intensify and it regained Category 5 status the next day before making landfall in southern Quintana Roo. Hurricane Dean was one of two storms in the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane and was the seventh most intense Atlantic hurricane ever recorded, tied with Camille and Mitch. After its first landfall, Hurricane Dean crossed the Yucatán Peninsula and emerged, weakened, into the Bay of Campeche. It briefly restrengthened in the warm waters of the bay before making a second landfall in Veracruz. Dean progressed to the northwest, weakening into a remnant low which finally dissipated over the southwestern United States. ## Formation On August 11, 2007, a vigorous tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa, producing disorganized showers and thunderstorms. It encountered conditions favorable for gradual development, and on August 12 it gained organization and became a low. Strong upper-level easterly winds slowed development, but on August 13 the tropical wave gained enough organization that the National Hurricane Center designated it Tropical Depression Four. At this time it was centered about 520 mi (835 km) west-southwest of Cape Verde. The depression was already exhibiting persistent deep convection in the western portion of its circulation. It moved quickly westward, south of a deep layered ridge, escaping the easterly wind shear that had been slowing its development and moving over warmer waters. At 1500 UTC on August 14, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dean while still 1450 mi (2300 km) east of Barbados. Even as its convection waned slightly that afternoon, its intensity grew, and convection flared in the center that night. Dry air and cooler air inflow from the north slowed structural development; nevertheless, ragged bands began to form on August 15. By mid-morning, a rough banding eye had formed, and by the next morning a full eye developed. The storm was upgraded to Hurricane Dean at 0900 UTC August 16, 550 mi (890 km) east of Barbados. A strong ridge of high pressure continued to push the system west, towards the Caribbean Sea. That afternoon, convective banding and increasing upper-level outflow strengthened the storm to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. The eye disappeared briefly overnight, possibly as part of a diurnal fluctuation, but returned by the morning of August 17. ## Caribbean Sea and first landfall At 0930 UTC on August 17, the center of Hurricane Dean passed into the Caribbean Sea through the Saint Lucia Channel between the islands of Martinique and St. Lucia. The northern eyewall passed over Martinique where a weather station in the island's capital of Fort-de-France reported 13 in (33 cm) of rainfall. By this time the eyewall had closed, forming a distinct eye, and in an environment of low wind shear and increasing ocean temperature the hurricane began to intensify rapidly. Hurricane Dean strengthened to a Category 3 hurricane by the evening of August 17. Satellite imagery showed that a well defined eye and numerous cyclonically curved convective bands remained over the Lesser Antilles. That evening, another reconnaissance aircraft reached the hurricane and discovered that it had strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane, and by 0600 UTC on August 18, Dean reached Category 5 intensity for the first time with 165 mph (270 km/h) winds. The storm's wind radii increased in all quadrants as the storm grew in both intensity and size. At 0800 UTC August 18, Hurricane Dean passed directly over NOAA sea buoy 42059 which reported a significant wave height (average size of the largest 33% of waves) of 33 ft (10 m). On August 18, Hurricane Dean developed a double eyewall, indicating that an eyewall replacement cycle was taking place and causing short term fluctuations in intensity as Dean weakened back to a Category 4 hurricane. That afternoon the hurricane continued to improve its outflow, and its numerous spiral bands gave it a well defined satellite presentation. Hurricane Dean finished the eyewall replacement cycle early on August 19 with some trochoidal wobbles. On the morning of August 19, the storm remained slightly weakened from its peak strength. As a Category 4 hurricane with wind speeds between 140 mph (220 km/h) and 145 mph (230 km/h), the center of Hurricane Dean passed 90 mi (150 km) south of Haiti, and that evening passed 25 mi (40 km) south of Jamaica. Two weather stations on the island of Jamaica, one at Ingleside and the other at Morant Bay, both reported in excess of 13 in (33 cm) of rainfall. In contrast, the weather station at Les Cayes, Haiti recorded only 1.18 in (3 cm) of rainfall. Hurricane Dean intensified through the night of August 19 and reinforced its completed eyewall replacement cycle by forming a tight single-walled eye. At 0100 UTC August 20, the storm passed 120 mi (190 km) to the south of Sea Buoy 42056, which recorded a significant wave height of 36 ft (11 m). A concentric eyewall was briefly observed again on the morning of August 20, but it did not last long. In conditions of low wind shear, Hurricane Dean moved westward over waters with increasingly high heat content, and the storm exhibited a classic upper-tropospheric outflow pattern. The high pressure system over the southeastern United States continued to steer the storm west towards the Yucatán Peninsula. The eyewall became even better defined throughout the day. The cloud tops cooled, the minimum central pressure fell, and its winds increased to 160 mph (260 km/h), making Hurricane Dean a Category 5 hurricane once again. This time, it was less than 210 mi (335 km) from its first landfall. Although many of the convective bands were already located over the Yucatán Peninsula, Hurricane Dean continued to intensify until the eye made landfall. As the eye moved over Mexico near the town of Majahual in the Costa Maya area, the NHC estimated surface level winds of 175 mph (280 km/h), making Dean the first storm to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic basin since Hurricane Andrew in 1992. At the same time, a dropsonde reading from the hurricane's eye estimated a central pressure of 905 mbar, making Dean the third most intense landfalling Atlantic storm in history (after the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 and Hurricane Gilbert of 1988) and tying Dean with Mitch as the eighth most intense hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic basin. The landfall itself occurred in a sparsely populated area of the Costa Maya region of the Mexican state of Quintana Roo near 18.7 N 87.8 W at 0900 UTC August 21 and brought with it a storm surge of 12–18 ft (3.7–5.5 m). A weather station at Chetumal (the capital of Quintana Roo, Mexico) reported 6.65 in (17 cm) of rainfall during Hurricane Dean's landfall. As expected, the landfall caused significant weakening of the storm; the eye filled and the cold cloud-tops warmed. The land severely disrupted the storm's organization, and by the time Dean crossed the Yucatán Peninsula it had weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. ## Gulf of Mexico and demise Hurricane Dean emerged into the Bay of Campeche as a Category 1 hurricane on the afternoon of August 21. Its inner core was largely disrupted, so although a ragged eye reformed over the warm waters of the bay, the hurricane no longer had the structure to support its previous strength. Nevertheless, the warm waters of the bay proved conducive for some development and the eye contracted overnight, indicating that the hurricane was regaining structure. With better structure came stronger winds of 100 mph (160 km/h), and the storm was re-categorized as a Category 2 hurricane. The storm's strengthening pattern continued until Hurricane Dean made its second and final landfall at 1630 UTC August 22 near Tecolutla, Veracruz, just east of Gutiérrez Zamora and about 40 mi (65 km) south-southeast of Tuxpan. A weather station at Requetemu, San Luis Potosí, recorded 15.4 in (39 cm) of rainfall during the storm's second landfall. Dean weakened rapidly, losing its low level circulation within hours and its mid-level circulation the next day as it encountered the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range. Its remnants passed over the mountains and into the eastern Pacific Ocean as a broad area of low pressure. Hurricane Dean's remnant low pressure system then drifted north into southern California, bringing thunderstorms to northern San Diego County, and more than 2 in (5 cm) of rain to Lake Wohlford. In Escondido almost 2 in (5 cm) of rain fell in 90 minutes. The remnant low pressure system weakened over western Arizona and southern California before finally dissipating on August 30. ## See also - List of Atlantic hurricanes - List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes	[ "## Formation", "## Caribbean Sea and first landfall", "## Gulf of Mexico and demise", "## See also" ]	2,191	41,358
269,235	New Jersey Route 413	1,160,231,261	State highway in Burlington County, New Jersey, US	[ "State highways in New Jersey", "State highways in the United States shorter than one mile", "Transportation in Burlington County, New Jersey" ]	Route 413 is a 0.76-mile-long (1.22 km) state highway located entirely in the City of Burlington, New Jersey, United States. It is an eastward extension into New Jersey of the longer Pennsylvania Route 413 (PA 413). The western terminus is in the middle of the Burlington–Bristol Bridge crossing of the Delaware River at the New Jersey–Pennsylvania state border; the eastern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 130 (US 130) and County Route 543 (CR 543). Prior to the 1953 renumbering, Route 413 was Route S25, a prefixed spur of Route 25. ## Route description Route 413 begins at the state line, midway along the vertical-lift Burlington–Bristol Bridge, as a continuation of PA 413. As the road descends from the bridge, a toll booth spans the width of the road though a toll is only collected for westbound traffic. The highway heads eastward, heading along Keim Boulevard, and becomes maintained by Burlington County. For eastbound traffic, a right-in/right-out intersection with Veterans Drive is present while for westbound traffic, an exit for Reed Street is located before the toll booths. East of here, an oblong traffic circle, bisected by a grade crossing of NJ Transit's River Line light rail, is found and has intersections with West Broad Street. East of here, Route 413 continues as a divided highway with one lane in each direction passing through an area of commercial businesses. The road comes to another oblong traffic circle, with intersections at Oakland Avenue, Washington Avenue, and Lincoln Avenue. One house and two businesses are located along the eastern edge of the circle. East of this circle, Route 413 ends at a complex intersection with US 130 (on which CR 543 runs concurrently), Taylor Avenue, Salem Road, and Mott Avenue. ## History In the 1927 renumbering of highways in New Jersey, US 130 was assigned as a part of New Jersey State Highway Route 25, which made up US 1 and US 9 as well. During that renumbering in 1927, Route 413 was originally New Jersey State Highway Route S-25, a prefixed spur of State Highway Route 25. The highway remained intact along its alignment in Keim Road to the Burlington–Bristol Bridge until January 1, 1953. On January 1, 1953, the New Jersey State Highway Department performed a second renumbering of state highways. State Highway Route 25, which had run at the southern terminus with Route 130, was decommissioned for the sole designation. Since State Highway Route 25 was decommissioned, State Highway Route S-25 would be orphaned and was decommissioned that day. The Highway Department renumbered S-25's alignment to Route 413, which continued as PA 413. ## Major intersections ## See also	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections", "## See also" ]	611	965
59,399,764	BGR-34	1,139,509,902	Ayurvedic drug in India that supposedly treats Diabetes mellitus type 2	[ "Alternative medical treatments", "Ayurvedic medicaments", "Drugs in India" ]	BGR-34 (Blood Glucose Regulator-34) is an Ayurvedic-derived product that is sold in India as an over-the-counter pill for the management of type 2 diabetes. It was developed in 2015 by two government-owned laboratories and launched commercially in 2016. It has been tested in only one, modest-sized, human trial. The drug has been heavily criticized, and without more clinical trials, its efficacy remains unproven. The manufacturers have refused to acknowledge the claims of inefficacy and other concerns. ## Development BGR-34 was co-developed by two national government-owned laboratories, National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) and Central Institute for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) under the patronage of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The formulation was publicized in September 2015 as NBRMAP-DB and it was launched commercially by AIMIL Pharmaceuticals (AIMIL) in June 2016. Upon launch, it was priced at ₹5 ( USD) per 500 milligram tablet, which was to be consumed twice a day. CSIR has claimed BGR-34 to be the first Indian ayurvedic anti-diabetic drug and the laboratories were awarded the CSIR Technology Award in 2016 in the Life Sciences category. ## Ingredients The raw materials for BGR-34 are derived from six plants: Daruharidra (Berberis aristata), giloy (Tinospora cordifolia), vijaysar (Pterocarpus marsupium), gudmar (Gymnema sylvestre), manjeestha (Rubia cordifolia) and fenugreek (methi). They were claimed to have been chosen from an "in-depth study of over 500 renowned ancient herbs". ## Medical claims The formulation purportedly releases 34 active phytoconstituents, which work as DPP-4 Inhibitors to regulate blood glucose levels. CSIR claimed high clinical efficacy in multiple clinical and animal trials. CSIR also asserted that the drug had several side-benefits and that it can stave off dependency on insulin or other anti-diabetic medications. The product has been advertised as being free from side-effects. A placebo-controlled clinical trial in one of CSIR's Ayurvedic hospitals involving 64 enrolled subjects (56 completed the trial) was uploaded to Clinical Trials Registry of India (CTRI) and subsequently published in European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research, a predatory journal. One summary of the trial did not show any statistical analysis but minimally asserted that the trial "show(ed) promising results" and that in light of the "significant improvement in the feeling of wellbeing, it should be further extensively used as a monotherapy/adjunctive therapy". The trial's results were publicized by a group of researchers – five from AIMIL and three doctors from the hospital – in a November-2017 conference held by the OMICS Publishing Group under the ConferenceSeries banner. OMICS is a predatory publisher with little to non-existent quality-control and their conferences have been subject to equivalent criticism. The researchers then published the same trial in a different journal: Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, wherein BGR-34 was described as successful in lowering fasting blood glucose, postprandial glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin. ## Reception Upon its launch as a scientifically validated drug, which was supposedly approved by the Ministry of AYUSH, multiple media outlets deemed it favourable, and termed it to be a "breakthrough-drug", especially in light of its low price. At the ceremony of the platinum jubilee of CSIR, Prime Minister Narendra Modi mentioned the drug as an achievement of the institution. ### Criticism BGR-34 was the subject of criticism from multiple quarters. There was a prolonged absence of any published clinical trial(s) of the drug and the claims of its efficacy could not be verified. No publications in peer-reviewed journals about scientific research undertaken into the aspects of contraindication, toxicology and other problems could be located either. Despite being branded as an ayurvedic product, there was no patent application at the National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) corpus or the Intellectual property in India portal. The claims that BGR-34 was less costly than equivalent allopathic drugs were also determined to be misleading. Physicians noted concerns about the safety of the drug, multiple side-effects were reported and it was widely described as inefficient. In October 2016, the Advertising Standards Council of India banned an advertisement for BGR-34 that claimed of "curing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus without any side effects". It held the advertisement to violate the Drugs & Magic Remedies Act by offering to cure an incurable disease and under the purview of disseminating unsubstantiated claims without any corresponding data. Mohan Nair, a pharmaceutical scientist and advisor to the National Task Force on Phyto-pharmaceuticals, expressed his concern about exposing the populace to a drug that is not validated by a trial and about the potential harm to the credibility of CSIR. Sankaran Valiathan, chairman of the Task Force on Ayurvedic Biology of the Department of Science and Technology, criticized the CSIR for making unsubstantiated claims and releasing a drug without evaluating its safety and efficacy. Shailaja Chandra, former Secretary, Department of AYUSH, mentioned the potential of the affair to bring Ayurveda and the research into it into disrepute. Avinash Bhondwe, senior vice-president of the Indian Medical Association said there was an absence of any comprehensive clinical study on most AYUSH drugs and urged the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (FDA) to take measures. In criticism not specific to BGR-34, an editorial described the boom of alternative therapies for diabetes in India as hype and pointed to multiple systemic reviews that highlighted several methodological problems with the studies and trials conducted by AYUSH and its associates. It also criticized the ICMR guidelines that waived or relaxed the rules for rigorous pharmacological and toxicology studies for Ayurvedic products provided they were "prepared in same way as mentioned in ancient Ayurvedic treatises". Another paper was critical of these unproven therapies for curing or managing diabetes and noted the practices to be non-safe and non-efficient; despite a huge popularity among the masses. It also advocated for guidelines derived from clinical trial outcomes and that stricter regulations need to be enforced on CAM practices to ensure their safety and effectiveness. In an article in Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, Bhushan Patwardhan criticized the Government regulations in these areas as lackadaisical and held it to be unsatisfactory in ensuring the non-exploitation of the broader populace. He also noted a long-prevalent pattern of the CSIR investing efforts into launching multiple drugs with obscure scientific credentials that often fizzled out after a gala launch and described it to be primarily inept with a potential to erode the credibility of Indian traditions and knowledge heritage. He also said many senior scientists from CSIR were sceptical of such "populistic and market driven propaganda" and that the preference for undertaking scientific research by the means of media headlines rather than by publications in credible scientific journals was worrying. The concerns have been echoed in other quarters with some noting the fund-crunch as the motivation for performing such shoddy but commercializable research. Consumer reviews have been mixed and a court-case has been lodged to stall the sale of the drug. #### Response Despite longstanding concerns and criticism, the CSIR has continued to call BGR-34 a revolutionary innovation. CIMAP director Anil Kumar Tripathi blamed the initial vacuum of scientific data as to the procedural rule that mandated the publication of any scientific paper disclosing the content of the patent, only after six months of the filing. Girish Sahni, Director General of CSIR in 2018, said the drug "is matching the efficacy level of any branded modern medicine in controlling the sugar level", and the Union Science and Technology Ministry praised it as a major achievement of CSIR under the Modi government. Harsh Vardhan, Minister for Science & Technology has claimed of the drug being well received by people and that it has been proven to significantly reduce blood glucose levels. In response to a question in the Rajya Sabha, Shripad Naik, Union Minister of State for Ministry of AYUSH said BGR-34 was "scientifically tested and very effective in treating type 2 Diabetes" and that the drug has been successful. In contrast, in an interview to The Wire, outgoing secretary of the AYUSH ministry, Ajit M. Sharan rejected AIMIL's claim of being ''approved by Ministry of AYUSH'' and noted that the ministry was not any involved in the affairs. There has been aggressive marketing of the drug and it has been even inducted into the Anti-Diabetes Campaigns by central and state authorities. ## Similar drugs ### Anti-diabetic Multiple anti-diabetic ayurvedic drugs have been developed and licensed to private industries for production along the same lines. Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS), an autonomous body of the Ministry of AYUSH, developed a second drug for diabetes called AYUSH-82, containing four herbal ingredients; karela (Momordica charantia), jamun (Syzygium cumini), amra (Spondias mombin) and gudmar (Gymnema sylvestre) along with shilajit. CCRAS scientists said it permanently cures type-II diabetes within six months and that it has no side-effects. The distribution and manufacturing rights were granted to Kudos laboratories, which subsequently re-branded it as IME9. Similar criticisms about an absence of rigorous pharmacological studies and a lack of meaningful clinical trials, coupled with publications in dubious predatory journals were noted. ### Others The ministry of AYUSH, CSIR and other national laboratories have been subject to similar criticism for the development cum aggressive advocacy and commercialization of multiple products and treatment-regimes for a variety of other diseases including dengue, chikungunya, swine flu, asthma, autism, malaria, AIDS and cancer despite a near-similar absence of rigorous pharmacological studies and/or meaningful clinical trials. At least one drug (AYUSH-64) has been proved to be drastically inefficient in a clinical trial held by independent researchers.	[ "## Development", "## Ingredients", "## Medical claims", "## Reception", "### Criticism", "#### Response", "## Similar drugs", "### Anti-diabetic", "### Others" ]	2,146	11,338
67,772,870	Janine Brookner	1,156,095,595	American lawyer and CIA officer (1940–2021)	[ "1940 births", "2021 deaths", "21st-century American lawyers", "21st-century American women lawyers", "American spies", "George Washington University Law School alumni", "Lawyers from Syracuse, New York", "New York University Graduate School of Arts and Science alumni", "People of the Central Intelligence Agency", "Russell Sage College alumni", "Syracuse University alumni", "Women spies" ]	Janine Marilyn Brookner (née Okun; December 26, 1940 – May 11, 2021) was an American lawyer and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) officer. She became the first female CIA station chief in Latin America when she took over the Jamaica station in 1989. She was falsely accused of professional misconduct in 1992 by her superiors at the CIA and after being threatened with a demotion and criminal sanctions, she sued the agency. In 1994, she became the first person to successfully sue the agency for sexual discrimination. She became a lawyer in 1998, specializing in sex discrimination cases against the federal government. ## Early life Janine Okun was born on December 26, 1940, in Syracuse, New York. Her mother, Lillian Okun (née Mogilesky), was a real estate agent and her father, Philip Okun, was a union official and distributor for The Post-Standard. Shortly after graduating from high school, she married Howard Brookner. She initially attended Syracuse University before transferring to Russell Sage College, where she graduated in 1964. While in college, she had her first son, Steven, and divorced her husband when she was 22. She continued to use her married name even after the divorce. She graduated from New York University in 1968 with a master's degree in Russian studies. While attending the university, one of her professors suggested that she apply for a job in the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). ## CIA career Brookner joined the CIA's training program in 1968 as one of six women in a total class of sixty-six. She trained at The Farm, where her instructors recommended that she work as an analyst. Instead, she took a position as a case officer for the Directorate of Operations and in March 1969, she was sent to Manila, Philippines. While there, she met Colin Thompson, a fellow case officer, and was later described by the station chief, George Kalaris, as one of the best officers. She recruited informants and infiltrated the Philippines Communist Party. In 1972, she was transferred to Thailand. While there, she married Thompson in Bangkok the following year. She was then sent to Caracas, Venezuela, for three years where she served as acting deputy chief of station. In 1979, Brookner and Thompson divorced. In the 1980s, Brookner was sent to Manhattan where she was appointed as the CIA division chief for the United Nations. She was responsible for contacting diplomats from the Soviet Union, recruiting them to work for the United States government, and surveilling other Communist delegations. While in this assignment, she reported a fellow CIA officer, Aldrich Ames, to her superiors because she believed that he was a security risk but no action was taken at the time. Brookner moved back to CIA headquarters at Langley, Virginia, and in 1988, the Head of Latin American Operations, Jerry Gruner, offered her a position as chief of station for Jamaica. She was tasked with finding a deputy and chose Gerald P. Hamilton, an officer in the Caribbean branch. In July 1989, she became the first female station chief in Latin America when she arrived in Kingston, Jamaica. Brookner faced several internal problems while in this position. A case officer, Jayna Hill, got drunk at a party that was attended by Vice President Dan Quayle and said publicly that she was employed by the CIA. Brookner was informed of this incident by two National Security Agency officers and after further issues where Hill acted increasingly erratically, Brookner informed officials at Langley who ordered a psychiatric evaluation. In September 1990, she received a call from the wife of her deputy chief of station who confided that Hamilton was abusive to her and Brookner again alerted Langley. Another colleague, Bob Emerton, had previously sexually assaulted Brookner's daughter-in-law at a Christmas party and was privately warned off by Brookner. However, in March 1991 she was told by Ambassador Glen Holden that Emerton had threatened to kill his security guards and it was agreed that he would receive a psychiatric evaluation. Brookner also had confrontations with two other officers, Jack Spears and Tom Meehan. ## Professional misconduct investigation In summer 1991, Brookner moved back to Langley to take a job in the Soviet Division. Milton Bearden appointed her deputy group chief for Eastern Europe and teased the possibility of a position as station chief of Prague. However, in November, a secret investigation into Brookner was opened by Frederick Hitz, the CIA's Inspector General. The investigation was conducted by Carter Shannon and supervised by Rick Cinquegrana and Bertram Dunn. In February 1992, Brookner was still not aware of the investigation, but she was informed by an internal directory that she had been demoted to chief of the Czech branch. In May 1992, Brookner was finally informed by Shannon that an investigation was ongoing. Brookner told the investigators that the accusations were likely coming from her former colleagues at the Jamaica station whom she had previously disciplined but the investigation continued to proceed. While the investigation was underway, Brookner was moved to a desk job in Langley. In July, Shannon told her that she could face criminal sanctions for "excessive overtime claims and conversion of government property". The Inspector General's report was published in January 1993 and accused Brookner of being a "boozy provocateur" who wore improper clothing and made sexual advances on her male subordinates. The report also referred two incidents to the Department of Justice for prosecution, alleging that the government had been defrauded. The first charge referred to Brookner claiming overtime for the preparation of a Thanksgiving dinner for local contacts in 1989 and the second alleged that she used a government helicopter for a picnic on Lime Cay. ### Lawsuit Brookner hired Victoria Toensing to dispute the charges, but when the CIA failed to respond, they decided to sue for sex discrimination under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The complaint was filed on July 14, 1994, and listed CIA Director R. James Woolsey, Hitz, Dunn, and the five employees who had been disciplined in Jamaica as defendants. The court filings included contradictions of all allegations against Brookner but the agency had classified the majority of the documents pertinent to the case, including personnel files. In the lawsuit, Brookner was referred to as Jane Doe Thompson. However that September, The New York Times published her name in a front-page article by Tim Weiner. On November 10, Toensing met with the defense attorney for the CIA, John A. Rogovin, and learned that there was an additional accusation that Brookner had sexually harassed a subordinate. The Justice Department initially refused to give a name but when Toensing realized they were not talking about a subordinate but instead the Drug Enforcement Administration's agent in Jamaica, Steve Widener, the Justice Department lawyers confirmed this. Widener agreed to sign an affidavit stating that Brookner had not sexually harassed him. On December 6, the case was settled and the CIA offered Brookner \$410,000 (). She was the first person to have successfully sued the agency for sexual discrimination. As part of the settlement, Brookner resigned her position at the CIA on December 23, 1994, but was required to maintain her undercover status during retirement. This meant she was barred from discussing her previous career with the agency or the circumstances surrounding her case. In exchange, the CIA promised to write her a letter of recommendation, but it was placed in her classified personnel file and was therefore inaccessible to future employers. ### Later actions On July 13, 1995, Brookner wrote to the Attorney General, Janet Reno, recommending that a criminal investigation be launched against her accusers for perjury. No charges were brought but on March 22, 1996, she appeared on ABC News Nightline alongside former CIA officials, Robert Gates, Thomas Twetten, and Milton Bearden, all of whom condemned the agency's treatment of her. Hitz was subsequently investigated in 1997 by the President's Council on Integrity and Efficiency for his part in the investigation, which found issues with the way he had handled the case. ## Legal career After resigning from the CIA, Brookner enrolled in night classes at George Washington University Law School and graduated in 1998. She had intended to work on domestic violence cases but received an influx of calls from women who needed help with employment law cases involving sex discrimination and whistle-blowing in the government. She became known for this type of work and represented a number of former CIA, Drug Enforcement Administration, State Department, and other federal employees in their cases against their former agencies. Her clients included Bonnie Hanssen, wife of Robert Hanssen, an FBI agent who was convicted of spying for Russia. Brookner proved that his wife did not know about his activities and ensured that she received the pension benefits to which she was entitled. She defended James Peterson and Patrick McHale, two federal meat inspectors with the Department of Agriculture who were fired after reporting their colleagues for bribery and misconduct. She also represented embassy officials who became victims of Havana syndrome. Brookner published a book in 2004 titled Piercing the Veil of Secrecy which was an instruction manual on how to beat the CIA and other federal agencies in court. ## Death Brookner died on May 11, 2021, in Washington, D.C., from complications due to liver disease and cancer.	[ "## Early life", "## CIA career", "## Professional misconduct investigation", "### Lawsuit", "### Later actions", "## Legal career", "## Death" ]	1,957	18,590
1,682,665	Miss Independent (Kelly Clarkson song)	1,167,797,226	2003 single by Kelly Clarkson	[ "2003 singles", "2003 songs", "Kelly Clarkson songs", "Music videos directed by Liz Friedlander", "RCA Records singles", "Song recordings produced by Rhett Lawrence", "Songs with feminist themes", "Songs written by Christina Aguilera", "Songs written by Kelly Clarkson", "Songs written by Matt Morris (musician)", "Songs written by Rhett Lawrence" ]	"Miss Independent" is a song by American singer Kelly Clarkson from her debut studio album Thankful (2003). Written by Clarkson, Christina Aguilera, Rhett Lawrence, and Matt Morris, with Lawrence serving as producer, it was released as the album's lead single by RCA Records on April 10, 2003, preceding its release by five days. The track was initially intended for Aguilera's fourth album, Stripped (2002), but was left half-finished. Lawrence later continued writing the song with Clarkson, who eventually recorded it. "Miss Independent" is a R&B-styled pop song, whose lyrics tell of a story of an independent woman who finally allows herself to lower her emotional and communication barriers in order to fall in love. Its theme of self-sufficiency would later serve as a template for Clarkson's subsequent releases. The song generally received positive response from music critics, while criticism targeted the song's similarity to Aguilera's material. "Miss Independent" gave Clarkson her first Grammy nomination in the Best Female Pop Vocal Performance category at the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004. The song's commercial success helped in presenting Clarkson's "girl next door" image to the public and contributed in eliminating her American Idol persona. In the United States, "Miss Independent" peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Pop Songs chart. Internationally, the song attained top-10 positions in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The song's accompanying music video was directed by Liz Friedlander, and featured Clarkson singing at a house party. Clarkson premiered the song during the second season of American Idol, and has included it in set lists in most of her concert tours. ## Background and release American record producer Rhett Lawrence first offered the early work of the song, titled "Miss Independence", to American R&B trio Destiny's Child, who turned down the offer to record the song. Lawrence then collaborated with Christina Aguilera and Matt Morris to record "Miss Independence" for Aguilera's fourth studio album Stripped (2002). However, the track was only half-recorded and without a bridge before Aguilera finished production on Stripped. The song was handed over to Clive Davis and Clarkson's then-manager Simon Fuller, who were looking for material for Clarkson's debut album Thankful (2003). Clarkson helped rewrite the song with Lawrence, during which time one of her A&R managers, Keith Naftaly, suggested the song be re-titled "Miss Independent". The song was one of four songs on Thankful that Clarkson co-wrote; the others were "The Trouble With Love Is", "You Thought Wrong", and the title track "Thankful". There are conflicting reports of how the song was given to Clarkson. Davis said in The Soundtrack of My Life that it was Lawrence who passed the track without Aguilera's knowledge or approval. Clarkson—who was unaware of Aguilera or Morris' involvement until receiving the liner notes for Thankful—stated it was an A&R manager, who purposefully kept the information from her so she would not turn down the song; she said this to be the first example of "how people flat out lie or omit", and that what bothered her was that she had given interviews which made it look like she had written the song solely with Lawrence. Clarkson also claimed to Bournemouth Daily Echo that RCA did not want the song on the album, and she argued with the label "to the point of literally crying" to get the song on the record. In The Soundtrack of My Life, Davis claimed Aguilera was "distinctly miffed" Lawrence passed on the song without her knowledge, and only subsided when both "Miss Independent" and Aguilera's own song "Beautiful" were both nominated Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, and "Beautiful" won. Though Davis says Aguilera was mad at Clarkson, Aguilera had earlier clarified she was not, and on Total Request Live, said the song was "a good choice for her... If the song was to go to anyone, I'm glad it went to you because you gave it justice." "Miss Independent" was released to mainstream radio in the United States by RCA Records on April 10, 2003, five days ahead of Thankful's release. It was later released as a separate CD single on May 25, before being released as a 7-inch single, a 12-inch single, and a digital download on September 23. In the United Kingdom, the song was released as a CD single on August 25; a maxi single was released in Austria and Germany by BMG on August 12. Most of the singles contained Clarkson's renditions of the songs "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman", which was included on Thankful, and "Respect". In 2009, the song was made available for purchase as downloadable content for the Rock Band, Rock Band 2, and Lego Rock Band video games. ## Composition "Miss Independent" is a funk and R&B-influenced pop song. Katherine St. Asaph of Popdust noted that "it's the closest Kelly Clarkson's come to R&B." Clarkson said that Aguilera's rhythmic style heavily influenced the song. She remarked, "You can hear a lot of her influence in 'Miss Independent', especially the hook. And once you hear the song, it's constantly in your head. Believe me, I cannot get it out!" Rachell Kipp of the Associated Press wrote that "Miss Independent" "sounds like a half-baked remake of Aguilera's 'Dirrty' (2002)" The song has a length of three minutes and 35 seconds and is written in the key of B minor, Clarkson's vocal range spans from F<sub>3</sub> to F<sub>5</sub>. The lyrics tells the story of an independent woman who was apprehensive about being in a relationship in fears of being rejected, she finally allows herself to break her emotional and communication barriers when she begins to fall in love. Clarkson revealed that she finds herself similar to the titular "Miss Independent". She said, "It's very funny when the song came into play with me ... 'cause at that certain time of my life, I was actually going through that kind of thing," Clarkson said. "I've always been real guarded about work and career. It wasn't even with, like, guy relationships, it was just, like, friends and just letting people in, you know? And so it was kinda weird 'cause I was going through that same thing at the same time, so it was very easy for me to write the bridge to the song." ## Critical reception "Miss Independent" received mixed to positive reviews from music critics, who lauded Clarkson for distancing herself from her American Idol persona, but criticized the song's resemblance to some of the songs on Stripped—particularly "Dirrty" and "Fighter" (2002). Upon its release, Brian Hiatt of Entertainment Weekly noted that "its hard R&B sound may shock fans who embraced the mellow 'A Moment Like This'. 'Miss Independent' begins with Clarkson singing in a throaty moan over a bangin' hip-hop beat, then bursts into a power-chord-propelled, disco-diva chorus that's not unlike Britney Spears' 'Stronger'". Rolling Stone wrote, "'A Moment Like This' was exactly the sort of treacly by-the-numbers ballad critics expected of a TV-contest winner; that's probably why its assertive follow-up, 'Miss Independent', was such a surprise". AllMusic's senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that it "managed to make Kelly Clarkson seem younger and hipper without slutting her up like Christina Aguilera (who, ironically, co-wrote 'Miss Independent' the first single from Thankful) while retaining a strong sense of melodic songcraft". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that the song "gives Clarkson the youthful edge she desperately needs to balance out the Adult Contemporary goo of songs like 'Anytime' and 'A Moment Like This'. Cinquemani also added, "'Miss Independent' is no 'Dirrty', but it proves that if anyone can out-sing Aguilera, it's Clarkson". On March 5, 2013, Billboard ranked the song number sixteen in its list of "Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time". Howard Cohen of The Baltimore Sun wrote, "The R&B-styled stomper 'Miss Independent', sounds like the fat removed from Aguilera's meatier 'Fighter' – which could well be the case, since she co-wrote both tunes". Elysa Gardner of USA Today was more critical of the song, calling it "breathless" and "colorless". She also added that the song "sounds less like the edgy, strong-but-vulnerable-woman number it purports to be than the Christina Aguilera throwaway it basically is". The song received a nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 Grammy Awards, but lost out to Aguilera's "Beautiful". It was also nominated for Choice Summer Song at the 2003 Teen Choice Awards. ## Commercial performance "Miss Independent" debuted at the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 23 on the week ending May 3, 2003. It then debuted on the Pop Songs chart for the week ending May 10, 2003, eventually topping the chart for six weeks beginning on the week ending June 28, 2003. The song debuted on the main Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending May 17, 2003, at number 61, eventually peaking at number nine for two consecutive weeks starting in its tenth week, becoming her second top ten single in the United States. It was present on the chart for a total of twenty weeks, spending its final week on the chart at number 43 on the week ending September 27, 2003, before going recurrent the following week. It also charted on Adult Pop Songs and Adult Contemporary charts at number 14 and number 28, respectively. The single's success came at the time when the Billboard charts were relying to more R&B and rhythmic stations than pop stations. As of September 2017, "Miss Independent" has sold over 1,035,000 digital downloads in the United States. It was certified Gold by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2006. Internationally, the song also became a commercial success, becoming Clarkson's first single to chart outside of North America. In Australia, it debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 17 in August 2003, eventually peaking at number four after Clarkson performed it at the 2003 NRL Grand Final at the Stadium Australia on October 5, 2003. It eventually became her highest-charting single in Australia along with "Since U Been Gone" (2004) before being overtaken by "Mr. Know It All", which topped the chart in 2011. In the United Kingdom, "Miss Independent" debuted and peaked at number six on the UK Singles Chart in August 2003. It the Netherlands, the song debuted on the Dutch Top 40 at number 27, eventually peaking at number nine. The song also charted in Austria, Germany, Ireland, Sweden, and Switzerland. ## Music video The song's accompanying music video was filmed in Los Angeles by Liz Friedlander, who didn't know Clarkson at the time. Friedlander remarked, "Honestly, I never watched American Idol, so I didn't have a preconceived notion of her." She said about the video, "The song is explosive and young and has some cool electronic beats, so we took the visual style from the music." Clarkson added "It's gonna be more Kelly Clarkson the artist, not [Kelly Clarkson] from 'American Idol." The video features Clarkson performing at a house party in reverse, starting from the morning after and working its way back to the previous night, where she appears attracted to a "surfer" whom she keeps seeing in mirrors. Friedlander adds, "And in the end — maybe — they get together." It premiered on MTV on June 2, 2003. The video received three nominations at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards—Best New Artist in a Video, Best Pop Video, and Viewer's Choice Award. ## Live performances Clarkson premiered "Miss Independent" on the second season of American Idol in May 2003. Throughout 2003, she performed it on various television events, including the inaugural season of Australian Idol, The Late Show with David Letterman, and The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn. She also performed the song in sports events, notably at the 2003 NRL Grand Final at the Stadium Australia on October 5, 2003. Since then, she has included the song in her set lists on tour, even naming her first co-headlining tour, the Independent Tour (2004, after the song. In 2012, she performed a medley of her songs at the 40th Anniversary American Music Awards, beginning with "Miss Independent", continuing to "Since U Been Gone", "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)", and "Catch My Breath". ## Formats and track listing ## Charts and certifications ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Certifications ## Release history ## See also - List of Mainstream Top 40 number-one hits of 2003 (U.S.)	[ "## Background and release", "## Composition", "## Critical reception", "## Commercial performance", "## Music video", "## Live performances", "## Formats and track listing", "## Charts and certifications", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts", "### Certifications", "## Release history", "## See also" ]	2,838	4,720
2,096,805	Boril of Bulgaria	1,165,601,939	Bulgarian emperor	[ "12th-century births", "13th-century Bulgarian tsars", "13th-century deaths", "Asen dynasty", "Eastern Orthodox monarchs" ]	Boril (Bulgarian: Борил) was the emperor (tsar) of Bulgaria from 1207 to 1218. He was the son of an unnamed sister of his predecessor, Kaloyan and Kaloyan's brothers, Peter II and Ivan Asen I, who had restored the independent Bulgarian state. After Kaloyan died unexpectedly in October 1207, Boril married his widow, a Cuman princess and seized the throne. His cousin, Ivan Asen, fled from Bulgaria, enabling Boril to strengthen his position. His other kinsmen, Strez and Alexius Slav, refused to acknowledge him as the lawful monarch. Strez took possession of the land between the Struma and Vardar rivers with the support of Stefan Nemanjić of Serbia. Alexius Slav secured his rule in the Rhodope Mountains with the assistance of Henry, the Latin Emperor of Constantinople. Boril launched unsuccessful military campaigns against the Latin Empire and the Kingdom of Thessalonica during the first years of his reign. He convoked the synod of the Bulgarian Church in early 1211. At the assembly, the bishops condemned the Bogomils for heresy. After an uprising broke out against him in Vidin between 1211 and 1214, he sought the assistance of Andrew II of Hungary, who sent reinforcements to suppress the rebellion. He made peace with the Latin Empire in late 1213 or early 1214. After Henry died in 1216 and Andrew II left Hungary for a crusade, Ivan Asen returned to Bulgaria. He captured and blinded Boril in Tarnovo in 1218. ## Early life Boril was the son of a sister of three emperors (or tsars) of restored Bulgarian Empire, Peter II, Ivan Asen I and Kaloyan. The etymology of his name is uncertain: it may be connected either to the Slavic verb boriti ("to fight"), or to the Turkic noun böri ("wolf"). Historian Alexandru Madgearu says most recorded variants of the name (Borilǔ, Burile, Borilus, Burillus) suggest that "it was pronounced Borilǎ, as in Romanian". ## Reign ### Rise to the throne Kaloyan died suddenly while besieging Thessaloniki in October 1207. Rumours began to spread claiming that he was killed by the patron saint of the besieged town, Demetrius. A version of these stories claims that the saint persuaded one Manastras to kill the tsar. The Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Henry, stated in one of his letters that Boril "had imposed his will by violence and usurped the imperial name and insignia". Henri de Valenciennes (who continued the chronicle of Geoffrey of Villehardouin after 1207) likewise described Boril as a renegade who unlawfully seized the imperial crown. According to Madgearu, both reports suggest that Boril had his uncle murdered, most likely in cooperation with Kaloyan's wife. Historian John V. A. Fine, however, emphasises that "there is no evidence against Boril". Boril married Kaloyan's widow either to strengthen his claim to the throne, or to secure the Cumans' support. However, many noblemen (among them members of his family) always regarded him as a usurper. Ivan Asen's underage son of the same name soon fled to the Cumans and later to the "lands of the Russians" (that is to Halych or Kiev). Boril's brother, Strez, sought refuge in Serbia. Instead of extraditing him, Stefan Nemanjić of Serbia granted him the fortress of Prosek. A third relative, Alexius Slav, took possession of the region of the Rhodope Mountains, which surrounded his castle at Tsepina. ### War with the Latins In the reign of Kaloyan, the Greek noblemen of eastern Thrace had risen up against the Bulgarian Empire, seeking assistance from the Latin Empire; this rebellion would continue against Boril, who left for Thrace to reconquer the region in May 1208. Boril left for Thrace to reconquer the region in May 1208. During his march, he seized parts of Alexius Slav's territory before stopping at Stara Zagora. The Latin Emperor personally led his army against Boril, forcing him to withdraw to Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv). Although Boril's army outnumbered the Latin troops, Henry defeated him near the town on 8 July. The Latins captured Philippopolis and Alexius Slav voluntarily paid homage to Henry to secure his assistance against Boril. While Boril was waging war against the Latins, Stefan Nemanjić invaded Macedonia and occupied the land between the Struma and Vardar rivers. He granted the occupied territories to Strez but left Serbian troops in the region to secure his loyalty. The Greeks of Serres in the Kingdom of Thessalonica sent envoys to Boril's commander in Melnik, seeking his assistance against the Latins in early 1209. Henry soon intervened and suppressed their revolt. Boril concluded an alliance with Theodore I Laskaris, Emperor of Nicaea, and Michael I Komnenos Doukas, the Greek ruler of Epirus, against the Latins. He also made peace with Strez who had turned against Nemanjić. Boril convened a synod of the Church of his realm in Tarnovo in early 1211. The bishops confirmed the Orthodox confession adopted at the Council of Constantinople in 843 and condemned the Bogomils, ordering their persecution as heretics. The synod established the date of Easter in accordance with the Catholic calendar. Boril, who had presided over the synod, ordered the publication of its decisions in Bulgarian on 11 February 1211. Boril sent an army to a mountain pass to prepare an ambush for the Latin Emperor Henry who was returning from Thessaloniki to Constantinople in April 1211. Having been informed of Boril's plan, Henry gathered his troops from the nearby Latin fortresses and forced Boril to withdraw his army. Strez invaded the Kingdom of Thessalonica, but Michael of Epirus, who had made peace with the Latins, invaded his realm. Boril intervened in the conflict on Strez's behalf, but their united armies were defeated near Bitola in early summer. He launched an assault on Thessaloniki in October, but Eustace of Flanders, who administered the kingdom as regent, forced him to lift the siege. Alexius Slav intervened the conflict on Eustace's behalf and captured Melnik. ### Uprising John Fine says Boril held the Church synod to secure the support of the clergy for himself, because "popular dissatisfaction with his reign may still have existed" in 1211. An uprising which broke out in Vidin between 1211 and 1214 demonstrated the existence of popular discontent with him. The exact circumstances of the movement are uncertain, because the only source of information about these events are in fragmentary data preserved in a Hungarian royal charter issued in 1250. Boril was unable to suppress the rebellion without external assistance, turning to Andrew II of Hungary, reminding him of "their reliable friendship". Andrew dispatched Joachim, Count of Hermannstadt (now Sibiu in Romania), to Bulgaria at the head of an army of Saxon, Vlach, Székely and Pecheneg troops. Joachim first routed three Cuman chieftains who tried to halt his invasion, then captured Vidin and returned it to Boril. ### Reconciliation A papal legate (identified as Pelagius of Albano) came to Bulgaria in the summer of 1213. He continued his journey towards Constantinople, implying that his mediation contributed to the subsequent reconciliation between Boril and Henry. Boril desired peace because he had already realised that he would be unable to regain the Thracian territories lost to the Latin Empire; Henry wanted peace with Bulgaria in order to resume his war against Emperor Theodore I Laskaris. After lengthy negotiations, Henry married Boril's stepdaughter (whom modern historians wrongly call Maria) in late 1213 or early 1214. In early 1214, Boril offered the hand of his unnamed daughter to Andrew II of Hungary's son and heir, Béla. Madgearu says he also renounced the lands that Andrew had claimed from Bulgaria (including Braničevo). In an attempt to conquer new lands, Boril launched an invasion of Serbia, laying siege to Niš in 1214, aided by troops sent by Henry. At the same time, Strez invaded Serbia from the south, although he was killed during his campaign. Boril was unable to seize Niš however, due to conflicts between the Bulgarian and Latin troops. Conflicts between Boril and the Latin troops prevented them from capturing the town. ### Fall Boril was deprived of his two principal allies by 1217, as Latin Emperor Henry died in July 1216, and Andrew II left Hungary to lead a crusade to the Holy Land in 1217; this position of weakness enabled his cousin, Ivan Asen, to invade Bulgaria. Boril was beaten by Ivan Asen in battle, and forced to withdraw to Tarnovo, which Ivan's troops laid siege to. The Byzantine historian, George Akropolites, stated that the siege lasted "for seven years", however most modern historians believe that it was actually seven months. After Ivan Asen's troops seized the town in 1218, Boril attempted to flee, but was captured and blinded. No further information was recorded about Boril's fate. ## Family Akropolites described Boril's first wife (the widow of his uncle) as a "Scythian" (or Cuman). Boril's marriage to his uncle's widow violated canon law, but the Bulgarian Church did not protest against it. Baldwin of Avesnes, the Chronicle of Flanders and other Western European chronicles say that an unnamed niece of the Latin Emperor Henry (the daughter of his sister, Yolanda of Flanders, and Peter II of Courtenay) was given in marriage to "Johannis", who is associated with Boril. Historians who accept the reliability of this report say that Boril married Henry's niece after their peace treaty in 1213 or 1214. If this theory is valid, Boril's first wife either had died or had been sent to a monastery. Boril's daughter was engaged to the Hungarian crown prince, Béla, in 1214, but the marriage never took place, due to Boril's deposition.	[ "## Early life", "## Reign", "### Rise to the throne", "### War with the Latins", "### Uprising", "### Reconciliation", "### Fall", "## Family" ]	2,249	31,650
420,309	Flag of Prince Edward Island	1,124,469,225	Canadian provincial flag	[ "Flags displaying animals", "Flags introduced in 1964", "Flags of Canada", "Provincial symbols of Prince Edward Island" ]	The flag of Prince Edward Island consists of a golden lion passant on a red field in the upper portion and a white field defaced with three oak saplings and a large oak tree on a green island in the bottom portion. This is bordered on three edges other than the hoist by a fimbriation of alternating red and white rectangles. Adopted in 1964 in the run-up to the Canadian Centennial, it has been the flag of the province since March 24 of that year. It is a banner of arms modelled after the province's coat of arms. When flown with the flags of other Canadian provinces and the national flag, it is eighth in the order of precedence. ## History The French first settled in modern-day Prince Edward Island during the 1720s and named it Ile Saint-Jean. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 saw France permanently relinquish the island to the United Kingdom. It was consequently placed under the administration of the Colony of Nova Scotia and its name was anglicized to St. John’s Island. The territory became a separate colony in 1769, and was accorded its own seal on July 14 of that same year. It featured an oak tree with three adjacent smaller trees. The island was renamed in 1799 to honour Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, who was the commander of the British forces in North America and garrisoned in nearby Halifax at the time. Responsible government was accorded to Prince Edward Islanders in 1851. The territory hosted the Charlottetown Conference in 1864, which culminated in Canadian Confederation three years later on July 1, 1867, between the Province of Canada (consisting of modern-day Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Although the island was consequently dubbed the "Cradle of Confederation", it initially opted not to join due to lack of popular support. However, major economic troubles on the island led it to reconsider and eventually acquiesce to confederation. It officially joined the Dominion of Canada exactly six years later on July 1, 1873. Subsequently, King Edward VII issued a Royal Warrant on May 30, 1905, allowing Prince Edward Island to utilize their own coat of arms. The shield was derived from the Great Seal of 1769, with the addition of a gold lion on a red chief. In the time leading up to the Canadian Centennial in 1967, Conrad Swan – the first Canadian to be appointed to the College of Arms in London – was invited to design a flag for Prince Edward Island. He created an armorial banner based on the province's coat of arms and included a fimbriation of alternating red and white rectangles on the outer three sides of the flag. The Act of Legislature that tabled this flag received royal assent on March 24, 1964. In a 2001 online survey conducted by the North American Vexillological Association, Prince Edward Island's flag ranked within the top third of state, provincial and territorial flags from Canada, the United States, and select current and former territories of the United States. It finished in 21st place out of 72, and placed fifth among official Canadian flags after Quebec, Nova Scotia, Nunavut, and New Brunswick. ## Design ### Description The flag of Prince Edward Island is described in detail in the Provincial Flag Act, provincial legislation that has been in force from March 24, 1964. It specifies the flag is to have an aspect ratio of 2:3. The blazon for the arms – as outlined in the letters patent registering it with the Canadian Heraldic Authority (CHA) on July 15, 2011 – reads, "Argent on an island Vert, to the sinister an oak tree fructed, to the dexter thereof three oak saplings sprouting all proper, on a chief Gules a lion passant guardant Or". The flag itself was registered with the CHA on November 15, 2010. The fimbriation of alternating red and white bands consists of rectangles measuring 10 inches (25 cm) in length and 3 inches (7.6 cm) in height. ### Symbolism The colours and symbols of the flag carry cultural, political, and regional meanings. According to vexillologist Whitney Smith, the gold lion in the upper part of the flag – corresponding to the one on the Royal Arms of England – alludes to the English heritage of the early colonists to Prince Edward Island. It also evokes the coat of arms of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, who is the namesake of the island. The large oak tree on the right symbolizes England, while the three oak saplings on the left epitomize the three counties that constitute the province (namely Kings County, Queens County, and Prince County). The green island on which these trees are planted on represents Prince Edward Island and Great Britain, which are both islands. Taken altogether, the trees tie in with the province's motto of Parva sub ingenti ("the small under the protection of the great", from the second book of the Georgics by Virgil). The island was historically a small colony of the British Empire, as well as the smallest Canadian province by area. The three oak saplings are therefore interpreted in Complete Flags of the World by DK as the "descendants" of the British oak tree and are guarded by the British lion. The oak tree on Prince Edward Island's coat of arms (and by extension, its flag) is surmised to be Quercus rubra (red oak). This was adopted as the provincial tree in 1987. However, it has not been officially identified as such with regard to the arms. ## Protocol Advice regarding flag etiquette is the responsibility of the province's Office of Protocol, specifically the Chief of Protocol. When flown together with the flag of Canada and the other provincial and territorial flags, the flag of Prince Edward Island is eighth in the order of precedence (after the national flag and, in descending order of precedence, the flags of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, and British Columbia). This is because it was the seventh province to enter into Confederation. Within Prince Edward Island, the provincial flag is third in the order of precedence, after the personal standard of a member of the Royal Family, the Governor General, or the province's Lieutenant Governor, as well as the national flag. Under section 3 of the Provincial Flag Act, the utilization of the flag in a way that is prohibited by the Lieutenant Governor-in-Council is a summary offence that is punishable by a maximum fine of C\$50 for the first instance and a maximum of \$500 for every offence thereafter. In addition to the dates set out by the federal government for flying flags at half-mast, the provincial flag is half-masted upon the death of the Lieutenant Governor or premier (either an incumbent or a previous one), as well as the incumbent speaker of the legislative assembly, member of the executive council, and federal members of parliament (MPs) and senators who represent the province. It may also be flown in such a manner when an individual honoured by Prince Edward Island dies. The flag may be draped over the casket of an individual who was a member of the Canadian Armed Forces or who served in public office. When utilized in this situation, the flag should measure 4.5 feet (1.4 m) by 9 feet (2.7 m) and be placed with the canton covering the left end of the coffin. The guidelines also state that the flag is not to touch the ground, nor should it be used to cover a table or seat. It ought to be hoisted at sunrise and lowered before sunset, unless the flag is illuminated by floodlight throughout the night. The provincial flag should not be flown on the same flagpole that displays another flag. The only exception to this is if the other flag is the banner of an organization, in which case it is to be flown underneath the flag of Prince Edward Island if individual flagpoles are not available. It is not to be employed at an unveiling ceremony to cover a statue, monument, or plaque, nor should it be situated between the ground tier and platform tier at the front of a stage.	[ "## History", "## Design", "### Description", "### Symbolism", "## Protocol" ]	1,710	253
396,661	James Rainwater	1,149,863,130	American physicist	[ "1917 births", "1986 deaths", "American Nobel laureates", "American nuclear physicists", "California Institute of Technology alumni", "Columbia University alumni", "Columbia University faculty", "Fellow Members of the IEEE", "Fellows of Optica (society)", "Fellows of the American Physical Society", "Manhattan Project people", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "People from Council, Idaho" ]	Leo James Rainwater (December 9, 1917 – May 31, 1986) was an American physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 for his part in determining the asymmetrical shapes of certain atomic nuclei. During World War II, he worked on the Manhattan Project that developed the first atomic bombs. In 1949, he began developing his theory that, contrary to what was then believed, not all atomic nuclei are spherical. His ideas were later tested and confirmed by Aage Bohr's and Ben Mottelson's experiments. He also contributed to the scientific understanding of X-rays and participated in the United States Atomic Energy Commission and naval research projects. Rainwater joined the physics faculty at Columbia in 1946, where he reached the rank of full professor in 1952 and was named Pupin Professor of Physics in 1982. He received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award for Physics in 1963 and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection". ## Early life Leo James Rainwater was born on December 9, 1917, in Council, Idaho, the son of a former civil engineer who ran the local general store, Leo Jaspar Rainwater and his wife Edna Eliza née Teague. He never used his first name and was always referred to as James or Jim. His father died in the great influenza epidemic of 1918 and Rainwater and his mother moved to Hanford, California, where she married George Fowler, a widower with two sons, Freeman and John. In time he also acquired a half-brother, George Fowler, Jr., who became naval officer. At high school he excelled in mathematics, chemistry and physics and was admitted to the California Institute of Technology on the strength of a chemistry competition. He received his Bachelor of Science degree as a physics major in 1939. ## Manhattan Project Rainwater then chose to undertake postgraduate studies at Columbia University. At the time this was an unusual move for a scholar from California, as Columbia was not then renowned for its physics; but this had recently changed. George B. Pegram had recently built up the physics department, and hired scientists like Enrico Fermi. At Columbia Rainwater studied under Isidor Isaac Rabi, Enrico Fermi, Edward Teller and John R. Dunning. Fermi was engaged in neutron moderator studies that would lead to the construction of the first nuclear reactor, while Dunning and Eugene T. Booth had built Columbia's first cyclotron, in the basement of the Pupin Physics Laboratories. Rainwater received his Master of Arts in 1941. For his Doctor of Philosophy thesis on "Neutron beam spectrometer studies of boron, cadmium, and the energy distribution from paraffin", written under Dunning's supervision, he built a neutron spectrometer and developed techniques for its use. Rainwater married Emma Louise Smith in March 1942. They had three sons, James, Robert and William and a daughter, Elizabeth Ann, who died from leukaemia when she was nine. Fermi's reactor group moved to the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago in 1942. Rainwater remained at Columbia, where he joined the Manhattan Project's Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories. The Manhattan Project was the Allied effort during World War II to develop atomic bombs. The SAM Laboratories' primary task was the development of gaseous diffusion technology for uranium enrichment, to produce fissile uranium-235 for use in atomic bombs. Rainwater worked with William W. Havens, Jr. and Chien-Shiung Wu, mostly on studies of neutron cross sections, using the neutron spectrometer. After the war, a dozen papers by Dunning, Havens, Rainwater and Wu would be declassified and published. So too was his thesis, published in the Physical Review in two parts with Havens's thesis, and he was awarded his doctorate in 1946. In 1963 he was awarded the United States Atomic Energy Commission's Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award, for his work on the Manhattan Project. ## Later life Rainwater remained at Columbia as an instructor. In 1948, he began teaching courses on nuclear structure. Niels Bohr and John Wheeler had developed a theoretical treatment for nuclear fission in 1939 that they based on the liquid drop model of the nucleus. This was superseded in 1949 by Maria Goeppert Mayer's nuclear shell model, which could explain more about the structure of heavy elements than the older theory but it still had limits. At a colloquium at Columbia in 1949, Charles H. Townes reported experimental results that indicated quadrupole moments greater than those indicated by the shell model. It occurred to Rainwater that this could be explained and the differences between the liquid drop and nuclear shell models could be reconciled, if the atomic nucleus were not spherical, as had been assumed but could assume other shapes. Rainwater published his theoretical paper in 1950. By chance, that year he was sharing an office with Aage Bohr, who took up the challenge of experimentally verifying Rainwater's theory. Bohr and Ben Mottelson published their results in three papers in 1952 and 1953 that conclusively confirmed the theory. Rainwater felt that his model was overlooked. He later recalled that: > When I made my proposal for use of a spheroidal nuclear model, it seemed to be an obvious answer which would immediately be simultaneously suggested by all theorists in the field. I do not understand why it was not. I was also surprised and dismayed to hear one or more respected theorists announce in every Nuclear Physics Conference which I attended through 1955 some such comment as, "Although the Nuclear Shell Model seems empirically to work very well, there is at present no theoretical justification as to why it should apply." With funding from the Office of Naval Research, Rainwater built a synchrotron, which became operational in 1950, at the Nevis Laboratories, on an estate on the Hudson River at Irvington, New York, willed to Columbia University by the DuPont family. He became a full professor in 1952 and was the director of Nevis Laboratories from 1951 to 1954 and again from 1957 to 1961. He worked with his student Val Fitch on studies of muonic atoms, atoms where an electron is replaced by a muon. After 1965, he worked on turning the Nevis synchrotron into a meson facility. When a reporter rang in 1975 to inform him that he had won the Nobel Prize in Physics, he initially thought that it was for his work on muonic atoms. Several hours passed before he discovered that it was for his work on nuclear structure, the Nobel Prize being shared with Bohr and Mottelson. He was a fellow of the American Physical Society, the New York Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Institute of Physics, the American Association of Physics Teachers and the Optical Society of America. Rainwater succeeded Robert R. Wilson as Michael I. Pupin Professor of Physics in 1983. Rainwater collapsed after a lecture at the Pupin Laboratories in 1985 but was revived by a student who knew how to administer CPR. In declining health, he retired and became a professor emeritus in February 1986. He died from cardiopulmonary arrest at St. John's Riverside Hospital in Yonkers, New York on May 31, 1986. He was survived by his wife, three sons and half-brother George.	[ "## Early life", "## Manhattan Project", "## Later life" ]	1,614	33,477
49,776,555	I går såg jag ditt barn, min Fröja	1,094,394,626	Song by the 18th century Swedish bard Carl Michael Bellman	[ "1790 compositions", "Fredmans epistlar", "Swedish songs" ]	I går såg jag ditt barn, min Fröja (Yesterday saw I your child, my Freya), is a ballad from the Swedish poet and performer Carl Michael Bellman's 1790 collection, Fredman's Epistles, where it is No. 28. The epistle is subtitled "Om et anstäldt försåt emot Ulla Winblad." (About an ambush of Ulla Winblad). It describes an attempt to arrest the "nymph" Ulla Winblad, based on a real event. The lyrics create a rococo picture of life, blending classical allusion and pastoral description with harsh reality. ## Context ## Song ### Music and verse form The song has five verses, each of 8 lines. The verses have the alternating rhyming pattern ABAB-CDCD. The music is in time, and is marked Andante. The melody was reworked by Joseph Martin Kraus from a Languedoc folk tune; it is accompanied throughout by rapid, nervous quavers (eighth notes), giving the Epistle in Edward Matz's view a cinematic slow motion effect. The melody was used by "several parodists" in the 18th century; it had timbres (named melodies) including "Quoi–" and "Ah! ma voisine, es-tu fâchée?" which the musicologist James Massengale suggests Bellman may have had in mind. ### Lyrics The song is dated 17 August 1771. The epistle is subtitled "Om et anstäldt försåt emot Ulla Winblad" ("About an attempted ambush of Ulla Winblad"), which Bellman's biographer Lars Lönnroth describes as relatively vague, compared for instance to that of epistle 31, which gives exact co-ordinates in time and space. The story is at least loosely based on a real event, although the real Ulla Winblad, Maria Kristina Kiellström, was neither a prostitute nor a barmaid, and never prosecuted for wearing unauthorised finery in the form of silk dresses. ## Reception Bellman's biographer, Paul Britten Austin, describes the Epistle as rococo, along with No. 25: Blåsen nu alla (All blow now). In it, Ulla Winblad, "a luxuriant Venus, incarnation of love and beauty" is almost caught by the bailiffs in Yxsmedsgränd, a narrow street in Stockholm's Gamla stan, where Bellman himself lived from 1770 to 1774. Carina Burman, in her biography of Bellman, wonders whether Bellman found it slightly amusing to move into the street where the bailiffs had pursued Ulla sixteen years earlier. The epistle describes how she just manages to escape. Bellman simultaneously uses classical and contemporary imagery. He calls Ulla a nymph; she has been given a "myrtle" (crown of leaves) by Freya, the Nordic goddess of love; the Bonde Palace (visible from the corner of Yxsmedsgränd) is called the temple of Themis, classical goddess of justice; and Freya is to be worshipped in Paphos' land, equating her with Venus/Aphrodite. Paphos in Cyprus was where, in the myth, Aphrodite rose naked from the foaming sea, and her temple is nearby. But, non-mythologically, Ulla wears "a black embroider'd bodice" and petticoats with "frills and laces", and she loses her watch in the struggle. Britten Austin translates the entire Epistle. Burman notes that the cheerful last stanza of the Epistle was one of the Bellman songs used in 19th century student celebrations. Epistle 28 has been recorded by Cornelis Vreeswijk, a noted Bellman interpreter, on his 1971 studio album Spring mot Ulla, spring! Cornelis sjunger Bellman, among others.	[ "## Context", "## Song", "### Music and verse form", "### Lyrics", "## Reception" ]	847	8,544
29,340,952	Phallus calongei	1,170,300,653	Stinkhorn fungus from Pakistan	[ "Fungi described in 2009", "Fungi of Pakistan", "Phallales" ]	Phallus calongei is a species of stinkhorn mushroom. Found in Pakistan, it was described as new to science in 2009. Starting out as an "egg", the fully expanded fruit body consists of a single, thick, stipe with a cap attached to the apex and covered with olive-green, slimy spore-containing gleba. It is distinguished from other similar Phallus species by a combination of features, including a pinkish, reticulated (network-like) cap, and a stipe that is tapered at both ends. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown. ## Discovery, taxonomy and classification Phallus calongei was discovered on June 16, 2008, near the Khanspur stream in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly known as the North Western Frontier Province) in Pakistan. It was described as new to science in a 2009 Mycotaxon publication. The specific epithet calongei honors Spanish mycologist Francisco D. Calonge who has written extensively on the Gasteromycetes, and who has himself published or co-published three Phallus species: P. atrovolvatus (Kreisel & Calonge), P. maderensis (Calonge) and P. minusculus (Kreisel & Calonge). P. calongei is one of four Phallus species known to exist in Pakistan, the others being P. celebicus, P. impudicus, and P. rubicundus. According to the infrageneric classification scheme proposed by German mycologist Hanns Kreisel in 1996, Phallus calongei belongs in the subgenus Phallus, section Flavophallus of the genus Phallus. Other species in this section include P. flavocostatus, P. tenuis, P. formanosus, P. calichrous, P. multicolor, and P. cinnabarinus. A number of features distinguish P. calongei from these, including: an undeveloped white volva, a stipe tapered at both ends, a deeply pitted and reticulate cap surface with pinkish ridges, and no indusium (a lacy "skirt" hanging from the cap, present in some Phallus species). ## Description As a member of the genus Phallus, the shape of P. calongei mushrooms assume the general form of a phallus (an erect human penis) with a single elongated hollow stipe topped by a bulbous cap-like structure at the apex. The fruit bodies of P. calongei start out appearing similar to whitish "eggs", with a membranous exoperidium (outer tissue layer) and gelatinous, translucent endoperidium (inner tissue layer). The fully expanded fruit body consists of a single, thick, stalk with a ridged and pitted cap attached to the apex; the cap is covered with olive-green, slimy gleba. The fruit body can reach up to 24 cm (9.4 in) tall and 3 cm (1.2 in) thick. It is whitish and hollow, slightly tapered at both ends, and has a wall that consists of layers of perforated chambers. At the apex of the stalk is the "cap", which can be up to 7 cm (2.8 in) high and 4 cm (1.6 in) thick. It is bell-shaped to conical-truncate with a pitted surface. As the gleba dissipates, the cap surface becomes strongly reticulated—forming a network of raised pinkish ridges. The tip of the cap is truncated, with a depressed and perforated surface. The gleba is olive-green, fetid, and deliquescent (melting away gradually). The spores are ellipsoid, smooth, and hyaline (translucent), measuring 3.5–4.5 by 1.5–2.0 μm. The exoperidium of the "egg" remains at the base of the fruit body as a thin, membranous, undeveloped white volva. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. ### Similar species The only other Phallus species known with a pinkish-colored cap is P. rubicundus; its conical cap has a surface that is wrinkled, not reticulate. Other similar species include P. hadriani, which has a purple volva, P. macrosporus, which has a reddish volva, and P. formanosus, which has a pale pink stipe and volva. ## Habitat and distribution All species of Phallus are known to be saprobic, feeding off dead and decaying organic matter. P. calongei is known only from the type locality in Pakistan, where it was found growing on the ground at 2,575 metres (8,448 ft) above sea level.	[ "## Discovery, taxonomy and classification", "## Description", "### Similar species", "## Habitat and distribution" ]	1,045	15,331
34,597,321	Edward Milford	1,165,571,881	Australian Army officer	[ "1894 births", "1972 deaths", "Australian Army personnel of World War II", "Australian Commanders of the Order of the British Empire", "Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order", "Australian Companions of the Order of the Bath", "Australian generals", "Australian military personnel of World War I", "Australian people of English descent", "Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley", "Military personnel from Melbourne", "People from Prahran, Victoria", "Royal Military College, Duntroon graduates" ]	Major General Edward James Milford (10 December 1894 – 10 June 1972) was an Australian Army officer who fought in the First and the Second World Wars. Born in Melbourne, Milford graduated from the Royal Military College in 1915. Commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force, he served with the Field Artillery of the 2nd Division for most of the First World War. Remaining in the military for the interwar period, he held a number of postings in ordnance and artillery in Australia and England. During the early years of the Second World War, he served as master-general of the ordnance. He later commanded the 5th and 7th Divisions during the New Guinea and Borneo campaigns. He accepted the surrender of Japanese forces in Dutch Borneo on 8 September 1945. He retired from the army in 1948, due to an illness which was later found to be a misdiagnosis, and died in 1972 at the age of 77. ## Early life Milford was born to English immigrants James E. Milford on 10 December 1894 in Melbourne. He attended Wesley College and then in 1913, encouraged by his headmaster, entered the Royal Military College at Duntroon. ## Military career ### First World War Following graduation from Duntroon in 1915, Milford was commissioned as a lieutenant in the First Australian Imperial Force (First AIF) and was assigned to the 4th Field Artillery Brigade, 2nd Division. Serving initially in the Middle East, he was posted to the Western Front in March 1916. He held regimental and staff positions until being wounded in September 1917, by which time he had been promoted to major. His wounds were such that he was evacuated to England for treatment. Upon recovery, he returned to the 4th Field Artillery Brigade. In command of the 11th Battery from February 1918, he was recommended for, and awarded, the Distinguished Service Order as well as a mention in despatches for his efforts in controlling artillery support during operations on the Somme and the Battle of Amiens. ### Interwar period Milford opted to undertake training in ordnance in England after the war, and on 13 November 1919 married Wynne Rae Gray. He held a number of ordnance-related postings in both England and Australia, and attended the British Army Staff College at Camberley. He served for a time as chairman of the Resource Committee dedicated to "hardware, general stores and clothing" (there were seven such committees, each dedicated to a specific area of defence resources), which reported to the Defence Resources Board. At the time of the outbreak of the Second World War, he was director of artillery at Army headquarters in Melbourne, where he had been posted for four years. ### Second World War In March 1940, Milford was assigned to the newly formed 7th Division as commander of the division's artillery, one of a number of officers from the Staff Corps appointed to the division. He traveled to the Middle East in October but was destined to spend only a few weeks in his position before being recalled to Australia in January 1941 to take up the post of master-general of the ordnance. He was also promoted to temporary major general, the first Duntroon graduate to reach the rank of general. In his new appointment, he was tasked with co-ordination of private and government manufacturers and producers to provide logistic support for Australia's soldiers, both at home and overseas. He was also involved with a committee investigating the supply requirements of each of the services and the available resources, as well as the development of new weapons. When the Owen gun, an Australian designed and manufactured submachine gun, was brought to his attention, he initially favoured the use of the Sten, even though it proved to be less reliable than the Owen. #### New Guinea campaign In 1942, Milford was commander of the 5th Division, then based in Queensland and intended for operations against the Japanese Empire. He landed with elements of his division at Milne Bay on the eastern tip of New Guinea on 14 January 1943 and began operations on nearby Goodenough Island. The island had recently been captured from the Japanese but only a small Australian garrison was present to guard against any attempt by the enemy to take it back. Dummy buildings and fortifications were built to give the Japanese the impression that the Australian presence on Goodenough was greater than it actually was, and may have deterred them from attempting to retake the island. By April the Japanese threat to Goodenough had receded and an air strip was under construction. In late August 1943, the 5th Division moved to the Morobe Province of New Guinea to replace the 3rd Division, which was then participating in the Salamaua–Lae campaign. Milford was tasked with continuing offensive operations against the Japanese around Salamaua to divert resources away from the nearby Japanese base in the town of Lae. Once the neighbouring 9th Division commenced their attack to capture Lae on 4 September by landing east of the town to begin an encircling movement, the 5th Division moved to take Salamaua, which eventually fell to the Australians on 11 September. Salamaua was intended to become a large base for the Allied forces in the region, but when Lieutenant General Edmund Herring inspected the area immediately following its capture it was deemed not suitable. Instead, Herring directed Milford to establish the base at newly captured Lae. Milford supervised the construction of roads and supply depots of the "Lae Fortress" until 3 November, when he was made general staff officer of the New Guinea Force (NGF). He would be recommended for an appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his leadership and service in Lae and with the NGF. #### Borneo campaign In July 1944, he succeeded his friend (and fellow Duntroon classmate) Major General George Vasey as commander of the 7th Division. The division had been resting and refitting in Australia since its withdrawal in early 1944 from New Guinea following the Ramu Valley campaign, which had been conducted in the aftermath of the capture of Lae. In early 1945, planning was underway for Operation Oboe Two, an amphibious assault to capture Balikpapan, a seaport on Borneo. The 9th Division was originally designated for the operation, but in April it was decided to utilise the 7th Division instead, and it duly embarked from Cairns to Morotai, the staging post for the assault. Operation Oboe Two would transpire to be the largest amphibious operation mounted by the Australian military. Despite opposition from the American naval commanders providing support for the operation, Milford decided to land his forces at Klandasan, a southern suburb of Balikpapan which although heavily defended, had suitable beaches for landing troops. By landing at Klandasan, Milford hoped to achieve tactical surprise and anticipated fire support from the United States Navy would help counter the coastal defences of the Japanese. The battle of Balikpapan began on 1 July with a naval barrage of the landing area, supported by bombers of the Royal Australian Air Force, with the division landing relatively unopposed by mid morning. By 1pm, the beachhead was secure and Milford, together with Generals Douglas MacArthur and Leslie Morshead made an inspection of the area. At this late stage of the war it was clear that the war would soon end, and extensive use was made of divisional artillery (which Milford had raised during his earlier spell with the division in 1940) rather than needlessly risk soldiers' lives. By 21 July, Balikpapan was secure and the Japanese were retreating into Borneo. Milford ordered a halt to further offensive action and instructed his outlying forces to hold their position, thus concluding a successful operation. The war was now rapidly drawing to a close and upon the surrender of the Japanese Empire in August, Milford was ordered to accept the surrender of the representative commander of the Japanese forces, which numbered around 8,500 troops, in Dutch-Borneo. On 8 September, Milford observed the surrender of the Japanese military governor of the area, Vice Admiral Michiaki Kamada, in a ceremony held aboard HMAS Burdekin which was anchored off the coast of Dutch Borneo. ## Later life Milford remained the commander of the 7th Division, as well as the Morotai occupation force, until March 1946. He returned to Melbourne, replacing Major General John Chapman as Deputy Chief of General Staff on 11 March. An appointment as adjutant general followed in May. He retired on 23 April 1948 due to ill health but this was due to an incorrect diagnosis of prostate cancer. In 1946, he had been recommended for appointment as a Companion of the Order of the Bath for his leadership during Operation Oboe Two, and was duly presented with the Order in 1949. Milford died in Macleod, Melbourne on 10 June 1972, and was survived by his son (a 1944 graduate of the Royal Military College at Duntroon).	[ "## Early life", "## Military career", "### First World War", "### Interwar period", "### Second World War", "#### New Guinea campaign", "#### Borneo campaign", "## Later life" ]	1,948	1,909
3,251,544	Grumman XTSF	1,146,538,158	Torpedo scout aircraft proposed for the US Navy in 1944	[ "Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United States", "Carrier-based aircraft", "Grumman aircraft", "High-wing aircraft", "Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft" ]	The Grumman XTSF was a proposed twin-engine torpedo scout aircraft, designed by Grumman for the United States Navy towards the end of World War II. Based on the design of the Grumman F7F Tigercat fighter, but enlarged and with the addition of a bomb bay, the XTSF was deemed too large for carrier operations, and the project was cancelled before any aircraft were built. Instead, the Navy chose to order the single-engine XTB3F, which became the successful AF Guardian. ## Design and development In 1944, it was determined that the Grumman XTB2F, then under development for the Navy, would be too large to practically and safely operate from aircraft carriers. Even the new Midway-class aircraft carriers, known as "battle carriers" (CVB) and the largest aircraft carriers built by any nation to that point, would have difficulty operating the massive aircraft, which was the size of a U.S. Army Air Force medium bomber. As a result, in late June 1944, Grumman submitted its G-66 design to the Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer). After a review of the design by BuAer during the following month, a revised design was submitted, and on August 17 the existing contract for the XTB2F was modified to instead order two XTSF-1 aircraft, to be based on Grumman's F7F-2 Tigercat two-seat, twin-engined fighter-bomber, the first prototype intended to be a conversion of a F7F airframe. A mid-wing, all-metal, cantilever monoplane with two Pratt & Whitney Double Wasp radial engines mounted in streamlined nacelles under the wing, the XTSF-1 was intended to carry two crew members in tandem seats, and featured an internal bomb bay and an SCR-720 radar set, the radar later being replaced in the design by an AN/APS-3 or AN/APS-4 set. A second seat was added for the radar operator. The outer wing of the XTSF was lengthened by 7.8 feet (2.4 m) compared to that of the F7F-2, while the size of the horizontal stabilizer was increased by 28 inches (71 cm)). The vertical stabilizer was also enlarged, while the aircraft's weight increased by almost two thousand pounds (910 kg) over that of the Tigercat. The wings folded upwards for stowage aboard aircraft carriers, while the undercarriage and arrestor hook were hydraulically operated. Gun armament was planned to be four .50 caliber (12.7 mm) Browning M2 machine guns, or, alternatively, two 20 mm Hispano cannon, while a bomb bay based on that of the Grumman TBF Avenger was installed in a fuselage stretched by 5.5 inches (14 cm). ### Cancellation A mockup of the cockpit, center fuselage, and wing center section was built and was inspected by the BuAer in the fall 1944. However, the contract for the prototype XTSF-1s was terminated in January 1945. This was due to a variety of factors, including the Navy's belief that the Grumman engineers and factory were already at capacity producing the F6F Hellcat, the F7F, and the F8F Bearcat, that the XTSF-1 would be too large for practical operations from escort carriers, and because it was believed the Grumman G-70, to be built as the XTB3F, was a better prospect. In addition, the F7F was proving difficult to certify for operations from aircraft carriers, further prejudicing the Navy against the design. Some sources erroneously state that the XTSF-1 became the XTB2F, however this is not the case. The XTSF-1 was the only aircraft ever designated by the U.S. Navy in the 'TS for Torpedo Scout' category, the designation being superseded and incorporated, along with 'BT for Bomber-Torpedo', 'SB for Scout-Bomber', and 'TB for Torpedo-Bomber', into the new 'A for Attack' series. ## Specifications (XTSF-1) ## See also	[ "## Design and development", "### Cancellation", "## Specifications (XTSF-1)", "## See also" ]	895	37,027
4,664,023	Hurricane Bob (1979)	1,167,415,568	Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 1979	[ "1979 Atlantic hurricane season", "Category 1 Atlantic hurricanes", "Hurricanes in Arkansas", "Hurricanes in Louisiana", "Hurricanes in Tennessee", "Hurricanes in West Virginia" ]	Hurricane Bob was the first Atlantic tropical cyclone to be officially designated using a masculine name after the discontinuation of Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet names. Bob brought moderate damage to portions of the United States Gulf Coast and areas farther inland in July 1979. The storm was the first hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico to form in the month of July since 1959, and was the fifth tropical cyclone to form during the annual hurricane season. Though the origin of Bob can be traced back to a tropical wave near the western coast of Africa in late June, Bob formed from a tropical depression in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on July 9. Tracking in a general northward direction, favorable conditions allowed for quick strengthening. Less than a day after formation, the system reached tropical storm intensity, followed by hurricane intensity on July 11. Shortly after strengthening into a hurricane, Bob reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph (121 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 986 mbar (hPa; 29.12 inHg). At the same intensity, Bob made landfall west of Grand Isle, Louisiana, and rapidly weakened after moving inland. However, the resulting tropical depression persisted for several days as it paralleled the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. On July 16, the system emerged into the western Atlantic, where it was subsequently absorbed by a nearby low-pressure area. Widespread offshore and coastal evacuations took place along the United States Gulf Coast in preparation for Hurricane Bob. Effects from the hurricane on the United States were mostly marginal and typical of a minimal hurricane. The cyclone produced a moderate storm surge, damaging some coastal installments and causing coastal inundation. Strong winds were also associated with Bob's landfall, though no stations observed winds of hurricane force. The winds downed trees and blew out windows, in addition to causing widespread power outages. Heavy rainfall was also reported in some locations, peaking at 7.16 in (182 mm) in Louisiana. Further inland, the torrential rains led to flooding in Indiana, resulting in more considerable damage as opposed to the coast. Bob also spawned eight tornadoes, with two causing significant damage. Overall, Bob was responsible for one death and \$20 million in damage. ## Meteorological history The origin of Hurricane Bob can be traced to a tropical wave that was first located near Cape Verde towards the end of June. The disturbance tracked westward with minimal signs of development, and reached the northwestern Caribbean Sea on July 6. The following day, the tropical system tracked across the Yucatán Peninsula the following day, and upon emerging into the Gulf of Mexico, the cluster of storms began to develop a weak circulation center. This enabled for more rapid tropical cyclogenesis, and at 1200 UTC on July 9, the disturbance was analyzed to have organized into a tropical depression – the third of such in the Atlantic that year. The depression strengthened rather quickly, and on the morning of July 10 a United States Air Force reconnaissance flight indicated that the tropical cyclone had strengthened to tropical storm intensity while situated 740 mi (1,190 km) south of Louisiana. Due to the storm's intensity, the system was consequentially named Bob, making it the first Atlantic tropical cyclone to receive a masculine name since 1952. At the time the flight measured a minimum barometric pressure of 998 mbar (hPa; 29.47 inHg). Upon reaching tropical storm intensity, Bob began to curve further northward as opposed to its prior, northeasterly track, due to the presence of a strengthening, upper-level trough to the storm's west. The trough greatly enhanced atmospheric conditions around Bob, allowing for the tropical cyclone to intensify rapidly. At 0000 UTC on July 11, Bob was estimated to have strengthened to hurricane intensity based on additional reconnaissance flight data. This made Bob the first July hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico since Hurricane Debra in 1959. Though the hurricane's maximum sustained winds would hold steady at 75 mph (120 km/h) for approximately the ensuing twelve hours, the storm's barometric pressure would fluctuate before reaching a minimum of 981 mbar (hPa; 28.98 inHg) at 1200 UTC that day; this would be Bob's lowest documented barometric pressure. At around the same time, the hurricane made landfall west of Grand Isle, Louisiana. After moving inland, Bob quickly weakened due to land interaction, and was a mere tropical depression by July 12. However, the resulting depression would maintain its intensity for the next several days. On July 13, the low-pressure area drifted into southern Ohio and afterwards curved eastward. On July 16, Bob's remnants moved into the western Atlantic, where they were subsequently absorbed by another low-pressure area. ## Preparations As Bob moved towards the U.S. Gulf Coast, the National Weather Service issued gale warnings for coastal regions extending from Vermilion Bay, Louisiana to Biloxi, Mississippi at 1600 UTC on July 10. These warnings were upgraded to hurricane warnings upon Bob's strengthening to such an intensity. During the storm's existence, forecasts and predictions from the National Hurricane Center were of greater accuracy than on average. In addition to tropical cyclone warnings and watches, the agency also advised small craft from Port Arthur, Texas to Pensacola, Florida to remain in port. In preparation for the storm, 8,000 offshore oil workers were evacuated. Despite typical evacuation procedure, Chevron Corporation immediately evacuated their offshore oil staff rather than executing a three phase evacuation plan. On land, 2,500 residents and tourists on Grand Isle were also evacuated. In total, as many as 80,000 people evacuated from coastal areas leading up to Bob's eventual landfall. In New Orleans, 4,000 people checked into the city's 19 evacuation centers. The Mississippi River was temporarily closed to shipping by the United States Coast Guard for eight hours before reopening after the storm. ## Impact Effects in the United States as a result of Bob were typical of a minimal hurricane, and were not of considerable nature. At the coast, Bob caused moderate storm surge, resulting in coastal waters rising to as high as 5 ft (1.5 m) above normal. The rough seas sunk several boats and caused significant damage to piers. A levee on Grand Isle was breached by the surge, resulting in some coastal inundation. Minor beach erosion occurred on the coast of Mississippi. In Mobile County, Alabama, the wave action damaged cars near the shore and disrupted seafood operations in the Bayou La Batre area. Strong winds were reported in association with the storm, but no station documented sustained winds within hurricane force. The highest wind observation was taken on an oil rig off the coast of Louisiana, which clocked sustained winds at 63 mph (101 km/h). However, the strongest wind gust in association with the hurricane was measured in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, at 64 mph (103 km/h). In New Orleans, these strong winds damaged trees and power lines, and also broke several windows in the city's central business district. In addition, widespread power outages impacted 53,000 electricity customers in the city's area. Similar incidents took place in Houma, Louisiana. In Lafitte, Louisiana, two men were blown off of the roof of a marina, and one of them was killed; this would be the only death associated with the hurricane. Further east, in Florida, trees and power lines were downed in Niceville. Hurricane Bob also produced a widespread area of rain that was heavy in localized areas. Rainfall associated with the hurricane peaked at 7.16 in (182 mm) in Louisiana, where the storm made landfall. Statewide rainfall totals peaked at 6.64 and 4.81 in (169 and 122 mm) in Pascagoula, Mississippi and Robertsdale, Alabama, respectively. Further inland, the remnants of Bob dropped heavy rainfall in the Midwestern United States, peaking at 5.72 in (145 mm) at a station in Indiana University Bloomington. In addition to the strong winds and heavy rain, Bob produced eight tornadoes across the southern United States. One of these tornadoes caused \$27,500 in damage after striking areas of Biloxi, Mississippi. Another tornado impacted areas near Red Level, Alabama destroying or damaging several buildings and uprooting trees. Overall, Hurricane Bob caused approximately \$20 million in damage. However, \$15 million in damage resulted from flooding in Indiana, with the rest of the storm's monetary impacts arising from coastal regions. ## See also - Other storms of the same name - Hurricane Florence (1988) - Hurricane Cindy (2005) - Hurricane Flossy (1956)	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations", "## Impact", "## See also" ]	1,806	17,106
35,886,182	French battlecruiser proposals	1,150,332,521	Plans for French Navy battlecruisers, 1911–1913	[ "Battlecruiser classes", "Proposed ships" ]	In the years before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the French Navy considered several proposals for battlecruisers. The Navy issued specifications for a battlecruiser design to complete part of the 28 capital ships to be built by 1920. Three designs, one by P. Gille and two by Lieutenant Durand-Viel, were completed in 1913. All three designs were similar to contemporary battleship designs, specifically the Normandie class, which introduced a quadruple gun turret for the main battery, which was adopted for all three proposals. The first two called for the same 340 mm (13.4 in) gun used on all French super-dreadnoughts, though the third proposed a much more powerful 370 mm (14.6 in) gun. Though the design studies were complete, the French Navy did not authorize or begin construction of any battlecruisers before the start of the war. ## Background In the Naval Law of 30 March 1912, the French Navy called for a total force of 20 capital ships to be built by 1920. The Technical Branch subsequently issued a set of somewhat vague requirements for battlecruiser designs. The requirements stipulated a displacement of 28,000 metric tons (28,000 long tons; 31,000 short tons), a speed of 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph), an armament of eight 340 mm (13.4 in) guns, and a crew of not more than 1,200 officers and enlisted men. These figures were very similar to the British Lion-class battlecruisers then under construction. Numerous proposals were submitted to the Technical Branch, but only two were evaluated further. The first was prepared by P. Gille, a naval engineer overseeing the construction of the Normandie-class battleship Flandre, and the second by then-Lieutenant Durand-Viel, a student at the Naval College. As the proposals were only design studies, none were authorized and no ships were built; the outbreak of World War I ensured that even more advanced projects, like the Normandie and Lyon-class battleships were canceled as resources were redirected toward more pressing needs. ## Gille's design In 1911, Gille went to Britain to observe the construction of the new Orion-class battleships and the Lion-class battlecruisers. The latter ships prompted Gille to decide the French Navy ought to build battlecruisers as well, since Britain and Germany had already begun acquiring them, and they would prove useful as a fast division of the French fleet. Gille decided that his proposed ship would need a top speed of 28 to 29 kn (52 to 54 km/h; 32 to 33 mph) to retain an advantage over foreign battleships, the latest of which had estimated speeds of 22 to 23 kn (41 to 43 km/h; 25 to 26 mph). They would also need enough armor and a main battery powerful enough to fight in the line of battle. The limitations that weight imposed on the design, however, restricted the amount of armor possible, and so the traditional French practice of armoring the entire side of the ship would be impossible. ### Characteristics Gille's battlecruiser design called for a displacement of 28,247 t (27,801 long tons; 31,137 short tons) on a hull that was 205 meters (673 ft) long between perpendiculars, with a beam of 27 m (88 ft 7 in) at the waterline and an average draft of 9.03 m (29 ft 8 in). The freeboard forward was 7.15 m (23 ft 5 in), and aft was 4.65 m (15.3 ft). The hull lines of the ships proved to be highly efficient in tank tests during the design process. Due to the extreme weight of the main battery turrets at the bow and stern, the hull had to be strengthened to handle the strain. Very strong longitudinal bracing was incorporated, and the inner and outer skins of the hull was thickened to reinforce the bracings. The ships' expected metacentric height was 1.03 m (3 ft 5 in), comparable to the British Lion class. Each ship would be crewed by 41 officers and 1,258 enlisted men. The ships would have been equipped with four sets of steam turbines rated at 80,000 shaft horsepower (60,000 kW) powered by fifty-two coal-fired Belleville boilers. Each propeller shaft was connected to a high-pressure turbine, a medium-pressure geared turbine, and a low-pressure turbine for forward steaming, and a direct drive turbine for steaming in reverse. The ships' top speed was to have been 28 knots. The ships would have been supplied with 2,833 t (2,788 long tons; 3,123 short tons) of coal and 630 t (620 long tons; 690 short tons) of fuel oil for supplementary oil firing. At maximum speed, the ships could have cruised for 1,660 nautical miles (3,070 km; 1,910 mi); at 20.3 kn (37.6 km/h; 23.4 mph), the range increased to 4,240 nmi (7,850 km; 4,880 mi), an at a more economical 15 kn (28 km/h; 17 mph), the range grew to 6,300 nmi (11,700 km; 7,200 mi). The ships' main armament was composed of twelve 340mm/45 Modèle 1912 guns in three quadruple turrets, the same as in the contemporary French battleships of the Normandie class. One turret was placed forward, and the other two were placed in a superfiring pair, all on the centerline. The guns had a range of 16,000 m (17,000 yd) and had a rate of fire of two rounds per minute. The shells were 540-kilogram (1,190 lb) armor-piercing rounds and were fired with a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second (2,600 ft/s). A secondary battery of twenty-four 138.6 mm /55 Modèle 1910 guns mounted in casemates was planned for defense against torpedo boats. These guns fired a 36.5 kg (80 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s (2,700 ft/s). The armament was rounded out by six torpedo tubes of undetermined diameter, all submerged in the ships' hulls. The armor protecting both the main armored belt amidships and the main battery turrets was 270 mm (10.6 in) thick. The lower armored deck was 20 mm (0.79 in) thick, with 50 mm (2.0 in) of armor plating on the sloped sides. The casemate guns were protected with 180 mm (7.1 in) of steel armor. The ships were also equipped with a 20 mm thick torpedo bulkhead. ## Durand-Viel's designs In 1913, the Naval College had several of its students submit design studies for a fast capital ship. The class was given a displacement of 27,500 t (27,100 long tons; 30,300 short tons) as a limit on size; all of the officers opted to design either fast or slow battleships, with the exception of Lieutenant Durand-Viel, who chose instead to create a design for a battlecruiser. Durand-Viel drew up a pair of designs, which were evaluated by the General Staff in June 1914. He saw his ships forming a fast division of the battle fleet capable of encircling an enemy squadron; as with Gille's design, this required heavy armament and armor to permit the ships to engage battleships. ### Project "A" characteristics Durand-Viel's first battlecruiser design, "A", was built on a displacement of 27,500 t (27,100 long tons; 30,300 short tons). The hull was 210 meters (690 ft) long at the waterline, with a beam of 27 m (89 ft) at the waterline and an average draft of 8.7 m (29 ft). The ships would have been equipped with four sets of direct drive turbines rated at 74,000 shaft horsepower (55,000 kW) powered by twenty-four double-ended Belleville boilers that burned both coal and oil. The ships' top speed was to have been 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph). The ships would have been supplied with 1,810 t (1,780 long tons; 2,000 short tons) of coal and 1,050 t (1,030 long tons; 1,160 short tons) of fuel oil . The ships could have cruised for 3,500 nautical miles (6,500 km; 4,000 mi) at 16 kn (30 km/h; 18 mph), with enough fuel for an additional six hours for combat speeds. The ships' main armament was composed of eight 340mm/45 Modèle 1912 guns in two quadruple turrets, the same as in the contemporary French battleships of the Normandie class. Both turrets were placed on the centerline, on either end of the ship. A secondary battery of twenty-four 138.6 mm Modèle 1910 guns mounted in casemates was planned for defense against torpedo boats. Four 47 mm (1.9 in) saluting guns were also to be equipped. The armament was rounded out by four 450 mm (18 in) torpedo tubes, all submerged in the ships' hulls. The main armored belt amidships was 280 mm (11 in) thick, slightly thinner than the belt on the Normandie-class battleships. The rest of the ship's armor was very similar to that of the Normandie class. ### Project "B" characteristics Durand-Viel's second battlecruiser design, "B", was built on the same displacement as the first design. The heavier weight of the increased main battery was offset by a reduction in the armor protection for the secondary guns and improved performance of the ship's propulsion system. The hull was 208 meters (682 ft) long at the waterline, with a beam of 27 m at the waterline and an average draft of 8.7 m. Two engine systems were considered: four direct drive turbines rated at 63,000 shp (47,000 kW) or four geared turbines rated at 80,000 shp (60,000 kW). Steam was provided by eighteen Belleville boilers, ten of which that burned both coal and oil, and eight that were oil-fired only. The ships' top speed was to have been 26 knots (48 km/h; 30 mph) for the first variant and 27 knots for the second. The ships would have been supplied with the same fuel allotment as the "A" design, with the same radius of action as well. The ships' main armament was composed of eight 370 mm (15 in) guns in two quadruple turrets. Both turrets were placed on the centerline, on either end of the ship. The gun fired a 880-kilogram (1,940 lb) shell that was capable of penetrating 300 mm (12 in) of armor plate at a range of 12,700 m (41,700 ft). A secondary battery for defense against torpedo boats consisted of twenty-eight 138.6 mm guns, of a new semi-automatic design, mounted in casemates. Four 47 mm saluting guns were also to be installed. The should would also to have carried four 450 mm torpedo tubes, all submerged in the ships' hulls. The ships' armor system was identical to the "A" design.	[ "## Background", "## Gille's design", "### Characteristics", "## Durand-Viel's designs", "### Project \"A\" characteristics", "### Project \"B\" characteristics" ]	2,489	17,033
52,707,062	Mississippi Highway 498	1,054,759,970	State highway in Mississippi, United States	[ "State highways in Mississippi", "Transportation in Kemper County, Mississippi" ]	Mississippi Highway 498 (MS 498) is a state highway in eastern Mississippi. The highway starts at U.S. Route 45 (US 45) near Porterville, and it travels eastward from its western terminus. One mile (1.6 km) later, MS 498 ends near a railroad crossing west of Porterville, and the road continues as Porterville–Alabama Road. The route was designated around 1957, from US 45 to the Alabama–Mississippi state line. MS 498 was truncated to Porterville by 1970. ## Route description All of MS 498 is located in southeastern Kemper County. In 2017, the Mississippi Department of Transportation (MDOT) calculated 370 vehicles traveling on MS 498 east of Dan Whitsett Road on average each day. The route is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3, and it is maintained by MDOT as part of the Mississippi State Highway System. The highway starts at the intersection of US 45 and Dekalb–Porterville Road, also known as Fire Tower Road. MS 498 travels eastward from the intersection, then east-northeast to Dan Whitsett Road inside a forested area. Afterwards, the road continues eastward and crosses over a small ditch. Around 1,000 feet (300 m) later, MS 498 crosses over the Sucarnoochee River. State maintenance ends several yards before a crossing over a railroad operated Kansas City Southern Railway. The road crosses over the railroad and it continues through Porterville as Porterville–Alabama Road. The Porterville General Store is located near the eastern terminus. Past the unincorporated area, the road continues southeastwards to the Alabama–Mississippi state line, and it becomes Sumter County Road 12 in Alabama. ## History Around 1957, MS 498 was constructed as a gravel road from US 45 near Porterville to the Alabama–Mississippi state line. By 1962, the section from US 45 to Porterville was paved in asphalt. The remaining section east of Porterville was removed from the state highway system by 1970. ## Major intersections	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections" ]	448	16,345
158,410	Oleg the Wise	1,172,898,717	Varangian prince, founder of Kievan Rus'	[ "10th-century princes from Kievan Rus'", "9th-century monarchs in Europe", "Deaths due to snake bites", "Grand Princes of Kiev", "Princes of Kiev", "Princes of Novgorod", "Rurikids", "Varangians", "Year of birth uncertain" ]	Oleg (Old East Slavic: Ѡлегъ, Ольгъ; Old Norse: Helgi; died 912), known as Oleg the Wise, Oleg of Novgorod, or Oleg of Kiev, was a Varangian prince of the Rus' who became prince of Kiev and laid the foundations of the Kievan Rus' state. According to the Primary Chronicle, he succeeded his "kinsman" Rurik as ruler of Novgorod, and subdued many of the East Slavic tribes to his rule, extending his control from Novgorod to the south along the Dnieper river. Oleg also launched a successful attack on Constantinople. He died in 912 and was succeeded by Rurik's son, Igor. This traditional dating has been challenged by some historians, who point out that it is inconsistent with such other sources as the Schechter Letter, which mentions the activities of a certain khagan HLGW (Hebrew: הלגו usually transcribed Helgu. Compare Swedish first name Helge.) of Rus' as late as the 940s, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Romanus I. The nature of Oleg's relationship with the Rurikid ruling family of the Rus', and specifically with his successor Igor of Kiev, is a matter of much controversy among historians. ## Oleg of the Rus' chronicles According to the Primary Chronicle, Oleg was a "relative" or "kinsman" of Rurik, and was entrusted by Rurik to take care of both his realm and his young son Igor. However, his relation to Rurik is debatable, and has been rejected by several modern scholars. Oleg is narrated to have succeeded Rurik as the ruler of Novgorod in 879. In 881/882, he took control of Smolensk, and then seized power in Kiev by tricking and slaying Askold and Dir, and setting himself up as prince in Kiev, which is commonly taken as the founding of Kievan Rus'. Although Oleg was the first "prince" (knyaz) of Kiev according to the Primary Chronicle, he was not yet a "grand prince" (velikiy knyaz). Whereas later Muscovite chroniclers would call Oleg a "grand prince" and Kiev a "grand principality" (Old East Slavic: великое княжение, romanized: velikoe knyazhenie), the earliest sources do not. In 883, Prince Oleg of Novgorod made the Drevlians pay tribute to Kiev. In 907, the Drevlians took part in the Kievan military campaign against the Byzantine Empire: the Rus'-Byzantine War (907) against Constantinople in 907. According to the chronicle, Oleg, assaulting the city, ordered to wait for favorable wind with sails spread at some other point. When wind arose, it drove the wheeled boats towards the city through the land. The citizens were forced to start a peace negotiation. Having fixed his shield to the gate of the imperial capital, Oleg won a favourable trade treaty, which eventually was of great benefit to both nations. Although Byzantine sources did not record these hostilities, the text of the treaty survives in the Chronicle. The Primary Chronicle'''s brief account of Oleg's life contrasts with other early sources, specifically the Novgorod First Chronicle, which states that Oleg was not related to Rurik, and was rather a Scandinavian client-prince who served as Igor's army commander. The Novgorod First Chronicle does not give the date of the commencement of Oleg's reign, but dates his death to 922 rather than 912. Scholars have contrasted this dating scheme with the "epic" reigns of roughly thirty-three years for both Oleg and Igor in the Primary Chronicle. The Primary Chronicle and other Kievan sources place Oleg's grave in Kiev, while Novgorodian sources identify a funerary barrow in Ladoga as Oleg's final resting place. ### Death according to legend In the Primary Chronicle, Oleg is known as the Prophet, an epithet alluding to the sacred meaning of his Norse name ("priest"). According to the legend, romanticised by Alexander Pushkin in his ballad "The Song of the Wise Oleg," it was prophesied by the pagan priests (volkhvs) that Oleg would take death from his stallion. To defy the prophecies, Oleg sent the horse away. Many years later he asked where his horse was, and was told it had died. He asked to see the remains and was taken to the place where the bones lay. When he touched the horse's skull with his boot a snake slithered from the skull and bit him. Oleg died, thus fulfilling the prophecy. Oleg's death has been interpreted as a distorted variant of the threefold death theme in Indo-European myth and legend, with prophecy, the snake and the horse representing the three functions: the prophecy is associated with sovereignty, the horse with warriors, and the serpent with reproduction. In Scandinavian traditions, this legend lived on in the saga of Orvar-Odd. Another variant is found in the tale of Sir Robert de Shurland on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent, England. ## Oleg of the Schechter Letter According to the Primary Chronicle, Oleg died in 912 and his successor, Igor of Kiev, ruled from then until his assassination in 945. The Schechter Letter, a document written by a Jewish Khazar, a contemporary of Romanus I Lecapenus, describes the activities of a Rus' warlord named HLGW (Hebrew: הלגו), usually transcribed as "Helgu". For years many scholars disregarded or discounted the Schechter Letter account, which referred to Helgu (often interpreted as Oleg) as late as the 940s. Recently, however, scholars such as David Christian and Constantine Zuckerman have suggested that the Schechter Letter's account is corroborated by various other Rus' chronicles, and suggests a struggle within the early Rus' polity between factions loyal to Oleg and to the Rurikid Igor, a struggle that Oleg ultimately lost. Zuckerman posited that the early chronology of the Rus' had to be re-determined in light of these sources. Among Zuckerman's beliefs and those of others who have analyzed these sources are that the Khazars did not lose Kiev until the early 10th century (rather than 882, the traditional date), that Igor was not Rurik's son but rather a more distant descendant, and that Oleg did not immediately follow Rurik, but rather that there is a lost generation between the legendary Varangian lord and his documented successors. Of particular interest is the fact that the Schechter Letter account of Oleg's death (namely, that he fled to and raided FRS, tentatively identified with Persia, and was slain there) bears remarkable parallels to the account of Arab historians such as Ibn Miskawayh, who described a similar Rus' attack on the Muslim state of Arran in the year 944/5. ## Attempts to reconcile the accounts In contrast to Zuckerman's version, the Primary Chronicle and the later Kiev Chronicle place Oleg's grave in Kiev, where it could be seen at the time of the compilation of these documents. Furthermore, scholars have pointed out that if Oleg succeeded Rurik in 879 (as the East Slavic chronicles assert), he could hardly have been active almost 70 years later, unless he had a life-span otherwise unheard of in medieval annals. To solve these difficulties, Parkomenko (1924) proposed that the pagan monarch-priests of Rus' used the hereditary title of helgu, standing for "holy" in the Norse language, and that Igor and others held this title. It has also been suggested that Helgu-Oleg who waged war in the 940s was distinct from both of Rurik's successors. He could have been one of the "fair and great princes" recorded in the Russo-Byzantine treaties of 911 and 944 or one of the "archons of Rus" mentioned in De administrando imperio. But the Primary Chronicle does not specify the relations between minor Rurikid princes active during the period, although the names Rurik, Oleg and Igor were recorded among the late-10th-century and 11th-century Rurikids. Georgy Vernadsky even identified the Oleg of the Schechter Letter with Igor's otherwise anonymous eldest son, whose widow Predslava is mentioned in the Russo-Byzantine treaty of 944. Alternatively, V. Ya. Petrukhin speculated that Helgu-Oleg of the 940s was one of the vernacular princes of Chernigov, whose ruling dynasty maintained especially close contacts with Khazaria, as the findings at the Black Grave, a large royal kurgan excavated near Chernigov, seem to testify. ## Legacy Olehivska Street, Kyiv, and Prince Oleg Lane, Kremenchuk, both in Ukraine, are both named after Oleg. ## In popular culture - Oleg appears briefly in the Soviet film The Legend of Princess Olga (1983), played by Russian-Ukrainian actor Nikolay Olyalin. - Hungarian actor László Helyey portrayed Oleg in the Hungarian production Honfoglalás (1996), a biopic on Árpád (played by Franco Nero). - The Danish film A Viking Saga (2008) tells of the early life and career of Oleg. Oleg is played by Ken Vedsegaard, with Erik Holmey in the role of Rurik, Kim Sønderholm as Dir and Peter Gantzler as Askold, the primary antagonist. - Prince Oleg appears as the primary villain in season 6 of Vikings (2019–2020). In this production, Askold and Dir are portrayed as his brothers. He is played by Russian actor Danila Kozlovsky. - Prince Oleg appears in Russian docudrama The Rurikids. The story of the first dynasty (2019), which tells the story of the Rurik dynasty (9th–16th centuries). He is portrayed by Russian actor Dmitry Moguchev. - Oleg appears in the video game Crusader Kings III'', where he is Rurik Rurikid's son named Helgi 'The Seer' who is of the Slovianska Pravda faith as opposed to Rurik's Ásatrú (Norse Pagan) faith.	[ "## Oleg of the Rus' chronicles", "### Death according to legend", "## Oleg of the Schechter Letter", "## Attempts to reconcile the accounts", "## Legacy", "## In popular culture" ]	2,246	4,388
48,011,019	Italian ironclad Principe Amedeo	1,134,771,482	Ironclad warship of the Italian Royal Navy	[ "1872 ships", "Maritime incidents in June 1879", "Principe Amedeo-class ironclads", "Ships built in Castellammare di Stabia" ]	Principe Amedeo was an ironclad warship built by the Italian Regia Marina in the 1860s and 1870s. She was the lead ship of the Principe Amedeo class, alongside her sister ship Palestro. Principe Amedeo was laid down in 1865, launched in 1872, and completed in late 1874. She was armed with a battery of six 254 mm (10 in) guns and one 279 mm (11 in) gun. The last sail-rigged ironclad of the Italian fleet, she had a single steam engine that was capable of propelling the ship at a speed of slightly over 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). Principe Amedeo's lengthy construction time rendered her obsolescent by the time she entered service. As a result, she primarily served as a station ship in Italy's overseas empire. In November 1881, she collided with the ironclad Roma in a storm in Naples. Principe Amadeo was withdrawn from service in 1888 and converted into a headquarters ship for the vessels defending Taranto. She was stricken from the naval register in 1895 and thereafter used as a depot ship until she was broken up for scrap in 1910. ## Design Principe Amedeo was 79.73 meters (261 ft 7 in) long between perpendiculars; she had a beam of 17.4 m (57 ft 1 in) and an average draft of 7.9 m (25 ft 11 in). She displaced 5,761 long tons (5,853 t) normally and up to 6,020 long tons (6,120 t) at full load. Her superstructure consisted of a small conning tower. She had a crew of 548 officers and men. Her propulsion system consisted of one single-expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller, with steam supplied by six coal-fired, cylindrical fire-tube boilers that were vented through a single funnel placed directly aft of the conning tower. Her engine produced a top speed of 12.2 knots (22.6 km/h; 14.0 mph) at 6,117 indicated horsepower (4,561 kW). She could steam for 1,780 nautical miles (3,300 km; 2,050 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The ship was barque-rigged to supplement the steam engine; Principe Amedeo and her sister were the last rigged ironclads to be built by Italy. Principe Amedeo was armed with a main battery of six 10 in (254 mm) guns, mounted in a single armored casemates placed amidships, with three guns on each broadside. A 11 in (279 mm) gun was mounted forward as a bow chaser. Principe Amedeo was protected by iron belt armor that was 8.7 in (221 mm) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull. The casemates were protected with 5.5 in (140 mm) of iron plating, and the small conning tower had 2.4 in (61 mm) thick iron plates. ## Service history Principe Amedeo was laid down at the Arsenale di La Spezia in August 1865, and her completed hull was launched on 15 January 1872. Fitting-out work proceeded very slowly, and the ship was finally completed on 15 December 1874. Obsolescent by the time she was completed, Principe Amedeo primarily served in the Italian colonial empire, which Italy had begun acquiring in the 1880s. She occasionally took part in training maneuvers with the main Italian fleet throughout her career. On 25 June 1879, Principe Amedeo collided with the Italian steamship Mediteranee off Riposto. Both vessels were damaged. Principe Amedeo was taken in to Naples for repairs. She took part in the launching ceremony for the ironclad Italia on 29 September 1880; also present were the Italian ironclad Regina Maria Pia and King Umberto I aboard his yacht, and the British ironclads HMS Monarch and Thunderer with Vice Admiral George Tryon, both members of the Mediterranean Fleet. At the time, Principe Amedeo flew the flag of Vice Admiral Martini. In early November 1881, Principe Amedeo was moored in Naples when a severe storm tore the ironclad Roma free from her anchors and knocked her into Principe Amedeo. Neither ship was damaged in the collision. For the annual fleet maneuvers held in 1885, Principe Amedeo served as the flagship of the "Eastern Squadron", with Rear Admiral Civita commanding. She was joined by the ironclad Castelfidardo, the corvette Amerigo Vespucci, a sloop, and four torpedo boats. The "Eastern Squadron" defended against an attacking "Western Squadron", simulating a Franco-Italian conflict, with operations conducted off Sardinia. During the exercises, Principe Amedeo was forced to "surrender" by the ironclad Duilio. From 1888 to 1889, Principe Amedeo was employed as the headquarters ship for the forces defending Taranto. By this time, she had been equipped with six 2.9 in (74 mm) guns for close-range defense, six machine guns, and two torpedo tubes. The ship was stricken from the naval register on 28 March 1895 and thereafter used as an ammunition depot ship in Taranto. She was eventually broken up for scrap in 1910.	[ "## Design", "## Service history" ]	1,210	16,417
1,687,452	Musa of Parthia	1,173,857,744	Co-ruler of the Parthian Empire	[ "1st-century BC Parthian monarchs", "1st-century BC Roman women", "1st-century BC Romans", "1st-century BC births", "1st-century BC queens regnant", "1st-century Parthian monarchs", "1st-century deaths", "1st-century queens regnant", "Former slaves", "Imperial Roman slaves and freedmen", "Iranian people of Roman descent", "Queens consort of Parthia", "Queens regnant in Asia", "Year of birth unknown", "Year of death unknown" ]	Musa (also spelled Mousa), also known as Thea Musa, was a ruling queen of the Parthian Empire from 2 BC to 4 AD. Originally an Italian slave-girl, she was given as a gift to the Parthian monarch Phraates IV (r. 37 BC – 2 BC) by the Roman Emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD). She quickly became queen and a favourite of Phraates IV, giving birth to Phraataces (Phraates V). In 2 BC, she had Phraates IV poisoned and made herself, along with Phraates V, the co-rulers of the empire. Their reign was short-lived; they were forced to flee to Rome after being deposed by the Parthian nobility, who crowned Orodes III as king. Musa is the first of only three women to rule as monarchs in Iranian history, the others being the two 7th-century Sasanian sisters Boran (r. 630–630, 631–632) and Azarmidokht (r. 630–631). Additional women, Rinnu, Ifra Hormizd and Denag, ruled only as regents of their sons and not as full monarchs in their own name. ## Rise to power Musa was an Italian slave-girl who was given to the Parthian monarch Phraates IV (r. 37 BC – 2 BC) as a gift by the Roman Emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD). Phraates IV received her around the time a treaty was made in 20 BC, whereby he received his kidnapped son in exchange for several Roman legionary standards captured at Carrhae in 53 BC, and the surviving Roman prisoners of war. The Parthians viewed this as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Emma Strugnell (2008) has suggested that Augustus may have sent Musa in an attempt to obtain information or influence the Parthian king to the advantage of the Romans. According to the Parchments of Avroman, Phraates IV already had at least four other queens at that time: Olennieire, Cleopatra, Baseirta and Bistheibanaps. Musa quickly became queen and a favourite of Phraates IV, giving birth to Phraataces (Phraates V) about 19 BC. Seeking to secure the throne for her son, she convinced Phraates IV in 10/9 BC to send his four first-born sons to Rome in order to prevent conflict over his succession. ## Reign In 2 BC, Musa had Phraates IV poisoned and made herself along with Phraates V the co-rulers of the Parthian Empire. The reverse of Phraates V's later coins notably has an image of his mother, Musa, with a circular legend labelling her as "heavenly", contrary to the square legends which had been typical on Parthian coins, implying that they were at least co-rulers. Furthermore, the title of basilissa ("queen") was given to her by Phraates V, which was not necessarily only used by the wife of the king in the Hellenistic era, but also other royal women. The 1st-century Roman historian Josephus noted allegations that Musa married her son. However, there is no other evidence that supports or contradicts Josephus' claim; and neither under the Parthians, nor their Iranian predecessors—the Achaemenids—is there reliable evidence that marriage was practiced between parents and their children. The modern historian Joan M. Bigwood calls the report of Josephus "seriously misleading", and points out its striking similarities to the story of the Assyrian queen Semiramis, deducing that his account of Musa was most likely derived from a common folk tale. Leonardo Gregoratti likewise questions the historicity of Josephus' report, calling it "pseudo-historical." He argues that the latter created a "fictional role for the Parthian women to prove the institutional weakness of the Arsacids." After a short rule, the Parthian nobility, angered by Phraates V's recent acknowledgement of Roman suzerainty in Armenia and his mother's Italian slave descent, deposed them both from the throne and installed a certain Orodes III as king. Phraates V and Musa fled to Rome, where Augustus welcomed them. ## Alleged portraits Some portraits have been attributed to Musa, including a gold ring and a gem. However, these links with Musa have subsequently been questioned. A bust of a female figure from Susa—uncovered in 1939 by the archeologist Roland de Mecquenem—made by a Greek artist named Antiochus, was first attributed to Musa by the Belgian archeologist Franz Cumont. This attribution was agreed by several other scholars. The facial characteristics of the bust, however, has little in common with that of the coins of Musa. The bust is wearing a crown with crenellations, resembling those worn in the Achaemenid era, while the coins of Musa portrayed her wearing a diadem along with a jewelled crown with three layers. The crown with crenellations, albeit often worn by members of the royal family, was also worn by deities. The Greek goddess Tyche is sometimes portrayed with a similar crown on Parthian coins. As a result, some scholars have suggested the bust is a portrayal of Tyche.	[ "## Rise to power", "## Reign", "## Alleged portraits" ]	1,153	2,655
63,209,913	De Vloek	1,171,372,559	Former squatted social centre in the Netherlands	[ "2002 establishments in the Netherlands", "2015 disestablishments in the Netherlands", "21st-century architecture in the Netherlands", "Anarchism in the Netherlands", "Buildings and structures demolished in 2015", "Buildings and structures in The Hague", "Defunct vegan restaurants", "Demolished buildings and structures in the Netherlands", "Evicted squats", "Social centres in the Netherlands", "Squats in the Netherlands", "Vegan restaurants" ]	De Vloek (, "The Curse") was a squatted, self-managed social centre in The Hague, the Netherlands, between 2002 and 2015. Located on Hellingweg 127 in Scheveningen, beside the North Sea, the squat hosted workplaces, living spaces, a venue, and a vegan restaurant. The local council tolerated the occupation until 2014, when it decided to sell the building. A political struggle over the eviction began; some political parties supported the squatters and the Scheveningen Pier was briefly occupied as a protest action. A deal was made for the squatters to move to a former school building and the Vloek was eventually evicted in September 2015. ## Activities Carrying on from De Blauwe Aanslag, which was squatted between 1980 and 2003, De Vloek was occupied on 5 June 2002. It was located on Hellingweg 127 in Scheveningen, beside the North Sea. The following year, the municipal council decided to tolerate the occupation as a cultural project. De Vloek hosted workplaces, living spaces, practice room for bands, a concert venue called the Piratenbar ("Pirate Bar") and the organic vegan restaurant Water en Brood ("Water and Bread") which had started at De Blauwe Aanslag. The self-managed social centre was used by hundreds of people every week and all activities were run by volunteers, with no external funding. During a 2013 street exhibition, the 60 metre long side of the Vloek building was painted by 17 artists, who worked for 14 days on the project. ## Eviction In 2014, the council entered into an agreement with property developers to demolish the existing buildings and deliver the site. When the plans were announced to evict the Vloek and build a new sailing centre with tenants including Koninklijk Nederlands Watersport Verbond, a local political debate began. On one side, the squatters suggested it was better to build the centre elsewhere, and stated another sailing centre had already been opened five years previously and it was mostly empty. Supporters included city councillor Joris Wijsmuller of the Haagse Stadspartij (HSP, Hague City Party) who had built the bar at the Vloek himself, the Partij voor de Dieren (Party for the Animals) which called it "one of the pearls of Scheveningen" and the Socialist Party, which echoed the concerns that there was already an unused sailing centre elsewhere. On the other side, the local branch of the VVD (People's Party for Freedom and Democracy) had been calling since 2011 for the squat to be evicted and the CDA (Christian Democratic Appeal) also supported eviction. In order to bring attention to the Vloek's campaign against eviction, fifteen people occupied the Scheveningen Pier in August 2014. It had been derelict since October 2013, having gone bankrupt. The squatters dropped a banner saying "De Vloek moet blijven" ("The Vloek must stay") and lit flares; they were evicted the same day. By September 2015, 44 participants in the Vloek had moved their activities to a former school building in Moerwijk which had been offered to them by the city council. The contract was signed for 10 years with a break clause after 5. In a deal brokered by Wijsmuller, the council agreed to give the building rent free and the former squatters agreed to pay maintenance and electricity. Martin Wörsdörfer of the VVD called it a "reward for bad behaviour". Other Vloek participants declared they would resist the eviction and made a call out for solidarity. As a last step, they announced the Vloek was seceding from the Netherlands and therefore no longer subject to its laws. On Wednesday 9 September 2015, the Mobiele Eenheid (Dutch riot police) began to evict the Vloek, whilst being bombarded with paint bombs. The police placed a shipping container on the roof using a crane and entered through a hole cut in the roof. Five squatters were arrested inside the building and afterwards two more were brought down from a crow's nest constructed above the building, making the number of arrests seven in total. One week after the eviction, the building was demolished. In June 2017, four of the squatters were charged with violence against the police because, by throwing paint bombs, they had allegedly damaged five vans, two cars and two water cannons. The state asked for a prison sentence of two weeks and a fine of 500 euros for each person, also requesting a fine from a fifth person involved. In addition to the state charges, the council demanded a fine totalling 50,000 euros from ten people, which was then reduced to 33,000 euros. An appeal was made to reduce the fine, but the council demanded the full amount before the appeal was heard. ## See also - ADM (Amsterdam) - Huize Ivicke	[ "## Activities", "## Eviction", "## See also" ]	1,061	35,822
30,859,085	Yahballaha III	1,171,435,366	Patriarch of the Church of the East, 1281–1317	[ "1245 births", "1317 deaths", "13th-century bishops of the Church of the East", "13th-century religious leaders", "14th-century bishops of the Church of the East", "Mongol Empire Christians", "Patriarchs of the Church of the East", "People from Maragheh" ]	Yahballaha III (c. 1245–13 November 1317), known in earlier years as Rabban Marcos (or Markos) or Yahballaha V, was Patriarch of the East from 1281 to 1317. As patriarch, Yahballaha headed the Church of the East during the severe persecutions under the reign of khans Ghazan and his successor Öljaitü. He acknowledged the primacy of the Pope and tried to form a church union, which was rejected by the Nestorian bishops of the Church of the East. A native of Koshang, Marcos traveled with Rabban Bar Sauma, an ascetic Nestorian monk from Mongol-controlled China to Jerusalem, however, due to the war between the Mongols and Mamluks they were prevented to reach the final destination. Patriarch Denha I of the Church of the East recalled them and consecrated Markos as the bishop of Katay and Ong, with the name Mar Yahballaha. However, both of them opted to remain in monasteries in Mosul. Yahballaha's election as the new patriarch of the Church of the East was approved by Abaqa Khan for political reasons and consecrated in 1281 as Yahballaha III. In 1282 Abaqa Khan's brother Tekuder, a convert to Islam succeeded the throne. The Old-Mongol party of Buddhists and Nestorian Christians opposed Tekuder, who started persecuting the Church of the East for siding with the Old-Mongol party and Yahballaha was imprisoned, but his life was saved by Tekuder's Christian mother Qutui Khatun. In 1284, Abaqa Khan's son Arghun became khan, and he held both Yahballaha and Bar Sauma in high esteem. Arghun sought an alliance with Christian Europe against the Muslims in Syria and Egypt and, advised by Yahballaha, sent Bar Sauma for the first East Asian diplomatic mission to Europe in history. After the fall of Acre to Muslims in 1291, the popular opinion in Ilkhanate started to incline towards Islam. The relations between the Church of the East and the khan remained well during the rule of Gaykhatu, Arghun's successor. However, with Arghun's son Ghazan ascendance to the throne, Muslims gained dominance. Ghazan started the persecution of Christians and Yahballaha was again imprisoned. He was ransomed by Hethum II of Armenia. In 1289, Yahballaha allowed the Dominican friar Riccoldo da Monte di Croce to preach among the Nestorians and renounced their heterodoxies. He sought a church union with the Catholic Church in Rome and started negotiations in 1302 by writing to Pope Boniface VIII and Pope Benedict XI in 1304, professing the Catholic faith in the latter letter and acknowledging the pope's primacy over all of Christiandom. However, the union was rejected by the Nestorian bishops. In 1304, Öljaitü succeeded Ghazan and renewed the persecutions against Christians which Yahballaha unsuccessfully tried to end. Yahballaha died in Maragheh in 1317. ## Early life Markos was born in the city of Koshang (near modern Dongsheng District, Inner Mongolia) the capital of the Turkic Ongud tribe. His ethnic ancestry is not entirely clear. According to the contemporary source Story of Mar Yahballaha and Rabban Sauma he was an "Oriental Turk". Bar Hebraeus in his Chronography referred to him as "Uyghur, that is Turk". The Arabic Chronicle of the Nestorian Patriarch calls him "a Turk by birth from the region of Katay (i.e. Northern China)". The two lists of the patriarch of the Church of the East refer to him as "a Turk", and a Latin bull calls him "an Oriental Turk". Pier Giorgio Borbone suggests that Yahballaha probably belonged to the Ongud tribe, and dismisses Bar Hebraeus' claim about his Uyghur descent since Uyghurs at the time lived in a distant region around Turfan. As a child, he became a pupil of Rabban Bar Sauma, a Nestorian monk. At first, they probably lived in the Monastery of the Cross in the present-day Fangshan District of western Beijing. In 1275/76 Markos and Bar Sauma started a journey towards Jerusalem. At the beginning of their travel, Markos was around thirty and Bar Sauma was forty-eight. They first went to Khanbaliq, Bar Sauma's birthplace, to gather more people for the journey. Then they went to Koshang, Tangut, Hotan and Kashgar. After staying in Hotan for six months and finding Kashgar empty as its population fled the "enemy", Bar Sauma and Markos went to Taraz (north of Tien Shan) in present-day Kazakhstan to pay homage to Kaidu Khan and ask for safe passage through his land, which he allowed. The two travelers probably passed through Samarkand and Bukhara, arriving in the region of Khorosan in the town of Tus, now a village near Mashhad in present-day Iran. In Maragheh in the region of Azerbaijan they met with Patriarch Denha I. From Erbil they went to Mosul and visited Nisibis and various Nestorian monasteries along the Tigris river. Their plan to visit Jerusalem was prevented because of the war between the Mongols and Mamluks, who at the time bordered each other along the Euphrates river. They still tried to reach Palestine, traveling through Armenia and Georgia and then by the sea. However, they were recalled by the Patriarch, who wanted to give them leadership over the church in China. The Patriarch named Markos the bishop of Katay and Ong (Northern China and the Ongud tribe, respectively), giving him the name Mar Yahballaha. At the same time, he named Bar Sauma sa'ora (visiting bishop) for the Eastern countries, and general vicar. The new titles meant that the two of them would return to the east; however, both of them insisted on staying to live in a monastery, deeming themselves unworthy of the new titles. They remained in a monastery near Mosul for two years. ## Patriarchate After the death of Patriarch Denha I, the Nestorian bishops chose Yahballaha as his successor in November 1281, with approval from Abaqa Khan, the Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate. The reasons for his election were political, as Yahballaha was familiar with the Mongol customs, politics, and language because of his origin. His knowledge of Syriac was scarce, and he did not speak Arabic at all. In the presence of other Nestorian bishops, Yahballaha was consecrated in Kokhe church on 21 November 1281 as Yahballaha III. He received the seal given to the patriarch before him by Möngke Khan. Abaqa died in 1282 and was succeeded by his brother Tekuder, a convert to Islam. Tekuder became unpopular among the Mongol elites, the so-called "Old-Mongol" party of Nestorian Christians and Buddhists, who now favored his nephew Arghun, Abaqa's son. They protested to Kublai Khan, who threatened to intervene. Tekuder blamed the Church of the East for the appeals to Kublai Kahn and threw Yahballaha III into prison. His life was saved by Tekuder's mother Qutui Khatun, who was a Christian. Tekuder was succeeded by his nephew Arghun in 1284. Both Yahballaha and Bar Sauma were held in high esteem by both Abaqa and Arghun. After succeeding Tekuder, Arghun sought an alliance with the European rulers against the Muslims in Syria and Egypt. He wrote to Pope Honorius IV that Kublai Khan commissioned him to liberate the "land of the Christians". For that purpose, he consulted with Yahballaha about who should head the embassy to Europe; Yahballaha proposed Bar Sauma, which Arghun accepted. In 1287, Bar Sauma arrived in Trabzon at the south shore of Black Sea. In June, he went to Constantinople, where he met with Emperor Andronikos of Byzantium, and then to the Kingdom of Naples, where he met with Charles II. In Rome he learned about the death of Pope Honorius IV and was greeted by the College of Cardinals instead. However, they were not able to respond to Arghun's request until the election of the new pope. Bar Sauma went to Florence and Genoa, where he met with the Captain of the People. From Genoa, Bar Sauma went to Lombardy, and onwards to Paris where he met Philip IV of France. After staying for a month in Paris, Bar Sauma met with the English king Edward in Bordeaux. Both English and French kings expressed their interest in the alliance. Before returning to Rome, Bar Sauma spent the winter in Genoa, and met Pope Nicholas IV after his election. The Pope issued a bull recognising Yahballaha as the "patriarch of all the Christians of the East" Bar Sauma returned to Ilkhanate in the summer of 1288. Dominican friar Riccoldo da Monte di Croce traveled to the East in 1289 and remained there for ten years. Da Monte di Croce found that the Nestorians put greater emphasis on rituals than dogma. He writes that they had a liberal conception of marriage, with divorces and remarriages being allowed at will. Nestorians occasionally practiced circumcision, even for women, and did not recognise the practice of anointing of the sick. They also abstained from meat. Yahballaha renounced these heterodoxies and allowed da Monte di Croce to preach in Baghdad in 1290. The Nestorian elite wanted to enter the union with Rome, mostly for political reasons. The Mongols saw the fall of Acre to Muslims in 1291 as a victory of Islam over Christianity and started to incline towards Islam afterward. However, relations remained good between the Church of the East and the new khan Gaykhatu, who succeeded Arghun that year. By the time of his death in 1295, the popular opinion in the Ilkhanate favoured Muslims. Another son of Arghun, Ghazan, became khan in 1295. He brought Muslims to dominance and started persecuting Christians and destroying churches. He imprisoned Yahballaha and hung him upside down. Yahballaha's life was saved by Hethum II, who paid a ransom to free him from prison, and in 1296 Yahballaha returned to his seat in Maragheh. The next year his residence was pillaged and destroyed by Muslims, so he moved to Erbil in Iraq. Hethum persuaded Ghazan to end the persecution in 1296. He also issued countermeasures to compensate the Christians. Yahballaha returned to the monastery in Maragheh, whose reconstruction was supported by Ghazan, who in 1303 visited the monastery. However, sporadic persecution continued elsewhere. Nevertheless, Yahballaha enjoyed Ghazan's support until the end of his reign. In 1302, Yahballaha started negotiations with the Roman Curia regarding the union, and sent a letter to Pope Boniface VIII. On 18 May 1304, Yahballaha wrote to Pope Benedict XI making a profession of Catholic faith, accepting the Pope, and acknowledging his primacy over all of Christiandom. However, the union was rejected by the Nestorian bishops. During the reign of the khan Öljaitü, who succeeded Ghazan in 1304, the persecution of Christians continued. Although personally on good terms with Yahballaha, he was unwilling or unable to end the persecutions, and even carried them out himself, with the persecution in 1306 being remembered as the fiercest. An outbreak of violence occurred in Erbil in 1310, with many Christians being killed and Yahballaha, who was there at the time, barely survived. Yahballaha tried to prevent the massacre of Christians who hid at the Citadel of Erbil, but when the citadel was conquered by the Muslims on 1 July 1310, they were all massacred. Öljaitü did nothing to prevent the violence. Yahballaha, discouraged by the failure, retired to Maragheh. He died there on 13 November 1317.	[ "## Early life", "## Patriarchate" ]	2,647	3,608
52,126,063	George Naea	1,171,351,202	Chief of the Kingdom of Hawaii	[ "1854 deaths", "Deaths from leprosy", "People from Maui", "Royalty of the Hawaiian Kingdom" ]	George Naʻea (died 1854), was a high chief of the Kingdom of Hawaii, and father of Queen Emma of Hawaii. He became one of the first Native Hawaiians to contract leprosy and the disease became known as maʻi aliʻi (the "sickness of the chiefs") in the Hawaiian language because of this association. ## Life Born in the late 18th century, George Naʻea was the son of High Chief Kamaunu and High Chiefess Kukaeleiki. His father Kamaunu was descended from the high chiefs of the northern districts of the island of Hawaii. His mother Kukaeleiki was the daughter of Kalauawa, a Kauaʻi high chief, and she was also a cousin of Queen Keōpūolani, the most sacred wife of Kamehameha I. Among Naʻea's more notable ancestors were Kalanawaʻa, a high chief of Oʻahu, and Kuaenaokalani, a Maui high chiefess who held the sacred kapu rank of Kekapupoʻohoʻolewaikala (the kapu of Poʻohoʻolewaikala, a rank so sacred that she could not be exposed to the sun except at dawn). His brother was Bennett Nāmākēhā, a member of the House of Nobles, and Nāmākēhā's granddaughter Stella Keomailani (1866–1927) was the last of the Poʻohoʻolewaikala line. Naʻea served under Kamehameha III as a member of his Council of Chiefs. He married Fanny Kekelaokalani Young, the hapa-haole (half-white) daughter of Kaʻōanaʻeha, and John Young, the British advisor of King Kamehameha I. The couple lived on the island of Maui, in Lahaina, which was the capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii at the time. They had three known children: Kahalaiʻa and Kekuaokalani, whom both died young, and Emma, the future Queen Emma of Hawaii. Emma was given at birth to be raised by Fanny's younger sister Grace Kamaʻikuʻi and her husband Dr. Thomas Charles Byde Rooke under the Hawaiian tradition of hānai (informal adoption). Naʻea played no role in his daughter's upbringing and was not allowed contact with her due to his eventual illness. Historian and biographer of Queen Emma, George Kanahele wrote that "Emma never knew her natural father", and his relative anonymity prompted many to believe that Dr. Rooke was her biological father. ### Contracting leprosy Around 1838, Naʻea contracted leprosy. Many claimed that this was the first case of leprosy in Hawaii, even though the condition had been diagnosed earlier in the 1820s and 1830s. Differing accounts exist as to how he contracted this disease. Writing in 1864, Reverend Dwight Baldwin alleged that Naʻea had contracted the illness from a low-level royal who had returned from China with the leprosy infection. In his unpublished memoirs written before his death in 1932, Ambrose K. Hutchison, a resident superintendent of the leper settlement of Kalaupapa, recounted oral traditions on the origin of leprosy in Hawaii. According to Hutchison, Naʻea had contracted the illness from his Chinese cook who had arrived in the islands during the early sandalwood trade. The illness was diagnosed by the royal physician Dr. William Hillebrand, who recommended isolation for the incurable disease to the King and his Council of Chiefs. Thus Naʻea was banished to Wailuku, Maui, and not allowed to return or visit Lahaina. Kanahele stated that he may have continued living under the care of his wife Fanny (who did not contract the disease), and continued to lead a productive life since Minister Robert Crichton Wyllie described him as a "highly respectable Hawaiian". Naʻea died on October 4, 1854. Hutchison claimed that after his death, the kahu or household attendants who had accompanied Naʻea during his isolation "scattered all over the Islands" and "that these attendants contracted the disease of their liege Lord and were the carriers that planted the disease on all the islands of Hawaii". From this association, leprosy became known as maʻi aliʻi (the "sickness of the chiefs"). The illness was also known as maʻi pake (the "Chinese sickness") after its place of origin. More than a decade after Naʻea's death, the Hawaiian government under Kamehameha V adopted a systematic policy of segregation for the afflicted and established a leper settlement at Kalaupapa on the island of Molokaʻi, to which Peter Kaʻeo, a nephew of Fanny's and a cousin of Emma's, would be exiled in 1873.	[ "## Life", "### Contracting leprosy" ]	1,091	35,305
377,386	1947 BSAA Avro Lancastrian Star Dust accident	1,168,468,422	Fatal aviation accident	[ "1947 disasters in Argentina", "Airliner accidents and incidents involving controlled flight into terrain", "August 1947 events in South America", "Aviation accidents and incidents in 1947", "Aviation accidents and incidents in Argentina", "British South American Airways accidents and incidents" ]	On 2 August 1947, Star Dust, a British South American Airways (BSAA) Avro Lancastrian airliner on a flight from Buenos Aires, Argentina, to Santiago, Chile, crashed into Mount Tupungato in the Argentine Andes. An extensive search operation failed to locate the wreckage, despite covering the area of the crash site. The fate of the aircraft and its occupants remained unknown for over fifty years, giving rise to various conspiracy theories about its disappearance. In the late 1990s, pieces of wreckage from the missing aircraft began to emerge from the glacial ice. It is now believed that the crew became confused as to their exact location while flying at high altitudes through the (then poorly understood) jet stream. Mistakenly believing they had already cleared the mountain tops, they started their descent when they were in fact still behind cloud-covered peaks. Star Dust crashed into Mount Tupungato, killing all aboard and burying itself in snow and ice. The last word in Star Dust's final Morse code transmission to Santiago airport, "STENDEC", was received by the airport control tower four minutes before its planned landing and repeated twice; it has never been satisfactorily explained. ## Background The accident aircraft, an Avro 691 Lancastrian 3, was built as constructor's number 1280 for the Argentine Ministry of Supply to carry thirteen passengers, and first flew on 27 November 1945. Its civil certificate of airworthiness (CofA) number 7282 was issued on 1 January 1946. It was delivered to BSAA on 12 January 1946, was registered on 16 January as G-AGWH and given the individual aircraft name "Star Dust". Star Dust carried six passengers and a crew of five on its final flight. The captain, Reginald Cook, was an experienced former Royal Air Force pilot with combat experience during the Second World War, as were his first officer, Norman Hilton Cook, and second officer, Donald Checklin. Cook had been awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC). The radio operator, Dennis Harmer, also had a record of wartime as well as civilian service. Iris Evans, who had previously served in the Women's Royal Naval Service ("Wrens") as a chief petty officer, was the flight attendant. Star Dust's last flight was the final leg of BSAA Flight CS59, which had started in London on an Avro York named Star Mist on 29 July 1947, landing in Buenos Aires on 1 August. The passengers were one woman and five men of Palestinian, Swiss, German and British nationality. One was a British diplomatic courier, a King's Messenger. Marta Limpert, a German émigré, was the only passenger known for certain to have initially boarded Star Mist in London before changing aircraft in Buenos Aires to continue on to Santiago with the other passengers. ## Disappearance Star Dust left Buenos Aires at 1:46 pm on 2 August. This leg of the flight was apparently uneventful until the radio operator (Harmer) sent a routine message in Morse code to the airport in Santiago at 5:41 pm, announcing an expected arrival of 5:45 pm. However, Star Dust never arrived, no more radio transmissions were received by the airport, and intensive efforts by both Chilean and Argentine search teams, as well as by other BSAA pilots, failed to uncover any trace of the aircraft or of the people on board. The head of BSAA, Air Vice Marshal Don Bennett, personally directed an unsuccessful five-day search. A report by an amateur radio operator who claimed to have received a faint SOS signal from Star Dust initially raised hopes that there might have been survivors, but all subsequent attempts over the years to find the vanished aircraft failed. In the absence of any hard evidence, numerous theories arose—including rumours of sabotage (compounded by the later disappearance of two other aircraft also belonging to BSAA); speculation that Star Dust might have been blown up to destroy diplomatic documents being carried by the King's Messenger; or even the suggestion that Star Dust had been taken or destroyed by a UFO (an idea fuelled by unresolved questions about the flight's final Morse code message). ## Discovery of wreckage and reconstruction of the crash In 1998, two Argentine mountaineers climbing Mount Tupungato—about 60 mi (100 km) west-southwest of Mendoza, and about 50 mi (80 km) east of Santiago—found the wreckage of a Rolls-Royce Merlin aircraft engine, along with twisted pieces of metal and shreds of clothing, in the Tupungato Glacier at an elevation of 15,000 ft (4,600 m). In 2000, an Argentine Army expedition found additional wreckage—including a propeller and wheels (one of which had an intact and inflated tyre)—and noted that the wreckage was well localised, a fact which pointed to a head-on impact with the ground, and which also ruled out a mid-air explosion. Human remains were also recovered, including three torsos, a foot in an ankle boot and a manicured hand. By 2002, the bodies of five of the eight British victims had been identified through DNA testing. A recovered propeller showed that the engine had been running at near-cruising speed at the time of the impact. Additionally, the condition of the wheels proved that the undercarriage was still retracted, suggesting controlled flight into terrain rather than an attempted emergency landing. During the final portion of Star Dust's flight, heavy clouds would have blocked visibility of the ground. It has therefore been suggested that, in the absence of visual sightings of the ground due to the clouds, a navigational error could have been made as the aircraft flew through the jet stream—a phenomenon not well understood in 1947, in which high-altitude winds can blow at high speed in directions different from those of winds observed at ground level. If the airliner, which had to cross the Andes mountain range at 24,000 feet (7,300 m), had entered the jet-stream zone—which in this area normally blows from the west and south-west, resulting in the aircraft encountering a headwind—this would have significantly decreased the aircraft's ground speed. Mistakenly assuming their ground speed to be faster than it really was, the crew might have deduced that they had already safely crossed the Andes, and so commenced their descent to Santiago, whereas in fact they were still a considerable distance to the east-north-east and were approaching the cloud-enshrouded Tupungato Glacier at high speed. Some BSAA pilots, however, expressed scepticism at this theory; convinced that Cook would not have started his descent without a positive indication that he had crossed the mountains; they have suggested that strong winds may have brought down the craft in some other way. One of the pilots recalled that "we had all been warned not to enter cloud over the mountains as the turbulence and icing posed too great a threat." A set of events similar to those that doomed Star Dust also caused the crash of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 in 1972 (depicted in the film Alive), although there were survivors from that crash because it involved a glancing blow to a mountainside rather than a head-on collision. Star Dust is likely to have flown into a nearly vertical snowfield near the top of the glacier, causing an avalanche that buried the wreckage within seconds and concealed it from searchers. As the compressed snow turned to ice, the wreckage would have been incorporated into the body of the glacier, with fragments emerging many years later and much further down the mountain. Between 1998 and 2000, about ten per cent of the total expected wreckage emerged from the glacier, prompting several re-examinations of the accident. More debris is expected to emerge in future, not only as a result of normal glacial motion, but also as the glacier melts. A 2000 Argentine Air Force investigation cleared Cook of any blame, concluding that the crash had resulted from "a heavy snowstorm" and "very cloudy weather", as a result of which the crew "were unable to correct their positioning". ## STENDEC The last Morse code message sent by Star Dust was "ETA SANTIAGO 17.45 HRS STENDEC". The Chilean Air Force radio operator at Santiago airport described this transmission as coming in "loud and clear" but very fast; as he did not recognise the last word, he requested clarification and heard "STENDEC" repeated twice in succession before contact with the aircraft was lost. This word has not been definitively explained and has given rise to much speculation. The staff of the BBC television series Horizon—which presented an episode in 2000 on the Star Dust disappearance—received hundreds of messages from viewers proposing explanations of "STENDEC". These included suggestions that the radio operator, possibly suffering from hypoxia, had scrambled the word "DESCENT" (of which "STENDEC" is an anagram); that "STENDEC" may have been the initials of some obscure phrase or that the airport radio operator had misheard the Morse code transmission despite it reportedly having been repeated multiple times. The Horizon staff concluded that, with the possible exception of some misunderstanding based on Morse code, none of these proposed solutions was plausible. It has also been suggested that World War II pilots used this seemingly obscure abbreviation when an aircraft was in hazardous weather and was likely to crash, meaning "Severe Turbulence Encountered, Now Descending Emergency Crash-landing". The simplest explanation put forward to date is that the spacing of the rapidly sent message was misheard or sloppily sent. In Morse code, determining accurate spacing between characters is vital to properly interpret the message; "STENDEC" uses exactly the same dot/dash sequence as "SCTI AR" (the four-letter code for Los Cerrillos Airport in Santiago, "over"). Alternatively, the Morse spelling for "STENDEC" is one character off from instead spelling VALP, the call sign for the airport at Valparaiso, 110 kilometers north of Santiago. ## See also - BSAA Star Tiger disappearance - BSAA Star Ariel disappearance - LAN Chile Flight 621 - Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571	[ "## Background", "## Disappearance", "## Discovery of wreckage and reconstruction of the crash", "## STENDEC", "## See also" ]	2,120	3,350
34,964,813	Dinner by Heston Blumenthal	1,131,847,751	Restaurant in London, England	[ "2011 establishments in England", "2011 in London", "British cuisine", "European restaurants in London", "Historical foods", "Michelin Guide starred restaurants in the United Kingdom", "Restaurants established in 2011" ]	Dinner by Heston Blumenthal is a restaurant in London, England, created by Heston Blumenthal. Opened in January 2011, it received a Michelin star within a year and earned its second in 2014. In April 2014, it was listed fifth on The World's 50 Best Restaurants in Restaurant. Dinner was initially headed by Ashley Palmer-Watts, formerly the head chef of another Blumenthal restaurant, the Fat Duck. When he left in December 2019, Jon Miles-Bowring became head chef. Menu items are based on historical British dishes, which were researched by food historians and through the British Library. The restaurant's opening drew interest within the industry, and reviews have been positive. Particular dishes have received praise, including the "meat fruit", a chicken liver mousse created to look like a mandarin orange. ## Description The opening of Dinner was announced in August 2010, to open in early 2011 to replace the Michelin-starred restaurant Foliage at the Mandarin Oriental Hyde Park. The opening was originally planned for 1 December, but delays occurred, which would have resulted in the restaurant being ready to open during Christmas week. The decision was made to push back the opening until after the Christmas period was over. Reservations began to be accepted on 1 December 2010 for the restaurant's opening on 31 January 2011. There were 42 phone lines set up on the opening day of reservations, which received over 600 telephone bookings. Prior to opening, the first three months were solidly booked. A Valentine's day booking was sold on auction site eBay, which went for £250. The head chef was Ashley Palmer-Watts. Palmer-Watts had worked with Blumenthal since 1999, and for five years was head chef at Blumenthal's other restaurant, the three-Michelin-starred Fat Duck. The two chefs researched historical menu choices with help of food historian Polly Russell, curator at the British Library. When he left in December 2019, Jon Miles-Bowring became head chef. Blumenthal's first experience of historical cuisine was in 2000 when he discovered a recipe for roast chicken which required the bird to be plucked alive, and then cooked with a small volume of mercury. This was further enhanced as he filmed Heston's Feasts for Channel 4, in which he created a variety of feasts from different historical eras including Tudor, Medieval and Victorian. Despite being called Dinner, the restaurant is also open for lunch as the meaning of the name is intended to be the main meal of the day, regardless of the time at which it is eaten. The interior of the restaurant was designed by Adam Tihany, and features full length windows allowing diners to see straight into the kitchen. It features a pulley system based on a 16th-century design used for the British Royal Court. The brand identity items such as the logo and the menus were designed by design agency Seymourpowell. A clockwork spitroast cooks pineapples for one of the restaurant's desserts. ### Menu The restaurant intends to change the menu every three months, each menu containing historical dishes ranging from the 14th to 19th centuries. Prior to opening, there were rumours regarding the dishes to be served at Dinner, including one report from The Guardian which said an ice-cream meat pie was to appear on the menu. Dishes that do appear include scallops and peas with cucumber ketchup and bergamot cured mackerel salad. Each item has been based on a historical recipe, such as the scallop dish which dates from 1826 and was published in The Cook and Housewife's Manual by "Meg Dodds" (Christian Isobel Johnstone). One item which was reported in multiple reviews was the meat fruit, a chicken liver mousse made to look like a textured mandarin orange. The meat fruit was proving so popular that by November 2011, some 900 were being sold per week and the restaurant was aiming to increase production to be able to supply up to 1200 a week. The ice cream trolley holds a contraption created by Blumenthal and his team, and constructed from Corian by Mike Smith Studio at a cost of £25,000. Powered by a hand crank, it mixes custard and liquid nitrogen to create instant ice cream at the tableside. A variety of sprinkles, popping candy, apple jelly and so forth are available as toppings. The menus themselves include details such as the year from which the menu item originates. ## Reception In The Independent, the chef Mark Hix said Dinner produced the best meal he had he had eaten in "at least two years". He described the meat fruit starter as "astonishing", and said it could have been seen as gimmicky, but "when it tastes that good, it's difficult to complain". Tracey Macleod dined with Hix, and also praised the restaurant describing it as "no-fuss" and "direct". She also wrote that Hix remarked that the restaurant "could change the face of poncey dining". Zoe Williams for The Daily Telegraph gave the restaurant a rating of nine out of ten, saying that the meat fruit made her want to "stand up and cheer", but again said that although everything served was of the highest quality, the meal did not have a surprise like courses can sometimes have at the Fat Duck. For the same newspaper, Matthew Norman described it as a "theatrical tour de force". He described the restaurant's opening as flawless and described it as the "hottest ticket in town for a very long time to come" with a rating of ten out of ten. Chef Jason Atherton said that he could not recall a comparable buzz raised by a restaurant, and that he was relieved that the opening of his Pollen Street Social restaurant was not going to take place until late March 2011, a reasonable gap after the opening of Dinner. Richard Vines, whilst writing for Bloomberg, advised readers to not be put off the hype; he felt that while the courses are not as life changing as those served at the Fat Duck, there are stand out dishes such as the meat fruit and the tipsy cake. He also noted that the meat fruit was a favourite of Pierre Koffmann. Marina O'Loughlin visited the restaurant twice for the Metro newspaper, once just after opening and again several months later to compare how it had settled in. She thought it was a well-oiled operation, but a little too much so, and questioned the originality of it as a version of the meat fruit had previously been available at the restaurant Amber in another Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hong Kong and little touches as the years of origin which appear next to the menu items have been used before by Marco Pierre White. Jay Rayner for The Observer described the food as "seriously good", and concluded: "Dinner by Heston Blumenthal may be expensive, but it's also bloody lovely. Save up." In the 2012 Michelin guide, the restaurant was awarded its first Michelin star some nine months after opening, becoming one of only four restaurants in London to gain a star in 2012. It has also been awarded the Restaurant of the Year title by Tatler in 2011, and won the BMW Square Meal Award for Best New Restaurant. The Zagat guide awarded the restaurant the title of Best Newcomer in 2011. In 2012 at number 9 it was the highest new entry in The World's 50 Best Restaurants list by the UK magazine Restaurant, also the highest in the UK. The restaurant received a second Michelin Star in the 2014 Michelin guide, becoming Blumenthal's sixth star.	[ "## Description", "### Menu", "## Reception" ]	1,601	6,838
50,427,397	French cruiser Victor Hugo	1,136,843,478	French Leon Gambetta-class cruiser	[ "1904 ships", "Léon Gambetta-class cruisers", "Ships built in France", "Victor Hugo", "World War I cruisers of France" ]	The French cruiser Victor Hugo was the last of three Léon Gambetta-class armored cruisers built for the French Navy (Marine Nationale) during the first decade of the 20th century. Armed with four 194-millimeter (7.6 in) guns, the ships were much larger and more powerfully-armed than their predecessors. Completed in 1907, she was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron (Escadre de la Méditerranée). During World War I, Victor Hugo escorted convoys as well as the capital ships of the French fleet. The ship participated in the blockade of the Austro-Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic Sea until 1917 when she was reduced to reserve. Four years later, the cruiser was reactivated; she served in the Far East in 1922–1923 and went back into reserve upon her return. Victor Hugo was sold for scrap in 1930. ## Description The Léon Gambetta-class ships were designed as enlarged and more powerful versions of the Gloire-class armored cruisers. Victor Hugo, the last ship to be built, was slightly longer than her sister ships Léon Gambetta and Jules Ferry and measured 149.07 meters (489 ft 1 in) overall, with a beam of 21.4 meters (70 ft 3 in) and a draft of 8.18 meters (26 ft 10 in). The sisters were designed to displace 12,550 metric tons (12,350 long tons) at normal load. Their crew normally numbered 26 officers and 708 enlisted men, or 30 officers and 749 men when serving as a flagship. The ships had three vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller shaft. Each of the sisters used a different model of water-tube boiler and Victor Hugo was fitted with 28 Belleville boilers. The engines were rated at a total of 27,500 metric horsepower (20,200 kW) to reach their designed speed of 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph). During her sea trials on 2 March 1907, Victor Hugo reached 22.3 knots (41.3 km/h; 25.7 mph) from 28,344 metric horsepower (20,847 kW). The cruisers carried enough coal to give them a range of 7,500 nautical miles (13,900 km; 8,600 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The main battery of the Léon Gambetta class consisted of four 194-millimeter Modèle 1893–1896 guns mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure. Their secondary armament comprised sixteen 164-millimeter (6.5 in) Modèle 1893–1896M guns. Twelve of these were in three twin-gun turrets on each broadside and the remaining four guns were in casemates in the hull. Unlike her sisters, Victor Hugo was fitted with twenty-four 47-millimeter (1.9 in) Canon de 47 mm modèle 1902 guns for defense against torpedo boat. She was also armed with two submerged 450-millimeter (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, one on each broadside, and could carry 20 naval mines. The cruisers' waterline armor belt ranged in thickness from 80 to 150 millimeters (3.1 to 5.9 in) and the main-gun turrets were protected by armor 138 millimeters (5.4 in) thick. Their deck armor was 33 to 65 mm (1.3 to 2.6 in) thick. The front and side sides of the conning tower consisted of 174-millimeter (6.9 in) armor plates. ## Construction and career Named after the novelist Victor Hugo, Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan, Minister of the Navy, ordered the Arsenal de Toulon to begin work on the ship on 11 March 1901 in compliance with the recently passed Naval Law (Statut Naval). The order was transferred to the Arsenal de Lorient on 3 June 1902 even though that shipyard was committed to building two of the preceding Gloire-class armored cruisers. Coupled with the need to transport the assembled materials to Lorient, the change delayed her keel laying until 2 March 1903. Victor Hugo was launched on 30 March 1904 and began her sea trials on 15 January 1907. The cruiser was commissioned (armement définitif) on 16 April. Her construction cost 30,748,300 francs. On 8 May Victor Hugo departed Lorient for Jamestown, Virginia, to participate in the Jamestown Exposition, together with the armored cruiser Kléber and the protected cruiser Chasseloup-Laubat. By 20 May they were visiting New York City; the ships returned to Jamestown on 31 May where they participated in the naval review presided over by President Theodore Roosevelt on 10 June. Upon her return to France later that month, Victor Hugo was assigned to the Light Squadron (Escadre légère) of the Mediterranean Squadron. On 5 October 1909, the French Navy reorganized its forces and redesignated the Mediterranean Squadron as the 1st Squadron (1<sup>er</sup> Escadre) and the Light Squadron became the 1st Light Division (1<sup>er</sup> Division légère (DL)). The ship was assigned to the 2nd DL of the 1st Squadron on 4 April 1911 with her sisters, although she was reduced to reserve later in the year. Victor Hugo had been reactivated by 10 February 1912 when she was reassigned to the 2nd DL. After the Agadir Crisis of 1911, the French and British governments agreed in 1912 that the Royal Navy would defend the northern French coast and the French would concentrate their fleet in the Mediterranean and defend British interests there. The French designated the consolidated fleet the 1st Naval Army (1<sup>re</sup> Armée Navale) and grouped its two DLs into the 1st Light Squadron. ### World War I When Imperial Germany declared war on France on 3 August 1914, the ship was still assigned to the 2nd DL. The following day the cruisers were part of the escorting force for a troop convoy from Algiers, French Algeria to Metropolitan France. On 13 August Vice Admiral Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère, commander of Allied forces in the Central Mediterranean, was ordered to begin offensive operations against the Austro-Hungarian fleet in the Adriatic. He decided to break the Austro-Hungarian blockade of the port of Antivari, Montenegro, and to engage any ships operating out of nearby Cattaro. He split his available forces into two groups with the armored cruisers following the Albanian coast and the battleships tracing the Italian coast before cutting across the Adriatic to rendezvous at Antivari on the morning of the 16th. The latter sank the protected cruiser SMS Zenta that morning in the Battle of Antivari as the armored cruisers were coming up from the south. At the end of the month, the French began intermittently escorting single cargo ships to Antivari, usually escorted by the armored cruisers and covered by the main battlefleet. The first of these was on 31 September when four armored cruisers escorted the steamship Liamone while the battleships bombarded the defenses of Cattaro. The 2nd DL escorted the cargo ship Henri Fraissinet as it brought long-range artillery pieces to Antivari on 18–19 September. On the return voyage, they took advantage of the fog to bombard Cattaro before they were forced to withdraw by heavy return fire. The 2nd DL participated in the next sortie into the Adriatic on 17 October, but it was uneventful. During the following mission, begun at the end of October, the 2nd DL raided the island of Lastovo on 2 November and Jules Ferry was narrowly missed by U-5, an Austro-Hungarian U-boat, on the return voyage the following day. The torpedoing of the dreadnought battleship Jean Bart on 21 December brought an end to the sorties into the Adriatic by the battlefleet; henceforth the supply ships were escorted by the armored cruisers or smaller ships. The French also responded by moving their patrol line further south to a line north of the Greek island of Corfu. Italy signed the Treaty of London on 26 April 1915, agreeing to declare war on Austro-Hungary. Boué de Lapeyrère, concerned about a possible pre-emptive attack on the southern Italian ports, temporarily moved all of his armored cruisers, including the three sisters, closer to the Strait of Otranto that day. Léon Gambetta was torpedoed and sunk by U-5 with heavy loss of life on the 27th. After the sinking, Boué de Lapeyrère withdrew his armored cruisers even further south to a patrol line running through the Gerogombos lighthouse on the island of Cephalonia. He also ordered that patrols should be made at a speed of 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph), not the leisurely 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph) used by Léon Gambetta's late captain. After the Italian declaration of war on 23 May, the French ships withdrew further into the Mediterranean and Ionian Seas with the 2nd DL ultimately basing itself at Alexandria, Egypt, Bizerte, French Tunisia, and British Malta; the division was responsible for patrolling the area between Capo Colonna in southern Italy and the easternmost point of the Greek island of Crete. At the end of 1915, the French and British decided that the Serbian Army's position in Montenegro and Albania was untenable and that it would have to be evacuated. Victor Hugo helped transfer some of the evacuees from Brindisi, Italy, to Bizerte in early January. The Allies occupied the neutral island of Corfu on 9 January to provide a place for the Serbs to recuperate and to rebuild their army. In March, they occupied the Greek island of Argostoli to serve as a base for the battlefleet while the armored cruisers were based further north at Corfu. The Royal Serbian Army deemed fit for combat in May and the French armored cruisers provided distant cover for the transfer to the Salonica front until it was completed on 15 June. Shortages of coal and trained manpower hampered most training for the rest of the year and became worse in 1917. As tensions rose between the Allies and the neutral Greek government in early 1917, Victor Hugo and the armored cruiser Jules Michelet were tasked to patrol the Gulf of Corinth and prevent any Greek troops from moving from their positions in the Peloponnese across the bridge over the Corinth Canal on 28 April to interfere with Allied operations in Athens. The 2nd DL landed a company of Senegalese troops on 11 June and reinforced them with machine-gun armed sailors until King Constantine I abdicated the following day and a pro-Allied government was installed. On 12 August, the 2nd DL was disbanded with Victor Hugo reduced to reserve at Bizerte and Jules Ferry was assigned to transport duties for the next year. On 18 December 1918 Victor Hugo was in Corfu when the hospital ship Flandre dragged her anchor and collided with her. Flandre's hull was damaged, and she went to Toulon to be repaired. Victor Hugo was reactivated in 1921 and assigned to the Atlantic Flying Division (Division volante de l'Atlantique). The following year she was transferred to the Far Eastern Division (Division navale de l'Extrême Orient). Departing on 12 October 1922 with Jules Michelet, they arrived in Saigon, French Indochina, on 19 April 1923. Her service there was uneventful and the ship arrived back in Toulon on 11 July at which time she was placed in reserve. Victor Hugo was stricken from the Navy List on 20 January 1928 and sold for scrap on 26 November 1930.	[ "## Description", "## Construction and career", "### World War I" ]	2,587	22,397
7,391,698	Savaric FitzGeldewin	1,104,076,503	12th-century Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury	[ "1205 deaths", "12th-century English Roman Catholic bishops", "13th-century English Roman Catholic bishops", "Anglo-Normans", "Archdeacons of Northampton", "Bishops of Bath", "Bishops of Bath and Glastonbury", "Christians of the Third Crusade", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Savaric fitzGeldewin (died 8 August 1205) was an Englishman who became Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury in England. Related to his predecessor as well as to Emperor Henry VI, he was elected bishop on the insistence of his predecessor, who urged his election on the cathedral chapter of Bath. While bishop, Savaric spent many years attempting to annexe Glastonbury Abbey as part of his bishopric. Savaric also worked to secure the release of King Richard I of England from captivity, when the king was held by Emperor Henry VI. ## Early life Savaric's date of birth is unknown. His father was Geldwin, who was a member of the Bohun family and was probably a second cousin of his predecessor as Bishop of Bath, Reginald fitzJocelin. Geldwin's father was Savaric Fitzcana, who held Midhurst in Sussex. The elder Savaric's wife was Muriel, who was a granddaughter of Humphrey de Bohun. The younger Savaric's mother Estrangia was a Burgundian and related to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor. Savaric's elder brother was Franco, lord of Midhurst. Savaric first appears in the historical record in 1157 when he is named as a canon of Coutances Cathedral in Normandy. He then was archdeacon of Countances from 1162 to 1174. He was Treasurer of Salisbury in 1174 and archdeacon of Northampton from 1175 to 1187. The medieval chronicler Ralph Diceto says that a Savaric was appointed as Archdeacon of Canterbury, but whether this was the same Savaric is unclear. He incurred large debts to King Henry II of England, which caused the king to complain to Pope Urban III. During the years 1182–1184, Savaric was deprived of his archdeaconries, which may have been connected to the debt issue with the king. ## Bishop Savaric went with Henry's son and successor King Richard I on crusade, and it was while they both were in Sicily that Savaric obtained his bishopric. In December 1191 he was elected Bishop of Bath. Savaric's election was held under controversial conditions, for Savaric had obtained from Richard I letters allowing Savaric to be elected to the next available bishopric. When Savaric's cousin Reginald was elected to Canterbury in 1191, Reginald went to Bath and pressed the clergy there to select Savaric as Reginald's successor. On the strength of the letters from Richard, the justiciar Walter de Coutances ratified the election of Savaric. The canons of Wells objected because they had not been consulted, but Savaric was ordained a priest on 19 September 1192 at Rome. He was consecrated bishop there on 20 September 1192 by the Bishop of Albano. He went on the Third Crusade with Richard. When Richard was held for ransom in Germany while returning from crusade, Savaric met with his cousin the Emperor Henry VI in an attempt to secure Richard's release. He remained in Germany throughout 1193 and continued to be involved in the negotiations, until he returned to England at the end of the year. Once Richard was released, Savaric was one of the hostages left behind in Germany to ensure the payment of the remainder of the ransom. It may have been while he was in Germany negotiating about Richard's ransom that he was named imperial chancellor of Burgundy, but as he was not named by that title until 1197, the exact date of his occupation of the office is unclear. ## Controversy with Glastonbury After his consecration, Savaric traded the city of Bath to the king in return for the monastery of Glastonbury. Savaric secured the support of Pope Celestine III for the takeover the abbey as the seat of his bishopric, replacing Bath. The plan was that Savaric would be bishop of Bath as well as abbot of Glastonbury. In his support, Savaric obtained letters from various ecclesiastics, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter, that claimed that this arrangement would settle longstanding disputes between the abbey and the bishops. The monks of Glastonbury objected to Savaric's plan, and sent an appeal to Rome, which was dismissed in 1196. But King Richard, no longer imprisoned in Germany, sided with the monks, and allowed them to elect an abbot, William Pica, in place of Savaric, who responded by excommunicating the new abbot. With the succession of John as king in place of his brother Richard in 1199, Savaric managed to force his way into the monastery and set up his episcopal see within the abbey. The monks appealed to Innocent III, the new pope. At first, Innocent took the side of the monks, and lifted Pica's excommunication. While the newest appeal was taking place, Pica and a number of his supporters, who had traveled to Rome to appeal in person, died in Rome in 1200, and some of the monks alleged this was by poison administered on the orders of Savaric. Meanwhile, Innocent had changed his mind, and reinstalled Savaric as abbot, ordering some English clergy to judge the specifics of the case, and allot the revenues of the abbey between Savaric and the monks. Savaric then attempted to secure more control over other monasteries in his diocese, but died before he could set the plans in motion. ## Death and legacy Savaric died at Civitavecchia or Siena on 8 August 1205 while visiting the papacy in Rome on business for Peter des Roches, Bishop-elect of Winchester. He was there to support Roches election which had been contested. Roches also supported Savaric in his struggles with Glastonbury, loaning the bishop money and being appointed to a papal commission to deal with Savaric's petitions, which went nowhere because Savaric died before the commission first met. He was buried at Bath.	[ "## Early life", "## Bishop", "## Controversy with Glastonbury", "## Death and legacy" ]	1,298	27,082
18,715,692	Seltaeb	1,146,546,772	Company set up in 1963	[ "1963 establishments in New York City", "1967 disestablishments in New York (state)", "Companies based in New York (state)", "Companies disestablished in 1967", "Marketing companies established in 1963", "The Beatles" ]	Seltaeb was a company set up in 1963 by Nicky Byrne (né Douglas Anthony Nicholas Byrne) to exclusively look after merchandising interests on behalf of Brian Epstein, who managed NEMS Enterprises and the Beatles: John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr. Directly prior to the Beatles' first American visit, Brian Epstein wanted someone to manage the escalating volume of merchandising requests that NEMS found itself unable to cope with, and asked his lawyer, David Jacobs, to oversee this task. Jacobs knew Nicky Byrne and asked him if he would be interested in taking over the merchandising subdivision from NEMS altogether, paying NEMS a commission. Byrne accepted the offer subject to a 90% rate, leaving only 10% for the Beatles and NEMS combined. Completely unaware of the potential market that existed, particularly in the United States, Epstein agreed to the deal, and subsequently lost the Beatles an estimated \$100,000,000 in possible income. In December 1963, Byrne took over the control of Stramsact in the UK, and then set up Seltaeb (Beatles spelt backwards) in the United States. Epstein was able to renegotiate a more favourable commission of 49% in August 1964, but then became embroiled in a three-year court battle with Byrne regarding payment of monies due, during which time potential sponsors lost interest. In August 1967 Epstein died, from what was ruled an accidental overdose of a prescribed drug. Jacobs was found hanged in his garage on 15 December 1968. Byrne later retired to the Bahamas. ## Merchandising Before the Beatles achieved nationwide success in Britain, Epstein had permitted a small company (run by his cousins, and which initially catered only to fan club members) to produce Beatles' sweaters for 30 shillings and badges for sixpence, eventually selling 15,000 sweaters and 50,000 badges as the Beatles' popularity grew. When Beatlemania stormed the UK in 1963, Epstein was besieged by novelty goods companies wanting to use the Beatles' name and images on plastic guitars, drums, disc racks, badges, belts and a huge variety of assorted merchandise. Epstein was adamant that the Beatles would not directly endorse any product, but through NEMS Enterprises he would grant discretionary licences to companies who were able to produce a quality product at a fair price, although many companies were already selling products without a licence. When NEMS was swamped with offers of endorsements from the United States following the success of "I Want to Hold Your Hand", Epstein, who was usually meticulous in matters involving the Beatles, decided to delegate this responsibility as he felt it was distracting him from his main task of managing his expanding roster of artists. He then asked Jacobs, his London-based, Hove-living celebrity lawyer (Jacobs's other clients included Marlene Dietrich, Diana Dors, Judy Garland, Liberace and Laurence Harvey) to appoint someone specifically to take over the assignment and gave Jacobs power of attorney in the matter. Jacobs at first handed the daily management of this to his chief clerk, Edward Marke, but it transpired that Marke knew almost nothing about the merchandising business, and so Jacobs was forced to look elsewhere. Jacobs knew of a Chelsea socialite, a 37-year-old divorcé called Nicky Byrne, and when encountering him at a friend's cocktail party offered him the project, saying that "Brian [Epstein] has made a terrible mess out of this [merchandising]." Byrne, who has said he had been "sitting around doing nothing for half of 1963" was an ex-Horse Guard trooper and amateur racing driver. He had also previously been involved in music publishing, clothes design, theatre production, managing the Condor club in London, and was also known as being a part of a group of people who called themselves "The King's Road Rats". He had not had any previous experience of merchandising or managing a large business. Byrne was at first reluctant but later agreed, and delivered the merchandising contract to Jacobs's office on 4 December 1963, leaving blank the percentages. Jacobs asked Byrne what percentage rate he should write down to which Byrne ambiguously replied: "Oh, look, just put in 10%." A typical percentage would have been 75% or 80% for NEMS, and Byrne expected Epstein would begin to negotiate. However, the contract came back initialled (meaning Epstein had read it) and signed by Epstein and Jacobs. Jacobs's advice to Epstein was, "10% is better than nothing". This lapse of shrewdness set the scene for what would later become a legal battleground which deprived the Beatles and Brian Epstein of such large sums of money they would have easily overshadowed any royalties they would receive in the medium term from the sale of records. Byrne later said: "They couldn't wait to get somebody else to do this, because they were in a mess themselves." Epstein would later realise that he had made a colossal error of judgment, as Byrne charged 10% commission to the merchandisers for a licence (receiving \$10 out of every hundred) and then giving 10% of that to NEMS, which was \$1. Byrne controlled two companies: Stramsact in the UK and Europe, and Seltaeb in the United States. He invited five friends to become partners — four of whom were unknown to either Jacobs or Epstein — with each investing around \$1,600. They were: Mark Warman, Simon Miller-Munday, John Fenton (a business acquaintance of Jacobs), Peregrine Eliot (heir to the ninth Earl of St Germans) and Malcolm Evans (not to be confused with Mal Evans, the Beatles' roadie). During the first Beatles' flight to the United States, Epstein was offered numerous samples of products by merchandisers who required a licence to be allowed to sell them such as clocks, pens, plastic wigs, bracelets, and games. Epstein rejected all of them; directing the merchandisers to Byrne instead, who was already in New York ensconced in The Drake Hotel on Park Avenue at 56th Street. Byrne rented expensive offices on Fifth Avenue, hiring two limousines (on 24-hour standby) and a helicopter to fly clients to and from the airport, insisting that only the presidents of merchandising companies were allowed to talk directly with him, or with his partner, Lord Eliot, who helped to promote the company name with use of his title. Eliot would later recall going to the Seltaeb office once or twice a week to draw \$1,000 from petty cash. The Wall Street Journal predicted that American teenagers would spend \$50 million during 1964, on wigs, dolls, egg cups, T-shirts, sweatshirts and narrow-legged pants, and The New York Times wrote that the Reliance Manufacturing Company's factories were "smoking night and day ... to meet demand", and had already sold products valued at the retail value of \$2.5 million. The Reliant Shirt Corporation paid \$100,000 for a licence and sold over a million Beatle T-shirts in three days, Remco Toys had produced 100,000 Beatles' dolls and had orders for another 500,000, and the Lowell Toy Corporation were selling Beatle wigs faster than they could produce them, at more than 35,000 per day. Seltaeb licensed over 150 different items internationally: Beatle dolls, scarves, mugs, bath water, wigs, T-shirts, bubble gum, liquorice, empty cans of "Beatle Breath", badges, and many more. The badges had "Seltaeb 1964 Chicago Made in USA" on one side, and "Green Duck Co., Chicago Made in USA" on the other. (The Green Duck metal stamping company was based at 1520 West Montana, Chicago, operating from 1906 until the late 1960s, making election badges for politicians, as well as memorial spoons). American businessmen saw the Beatles' merchandising as the "biggest marketing opportunity since Walt Disney created Mickey Mouse". The Columbia Pictures Corporation offered to buy Byrne's share in the companies for \$500,000, with the incentives that the money would be paid into a low-tax offshore bank account in the Bahamas, Byrne and his partners would retain 50% control of the companies, and Ferrari cars would be given free to every partner, but Byrne turned down the offer. ### Percentages and court cases Byrne passed on the first cheque for \$9,700 (US\$ in dollars) to Epstein, who was impressed, but after innocently asking how much out of the amount Byrne was owed, was told, "Nothing Brian, that's your 10%". Byrne then went on to describe the massive amount of interest he was getting from companies across the United States. Epstein was horrified, realising he had made an appalling error by accepting such a small percentage, and decided he could never tell the Beatles. He immediately instructed Jacobs to re-negotiate the contract with Byrne, which was finally achieved seven months later, in August 1964, which raised the royalty to 49%. In The Times on 9 December 1964, it was reported that Eliot was suing Byrne for damages of \$1 million (US\$ in dollars). Eliot accused Byrne of spending \$150,000 for his "personal comfort and benefit", over some months. The suit also accused Byrne of charging hotel bills to Seltaeb, which were as much as \$19,000 every week for girlfriends, and also opening "charge accounts for them in Fifth Avenue shops". Eliot also alleged that Byrne had hired a chauffeur for \$700 a week and had withheld \$55,000 in royalties to NEMS, after which NEMS had said they would cancel the agreement between the two companies unless monies were forthcoming. Byrne denied all the charges, but admitted he had hired a chauffeur, as he was not familiar with the streets of New York. A supreme court judge reserved his decision. Epstein accused Seltaeb of not accounting properly, and cancelled its power to grant licences, which started a counter-lawsuit by Byrne against Epstein's New York accountant, Walter Hofer, asking for \$5,168,000 in damages (US\$ in dollars). Epstein then instructed NEMS employees to deal directly with American companies, so Byrne instigated court proceedings, which took three years to settle, as it entailed 39 individual claims against NEMS. Byrne won the case, and Epstein paid the court costs and legal bills himself, although the judgement was later vacated; meaning to cancel it, or render it null and void. Due to the legal battle, Woolworth's, J. C. Penney, and other companies refused to finalise any merchandising agreements, cancelling orders worth \$78 million. The court case and its effect was estimated to have lost NEMS and the Beatles approximately \$100,000,000. ## Maximus Enterprises Epstein, in 1967, launched Maximus Enterprises Ltd., to try to capitalise on the merchandising boom, but as so many companies had withdrawn their interest in the wake of the Seltaeb fiasco, and Lennon had angered America's bible belt with his remark suggesting that the Beatles were "more popular than Jesus", the opportunity had passed. Epstein feared that the Beatles would not renew their contracts with him—due to expire in the Autumn of 1967—if they discovered the truth about Seltaeb. Epstein's problems with Seltaeb would remain with him until his death on 27 August 1967, from what was ruled an accidental overdose of a prescribed drug. Many investors had also missed out on massive profits following the cancelling of contracts, and Byrne would later claim of having received two mysterious phone calls foretelling of Epstein's death. Jacobs was found hanged in his garage on 15 December 1968. Days before his death Jacobs had asked for police protection, telling a private detective, "I'm in terrible trouble, they're all after me," and going on to list six well-known showbusiness people. Byrne retired to the Bahamas on his yacht, later moving to the Trowbridge area of Wiltshire. ## Aftermath At the time, very few managers of pop groups knew about the income music merchandising could generate, as very few artists survived long enough in the pop domain to be a viable investment. As far as Epstein was concerned it was merely good public relations, and any revenue that arose from the sale of Beatles-endorsed products was regarded as merely extra money that supplemented the Beatles' individual incomes from live performances and record sales. Epstein had not recognised an industry which had grossed \$20 million for Elvis Presley in 1957 alone. Alistair Taylor (Epstein's assistant) later admitted that financial mistakes were made: "We did our best; some people have said it wasn't good enough. That's easy to say with 20/20 hindsight but remember that there were no rules. We were making it up as we went along." In United States, Epstein had met the well-known divorce lawyer, Nat Weiss, whom Epstein later asked to take over the merchandising affairs of the Beatles and NEMS. Weiss would later state, "The reality is that the Beatles never saw a penny out of the merchandising ... Tens of millions of dollars went down the drain because of the way the whole thing was mishandled. Even after the judgement was vacated, you could smell the smoke from the ashes, that's how badly they had been burned." Beatles' memorabilia, licensed by Seltaeb, is still sold at Beatles' conventions and on the internet. Lennon said years later: "On the business end he [Epstein] ripped us off on the Seltaeb thing." McCartney also said: "He [Epstein] looked to his dad for business advice, and his dad knew how to run a furniture store in Liverpool."	[ "## Merchandising", "### Percentages and court cases", "## Maximus Enterprises", "## Aftermath" ]	2,898	28,468
34,744,352	Collateral Damage (Millennium)	1,145,608,299	null	[ "1999 American television episodes", "Millennium (season 3) episodes" ]	"Collateral Damage" is the eleventh episode of the third season of the crime-thriller television series Millennium. It premiered on the Fox network on January 22, 1999. The episode was written by Michael R. Perry, and directed by Thomas J. Wright. "Collateral Damage" featured guest appearances by O'Quinn, Jacinda Barrett, James Marsters, and radio host Art Bell as himself. Bell's radio show Coast to Coast AM was among Perry's inspirations for the script. In this episode, Federal Bureau of Investigation agents Frank Black (Lance Henriksen) and Emma Hollis (Klea Scott) investigate the kidnapping of the daughter of Millennium Group member Peter Watts (Terry O'Quinn), which may be connected to the testing of a pathogen during the Gulf War. The episode was well-received critically, with the guest acting seen as particularly strong, and was viewed by approximately 5.6 million households during its initial broadcast. ## Plot Leaving a bowling alley, student Taylor Watts (Jacinda Barrett) is abducted by two men. As she is dragged into a car, her dropped purse shows that her father is Millennium Group member Peter Watts (Terry O'Quinn). Watts is then seen briefing Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents on the kidnapping, as a witness describes one abductor, who was wearing a mask like those issued to U.S. troops in the Gulf War. FBI agent Emma Hollis (Klea Scott) remarks to the agents that Watts failed to mention of the Millennium Group or those opposed to it in his briefing, and that her partner Frank Black (Lance Henriksen), who has been investigating the Group, is absent. On an examining table, one of the kidnappers, Eric Swan (James Marsters), strips Taylor, harshly washes her with a course brush, and photographs her. The picture is sent to Watts, who is seen looking at it while supervising the crime scene. Black is also at the scene, and experiences a vision of Operation Desert Storm. Evidence is found of military-style tyre and boot tracks; these lead the FBI to an address where they find the second kidnapper murdered—Black and Watts clash over whether the Group or Swan are responsible. Back in the examination room, Swan exposes Taylor to a substance contained in a canister. Black tracks the history of the second kidnapper, finding that he was involved in a military medical group; Swan's name is also associated with this group. As Black is investigating, Watts approaches him, showing him a second photograph of Taylor, now looking sickly, beside the canister. Watts believes she has less than two days to live. Meanwhile, Hollis has discovered that Swan frequently called Art Bell's Coast to Coast AM radio show under a pseudonym to discuss conspiracy theories about Gulf War syndrome. Bell invites Black onto the show to speak to a listening Swan; the two realise that Black's wife was killed by a pathogen Swan was ordered to test on his troops during the Gulf War—an order which came from a group outside of the Army. At his hideout, Swan retrieves an antidote for the pathogen; meanwhile, Hollis has managed to discover his location. Black and Hollis arrive to find that Watts and Group members have trained a sniper upon the building; Watts speaks to Swan over the phone and agrees to release information confirming the Millennium Group's role in the biological tests. However, during this time, Taylor has freed herself and taken Swan's antidote; she ambushes him and breaks his neck. After she returns home, she asks her father if Swan was right about Group's involvement; he does not answer. ## Production "Collateral Damage" is the fourth episode of Millennium to have been written by Michael R. Perry, who had previously penned the second season episode "The Mikado", as well as "...Thirteen Years Later" and "Omertà" earlier in the third season. Perry would go on to contribute one more script before the series' end. The episode was directed by Thomas J. Wright, who helmed a total of twenty-six episodes across all three seasons. Wright would also go on to direct "Millennium", the series' crossover episode with its sister show The X-Files. Perry was inspired to write the episode due to his interest in conspiracy theory literature, which he finds interesting but does not believe in. The Coast to Coast AM radio show featured in the episode also served as an inspiration, and its host Art Bell agreed to appear as himself. Guest star James Marsters was cast immediately after his audition for the role of Eric Swan, and although several of Millennium's crew were fans of the series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, in which Marsters had a recurring role, Perry recalled none of them recognizing the actor during his audition due to the strength of his performance. This episode marked a change in the presentation of Black's "flashback" visions, a hallmark of the series. Previously they had been depicted with a series of rapid and vague images; director Wright felt that it would be beneficial to slow these down and linger on imagery for longer, "so we could see a little more of what was happening". ## Broadcast and reception "Collateral Damage" was first broadcast on the Fox network on January 22, 1999. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5.77 during its original broadcast, meaning that 5.77 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode. This represented approximately 5.6 million households. "Collateral Damage" received positive reviews from critics. The A.V. Club's Emily VanDerWerff rated the episode a "B". VanDerWerff felt that the episode began with a formulaic and "manipulative" attempt to shock the audience with the kidnapping of a young woman, but quickly moved past this to introduce more interesting elements, particularly the nature of the relationship between Watts and Black. VanDerWerff highlighted the acting of Marsters, finding that he succeeded in making character of Swan into a sympathetic and complex one rather than a simple villain. Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson, in their book Wanting to Believe: A Critical Guide to The X-Files, Millennium & The Lone Gunmen, rated "Collateral Damage" five stars out of five. Shearman called the episode "magnificent", highlighting its in-depth take on the morality of both Black and Watts when faced with the issue of defending either their beliefs or their families. He also praised the guest acting in the episode, and felt that Perry's script was the first to adequately address questions raised by the series rather than simply asking more.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Broadcast and reception" ]	1,357	6,550
70,467,133	2022 EFL League One play-off final	1,170,272,291	Association football match	[ "2022 English Football League play-offs", "2022 sports events in London", "EFL League One play-off finals", "May 2022 sports events in the United Kingdom", "Sunderland A.F.C. matches", "Wycombe Wanderers F.C. matches" ]	The 2022 EFL League One play-off Final was an association football match between Wycombe Wanderers and Sunderland on 21 May 2022 at Wembley Stadium, London. It was to determine the third and final team to gain promotion from EFL League One, the third tier of English football, to the EFL Championship. The top two teams of 2021–22 EFL League One, Wigan Athletic and Rotherham United, gained automatic promotion to the Championship, while the clubs placed from third to sixth place in the table took part in the 2022 English Football League play-offs. The winners of the play-off semi-finals competed for the final place for the 2022–23 season in the Championship. Simon Hooper was the referee for the match, which was played in front of 72,332 spectators. Sunderland took the lead in the 12th minute with a goal from Elliot Embleton. Ross Stewart doubled his side's lead in with 11 minutes of the match remaining to make it 2–0. That remained the scoreline, and Sunderland gained promotion to the Championship. Sunderland's Alex Pritchard was named man of the match. ## Route to the final Sunderland finished the regular 2021–22 season in fifth place in EFL League One, the third tier of the English football league system, one place and one point ahead of Wycombe Wanderers. Both, therefore, missed out on the two automatic places for promotion to the EFL Championship and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the third promoted team. Sunderland finished six points behind Rotherham United (who were promoted in second place) and eight behind league winners Wigan Athletic. Wycombe Wanderers faced Milton Keynes Dons and the first leg was played at Adams Park in High Wycombe on 5 May 2022. Seven minutes before half-time, Wycombe Wanderers took the lead when Ryan Tafazolli scored from close range with a header from a Joe Jacobson corner. Sam Vokes then put the ball into Milton Keynes Dons' goal but it was disallowed, and the half ended 1–0. Midway through the second half, Josh McEachran was sent off after being shown two yellow cards within seven minutes, reducing the visiting side to ten players. Jason McCarthy's shot then hit the Milton Keynes Dons' crossbar before Vokes doubled Wycombe Wanderers' lead in the 82nd minute with a header from a Garath McCleary cross, and the match ended 2–0. The second leg took place three days later at Stadium MK in Milton Keynes. Troy Parrott gave the home side the lead in the 26th minute with a header from Hiram Boateng's cross. Although Milton Keynes Dons dominated the match throughout, they were unable to score a second goal and the match ended 1–0, with Wycombe advancing to the final with a 2–1 win on aggregate. In the second play-off semi-final, Sunderland's opposition was Sheffield Wednesday, with the first match of the two-legged tie taking place at the Stadium of Light in Sunderland on 6 May 2022. The game remained goalless until injury time in the first half when Ross Stewart took the ball from Sam Hutchinson before scoring from a tight angle, his 25th goal of the season. Seven minutes into the second half, Alex Pritchard struck the ball against the Sheffield Wednesday crossbar and despite pressure from the away side in the final 20 minutes, the game ended 1–0. The 44,742 spectators set the record for the highest attendance at any play-off semi-final in the history of the post-season games. The second leg took place three days later at Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield. The first half ended goalless before Sheffield Wednesday took the lead and levelled the tie in the 74th minute: Barry Bannan passed to Marvin Johnson whose cross was struck into the Sunderland goal from close range by Lee Gregory. Sheffield Wednesday began to dominate the match but three minutes into second-half injury time, Jack Clarke passed to Patrick Roberts who scored from close range. The match ended 1–1 and Sunderland progressed to the final with a 2–1 aggregate victory. Their win meant they went to the final having been undefeated in their previous 15 games. ## Match ### Background This was Sunderland's fourth play-off final, having lost all three of their previous finals, but they went into the match unbeaten in their previous fifteen matches. In the 1998 Football League First Division play-off final, they faced Charlton Athletic at the old Wembley Stadium in London, in a match described by Rob Stevens of the BBC as "arguably the best play-off final in English Football League history". That final ended 3–3 in regular time, 4–4 after extra time, and Sunderland lost the resulting penalty shoot-out 7–6. Sunderland's most recent play-off final ended in a 2–1 defeat to Charlton Athletic in 2019. Sunderland had also played in the 1990 Football League Second Division play-off final against Swindon Town which they lost 1–0. They were promoted however, as Swindon were later found guilty of financial misconduct. Sunderland had last played in the Championship in the 2017–18 season, when they were relegated to League One after finishing bottom of the league. Their most recent visit to Wembley Stadium came in the previous season, when they won the EFL Trophy, marking their first victory at the national stadium since the 1973 FA Cup Final. Wycombe Wanderers also made their fourth play-off final appearance. They won the 1994 Football League Third Division play-off final 4–2 against Preston North End before losing to Southend United in the 2015 Football League Two play-off final in a penalty shoot-out. Their most recent play-off final came in 2020, when they defeated Oxford United 2–1 in the EFL League One play-off final to secure promotion to the EFL Championship. They were relegated the following season back to League One. In the matches between the sides during the regular season, Sunderland won 3–1 at the Stadium of Light in August 2021 and the fixture at Adams Park the following January ended in a 3–3 draw. Ross Stewart was Sunderland's top scorer with 24 goals during the regular season, while Vokes had scored the most goals for Wycombe Wanderers with 17. The final was refereed by Simon Hooper (representing the Wiltshire Football Association), with Adam Crysell and Craig Taylor as his assistants, and Tim Robinson the fourth official. In May 2022, the EFL had announced that for the first time, the video assistant referee system would be used at all play-off finals, and Lee Mason was appointed in this role. Sunderland received an initial allocation of 37,480 tickets for the final which was subsequently increased to 43,960 due to high demand. Wycombe Wanderers were initially given 19,205 tickets and applied for an extra allocation. By 18 May 2022, the club announced that they had sold more than 22,000 tickets for the final. Sunderland's head coach Alex Neil made one change for his side's starting line-up from the second leg of their play-off semi-final, with Elliot Embleton being selected ahead of Jack Clarke. Gareth Ainsworth, the Wycombe Wanderers head coach, announced a side unchanged from the previous match. ### Summary Wycombe Wanderers kicked off the match at around 3 p.m. on 21 May 2022 in front of 72,332 supporters at Wembley Stadium. Four minutes in, Pritchard took a free kick which hit the side netting of the Wycombe Wanderers' goal. In the 12th minute, Embleton took possession of the ball around half-way and dribbled forward uncontested to take a shot from outside the Wycombe Wanderers' penalty area which beat David Stockdale to give Sunderland a 1–0 lead. There were chances to score for both sides, including a shot in the 22nd minute from Pritchard which was caught by Stockdale. Five minutes later, Ross Stewart's shot was pushed away by Anthony Patterson. In the 36th minute, Sunderland had appeals for a penalty turned down by the referee after contact from Jacobson on Roberts; instead Roberts was called for offside. The last chance of the half fell to Wycombe Wanderers' Anthony Stewart but he headed Jacobsen's free kick wide of the goal and the half ended 1–0 to Sunderland. Neither side made any changes to their playing personnel during the interval and Sunderland kicked the second half off. A minute in, Sunderland's Dennis Cirkin was shown a yellow card for a foul but the resulting free kick was cleared. Wycombe Wanderers dominated the early stages of the half before Ross Stewart's 52nd minute header from a Pritchard cross passed just wide of the goalpost. In the 56th minute, Wycombe Wanderers made their first substitution of the match with Daryl Horgan being replaced by Lewis Wing. Three minutes later, a mistake from Sunderland's Bailey Wright allowed Vokes to shoot but his attempt was saved by Patterson. Sunderland made their first substitution in the 61st minute when Embleton was replaced by Jack Clarke. Four minutes after that, Wycombe Wanderers' Jordan Obita was substituted for Brandon Hanlan. Midway through the second half, Sunderland's Robert was tackled in the penalty area by Jacobsen and Anthony Stewart but no penalty was awarded. With fourteen minutes of the match remaining, Wycombe Wanderers made their final substitution with Adebayo Akinfenwa coming on in place of Dominic Gape. In the 78th minute, Hanlon's weak shot was saved before Sunderland doubled their lead through Ross Stewart. Pritchard passed him the ball outside the Wycombe penalty area, before Ross Stewart moved to his right and scoring with a low shot. Two minutes later, Pritchard was replaced for Sunderland by Callum Doyle. Ross Stewart then took the ball past Tafazolli but his shot was wide of the Wycombe Wanderers' goal. Roberts then shot wide for Sunderland before Patterson saved a strike from Anthony Stewart. With two minutes of the regular time remaining, Ross Stewart was taken off by Sunderland and replaced by Nathan Broadhead. Five minutes of injury time was indicated by the fourth official, but there was no change to the score and Sunderland won the match 2–0. ### Details ## Reaction Sunderland's head coach Neil said that he believed his side deserved the victory: "Wycombe have done great this season but we came into the game knowing a lot of people had heavily backed us and made us favourites. As I said before the game, that’s normal for us. This club shouldn't be where it is and this is the first step towards us getting back to where we want to be." Ainsworth was gracious in defeat and conceded that his side was second-best: "The better team won today. I can't stand here and pretend we were better than Sunderland but I thought at 1–0 there was a few nerves from them and we had a couple of good chances, but they’ve got some good players. Congratulations Sunderland, you deserve to be in the Championship next season." Sunderland's Pritchard was named as man of the match.	[ "## Route to the final", "## Match", "### Background", "### Summary", "### Details", "## Reaction" ]	2,362	35,842
50,566,286	2016 Football League Championship play-off final	1,161,148,335	Association football match in 2016	[ "2016 Football League play-offs", "2016 sports events in London", "EFL Championship play-off finals", "Hull City A.F.C. matches", "May 2016 sports events in the United Kingdom", "Sheffield Wednesday F.C. matches" ]	The 2016 Football League Championship play-off final was an association football match which was played on 28 May 2016 at Wembley Stadium, London, between Sheffield Wednesday and Hull City. The match was to determine the third and final team to gain promotion from the Football League Championship, the second tier of English football, to the Premier League. The top two teams of the 2015–16 Football League Championship season gained automatic promotion to the Premier League, while the teams placed from third to sixth place in the table partook in play-off semi-finals; Hull City ended the season in fourth position while Sheffield Wednesday finished sixth. The winners of these semi-finals competed for the final place for the 2016–17 season in the Premier League. Winning the game was estimated to be worth up to £200 million to the successful team. The 2016 final, refereed by Bobby Madley, was watched by a crowd of more than 70,000 people in sunny conditions. Hull City won 1–0, the only goal of the game being scored by the man of the match Mohamed Diamé in the 72nd minute. It was Hull's their first game at Wembley since losing the 2014 FA Cup Final and marked their return to the Premier League for the first time since their relegation in the 2014–15 season. Hull were relegated back to the Championship the following season, as they finished 18th in the 2016–17 Premier League. Sheffield Wednesday finished the following season in fourth place but were knocked out in the play-offs by Huddersfield Town on penalties. ## Route to the final Hull City finished the regular 2015–16 season in fourth place in the Football League Championship, the second tier of the English football league system, two places ahead of Sheffield Wednesday. Both therefore missed out on the two automatic places for promotion to the Premier League and instead took part in the play-offs to determine the third promoted team. Hull finished six points behind Middlesbrough (who were promoted in second place) and ten behind league winners Burnley. Sheffield Wednesday ended the season nine points behind Hull. Sheffield Wednesday faced Brighton & Hove Albion in their play-off semi-final and the first leg was played at Hillsborough. A goal from Brighton's Fernando Forestieri was ruled out for offside before Wednesday's Ross Wallace scored from 25 yards just before half time. Connor Goldson and Tomer Hemed were both substituted for Brighton through injury in the first half, and with Steve Sidwell and Anthony Knockaert leaving the field in the second half, the visitors were forced to play the final 30 minutes with ten men. Kieran Lee doubled Wednesday's advantage in the 73rd minute and the tie ended 2–0. Brighton's Lewis Dunk, back from suspension, scored the opening goal in the second leg, at Falmer Stadium. Less than ten minutes later, Wallace's cross drifted into the goal to equalise the tie. Brighton barely threatened Wednesday in the second half and the semi-final ended 3–1 on aggregate; the south coast club lost their third play-off semi-final in four years. Hull City's semi-final was against Derby County and the first leg was held at Pride Park Stadium. Abel Hernández put the visitors into the lead with a 25-yard shot on the half-hour mark, before an own goal from Jason Shackell doubled Hull's lead before the break. Derby's first shot on target, a weak effort from Jacob Butterfield, came in the 80th minute. Andrew Robertson scored late in stoppage time to end the match 3–0. The second leg was played at the KCOM Stadium and Derby took an early lead with a Johnny Russell goal in the 7th minute. An own goal from Robertson ten minutes before the break made the score 2–0 to Derby while a save from Hull's goalkeeper Eldin Jakupović denied Chris Martin and Derby an equaliser. Despite having almost two-thirds of the possession and 16 shots, Derby were unable to restore parity as the semi-final ended 3–2 on aggregate to Hull. ## Match ### Background This was Hull's second play-off final, having defeated Bristol City 1–0 in the 2008 final. They had also played at Wembley in the 2014 FA Cup Final where they lost 3–2 to Arsenal in extra time. Hull had been relegated from the Premier League in the 2014–15 season and were aiming to return to the top tier of English football at the first attempt. Sheffield Wednesday had experienced play-off final success at the Millennium Stadium when they defeated Hartlepool United to win the 2005 Football League One play-off final, but had not featured in any play-off finals for promotion to the top tier of English football. During the regular season, the clubs had drawn in both meetings, 1–1 at Hillsborough in October 2015 and 0–0 at the KCOM Stadium the following February. Forestieri was Sheffield Wednesday's top scorer with 15 league goals, while Hernández was joint second top scorer in the division with 21. Hull City's starting eleven was unchanged from the second semi-final leg defeat to Derby County. Sheffield Wednesday manager Carlos Carvalhal made one change, bringing in Sam Hutchinson to replace Álex López in midfield. The final was refereed by Bobby Madley, with assistant referees Simon Bennett and Peter Kirkup, while Phil Gibbs acted as the fourth official. It was reported in the media and press that the game was worth between £110 million and £200 million over three years to the winners through sponsorship and television deals. Hull were considered favourites by bookmakers to win the match which was broadcast in the UK on Sky Sports 1. Hull City were allocated 38,956 tickets for the final, but failed to sell them all due to supporter segregation and an ongoing boycott against the Allam family ownership from many fans. Sheffield Wednesday sold out their full allocation of 38,889 tickets. ### First half Hull kicked the match off at around 5 p.m. in sunny conditions in front of a crowd of 70,189. The first shot on goal came in the 4th minute from Hull's Tom Huddlestone whose strike was saved by the Sheffield Wednesday goalkeeper Keiren Westwood. After an even ten minutes, Michael Dawson drew the first booking of the match. After a late challenge on Forestieri, the Wednesday striker took the free kick himself, Jakupović punched it over the bar, which the former Leicester City player Steve Claridge described as "awful, dreadful". Another free kick to Wednesday in the 15th minute was also punched clear. In the 29th minute, Westwood conceded a corner to Hull and from the set piece, Hernández's header was cleared off the line by Wednesday's Lee. A Forestieri shot two minutes later went wide before Hernández went through on goal, one-on-one with Westwood, who made an excellent save to deny the opening goal. Hull's challenge continued with a shot off target from Moses Odubajo in the 35th minute. With five minutes of the half remaining, Hull's Mohamed Diamé beat three defenders but his shot from seven yards ricocheted off the post. In the last moment of the half, Hull had two chances: Westwood saved a low Odubajo effort while Hernández's overhead kick which was blocked, and the half ended 0–0. ### Second half Neither team made any changes at half-time, and the second half was kicked off by Sheffield Wednesday. In the 51st minute, Forestieri was denied a shooting opportunity by Hull's Curtis Davies. A 54th minute close-range shot from Dawson was saved by Westwood. Four minutes later, Hull made a quick break only for Robertson to head the ball over the bar from an accurate Odubajo pass. Wednesday's Hutchinson then shot from distance but his strike also went over the bar. Forestieri's 62nd minute shot was deflected for a corner which was subsequently cleared by the Hull goalkeeper Jakupović. A minute later Sheffield Wednesday made the first substitution of the game with Jérémy Hélan coming on for Wallace. In the 72nd minute, the deadlock was broken – Hull's Diamé struck the ball from outside the Wednesday penalty area, past Westwood, to take a 1–0 lead. Claridge remarked that it was a "wonderful, brilliant, fantastic strike". Wednesday made their second substitution immediately afterwards, as Atdhe Nuhiu replaced Hutchinson. In the 79th minute, Odubajo shot wide, and with eight minutes of normal time remaining, Hull made their first substitution, bringing off the Scottish winger Robert Snodgrass and replacing him with the midfielder Sam Clucas. A minute later Hernández's shot was blocked by Glenn Loovens, conceding a corner, which Davies headed waywardly. A chance for Sheffield Wednesday was missed after Forestieri's pass failed to find a teammate, and Hull's striker Hernández was then replaced by the Irish midfielder David Meyler. A foul from Wednesday's defender Daniel Pudil was his last contribution to the match as he was substituted in the 87th minute for the Portuguese striker Lucas João. With a minute of regular time remaining, Hull made their final change with the goalscorer Diamé substituted for Harry Maguire. Four minutes of additional time were indicated by the fourth official, and despite a chance for João to equalise, the match ended 1–0, ensuring Hull's return to the Premier League. ### Details ### Statistics ## Post-match The Hull manager Steve Bruce remarked: "The goal was a wonder goal that would have graced any cup final ... Overall, I think we've deserved to win from the chances we've created." Carvalhal was gracious in defeat, noting: "I think Hull deserved to win the game, they were better than us ... we didn't create too many problems defensively for Hull." Former Celtic manager Neil Lennon, reporting for BBC Radio 5 Live, stated: "it's the right result, there was a definite gulf in class between the two teams on the day ... credit to Hull – they played the game brilliantly and deserved the win". Hull's Diamé was named man of the match. Hull ended the next season in 18th position in the 2016–17 Premier League, and were relegated back to the Championship. Sheffield Wednesday finished the following season in fourth place and qualified for the play-offs where they were eliminated in the semi-finals by Huddersfield Town on penalties. ## See also - 2016 Football League One play-off final - 2016 Football League Two play-off final	[ "## Route to the final", "## Match", "### Background", "### First half", "### Second half", "### Details", "### Statistics", "## Post-match", "## See also" ]	2,216	32,806
37,333,725	Hurricane Paul (2012)	1,172,174,228	Category 3 Pacific hurricane in 2012	[ "2012 Pacific hurricane season", "Category 3 Pacific hurricanes", "Pacific hurricanes in Mexico", "Tropical cyclones in 2012" ]	Hurricane Paul was a strong tropical cyclone that threatened the Baja California peninsula during October 2012. The sixteenth tropical cyclone, tenth hurricane, and fifth major hurricane of the season, Paul originated from a trough of low pressure west of the coastline of Mexico on October 13. While turning towards the north, the system quickly organized, reaching hurricane status in the morning of October 15. By that afternoon, Paul had reached its peak intensity as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (195 km/h), but began to weaken rapidly thereafter due to land interaction and strong wind shear. Late on October 17, Paul degenerated into a remnant low. The remnants of Paul later moved ashore along the central Baja California Peninsula, before dissipating on October 18. Prior to the storm's arrival in Baja California Sur, hurricane watches and warnings were issued for coastal locations. Hundreds of homes were damaged across the region and damage to infrastructure was significant. Power outages also occurred across the region as a result of Hurricane Paul. A total of 400 homes were destroyed, and 300 others were flooded. Damage totaled \$15.6 million (2012 USD). ## Meteorological history On September 28, a tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa. Tracking westward, the northern portion of this wave axis led to the formation of Tropical Storm Oscar on October 3 while the southern portion of the wave continued across the central Atlantic. While approaching the Lesser Antilles the following day, the disturbance lost most of its thunderstorm activity and remained poorly organized across the remainder of its trek through the Caribbean Sea and Central America. On October 10, the wave emerged into the East Pacific basin, at which time the National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring the system. Characterized with disorganized convection, a broad surface trough formed in association with the wave the same day and environmental conditions were expected to favor gradual development. Initially, upper-level winds were only marginally favorable, and although the thunderstorms remained disorganized, the NHC estimated a 50% chance for development by early on October 12. The next day, the system became better defined, and, the NHC noted that the system was on the verge of becoming a tropical cyclone. Although operationally not classified until 21:00 UTC on October 13, a post-season analysis conducted on the system revealed that it attained enough organization to be considered a tropical depression at 12:00 UTC, while positioned about 645 mi (1040 km) south-southwest of Cabo San Lucas. Tracking westward around the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge, the depression steadily strengthened, intensifying into Tropical Storm Paul six hours after designation. On October 14, an upper-level low positioned west of the Baja California peninsula led to a break in the ridge which subsequently caused the tropical cyclone to slow and turn northward. During this change in direction, favorable atmospheric conditions allowed for a quick rate of intensification. Convective bands in association with Paul gained curvature and a central dense overcast feature became visible on satellite imagery. In addition, a series of microwave passes late in evening revealed a nearly closed eyewall. At 06:00 UTC on October 15, Paul was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane on the SSHWS while located approximately 595 mi (960 km) southwest of Cabo San Lucas. Banding features continued to become better defined to the south and east of the center while convection in the eyewall cooled to −85 °C (−121 °F). The cloud pattern became increasingly symmetrical, and an eye became intermittently visible on satellite imagery later that morning. Following an abrupt increase in satellite intensity estimates, Paul was upgraded to a Category 3 major hurricane on the SSHWS, the fifth of the season, at 18:00 UTC on October 15. Simultaneously, the hurricane also estimated to have attained its peak intensity of 120 miles per hour (195 km/h). Upon reaching its peak intensity, the hurricane began to steadily weaken. The cold ring of thunderstorm activity surrounding the eye warmed significantly, while the eye became cloud-filled and cool. The circulation became tilted north-northeast with height, likely a byproduct of south-southwesterly wind shear, and the system was downgraded to a Category 2 hurricane at 12:00 UTC on October 16. Accelerating northwestward within deep southwesterly flow, continued unfavorable upper-level winds caused the low-level center to rapidly separate from the convective mass. At 18:00 UTC, Paul was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane; by this time, little deep thunderstorm activity remained near the center. Six hours later, the system was downgraded to a tropical storm while it passed 50 mi (80 km) west of Baja California Sur. The remainder of shower and thunderstorm activity dissipated early on October 17 and Paul was declared a post-tropical cyclone at 06:00 UTC. Following declassification, the system moved ashore Baja California Sur near Bahía Asunción while maintaining gale-force winds. On the next day, at 06:00 UTC, the remnant low-level circulation dissipated about 70 mi (110 km) northwest of Punta Eugenia, Mexico. ## Preparations When the system first posed a threat to Mexico at 09:00 UTC on October 15, a tropical storm watch was posted for a portion of the central Baja California Peninsula. Six hours later, the watch was upgraded into a tropical storm warning, while tropical storm watches were issued to the north and south of the warning, respectively. At 21:00 UTC on October 15, the tropical storm warnings was upgraded into a hurricane warning, while a tropical storm warning was declared along the eastern side of the peninsula. Early the next day, the tropical storm warning was extended southward, to include the capital of La Paz. On the afternoon of October 16, when the threat to the area increased, a hurricane warnings was posted for the eastern side of the state. Early the next day, all hurricane warnings were dropped, as Paul had deteriorated into a tropical storm. By 15:00 UTC, all watches and warnings had been discontinued. Prior to the arrival of Paul, activities were suspended for small craft in the ports of Cabo San Lucas, La Paz, San Carlos, Maria Magdalena, and Puerto Lopez Mateos. Moreover, all activities were closed in the port of Mazatlan. Twelve municipalities in Sonora were placed under a "green" alert, though this was quickly upgraded to a "yellow" alert, and later into an "orange" alert. A "blue" alert also declared for Colima, Jalisco, and Nayarit. On October 16, a "yellow" alert (moderate risk) was activated for Baja California Sur. State civil protection authorities brought teams from the federal electricity and water commissions to help maintain services during the storm. In addition, the state government opened 143 shelters, including 11 in the towns of Cabo San Lucas, La Paz, Ciudad Constitución, and Loreto, which had a capacity of 30,617 persons. Furthermore, 125 cranes and 75 automobiles were mobilized. Statewide, 400 soldiers were deployed. Roughly 500 residents in Comondú were evacuated to shelter. ## Impact and aftermath During its formative stages, Paul passed near Clarion Island, where winds of 58 mph (93 km/h) and gusts of 77 mph (124 km/h) were recorded. On nearby Socorro Island, 1.98 in (50 mm) of rain fell during the storm's passage. Even though there were no reports of hurricane-force winds onshore the Baja California Peninsula (the storm weakened to a tropical storm when it made its closet approach to the region), hurricane-force winds did approach the peninsula, and there were widespread reports of gale-force winds. In Puerto Cortes, peak winds of 51 mph (82 km/h) and gusts up to 72 mph (116 km/h) were observed, as well as a peak rainfall total over 6.02 in (153 mm). Furthermore, a minimum barometric pressure of 973.4 mbar (28.74 inHg) was observed in Cabo San Lucas. The outer rainbands of the system first brought rains to Baja California Sur on October 15, resulting in flooding. Around 30% of Baja California Sur residents were without power at the height of Paul. Across the northern portion of the state, numerous roads were destroyed, especially near Loreto, where flooding caused a 45 ft (14 m) sinkhole to form. In addition, Mexican Federal Highway 11 was damaged in five locations from La Paz to Ciudad Constitucion. In Loreto, significant destruction occurred and many residents were rendered homeless. Two creeks overflowed their banks, destroying several homes. In Mulege, 300 homes were inundated, displacing 60 individuals to shelter. Thirty light poles were downed. The Puerto San Carlos area sustained the worst flooding from the storm, due to a combination of nearly a year's worth of rainfall and storm surge, which toppled a dike. There, about 400 homes collapsed and around 40% of the town's houses received damage, forcing 300 people to seek shelter. In San Ignacio, 30 automobiles were swept away and power was lost to the city. Across the city of La Paz, damage to roads was estimated at MX\$200 million (US\$15.6 million). In all, approximately 1,000 dwellings were damaged in relation to Hurricane Paul; many other homes across the region were left without electricity and running water. A total of 495 people were taken to shelters, including 93 in Ciudad Insurgentes and 300 in San Carlos. Overall, 5,000 families or 16,000 people were directly affected by the hurricane. Elsewhere, in Sonora light rain was recorded. In the aftermath of the storm, the Mexican navy activated a plan to provide aid. A total of 130 troops toured the damaged areas via six vehicles. A state of emergency was declared for four municipalities in Baja California Sur. By October 18, 95% of all water, power, and road services had been restored. Roughly MX\$2 million (\$156,000 2012 USD) was spent to help rebuild businesses lost due to the storm. ## See also - Hurricane Otis (2005) - Hurricane Pauline (1968) - Timeline of the 2012 Pacific hurricane season - Tropical cyclones in 2012	[ "## Meteorological history", "## Preparations", "## Impact and aftermath", "## See also" ]	2,222	3,782
42,434,103	The Boat Race 2003	1,166,817,877	Oxford versus Cambridge rowing	[ "2003 in English sport", "2003 in rowing", "2003 sports events in London", "April 2003 sports events in the United Kingdom", "The Boat Race" ]	The 149th Boat Race took place on 6 April 2003. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford (in dark blue) and Cambridge (in light green) along a 4.2-mile (6.8 km) tidal stretch of the River Thames in south-west London. The lead changed twice during the race, which Oxford won by one foot (30 cm): the smallest margin of victory in the history of the event. The close race has been described as "epic", while Olympic gold medallist Steve Redgrave suggested that the race was the "greatest we will see in our lifetimes". Umpired by the Boat Race veteran Boris Rankov, the 2003 race was the first to be scheduled on a Sunday. As a result of a collision between the Cambridge boat and a launch, a member of the Cambridge crew was replaced just two days before the race. This was the first Boat Race to feature two sets of brothers on opposing sides. In the reserve race Goldie beat Isis and Oxford won the Women's race. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). First held in 1829, the race takes place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course, between Putney and Mortlake on the River Thames in south-west London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide. Oxford went into the 2003 race as reigning champions, having won the previous year's race by three-quarters of a length, but Cambridge led overall with 77 victories to Oxford's 70 (excluding the "dead heat to Oxford by five feet" of 1877). The race was sponsored by Aberdeen Asset Management for the fourth consecutive year, and was the first to be scheduled on a Sunday, in order to avoid a clash with the live television broadcast of the Grand National. Although the 1984 race was held on a Sunday, it had been postponed from the Saturday following a collision between the Cambridge boat and a barge. The first Women's Boat Race took place in 1927, but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s. Up until 2014, the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races, but as of the 2015 race, it is held on the River Thames, on the same day as the men's main and reserve races. The reserve race, contested between Oxford's Isis boat and Cambridge's Goldie boat, has been held since 1965. It usually takes place on the Tideway, prior to the main Boat Race. The umpire for the race was former Oxford rower Boris Rankov, who had represented the Dark Blues a record six times between 1978 and 1983. Cambridge were coached by Robin Williams (for the ninth time) while Oxford's coach was Sean Bowden, assisted by coxing adviser Dan Topolski. ## Crews Wayne Pommen, the first-choice Cambridge bow, was injured two days before the race, fracturing his wrist following a full-speed collision with the harbourmaster's launch during a practice start. Matthias Kleinz was hit on the head but did not require medical attention. Cambridge number seven James Livingston said: "For a couple of seconds I thought I was going to die. We were going flat out and all of a sudden I heard Jim's voice. I've never heard so much fear in anybody's voice before." Pommen was circumspect: "A few of us were feeling quite lucky last night ... at the same time, it was very frustrating and disappointing ... but there was no point sulking in the corner." Three oars were destroyed and two riggers bent; the boat was sent to Weybridge to be repaired. Pommen was replaced by Ben Smith, brother of the Oxford stroke Matthew. Not since the 1979 race had such a late change in the line-up of a crew been made. Along with James and David Livingston, this was the first time in the history of the Boat Race that two pairs of brothers would be racing against one another. The official weigh-in took place on 1 April at the London Eye. The Cambridge crew had an advantage of 7 kilograms (15 lb) per member, representing the largest disparity between the crews since the 1990 event and the lightest Dark Blue crew since the 1975 race. Oxford were considered "underdogs" for the race. The Cambridge crew had an average age of 23, while Oxford's crew averaged 21. The Oxford crew featured seven Britons, an Australian and a Canadian, while the Cambridge crew consisted of four Britons, two Americans, two Germans and an Australian. Cambridge's Tim Wooge, the 30-year-old stroke rowing in his third Boat Race, was the first German president of Cambridge University Boat Club, and the heaviest man in the race. His Dark Blue counterpart Matthew Smith was rowing in his fourth Boat Race. Robin Bourne-Taylor, Basil Dixon and Matt Smith had rowed for Oxford in the 2002 race, while, in James Livingston, Cambridge saw just one Blue return from the previous year's event. ## Race descriptions ### Main race Cambridge won the coin toss and the Light Blue boat club president, Tim Wooge, was clear: "Cambridge choose Surrey". Cambridge elected to start from the southern bank (the "Surrey side") of the Thames, handing the northern side of the river (the "Middlesex side") to Oxford. At race time, conditions were overcast and breezy. Oxford took an early lead with a slightly higher stroke rate than Cambridge as both coxes were warned by the umpire to avoid a clash. By the Mile Post, the Dark Blues were half-a-second ahead. Five minutes into the race, Oxford, with a third of a length lead, were warned again by the umpire and moved away from the racing line, and following a series of oar clashes, allowed Cambridge to take the lead, shooting Hammersmith Bridge a second ahead. Oxford continued to stay in touch with Cambridge along the long middle bend of the course, towards the Chiswick Steps, and retook the lead on the approach to Barnes Bridge as the course curved back in their favour. With a three-quarter length lead at Barnes, Oxford began to weaken and Cambridge recovered to a third of a length. With every stroke, the Cambridge boat gained on Oxford, outrating them in a "sprint finish", but the Dark Blues passed the finishing post 1 foot (30 cm) ahead, the narrowest winning margin in the history of the race. Oxford finished with a time of 18 minutes 6 seconds. Rankov did not initially announce the result, instead he "spread his arms wide and shrugged his shoulders". The result was confirmed to Rankov by finishing judge Ben Kent, with the winning margin being approximately 0.05 seconds, and announced to the crews by Rankov under Chiswick Bridge: "One foot to Oxford". James Livingston wrote of himself at the finish: "eyes widen and bulge in horror. Our desolation is total." It was the first time a crew had won the race with a deficit of more than one stone (6.4 kg) per man. It was Oxford's third victory in the previous four years and brought the overall result to 77–71 in Cambridge's favour. At the finish, following tradition, the Oxford crew threw their cox, Acer Nethercott, into the water in celebration. ### Women and reserves races In the reserve race, Cambridge's Goldie beat Oxford's Isis by nine lengths in a time of 18 minutes 4 seconds, two seconds quicker than the Blue boat, recording their fourth consecutive victory and their sixth in seven years. Earlier, Oxford won the 58th women's race in a time of 6 minutes 35 seconds, 3+1⁄2 lengths ahead of their Light Blue opponents. It was their second consecutive win and took the overall result to 38–20 in Cambridge's favour. ## Reaction The Oxford University Boat Club president and stroke Matthew Smith said "It feels fantastic and I think it will take a while to top this feeling". He went on to say: "We have got an awesome bunch of guys in this squad ... but I have such respect for Cambridge ... with a lighter crew we've turned round the biggest weight deficit in history." Nethercott remarked "I really thought we had lost. In the space of a few seconds I went from the lowest point in my life to absolute, unbridled ecstasy." The Cambridge oarsman James Livingston said "It was the worst margin to lose by. I just wish I could stop losing these epic races" while the Cambridge coach Williams described the defeat as a "blow to the heart". Wooge was disappointed: "I pull my hat off to Oxford, that was an amazing race." Rankov later revealed "It's the hardest I've ever had to work in an umpiring situation." The five-time Olympic gold medallist Steve Redgrave, who presented the trophy to the victorious president, Matthew Smith, commented on the race: "Remember that race and cling on to the memory, because it will be the greatest we will see in any of our lifetimes." An estimated 400 million people worldwide watched the event on television, with over 5 million viewers watching on BBC One in the United Kingdom. The race is retold in the book Blood Over Water, authored by opposing brothers James and David Livingston. Martin Cross, writing in The Guardian, said the race provided "a thrilling finish and renewed interest from the public", Christopher Dodd in The Independent called the race "stupendous, a titanic struggle of will", while Rachel Quarrell of The Daily Telegraph declared Oxford's victory as "epic" and suggested that "there will never be a better Boat Race." Simon Barnes of The Times described the finish: "At the finishing line, the bobble of the Oxford bow was inches in front, a second later, it was inches behind. If the line had come with the completion rather than the beginning of the final Cambridge stroke, the result would have gone the other way." Author and journalist Christopher Dodd, writing in Rowing News summarised the race as "incredible" and a "titanic struggle of wills".	[ "## Background", "## Crews", "## Race descriptions", "### Main race", "### Women and reserves races", "## Reaction" ]	2,172	41,746
8,915,802	Pledging My Time	1,156,454,471	null	[ "1966 singles", "Bob Dylan songs", "Song recordings produced by Bob Johnston", "Songs written by Bob Dylan" ]	"Pledging My Time" is a blues song by American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan from his seventh studio album, Blonde on Blonde (1966). The song, written by Dylan and produced by Bob Johnston, was recorded on March 8, 1966 in Nashville, Tennessee. Dylan is featured on lead vocals, harmonica, and guitar, backed by guitarist Robbie Robertson and an ensemble of veteran Nashville session men. As with most of the album's songs, "Pledging My Time" was conceived, composed, and recorded within the span of a few weeks. The song was first released, in shortened form, two weeks after its recording, as the B-side of the single "Rainy Day Women \#12 & 35", a Top 10 hit in both the United States and Great Britain. The two songs also led off Blonde on Blonde, rock's first double album, which was officially released June 20, 1966. Played in Chicago blues style, "Pledging My Time" depicts a young man who pledges himself to a prospective lover, hoping "[she]'ll come through, too". The song's musical and lyrical influences are thought to include Robert Johnson's "Come on in My Kitchen", "It Hurts Me Too" by Elmore James, and the Mississippi Sheiks classic "Sittin' on Top of the World". Dylan performed "Pledging My Time" at 21 concerts from 1987 through 1999. He revived it two decades later, in 2021, for the soundtrack of his concert film Shadow Kingdom: The Early Songs of Bob Dylan. The song has also been covered on tribute albums by artists such as bluesman Luther "Guitar Junior" Johnson, folk musician Greg Brown, and the Americana band Old Crow Medicine Show. ## Background and recording "Pledging My Time" is an 8-bar blues song various writers link to the influences of Chicago blues legends Elmore James and Muddy Waters, as well as Mississippi Delta greats Robert Johnson and the Mississippi Sheiks. Dylan was first exposed to the blues as a teenager during the 1950s. He wrote and recorded a handful of blues songs for his early acoustic albums, but began focusing on the genre with his 1965 album Highway 61 Revisited, which featured several electric blues tracks. Early in the fall of 1965, about a month after Highway 61'''s release, Dylan was back in Columbia's New York studios to begin work on his next album. After five sessions that stretched into early 1966 and produced only one usable track, Columbia producer Bob Johnston convinced Dylan to move the recordings to Nashville, where Johnston had previously worked at Columbia's studios on the city's legendary Music Row. Dylan, who was on the North American leg of his 1966 World Tour, arrived in Nashville in mid-February with only a couple new songs in mind and only two musicians from the New York sessions, guitarist Robbie Robertson and organist Al Kooper. Johnston assembled a studio band that included some of Nashville's top session men, including drummer Kenny Buttrey, pianist Hargus "Pig" Robbins, bassist Henry Strzelecki, and guitarists Charlie McCoy, Wayne Moss and Joe South. After three days in the studio with his new ensemble, Dylan left Nashville in mid-February to play eight dates that took him from New England to Canada to Florida. He returned to Music Row in early March for four more sessions. In the second of these, on March 8, the group laid down three new tracks, "Absolutely Sweet Marie", "Pledging My Time", and "Just Like a Woman". Only two full takes of "Pledging My Time" were recorded, the second of which became the master. (The first take was released on The Bootleg Series Vol. 12: The Cutting Edge 1965–1966 in 2015.) During the session, Dylan borrowed one of Buttrey's drumsticks to beat out a rhythm on the snare drum to show the musicians the "strong beat" he wanted. Dylan wrapped up recording for the album with sessions on March 9 and 10. "Pledging My Time" was released in the United States on March 22 as the B-side of "Rainy Day Women \#12 & 35". Both tracks had two verses removed for the release. The second and fifth verses were cut from "Pledging My Time, which fades out at the end of the single's third verse. As a result, the single version ran a mere 2 minutes and 6 seconds, while the album track clocked in at 3 minutes and 50 seconds. The record reached number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 7 on the UK Singles Chart. Blonde on Blonde was issued as a double album on June 20 with "Rainy Day Women" and "Pledging My Time" as its first two tracks. In 2003, the album was ranked \#9 in Rolling Stone magazine's "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" issue. ## Composition and lyrical interpretation After the February recording dates, knowing he had three weeks to prepare for the next set of sessions for Blonde on Blonde, Dylan wrote 11 songs, eight of which were to appear on the album. Initially, he typed out song ideas on a few sheets of paper. One of these notes read "PLEDGING MY TIME if nothing comes outa this you'll soon know", a reference to the song's eventual title as well as the first draft of the lyric "if it don't work out/You'll be the first to know". Initially listed in the studio logs as "What Can You Do for My Wigwam", the title was changed after two takes to "Pledging My Time". Biographer Clinton Heylin contends the title was "surely a knowing reference to the Johnny Ace song 'Pledging My Love'". In 1974, Dylan told Maureen Orth of Newsweek that "the singers and musicians I grew up with transcend nostalgia – Buddy Holly and Johnny Ace are just as valid to me today as then." However, Daryl Sanders, in his book That Thin, Wild Mercury Sound, points out that Ace's song was a "much slower R&B ballad", differed in style from Dylan's track, and did not include the phrase "pledging my love" in its lyrics. The album track opens with Dylan's harmonica, as do 10 other of Blonde on Blondes 14 songs. The song proceeds at a slow pulsing pace set by Ken Buttrey's drumming, with Robertson's guitar and Robbins' piano creating a heavy Chicago blues sound. According to music critic Andy Gill in Bob Dylan: The Stories Behind the Songs 1962–1969, the song has a "smoky late-night club ambiance", while author Oliver Trager's Keys to the Rain: The Definitive Bob Dylan Encyclopedia describes the singer as sounding "reluctant, fatigued, and maybe even a little stoned". Gill observes that following the "goodtime goofing" of "Rainy Day Women \#12 & 35", the first track on side one, "'Pledging My Time' sets a humid, emotionally oppressive tone for the rest of the album". The song depicts a suitor pledging himself to his prospective lover with the hope that she will reciprocate. Dylan's imagery includes the singer's "poison headache," a hobo stealing his lover, the possibility that the relationship may not work out, and the stuffy room where everyone's gone except for him and his girlfriend and he "can't be the last to leave". In his book Wicked Messenger: Bob Dylan in the 1960s, critic Mike Marqusee writes that the closing verse "hints at a dark betrayal that is both portentous and frighteningly devoid of meaning": > Well they sent for the ambulance > And one was sent > Somebody got lucky > But it was an accident > Now I'm pledging my time to you > Hopin' you'll come through too. The stanza's "somebody got lucky" offers a distinct clue as to one of the song's inspirations. Both Marqusee and Trager point to the similarities between "Pledging My Time" and Robert Johnson's "Come on in My Kitchen", especially regarding Johnson's line that "some joker got lucky". > Ah the woman I love > Took from my best friend > Some joker got lucky > Stole her back again > You better come on in my kitchen > Babe it going to be rainin outdoors Other possible musical influences include the Elmore James classic "It Hurts Me Too" and the Mississippi Sheiks' "Sittin' on Top of the World". ## Critical reception Cash Box described the song as a "low-down, funky soulful blues-soaked romancer." Neil Spencer gave the song a rating of 3/5 stars in an Uncut magazine Dylan supplement in 2015. Author John Nogowski rated the song as "B", and commended it as "well performed with some exciting harmonica work." In his biography, No Direction Home, The Life and Music of Bob Dylan, Robert Shelton wrote that the song was a "slow blues, strong and pulsing, with heavy Chicago influence. Mouth-harp swipes and extended harp breaks after the third and fifth verses build atmosphere. The lyric resembles improvised blues, with sophistication creeping in. Continuity of mood vanquishes disorder in phrasing." Michael Gray, author of The Bob Dylan Encyclopedia, considers the track "superb ... because of what it achieves as a blues". Journalist and author Daryl Sanders praised the musicianship, including Roberson's "biting" guitar work, and Dylan's "dextrous and dynamic harp lines that at times were transcendent". Dylan's harmonica playing is also lauded by authors Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon, who refer to it in their book Bob Dylan: All the Songs as "extraordinary ... typical of a Chicago blues song and a real success." Singer-songwriter Robyn Hitchcock observed that "Dylan has always been a visual writer, but (in "Pledging My Time") I can really see the scene". A mono version of the song was released on The Original Mono Recordings (2010). Reviewing the album, musicologist Christopher Reali wrote that "the mono mix of 'Pledging My Time' wants to burst beyond the confines of the speakers, but it cannot. In contrast, the sprawling sound heard on the stereo mix deflates the mood of the track losing all of the focused intensity heard on the mono mix." ## Live performances and covers Dylan omitted "Pledging My Time" from his concert performances for over two decades. In 1987, in a series of appearances with The Grateful Dead, he revived the song along with several others he had left off his set lists. He subsequently included the song in his tour later that year with Tom Petty & The Heartbreakers. When Dylan began his Never Ending Tour in 1989, "Pledging My Time" was featured on two dates that summer, and he continued performing the song at occasional concerts through the end of the 1990s. According to his official website, Dylan played "Pledging My Time" in concert a total of 21 times from 1987 to 1999. "Pledging My Time" was first covered by the Japanese psychedelic band The Apryl Fool in 1969 for their lone, self-titled album. Luther "Guitar Junior" Johnson recorded a version of the song in 1999 that appeared on several blues compilations, including one Dylan tribute album. In addition, American singer-songwriter Greg Brown recorded "Pledging My Time" for A Nod to Bob, a 2006 album by various artists issued in observance of Dylan's 65th birthday. Meanwhile, two cover albums have been issued in tribute to the songs on Blonde on Blonde. Duke Robillard covered "Pledging My Time" for Blues on Blonde on Blonde, which was released in 2003. And in 2017, a bluegrass interpretation of the song was featured on Old Crow Medicine Show's concert album 50 Years of Blonde on Blonde, with group founder Keith Secor handling the lead vocals. After neglecting the song for another two decades, Dylan revived it again for Shadow Kingdom: The Early Songs of Bob Dylan (2021), a "concert film" shot on a soundstage that was streamed during the pandemic. In reference to Dylan's film performance of "Pledging My Time", Damien Love of Uncut magazine described him "as casting softly after the shadow of Little Walter", the legendary blues harmonica player. On a similar note, Jon Bream of the Star Tribune praised Dylan's latest rendition of the song as "slow and seductive". ## Credits and personnel Musicians - Bob Dylan – vocals, harmonica - Charlie McCoy – acoustic guitar - Robbie Robertson – electric guitar - Joe South – electric guitar - Al Kooper – organ - Hargus "Pig" Robbins – piano - Henry Strzelecki – electric bass guitar - Kenneth Buttrey – drums Technical' - Bob Johnston – record producer ## Charts and positions The single, with "Rainy Day Women \#12 & 35" and "Pledging My Time" on the A-side and B-side respectively, reached No. 2 on the Billboard'' Hot 100 on the week of May 21, 1966, was kept off the top spot by The Mamas and the Papas' "Monday, Monday". It also reached No. 7 on the UK Singles Chart. ### Weekly singles charts ### Year-end charts	[ "## Background and recording", "## Composition and lyrical interpretation", "## Critical reception", "## Live performances and covers", "## Credits and personnel", "## Charts and positions", "### Weekly singles charts", "### Year-end charts" ]	2,866	22,508
33,644,858	Lucius Manlius Torquatus (praetor 49 BC)	1,147,060,728	Roman general and consul	[ "1st-century BC Romans", "46 BC deaths", "Manlii Torquati", "Roman patricians", "Senators of the Roman Republic", "Year of birth unknown" ]	Lucius Manlius Torquatus (died 46 BC) was a Roman politician and military commander. He was active during the Crisis of the Roman Republic and Caesar's Civil War. He commanded troops at the battles of Oricum, Dyrrhachium and Thapsus. The last of these ended the war, in a defeat for the faction Torquatus supported; he escaped the field, but was captured and killed shortly after. He is portrayed by Cicero in De Finibus as a spokesman advocating Epicurean ethics. ## Biography ### Early life Torquatus was the son of Lucius Manlius Torquatus, and belonged to the patrician Manlia gens, one of the oldest Roman houses. In 69 BC he was elected a member of the Quindecimviri sacris faciundis, a senior religious collegium. In 66 BC he was the first to accuse newly elected consuls Publius Cornelius Sulla and Publius Autronius Paetus, the consul designates for the following year, of bribery in connection with the elections, thereby securing the election of his father in 65. Torquatus was closely aligned with Cicero, both strong supporters of the self described boni (good men). The boni were the traditionalist senatorial majority of the Roman Republic, politicians who believed that the role of the Senate was being usurped by the legislative people's assemblies for the benefit of a few power hungry individuals. The boni were against anyone who attempted to use these legislative assemblies to reform the state. As a fellow senator Torquatus supported Cicero during his praetorship in 66 BC and his tumultuous consulship in 63. After Cicero had beaten him to the consulship, the distinguished ex-general and military governor Lucius Sergius Catilina led a conspiracy centered on assassinating Cicero and overthrowing the Republic with the help of foreign armed forces. Three years earlier, Torquatus' father and Cicero had publicly supported Catilina when he was unsuccessfully prosecuted for corruption and abuse of office. Despite this, Torquatus vigorously supported the Senate's efforts, which resulted in them unmasking the conspirators, capturing and executing several. The following year Catilina, with what was left of his army, was cornered by three legions and killed. By this time, Torquatus and Cicero were on opposite sides. Torquatus accused Publius Cornelius Sulla of being a part of Catilina's conspiracies. Sulla had been an enemy for the four years since Torquatus had accused him of bribery, resulting in his being tried, convicted and, under the Lex Acilia Calpurnia, deprived of the consulship, being replaced by Torquatus' father, and expelled from the Senate. Torquatus prosecuted Sulla for plotting the revenge killing of his father, while Cicero defended the accused. Torquatus accused Sulla of raising a force of armed men in 66 to secure the consulship for Catilina and murder the ruling consuls Lucius Manlius Torquatus, Torquatus' father, and Lucius Aurelius Cotta. He also accused Cicero of manufacturing evidence. This was the occasion for Cicero delivering his Pro Sulla speech. Sulla was acquitted, almost certainly due to Cicero's oratory skills. Sulla's cousins, Publius and Servius, were not so fortunate, as Cicero refused to consider defending them. ### Military career In 50 the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered populist politician and general Julius Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor had ended. Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate. Torquatus was elected praetor (commander of a field army) for 49 and given command of six cohorts. On 10 January 49 Caesar crossed the Rubicon river, the boundary of Italy, and ignited Caesar's Civil War. He marched rapidly on Rome and captured it. Pompey, the boni and most of the Senate fled to Greece. Torquatus' soldiers went over to Caesar, but he decided to oppose Caesar and joined Pompey. The following year was appointed propraetor (military governor). Pompey put him in charge of the defence of Oricum. In January 48 Caesar landed nearby with six legions and marched on the port, which he urgently needed in order to supply his troops and to land reinforcements. Torquatus manned the walls with locally raised Illyrian soldiers and the town's Greek civilians. The locals and the garrison, afraid of the legions, opened the town's gate and allowed Caesar entry. Two of Pompey's lieutenants who were guarding merchant ships loaded with grain for Pompey's troops sank them with their warships to prevent them from falling into Caesar's hands. Torquatus surrendered to Caesar, who released him unharmed. Caesar moved on Dyrrachium (modern Durrës, Albania), where Pompey had an arsenal. Pompey hurried to defend Dyrrachium and arrived first. He built a fortified camp south of the city, so Caesar started to build a circumvallation to besiege it. Six attempts to break through by Pompey were repulsed. Caesar's troops suffered food shortages while Pompey's were supplied by sea. However, Pompey held a limited amount of land and this created shortages of fodder for his animals. Water was also scarce because Caesar had diverted the local streams. Pompey needed to break the siege. Torquatus led part of Pompey's army in an attack on a weak spot in Caesar's fortifications and broke through. Mark Antony and Caesar rushed up reinforcements and pushed him back. However, this weakened other parts of Caesar's line and after heavy fighting his troops fled. Pompey did not pursue, but Caesar broke off the siege. After much manoeuvring the two armies clashed at Pharsalus where Pompey was decisively defeated. Torquatus' role, if any, in this defeat is not known. Retaining his imperium, or power to command, Torquatus was in Africa in 47. There the surviving boni raised an army which included 40,000 men (about 8 legions), a powerful cavalry force led by Caesar's former right-hand man, the talented Titus Labienus, forces of allied local kings and 60 war elephants. The two armies engaged in small skirmishes to gauge the strength of the opposing force, during which two legions switched to Caesar's side. Meanwhile, Caesar expected reinforcements from Sicily. In the beginning of February 46, Caesar arrived in Thapsus and besieged the city. The boni, led by Metellus Scipio, could not risk the loss of this position and were forced to accept battle. Scipio commanded "without skill or success", and Caesar won a crushing victory which ended the war. Torquatus fled the field along with Scipio, attempting to escape to Hispania, but was trapped at Hippo Regius by the fleet of Publius Sittius. Scipio committed suicide on board a ship and Torquatus either committed suicide with him or was captured and executed. ### Epicurian De finibus bonorum et malorum (On the ends of good and evil – De Finibus) is a philosophical work by the Roman orator, politician and philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero. It consists of five books, in which Cicero explains the philosophical views of Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Platonism. Torquatus was a leading epicurean and was noted by Cicero for his knowledge of Greek literature and his breadth of learning. He was also a friend of Marcus Junius Brutus to whom the book was dedicated. (And who was shortly to be one of the assassins of Julius Caesar.) He was portrayed by Cicero in the first two books of De Finibus as a spokesman advocating Epicurean ethics. > In the first book he [Cicero] attacks the doctrines of the Epicurean school, and Torquatus defends them, alleging that they had been generally misunderstood; and in the second book Cicero enumerates the chief arguments with which the Stoics assailed them. The work was written in 45, after Torquatus' death, but the debate is set in 50.	[ "## Biography", "### Early life", "### Military career", "### Epicurian" ]	1,745	7,712
16,161,691	Girls Just Wanna Have Fun (Xena: Warrior Princess)	1,126,881,556	null	[ "1996 American television episodes", "American LGBT-related television episodes", "Xena: Warrior Princess episodes" ]	"Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" is the fourth episode of the second season of the syndicated television series Xena: Warrior Princess. It was written by Adam Armus and Nora Kay Foster, directed by T.J. Scott, and first aired on October 21, 1996. Girls Just Wanna Have Fun is also the title of a multipath adventure game by Slingshot Entertainment which is based upon this episode. In the episode, Xena and Gabrielle join forces with Joxer and Orpheus to defeat Bacchus, who is transforming innocent girls into bloodsucking bacchae. Gabrielle is turned into a temporary bacchae, and Xena kills Bacchus before he can make the transformation permanent. "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" is a comical Halloween episode. It pushes the limits for sexuality on Xena, features disco music, and its artistic style is stylised after rock video horror. The episode also contains a lesbian subtext stronger than the average episode of Xena. Andrew Leonard of Salon said it gives "tacit consent to a lesbian reading of the Xena-Gabrielle relationship." The episode received positive reviews. Critics have commented on its music and special effects, and the supervising sound producer won an award at the Motion Picture Sound Editors' Golden Reel Awards. ## Plot "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" opens with Xena and Gabrielle running into Joxer, who has a package for Xena. It contains the talking head of Orpheus. Orpheus's head informs Xena that Bacchus has decapitated him, and that he must be stopped. They arrive at a nearby town, and Gabrielle goes to a party and dances with a group of Bacchus's bacchae: female vampires created by Bacchus. Meanwhile, Xena defeats two bacchae. Elsewhere, Bacchus plots to turn Xena into an "eternal bacchae". The next day the protagonists go to the cemetery next to Bacchus's catacombs to collect dryad bones. These bones are the only thing capable of piercing a bacchae's heart and killing them. Xena kills one of the skeletal, winged dryads and procures a sharp bone. Gabrielle then turns into a bacchae; she had been bitten the previous day at the party. Gabrielle escapes into the catacombs and the group gives chase. They find Gabrielle, Bacchus, and a large group of bacchae in the middle of a ceremony. Gabrielle is about to drink Bacchus's blood from a cup and become a permanent bacchae, but Xena knocks the cup to the ground with her chakram. A fight ensues and Xena attempts to kill Bacchus, but he informs her that only a bacchae can kill him. Xena lets Gabrielle bite her, becoming a bacchae, and then kills Bacchus, after which all of Bacchus' bacchae servants, as well as Xena and Gabrielle regain their humanity. ## Production "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" is a comical Halloween episode which was filmed in Auckland, New Zealand. After shooting for two days, director T.J. Scott went to producer Robert Tapert and asked permission to alter the episode's artistic style to stylised rock video horror. Scott said, "I got the crew together and said, 'Okay guys, here we go. This is going to be a lot more vampy and fun,' and cranked up the ghetto blaster with rock music and away we went." Because of the subject, Scott was able to increase the episode's level of sexual content. Scott said, "we did two takes that were on the edge of tasteful vampire sexuality, and we did a third take where Lucy really let loose. Of course, we all died laughing and said, 'Okay, that one is never going to make it to the screen'; we definitely pushed it too far!" Ultimately, Scott felt that "if you pull it too far out of context and try to take it seriously, it's a bit too rock video at times." In one scene, Orpheus's head is attached to a scarecrow body. According to Matthew Chamberlain, the actor who portrayed Orpheus, he was told to jump on a horse while wearing the scarecrow costume. Chamberlain said he "just gave the horse a quick pat before hopping on" but found himself "getting tugged the other way as the horse was munching away on the straw poking out of the end of my sleeve!" An animatronic version of Chamberlain's head which operated by remote control was used in some scenes. Some of the actors had to only pretend to look at the animatronic head during their scenes, because if they looked at it while it responded, they would laugh and break character. ## Theme "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" has a lesbian subtext. According to The Audience Studies Reader by Will Brooker and Deborah Jermyn, while in some episodes a lesbian subtext is implied, in "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" the lesbianism is so strongly suggested that it could be considered "maintext". Andrew Leonard of Salon described the episode as the "disco lesbian vampire" episode and stated that it provided "tacit consent to a lesbian reading of the Xena-Gabrielle relationship." A DVD Town reviewer felt that the general lesbian eroticism in Xena: Warrior Princess was "amped up" in this episode, noting Gabrielle's "sexy clothes" and her looking at Xena with "hungry eyes". Heather Findlay of Girlfriends magazine itemized several scenes with a lesbian subtext. Gabrielle wandering into an all-female bar ("wink-wink"), becoming a vampire ("apparently Friedman studied that topos in her women's studies classes"), and "kissing" Xena ("oh, wait, that was a bite"). The book Queer by Simon Gage, et al. stated that although the series is now canceled, the "lesbian vampire disco" episode lives on in "lesbian video players everywhere." Due to the strong lesbian subtext within this episode, "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" was never aired in Italy. ## Reception Reviews for '"Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" were generally positive. Rob Lineberger of DVD Verdict felt that the episode was innovative and strange and that several aspects were notable including: Orpheus's head being paraded around on a scarecrow body; the use of a techno soundtrack; and Gabrielle being seduced by the Bacchae. Ilya of DVDFuture.com gave the episode a grade of B. A Play.com review deemed it a "classic" Xena episode. Two technical aspects of the episode were singled out for praise. First, a Hollywood Reporter article cited the winged skeletons as one of the television show's special effects highlights. Second, the supervising sound editor Jason Schmid won the one-hour series sound editing award at the Motion Picture Sound Editors' Golden Reel Awards for his work on this episode. ### Themes and analysis Writer and academic Emily McAvan cites "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" as showcasing the postmodernism found in the series. She cites the scene of Gabrielle entering nightclub with hip-hop music playing as showing this.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Theme", "## Reception", "### Themes and analysis" ]	1,507	5,497
9,244,596	Civil War Memorial (Sycamore, Illinois)	1,168,957,112	null	[ "1896 establishments in Illinois", "1896 sculptures", "Buildings and structures completed in 1896", "Buildings and structures in Sycamore Historic District", "Copper sculptures in the United States", "Historic district contributing properties in Illinois", "Marble sculptures in Illinois", "Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois", "Outdoor sculptures in Illinois", "Sculptures of men in Illinois", "Statues in Illinois", "Union (American Civil War) monuments and memorials in Illinois" ]	The Civil War Memorial, in the DeKalb County county seat of Sycamore, Illinois, United States, is located in front of the DeKalb County Courthouse on a public square. The memorial was erected in 1896 and dedicated in 1897. The structure is a memorial to the thousands of DeKalb County residents who served in the American Civil War. It incorporates an obelisk which rises to 50 feet (15.2 m) in height. The base is adorned with copper sculpture, completed by an unknown sculptor. On the east facade of the memorial the word "Antietam", denoting the Battle of Antietam, is misspelled. This work of public art underwent its first restoration work in 2005-2006. The memorial is included among the 187 buildings and structures considered contributing properties to the Sycamore Historic District. The historic district was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1978. The structure also has artistic significance as it is listed by the Smithsonian American Art Museum in their research database. It is one of the few sculptures in DeKalb County found within that database. The Civil War Memorial is owned by DeKalb County. ## History The DeKalb County Civil War Memorial and the sculpture that adorns it was created by an unknown sculptor and installed in front of the DeKalb County Courthouse in 1896. The county-owned memorial stands on the public square in Sycamore, the county seat and is 50 feet (15.2 m) tall. The structure was dedicated on June 24, 1897 as a memorial to the 2,388 people from DeKalb County who served in the military during the American Civil War. In July 2005 the statues adorning the monument underwent a restoration. DeKalb County appropriated US\$15,000 for the project which, among other tasks, repaired a split seam in one of the soldier statues and a crack in the other sculpture's base. The project took approximately six months; the statues were removed for the duration of the restoration work and reinstalled in March 2006. During the restoration it was revealed that the statues, thought to be bronze, were actually copper. The work, the first in the 110-year history of the memorial, was completed at a cost of \$16,500. Three months after the work was completed one of the statues was removed for a second time because the metal began to oxidize. ## Design The 50-foot (15.2-m) tall memorial has base dimensions of 10 feet (3 m) by 6 feet (1.8 m). The monument is constructed from a combination of marble, masonry, and the metal used for the sculpted copper and masonry soldiers. The structure also incorporated wood into its design. The rifles the figures on the base hold and the bases that they stand on are made of wood. The front facade is adorned with a marble plate engraved with an excerpt from U.S. President Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Each of the other facades, also marble faced, are emblazoned with the names of major battles and campaigns of the war. The word "Antietam," representing the Battle of Antietam, is misspelled on the east, marble facade of the memorial as "Anteitam." The two copper statues, each standing 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, flank the obelisk which rises to a masonry soldier statue, instead of the typical apex of an obelisk. The figure atop the granite obelisk is a mustached American Civil War soldier dressed in a long coat, a cape, and a cap. In the figure's right hand he holds the handle of his sword and the sword's tip rests in front of his right foot. In the soldier's left hand is a flag. Below the apex of the obelisk, on the memorial's base, are two additional sculpted figures, a Union infantry soldier and a Union cavalry soldier. The Union infantryman is dressed in a cap, long coat, and a cape, much like the figure atop the obelisk. The Union cavalryman, standing on the east side of the base, is dressed in a brimmed hat and short jacket. ## Significance The 1974 Illinois Historic Sites Survey Inventory found the DeKalb County Civil War Memorial significant in the areas of military and sculpture. At the time of the 1974 survey, the memorial was considered in "excellent" and "not altered" condition. It is also one of the few sculptures in DeKalb County that is listed in the Smithsonian American Art Museum's Smithsonian Institution Research Information System (SIRIS). The Civil War Memorial is listed as a contributing property to the Sycamore Historic District. The historic district joined the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on May 2, 1978. As a part of the Sycamore Historic District, the National Register classifies the DeKalb County Civil War Memorial as an "object." ## See also - DeKalb County Courthouse	[ "## History", "## Design", "## Significance", "## See also" ]	1,062	4,535
1,385,862	Great Marlborough Street	1,146,531,797	Street near Soho, London	[ "Streets in Soho", "Streets in the City of Westminster" ]	Great Marlborough Street is a thoroughfare in Soho, Central London. It runs east of Regent Street past Carnaby Street towards Noel Street. Originally part of the Millfield estate south of Tyburn Road (now Oxford Street), the street was named after John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, and was laid out around 1704. It was a fashionable address in the 18th century, but its character changed to commercial and retail use by the end of the 19th. Most of the street's original buildings have since been demolished. Great Marlborough Street has had an association with the law since the late-18th century; Marlborough Street Magistrates Court subsequently became one of the most important magistrates courts in London. The department store Liberty is on the corner of Great Marlborough Street with Regent Street and sports a Mock Tudor facade. ## Geography The road is about 0.2 miles (0.32 km) long. At its western end it joins Regent Street and runs east, crossing Kingly Street, Argyll Street, Carnaby Street, and Poland Street. At its eastern end, it becomes Noel Street. The nearest tube station is Oxford Circus to the northwest. No buses run along Great Marlborough Street but there are numerous services on Regent Street. ## History ### 16th – 18th century In the 16th century, what is now Great Marlborough Street was land belonging to the Mercer's Company. It was surrendered to Henry VIII in 1536. The land was subsequently owned by local brewer Thomas Wilson. His son, Richard, inherited this in 1622 who sold it to William Maddox, who called the estate Millfield. In 1670, Maddox's son, Benjamin, let the land to James Kendrick for 72 years, who in turn sub-let what is now Great Marlborough Street to John Steele. The land remained undeveloped, with building focusing on Tyburn Road (now Oxford Street) to the north. The street began to be developed in the early 18th century, when Steele let five acres of land to Joseph Collens for property development. It was named after John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, commander of the English Army who won the Battle of Blenheim in 1704, shortly before construction started. Initially the street was a fashionable address; in 1714, John Macky said it "surpasses anything that is called a street" and praised its architecture. A 1734 report agreed it was popular but added "the buildings on each side being trifling and inconsiderable, and the vista ended neither way with any thing great or extraordinary". Out of one hundred peers summoned before the King in 1716, five lived in Great Marlborough Street. For a time, Thomas Onslow, 2nd Baron Onslow owned No. 11 while Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough at No. 12. For a time in the 18th century, the street was the main London residence of Lord Nelson. No. 13 was formed of two separate houses, both leased by John Richmond in 1710 and subsequently joined as a single property. It was bought by Lord Charles Cavendish in 1740 and later occupied by his son, the scientist Henry Cavendish. Sir John Cust, 3rd Baronet lived at No. 14 from 1754 to 1762. The Byron family were listed as ratepayers of No. 15 during the early 18th century. William Byron, 4th Baron Byron lived here from 1727 until his death in 1736; his widow remained there until 1740. The Baron's son, William Byron, 5th Baron Byron lived here from 1745 to 1774. The Scottish sculptor Thomas Campbell worked here from 1833 to 1843, also taking over the neighbouring No. 16. Sir Lambert Blackwell, 1st Baronet bought No. 16 in September 1709 and stayed there until his death in 1727. His son, Sir Charles Blackwell, 2nd Baronet subsequently lived in the house until he died in 1741. Mary Lepell, maid of honour to Caroline, Princess of Wales (and future wife of John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey) lived in part of a house which is now part of No. 34 from around 1716–1724. Sir John Cust, 3rd Baronet, Speaker of the House of Commons lives in No. 41 (now No. 46) from 1747 to 1752. The first floor of the property was later occupied by the painter Benjamin Haydon from 1808 to 1817; Gilbert Stuart Newton is believed to have taken over his lodgings. The French instrument builder Sébastien Érard moved into No. 18 in 1794. He stayed there until his death in 1831, after which his nephew, Pierre Erard took ownership of it and the adjoining No. 18, and rebuilt the two properties to have a uniform facade. The Pantheon was based at the far eastern end of Great Marlborough Street. It was built on what had previously been gardens in 1772, becoming a popular place of entertainment during the late 18th century. The building burned down in 1792 and was rebuilt; it ceased to be an entertainment venue in 1818. It was later used as a bazaar in the mid-19th century before being demolished in 1937. The site is now the main Oxford Street branch of Marks and Spencer which has a side entrance onto Great Marlborough Street. A number of pubs have been based on Great Marlborough Street for centuries. The Coach and Horses at No. 1 and the Marlborough Head at Nos. 37–38 were both established in the 1730s. However, most of the 18th century buildings on Great Marlborough Street were later demolished, which led to the decline of its reputation as a fashionable street. ### 19th century During the 19th century, various professionals such as architects and scientists were living in Great Marlborough Street. Thomas Hardwick lived here between 1815 and 1825, as did Charles Darwin between 1837 and 1838. A police station was established at No. 21 Great Marlborough Street in 1793. This led to the establishment of Marlborough Street Magistrates Court at No. 20–21 in the early 19th century, which had become one of the most important magistrates courts in England by the end of the century. William Ewart Gladstone gave evidence in the court against a blackmailer who claimed Gladstone had frequented prostitutes in Leicester Square, while the Marquess of Queensbury's libel trial against Oscar Wilde took place here in 1895. The Church of St John the Baptist was built on the site of the former Nos. 49–50 in 1885, and was consecrated on 23 November. The building cost £5,100 (now £) and catered for services in the local parish that had previously been held in rooms or temporary buildings. The church covered a district between Oxford Street, Poland Street, Brewer Street, Bridle Lane, Carnaby Market and Argyll Street. The London College of Music were based at No. 47 Great Marlborough Street from 1896 to 1990. Although it is one of the few 18th century buildings to survive, significant alterations have taken place, including being extended to cover four storeys. Since the college relocated, the building has been occupied by the London College of Beauty Therapy, the largest publicly funded college of its kind. The street inspired the name of Philip Morris's Marlboro cigarettes. The original factory opened on the street in 1881. ### 20th – 21st century In the early 20th century, a number of prominent automobile companies had showrooms on Great Marlborough Street. De Dion-Bouton, the largest automobile manufacturer in the world at the time, opened a London showroom at No. 10 in 1919. Charles Jarrott & Letts, Ltd (concessionaires for de Dietrich; Oldsmobile and Napier cars) was based at No. 45. The department store Liberty is on the corner of Great Marlborough Street and Regent Street. The founder, Arthur Lasenby Liberty, was unable to expand or modernise the existing shop front due to Crown planning restrictions, so he bought numerous properties on Great Marlborough Street in 1925, and rebuilt them in a Mock Tudor design as an extension of the store. It was Grade II\* listed in 1972. Palladium House was built on the corner of Great Marlborough Street and Argyll Street in 1928 by Raymond Hood and Gordon Jeeves. It featured an Art Deco design inspired by the Paris Exhibition of 1925 and was extended in 1935. It is now a Grade II listed building. The magistrates court continued to cover significant trials that were widely reported by the media. In 1963, Christine Keeler was tried here for attempting to obstruct the course of justice. In the late 1960s, a number of rock stars, including The Rolling Stones' Mick Jagger, Keith Richards and Brian Jones, stood trial on drugs offences at the magistrates court. Richards was tried here again in 1973 for possession of heroin and owning unlicensed firearms, but was only fined £205 (now £). John Lennon and Yoko Ono were tried for obscenity here in 1970. The building became Grade II listed in 1970. The courts closed in 1998, and are now the Courthouse Hotel. The European Headquarters of Sony Interactive Entertainment (PlayStation) is at No. 10 Great Marlborough Street. London Studio and Guerrilla Games also have London offices at this address. Creative consultants Collective UK, now a subdivision of Time Inc., have offices on Great Marlborough Street. ## Cultural references Great Marlborough Street is shown on the British Monopoly board as "Marlborough Street". This is as a result of the square being named after Marlborough Street Magistrates Court; the other two orange property squares on the board are Bow Street (named after the Bow Street Runners) and Vine Street (named after the Vine Street Police Station), completing a set based around police and law. Marlboro Cigarettes were given its name due to the first shop opening on the Great Marlborough Street. ## See also - List of eponymous roads in London	[ "## Geography", "## History", "### 16th – 18th century", "### 19th century", "### 20th – 21st century", "## Cultural references", "## See also" ]	2,203	1,289
22,547,675	Guitar Hero: Van Halen	1,154,824,230	2009 video game	[ "2009 video games", "Activision games", "Band-centric video games", "Budcat Creations games", "Cooperative video games", "Cultural depictions of musicians", "Drumming video games", "Guitar Hero", "Guitar video games", "Karaoke video games", "Multiplayer and single-player video games", "Music video games", "Neversoft games", "Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection games", "PlayStation 2 games", "PlayStation 3 games", "Underground Development games", "Van Halen", "Video games based on musicians", "Video games developed in the United States", "Wii Wi-Fi games", "Xbox 360 games" ]	Guitar Hero: Van Halen is a music rhythm video game developed by Underground Development and published by Activision. It is the third game in the Guitar Hero series to focus on the career and songs of one rock band, Van Halen, following Guitar Hero: Aerosmith and Guitar Hero: Metallica. The game was released in retail for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Wii systems on December 22, 2009, in North America, and in February 2010 for PAL regions. However, as part of a promotion with Guitar Hero 5, the game was shipped to Guitar Hero 5 purchasers in North America prior to its retail release. The game features 25 songs from Van Halen along with 19 additional songs from selected artists that have been inspired by the group. The game has received mostly mixed reviews from critics, most of which consider the game's quality to be greatly inferior to its predecessor, Guitar Hero: Metallica, and other games of the series. The reviewers criticized the lack of former Van Halen members Michael Anthony, Gary Cherone, and Sammy Hagar; the limited tracks selected from Van Halen's discography; the selection of other tracks included in the game; and the general lack of features introduced in the previous band-centric games and Guitar Hero 5. ## Gameplay Guitar Hero: Van Halen is similar to the preceding band-centric game, Guitar Hero: Metallica, featuring support for four players in a single band on lead and bass guitar, drums, and vocals. The game is based on the engine originating from Guitar Hero World Tour, and thus does not feature the additions that are present in Guitar Hero 5, such as drop-in/drop-out play. Only the current members of the band—Eddie Van Halen, David Lee Roth, Alex Van Halen and Wolfgang Van Halen—are playable avatars in the game for the Van Halen songs; former band members Sammy Hagar, Gary Cherone and Michael Anthony are not included. The band appear as they did in 2009 but, by completing challenges in the game, players can unlock their older appearances from the "spandex era [...] with the big hair and tight pants". Despite having not been born during this period of the band's history, Wolfgang Van Halen's avatar has a retro outfit copied from the dice-shirt-and-patchwork-jeans getup worn by his father in the video for "Panama". A demo of the game was released to Xbox Live on December 9, 2009, featuring two Van Halen songs, "Eruption" and "Panama", along with Weezer's "Dope Nose" and Killswitch Engage's "The End of Heartache". ## Development While the game was formally announced by Activision on May 7, 2009, several sources reported a month earlier that Van Halen was in development. USK, the German software ratings board, posted a content rating for a Van Halen-based game in the series. GameStop temporarily listed the game for pre-order during the month of April. A list of Xbox 360 Achievements was posted to the Internet in early May. Throughout September 2009, people who purchased or preordered Guitar Hero 5 in the US were given a code which they could redeem to receive a free copy of Guitar Hero: Van Halen prior to its retail release. These copies began arriving to customers in early October for PlayStation 2, Xbox 360, and Wii players, while the PlayStation 3 version was delayed due to a printing error. The game came in a cardboard sleeve with cover art indicating that it was for promotional use. ## Soundtrack Like the other band-centric Guitar Hero games, Guitar Hero: Van Halen includes 25 songs from the band Van Halen, including three guitar solos by Eddie Van Halen, in addition to 19 guest acts. All of the Van Halen songs featured in the game are taken from the David Lee Roth era of the band. The game does not include any songs from the Sammy Hagar and Gary Cherone eras; Activision's head of music licensing, Tim Riley, notes that the lack of such material was not due to any demands or requests made by David Lee Roth. Riley also stated that most of the guest acts were selected by Wolfgang Van Halen, at the suggestion of Roth. The following songs are included in the game: `Song contains both a single and double bass drums chart.` ` Song is a guitar solo by Eddie Van Halen.` ## Reception Early reviews of the promotional version of the game received by redeeming a code that came with Guitar Hero 5 were critical of the game. IGN's Erik Brudvig rated the game 4.9/10, citing problems with the lack of relevance of Van Halen relative to the culture of the 2000s, including having their avatars based on their current appearances rather than that of their 80s heyday, the lack of songs from Sammy Hagar's period in the band, and the lack of features since introduced with Guitar Hero 5. Brudvig ultimately stated that those who got the game free through the Guitar Hero 5 promotion "got what they paid for". Robert Workman of Game Daily was less critical of the title, but still noted that the game lacked features, including some mention of Hagar and Gary Cherone and songs from their period with the band, and felt that the title was below the quality of Guitar Hero: Metallica. Both Brudvig and Workman commented positively on the sound recordings and the note tracking of the Van Halen songs. Guitar Hero: Van Halen reviews following its release were mixed. Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica considered the game's limited coverage of the band's history to be "a sadly revisionist and dishonest take", and felt that the non-Van Halen songs clashed with the band's own material. Kuchera further pointed to Activision's distribution strategy for the game, stating that he felt that giving the game away free with Guitar Hero 5 showed that Activision did not have confidence in the game. Philip Horton of The Telegraph was critical of the game's song selection, the band's modern appearance, and the lack of any additional extras compared with either the previous band-centric games or Guitar Hero 5, and described it as "the weakest offering in the series to date". Kate Carter of The Guardian commented that the game is "neither one thing or the other", as it neither succeeds at bringing anything new to the Guitar Hero series nor fully pays tribute to Van Halen. Computer and Video Games''' review complained about the "shoddy character models" and described it as "the laziest Guitar Hero yet", and Nathan Meunier of GamePro said that while the Van Halen songs were good and challenging, the remaining tracks did not fit the theme of the game, and that "the lackluster presentation makes the game feel more like a glorified track pack than a true homage". Guitar Hero: Van Halen sold fewer than 75,000 units across all platforms in North America from December 22 to 31, 2009, according to NPD Group. As of April 2010, the game has sold fewer than 250,000 copies worldwide, with only 95,000 units sold in North America. These numbers do not include copies of the game distributed in conjunction with Guitar Hero 5''.	[ "## Gameplay", "## Development", "## Soundtrack", "## Reception" ]	1,531	12,066
11,596,552	Amarte Es un Placer (song)	1,171,499,569	null	[ "1999 songs", "2000 singles", "Luis Miguel songs", "Sampling controversies", "Song recordings produced by Luis Miguel", "Songs written by Juan Carlos Calderón", "Spanish-language songs", "Warner Music Latina singles" ]	"Amarte Es un Placer" (English: "Loving You Is a Pleasure") is a song recorded by Mexican singer Luis Miguel and the fourth and final single from his album of the same name (1999). Released in 2000, it was written by Juan Carlos Calderón, while production was handled by Miguel. Lyrically, "Amarte Es un Placer" deals with a narrator describing the pleasures of being enamored with his lover. The song received positive reactions from music critics for its orchestral arrangement and Miguel's delivery. However, both Miguel and Calderón were accused of plagiarism by Mexican composer Marcos Lifshitz who maintained that the melody in the song was derived from his composition "Siento nuestro aliento" and was not credited for it. A court ruled in favor of Lifshitz and ordered Miguel and Warner Music to pay 40% of the song's royalties as compensation. "Amarte Es un Placer" received a nomination for Pop Song of the Year at the 13th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards in 2001 and Calderón received an ASCAP Latin Award in the same year. A music video for the track was directed by Alberto Tolot and was nominated Best Clip of the Year in the Latin field at the 2000 Billboard Music Video Awards. The track peaked at number six Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States and number five on the Latin Pop Songs chart. ## Background and composition After an absence of two years from the music scene, Miguel announced on 19 July 1999 that he would release an album by September, saying it would be a return to pop recordings as opposed to the bolero cover versions he had recorded on the Romance series. The record's final title, Amarte Es un Placer was announced on 17 August 1999. "Amarte Es un Placer" was composed by Juan Carlos Calderón and produced by Miguel himself, with the lyrics with the lyrics describing the protagonist having the pleasure of being enamored with his love interest. It was released as the fourth single from Amarte Es un Placer in 2000, and was included on the setlist of his Cómplices Tour (2008). ## Reception and accolades Eliseo Cardona from El Nuevo Herald regarded "Amarte Es un Placer" as the best track on the album. Ramiro Burr, writing for the Houston Chronicle praised the orchestra in the song and Miguel's delivery. "Amarte Es un Placer" was nominated in the category of Pop Song of the Year at the 13th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards in 2001, but lost to "A Puro Dolor" by Son by Four. The track was recognized as one of the major Latin songs of 2000 at the ASCAP Latin Awards in 2001. In the United States, "Amarte Es un Placer" debuted at number 24 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart on the week ending 25 March 2000, reaching its peak position at number 11 on 13 May 2000. The track also peaked at number five on the Latin Pop Songs chart. ## Controversy In 2000, Mexican composer Marcos Lifshitz accused Miguel, Calderón, and Warner Music of plagiarizing his composition "Siento nuestro aliento" ("I Feel Our Breath"). Lifshitz maintained that he created the melody that was used on "Amarte Es un Placer" but was not credited for it. A court ruled in 2007 in favor of Lifshitz and ordered Miguel and his record label to pay 40% of the song's royalties as compensation. ## Music video The music video for "Amarte Es un Placer" was filmed by Alberto Tolot at a mansion in January 2000 in Bel Air, California. In the video, Miguel enters the mansion and views a painting of Flaming June which comes to life. He serenades in the building and later finds the woman portrayed in the painting. The visual was nominated in the category of Best Clip of the Year in the Latin field at the 2000 Billboard Video Music Awards, but lost to "Ritmo Total" (1999) by Enrique Iglesias. ## Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Amarte Es un Placer. - Luis Miguel – producer, vocals - Juan Carlos Calderón – songwriter, arranger - Michael Colombier – orchestra arranger ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts	[ "## Background and composition", "## Reception and accolades", "## Controversy", "## Music video", "## Personnel", "## Charts", "### Weekly charts", "### Year-end charts" ]	925	25,644
2,261,550	Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam, BWV 7	1,144,669,605	Church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach	[ "1724 compositions", "Chorale cantatas", "Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach" ]	Johann Sebastian Bach composed the church cantata Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam (Christ our Lord came to the Jordan), BWV 7, in Leipzig for the Feast of St. John the Baptist and led its first performance on 24 June 1724. It is the third cantata Bach composed for his chorale cantata cycle, the second cantata cycle he started after being appointed Thomaskantor in 1723. The cantata is based on the seven stanzas of Martin Luther's hymn "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam", about baptism. The first and last stanza of the chorale were used for the outer movements of the cantata, while an unknown librettist paraphrased the inner stanzas of the hymn into the text for the five other movements. The first movement, a chorale fantasia, is followed by a succession of arias alternating with recitatives, leading to a four-part closing chorale. The cantata is scored for three vocal soloists (alto, tenor and bass), a four-part choir, two oboes d'amore, two solo violins, strings and continuo. ## History and words Bach composed Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam for St. John's Day, 24 June 1724, in Leipzig, as the third cantata of his second annual cycle, the chorale cantata cycle, which had begun about two weeks earlier on the first Sunday after Trinity. The cycle was devoted to Lutheran hymns, in the format of his chorale cantatas rendered by retaining their text of the first and last stanza, while a contemporary poet reworded the inner stanzas. The prescribed readings for the feast of the birth of John the Baptist were from the Book of Isaiah, "the voice of a preacher in the desert" (), and from the Gospel of Luke, the birth of John the Baptist and the Benedictus of Zechariah (). Martin Luther's hymn "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam" (To Jordan came our Lord the Christ) is associated with the feast. Its topic, differing from that of the readings, is baptism, which is treated based on biblical accounts, starting from Christ's baptism by John the Baptist in the river Jordan. The hymn tune is "Es woll uns Gott genädig sein", Zahn No. 7246. Bach used the text of the first stanza of Luther's hymn for the first movement of his cantata, with its chorale melody sung as cantus firmus. The final movement of the cantata is a four-part chorale setting of the seventh stanza, on the hymn tune. The five arias and recitatives between these choral movements are settings of text paraphrased from the hymn's other stanzas. ## Music ### Scoring and structure The cantata in seven movements is scored for three vocal soloists (alto (A), tenor (T) and bass (B)), a four-part choir (SATB), two oboes d'amore (Oa), two solo violins (Vs, the second one only introduced in a later performance), two violins (Vl), viola (Va) and basso continuo (Bc). ### Movements The seven-movement cantata begins with a chorale fantasia and ends, after a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives, with a closing chorale as a four-part setting. Bach increased the number of accompanying instruments for the arias, from only continuo in the second movement, over two solo violins in the central movement of the cantata, to two oboes d'amore and strings in the sixth movement. #### 1 In the opening chorus, "Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam" (Christ our Lord came to the Jordan), the tenor has the melody as a cantus firmus, while the other voices sing free counterpoint. In the first cantata of the chorale cantata cycle, O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 20, Bach had given the cantus firmus of the chorale tune to the soprano, and in the second, Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein, BWV 2, to the alto. The opening chorus resembles an Italian violin concerto. The musicologist Julian Mincham likens the "solo violin's persistent, rocking, wave-like idea" to the waves of the Jordan River. Alfred Dürr compares the vocal sections, all with the solo violin, to the solo sections of a violin concerto, as opposed to the tutti sections with the orchestra. John Eliot Gardiner interprets the movement as a French overture, "replete with grandiloquent baroque gestures to suggest both the processional entrance of Jesus and the powerful flooding of the River Jordan". Klaus Hofmann notes that the movement combines the old style of motet writing with the new type of solo concerto, and observes that "the main violin solo episodes ... are at first linked to the choral entries, but gradually assume larger proportions and greater independence as the movement progresses". #### 2 The first aria, "Merkt und hört, ihr Menschenkinder" (Mark and hear, you humans), is accompanied by the continuo alone. Mincham observes that a characteristic fast motif of five notes, repeated abundantly in the cello, always flows downward, while Bach usually also inverses motifs, such as in his Inventions. Mincham concludes that it represents the "pouring of the baptismal waters". #### 3 The following recitative is given to the tenor as an Evangelist: "Dies hat Gott klar mit Worten" (This God has clearly provided with words), narrating the biblical command to baptise. #### 4 The central aria is sung by the tenor, accompanied by two violins, marked "solo" in a later performance, "Des Vaters Stimme ließ sich hören" (The Father's voice can be heard). Gardiner notes that the music "describes, through its pair of soaring violins, the circling flight of the Holy Spirit as a dove". Hofmann notes the character of the movement as a gigue, and several appearances of the number 3 as a symbol of the Trinity: it is a trio for voice and two violins, "in triple time – and markedly so: not only is the time signature 3/4, but also the crotchets are each divided into triplets", and in a form of three solo sections as "all variants of a single model that is presented in the opening and concluding ritornellos". Hofmann concludes: "The sequence that this creates – three different forms of the same musical substance – is evidently to be understood as a symbol of the Holy Trinity." #### 5 A recitative for bass, the vox Christi (voice of Christ), "Als Jesus dort nach seinen Leiden" (As Jesus there, after His passion), speaks of Jesus after his passion and resurrection. It is accompanied by the strings, similar to the words of Jesus in Bach's St Matthew Passion. #### 6 The last aria is sung by the alto with rich accompaniment: "Menschen, glaubt doch dieser Gnade" (People, believe this grace now). The two oboes d'amore double the first violin when human beings are requested to accept the grace of God to not "perish in the pit of hell". #### 7 The closing chorale is the final stanza of the hymn, with the instruments playing colla parte: "Das Aug allein das Wasser sieht" (The eye sees only water), a summary of Luther's teaching about baptism. ## Editions In 1851, about a century before the cantata got its BWV number, it was published as No. 7 in the first volume of the Bach-Gesellschaft-Ausgabe. In the New Bach Edition the cantata was included in Series I, Volume 29, Kantaten zum Johannisfest (Cantatas for St. John's Day). Calmus and Breitkopf & Härtel published performance scores. The Breitkopf score translates the cantata's title as Lord Christ of old to Jordan came. ## Recordings A list of recordings is provided on the Bach Cantatas Website. Ensembles playing period instruments in historically informed performance are shown with green background.	[ "## History and words", "## Music", "### Scoring and structure", "### Movements", "#### 1", "#### 2", "#### 3", "#### 4", "#### 5", "#### 6", "#### 7", "## Editions", "## Recordings" ]	1,744	587
7,460,759	The World of Strawberry Shortcake	1,149,498,269	1980 television film	[ "1980 fantasy films", "1980 films", "1980 television films", "1980s American animated films", "1980s children's fantasy films", "Animated television specials", "First-run syndicated television programs in the United States", "Strawberry Shortcake films", "Television shows written by Romeo Muller" ]	The World of Strawberry Shortcake is a 1980 animated television special written by Romeo Muller, directed by Charles Swenson, and produced by Swenson, Muller, and Fred Wolf. Starring the voices of Romeo Muller, Russi Taylor, Julie McWhirter, and Joan Gerber, it was made by Murakami-Wolf-Swenson in the United States in partnership with Toei Animation in Japan. The soundtrack was written and performed by Flo & Eddie of the rock group, The Turtles, for the opening theme of the series. The plot follows the title character, Strawberry Shortcake, who lives in a fictional place called Strawberryland. In the special, narrated by Mr. Sun, she and her friends celebrate her sixth birthday, and with preparations for her party underway, a villain called the Peculiar Purple Pieman plots to steal the berries from Strawberry's home for making the "pies" that Strawberry baked. The special was produced and sponsored by the Kenner toy company, as the first special to feature the American Greetings character, Strawberry Shortcake. Despite bypassing network television, it aired on March 28, 1980, having been syndicated across over ninety American cities, and was later released on 16mm film, VHS, Betamax, and DVD. The special received two positive reviews in the School Library Journal: in 1983 and 2007. ## Plot Strawberry Shortcake lives in a place called Strawberryland, with her calico cat Custard; her house resembles a shortcake. Her friends – Huckleberry Pie, Blueberry Muffin, Raspberry Tart, Plum Puddin' and toddler Apple Dumplin' – also live close by. One morning, during their Market Day, Strawberry's friends discuss plans for her sixth birthday – all except for Huckleberry Pie. Strawberry's villain, the Peculiar Purple Pieman, lives atop the Pie Tin Palace on a desolate wasteland called Porcupine Peak. While she is doing chores, the Pieman sends his crows – "berry birds" – to retrieve some berries for his pies. Strawberry tries shooing the flock away with her broom, but a moving tree helps out as a scarecrow, and she thanks him for helping. In desperation, the Pieman heads down to Strawberryland himself to get his supply, dressed as a kind old peddler. At noon, Strawberry calls her friends over for lunch, but they leave her behind and go to Lilac Park to prepare for her surprise party. Soon after, the disguised Pieman meets her and offers watering cans for sale. To his chagrin, Strawberry cannot afford to buy a magical one guaranteed to produce strawberries seven feet tall. Assisted by Lucky Bug, Huckleberry's ladybug aide, he goes to the Park, where Huckleberry pays for the equipment. Strawberry soon arrives at the venue to see her friends, who greet her with "Happy Birthday" and give her a present: the Pieman's watering can. The device fails to grow anything and spills over instead, flooding the Park and much of Strawberryland. The children are dismayed that the Pieman tricked them for his berry-stealing plot, and soon they harvest every bit of that supply over to him. The group travels to the Pie Tin Palace on rafts made of flotsam. Landing upon a mud field, they find out from Lucky Bug that Apple Dumplin' ended up at the Palace; they now have no way to rescue her. Mr. Sun, the narrator of the story, grants Strawberry a wish. She wishes to defeat the Pieman, and a grove of marching trees help her accomplish this; their stomping causes the Palace to collapse. Afterward, Apple Dumplin' gives him a note demanding that he surrender and do good deeds; he reluctantly does so, giving the toddler and berries back to Strawberry and her friends. At the end of the special, Strawberry Shortcake offers him a chance to sell his pies at Strawberry Market, and become friends with her, if only she isn't sure. ## Cast ## Production Produced and sponsored by the Kenner toy company, The World of Strawberry Shortcake was the first of six television specials to star the title character. The franchise began in 1977, when American Greetings staff member Muriel Fahrion drew the first designs of Strawberry and her pet cat Custard. In 1979, she appeared in greeting cards; dolls, books and games soon followed. The special was made by Murakami-Wolf-Swenson, which previously worked on The Point! and Frank Zappa's 200 Motels, both from 1971; RLR Associates of New York City was another production partner. Animation work was also handled by Japan's Toei Doga. At the time of production, the producers called it a "morality play for tots". One of the crewmembers was Romeo Muller, writer for several Rankin/Bass television specials. Muller served as writer, co-producer and lyricist of the Strawberry Shortcake special; he also voiced Mr. Sun, the narrator. After he proposed the idea to Kenner, the company and American Greetings agreed to do it. According to Jack Chojnacki, co-president of Those Characters from Cleveland, a subsidiary of American Greetings, the card manufacturer considered new additions to the script, and reminded the writer that every character should be marketable. With those suggestions in mind, Muller came up with a villain called the Peculiar Purple Pieman. The Toy Group division of General Mills, which owned Kenner at the time, spent US\$400,000 on the special. For the music, director Charles Swenson invited the duo Flo & Eddie, who were also involved with 200 Motels and who had an office near the Murakami-Wolf-Swenson headquarters. They wrote three songs in a day, which were approved by both Swenson and Muller, and went on to score the whole special. Mark Volman stated that he and Howard Kaylan aimed "to do something different with children's records", which "weren't really a respected medium and companies weren't used to paying people for producing something slick for kids", with songs that could stand on their own and be liked by fans of the duo's old group, The Turtles, while also providing positive messages for children. The tracks were recorded by Flo & Eddie at Sun Swept Studios, with the only outside musician being the facility's owner, John Hoier. ## Release Upon completion, Muller was satisfied with how The World of Strawberry Shortcake turned out. Although he pointed out the lack of such influences in the special, he told The New York Times in April 1981 that he supposed the show to be a commercial. Some time after the title character's debut at the 1980 American International Toy Fair, major television networks in the U.S. were offered a chance to air the special. They also deemed it an advertisement for the toy line, and rejected it. On March 28, 1980, the special debuted on independent stations in over 90 U.S. cities; it aired on WNEW (now WNYW) in the New York City market, and on KTLA in Los Angeles. Kenner launched a collection of dolls and toys based on the special, concurrently with the original broadcast. This led John J. O'Connor of The New York Times to proclaim, "Onward and upward with the art of marketing!" In 1981, the Lexington Broadcast Services Company acquired syndication rights to The World of Strawberry Shortcake, along with its follow-up, Strawberry Shortcake in Big Apple City. By 1986, the Television Program Source took over the rights for the first special. It was released on 16 mm film by the Coronet company in 1982, and on VHS and Beta in October 1985 by Family Home Entertainment. A Region 1 DVD from Illumination FilmWorks, featuring this special and Big Apple City, was released on March 6, 2007. In Germany, the original special premiered on ZDF on April 4, 1983, as Emily im Erdbeerland. A soundtrack album was released by Kid Stuff Records the same year as the original airing. The track list featured the "Strawberry Shortcake Theme", along with "Smile a Sunny Morning", "Sunflower Market", "Monster Trees" and "Berry Talk". ## Reception The World of Strawberry Shortcake was reviewed twice by the School Library Journal. In December 1983 issue, Margaret Bush said that the "story, characters, dialogue and bits of stage business are busy, bright, contrived, and will appeal of young children". She added, however, that "some of the lyrics and dialogue are not easily understood – it sounds as if adult voices may be attempting to simulate the voices of small children". In 1987, Kathleen Pulcini of The Video Directory called it "delightful fun for children". ## See also - List of 1980s Strawberry Shortcake specials	[ "## Plot", "## Cast", "## Production", "## Release", "## Reception", "## See also" ]	1,880	98
25,148,846	Chinese Taipei at the 2010 Winter Olympics	1,081,866,572	null	[ "2010 in Taiwanese sport", "Nations at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "Taiwan at the Winter Olympics by year" ]	Chinese Taipei (Chinese: 中華臺北; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Táiběi) sent a delegation to compete at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada from 12–28 February 2010. Although the nation is known as Taiwan or the Republic of China, the International Olympic Committee mandates that the Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee flag and name is used, and not the flag of Taiwan, as per the Nagoya Resolution, which Chinese Taipei accepted in 1981. This was Chinese Taipei's eighth time participating in the Winter Olympic Games. The Chinese Taipei delegation consisted of a single athlete, luger Ma Chih-hung. He finished 34th in the men's singles event. ## Background Following the Chinese Civil War, the Republic of China retained control of only the island of Taiwan and a few other minor islands. After international recognition shifted to the People's Republic of China in the 1970s and under the People's Republic's One China policy, the only way the Republic of China could participate in international organizations was under a name acceptable to the People's Republic. The Republic of China boycotted the Olympics, at the 1976 Summer Olympics and both Games in 1980 after not being allowed to compete under the name "Republic of China". Chinese Taipei accepted the Nagoya Resolution in 1981 and first officially participated in the Olympics at the 1984 Winter Olympics. Chinese Taipei has sent delegations to every Winter Olympic Games since, making Vancouver their eighth appearance at a Winter Olympics under that name. For the second consecutive Winter Olympics, the Chinese Taipei delegation consisted of a single athlete, luger Ma Chih-hung. Ma was chosen as the flag bearer for both the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony. ## Luge Ma Chih-hung was 24 years old at the time of the Vancouver Olympics, and had represented Chinese Taipei four years prior at the 2006 Winter Olympics. The men's singles was held over 13–14 February, with two of the four runs being contested on each day. On the first day, he posted run times of 50.318 seconds and 50.460 seconds. After the first day, he sat in 33rd place out of 38 competitors. On the second day, he put up times of 51.090 seconds and 50.494 seconds. His total time was therefore 3 minutes and 22.362 seconds, which dropped Ma into 34th overall. ## See also - Chinese Taipei at the 2010 Asian Games - Chinese Taipei at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics	[ "## Background", "## Luge", "## See also" ]	538	16,267
6,813,948	Spinner shark	1,165,523,454	Species of shark	[ "Carcharhinus", "Fish described in 1839", "Taxa named by Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle", "Taxa named by Johannes Peter Müller" ]	The spinner shark (Carcharhinus brevipinna) is a type of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, named for the spinning leaps it makes as a part of its feeding strategy. This species occurs in tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide, except for in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is found from coastal to offshore habitats to a depth of 100 m (330 ft), though it prefers shallow water. The spinner shark resembles a larger version of the blacktip shark (C. limbatus), with a slender body, long snout, and black-marked fins. This species can be distinguished from the blacktip shark by the first dorsal fin, which has a different shape and is placed further back, and by the black tip on the anal fin (in adults only). It attains a maximum length of 3 m (9.8 ft). Spinner sharks are swift and gregarious predators that feed on a wide variety of small bony fishes and cephalopods. When feeding on schools of forage fish, they speed vertically through the school while spinning on their axis, erupting from the water at the end. Like other members of its family, the spinner shark is viviparous, with females bearing litters of three to 20 young every other year. The young are born in shallow nursery areas near the coast, and are relatively fast-growing. This species is not usually dangerous to humans, but may become belligerent when excited by food. Spinner sharks are valued by commercial fisheries across their range for their meat, fins, liver oil, and skin. They are also esteemed as strong fighters by recreational fishers. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as near threatened worldwide. ## Taxonomy and phylogeny The spinner shark was originally described as Carcharias (Aprion) brevipinna by Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen, based on the mounted skin of a 79-cm-long specimen collected off Java. This species was subsequently moved to the genera Aprion, Squalus, and Aprionodon before being placed within the genus Carcharhinus. The tooth shape and coloration of this species varies significantly with age and between geographical regions, which caused much taxonomic confusion. Other common names include black-tipped shark, great blacktip shark, inkytail shark, large blacktip shark, long-nose grey shark, longnose grey whaler, and smoothfang shark. Based on similarities in morphology, tooth shape, and behavior, the closest relatives of the spinner shark were originally believed to be the blacktip shark and the graceful shark (C. amblyrhynchoides). However, this interpretation was not supported by Gavin Naylor's 1992 allozyme analysis, which suggested that these similarities are the product of convergent evolution and that the closest relative of the spinner shark is the copper shark (C. brachyurus). In a 2007 ribosomal DNA study, the spinner shark was found to be the most genetically divergent of all the requiem shark species examined save for the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier), being less related to other Carcharhinus species than the lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris). ## Distribution and habitat Some uncertainty exists in the distribution data for the spinner shark due to confusion with the blacktip shark. In the Western Atlantic Ocean, it occurs from North Carolina to the northern Gulf of Mexico, including the Bahamas and Cuba, and from southern Brazil to Argentina. In the Eastern Atlantic, it occurs from off North Africa to Namibia. In the Indian Ocean, it is found from South Africa and Madagascar, to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, to India and nearby islands, to Java and Sumatra. In the Pacific Ocean, it occurs off Japan, Vietnam, Australia, and possibly the Philippines. Parasitological evidence suggests that Indian Ocean spinner sharks have passed through the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean Sea, becoming Lessepsian migrants. The spinner shark has been reported from the ocean surface to a depth of 100 m (330 ft), though it prefers water less than 30 m (98 ft) deep, and occupies all levels of the water column. This species may be found from coastal waters to well offshore, over continental and insular shelves. Juveniles have been known to enter bays, but avoid brackish conditions. The northwest Atlantic subpopulation is known to be migratory; in spring and summer, they are found in warm inshore waters, and in winter, they move south into deeper water. ## Description The average spinner shark is 2 m (6.6 ft) long and weighs 56 kg (123 lb); this species attains a maximum known length and weight of 3 m (9.8 ft) and 90 kg (200 lb). Indo-Pacific sharks are generally larger than those from the northwest Atlantic. This species has a slim, streamlined body with a distinctive, long, pointed snout. The eyes are small and circular. Prominent, forward-pointing furrows occur at the corners of the mouth. The tooth rows number 15–18 in each half of the upper jaw and 14–17 in each half of the lower jaw, with two and one tiny symphysial (central) teeth, respectively. The teeth have long, narrow central cusps and are finely serrated in the upper jaw and smooth in the lower jaw. The five pairs of gill slits are long. The first dorsal fin is relatively small and usually originates behind the free rear tip of the pectoral fins. No ridge exists between the first and second dorsal fins. The pectoral fins are moderately short, narrow, and falcate (sickle-shaped). The body is densely covered with diamond-shaped dermal denticles with seven (rarely five) shallow horizontal ridges. The coloration is gray above, sometimes with a bronze sheen, and white below, with a faint white band on the sides. Young individuals have unmarked fins; the tips of the second dorsal fin, pectoral fins, anal fin, and lower caudal fin lobe (and sometimes the other fins, as well) are black in larger individuals. The spinner shark differs from the blacktip shark in that its first dorsal fin is slightly more triangular in shape and is placed further back on the body. Adults can also be distinguished by the black tip on the anal fin. ## Biology and ecology The spinner shark is a fast, active swimmer that sometimes forms large schools, segregated by age and sex. Young individuals prefer cooler water temperatures than adults. Off South Africa, females are found close to shore year-round, while males only appear during the summer. Smaller spinner sharks may be preyed upon by larger sharks. Known parasites of the spinner shark include the copepods Kroyeria deetsi, Nemesis pilosus, and N. atlantica, which infest the shark's gills, Alebion carchariae, which infests the skin, Nesippus orientalis, which infests the mouth and gill arches, and Perissopus dentatus, which infests the nares and the rear margins of the fins. ### Feeding Spinner sharks feed primarily on small bony fish, including tenpounders, sardines, herring, anchovies, sea catfish, lizardfish, mullets, bluefish, tunas, bonito, croakers, jacks, mojarras, and tongue-soles. They have also been known to eat stingrays, cuttlefish, squid, and octopus. Groups of spinner sharks are often found pursuing schools of prey at high speed. Individual prey are seized and swallowed whole, as this shark lacks cutting dentition. This species employs an unusual tactic when feeding on schools of small fish; the shark charges vertically through the school, spinning on its axis with its mouth open and snapping all around it. The shark's momentum at the end of these spiraling runs often carries it into the air, giving it its common name. The blacktip shark also performs this behavior, though not as often. Off Madagascar, spinner sharks follow migrating schools of mackerel, tunas, and jacks. Like blacktip sharks, they congregate around shrimp trawlers to feed on the discarded bycatch, and may be incited into feeding frenzies. ### Life history Like other requiem sharks, the spinner shark is viviparous. Adult females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteri; each uterus is divided into compartments, one for each embryo. The embryos are initially sustained by a yolk sac. When the embryo grows to around 19 cm (7.5 in) long, the supply of yolk has been exhausted and the empty yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother provides nutrients for the remainder of gestation. This species has the smallest ova relative to the fully developed embryo of any viviparous shark known. Females give birth to three to 20 (usually seven to 11) pups every other year, after a gestation period of 11–15 months. Mating occurs from early spring to summer, and parturition in August off North Africa, from April to May off South Africa, and from March to April in the northwestern Atlantic. Young are birthed in coastal nursery areas such as bays, beaches, and high-salinity estuaries in water deeper than 5 m (16 ft). The length at birth is 66–77 cm (26–30 in) in the northwestern Atlantic, 61–69 cm (24–27 in) off Tunisia, and 60 cm (24 in) off South Africa. Spinner sharks are relatively fast-growing sharks: 30 cm (12 in) per year for newborns, 25 cm (9.8 in) per year for one-year-olds, 10 cm (3.9 in) per year for adolescents, and 5 cm (2.0 in) per year for adults. In the northwestern Atlantic, males mature at 1.3 m (4.3 ft) long and females at 1.5–1.6 m (4.9–5.2 ft) long, corresponding to ages of 4–5 years and 7–8 years, respectively. Off South Africa, males mature at 1.8 m (5.9 ft) and females at 2.1 m (6.9 ft). Spinner sharks generally do not reproduce until they are 12–14 years old. The maximum lifespan has been estimated at 15–20 years or more. ## Human interactions Ordinarily, spinner sharks do not pose a substantial danger to humans; they do not perceive large mammals as prey, as their small, narrow teeth are adapted for grasping rather than cutting. However, they can become excited by the presence of food, so caution is warranted if this species is encountered while spearfishing. As of 2008, the International Shark Attack File listed 16 unprovoked attacks and one provoked attack attributable to the spinner shark, none of them fatal. The meat of the spinner shark is of high quality and sold fresh or dried and salted. In addition, the fins are used for shark fin soup in East Asia, the liver oil is processed for vitamins, and the skin is made into leather products. Spinner sharks are an important catch of the US commercial shark fisheries operating in the northwestern Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. The meat is marketed under the name "blacktip shark" in the United States, due to that species being considered superior in quality by consumers. It is likely also caught by other fisheries across its range, going unreported owing to confusion with the blacktip shark. The spinner shark is also highly regarded by recreational fishers, being described as a "spectacular fighter" that often leaps out of the water. The IUCN has assessed the spinner shark as near threatened worldwide; its frequent use of coastal habitats renders it vulnerable to human exploitation and habitat degradation. The Northwest Atlantic fishery for this species is managed under the US National Marine Fisheries Service 1999 Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Tunas, Swordfish, and Sharks. For the purposes of commercial quotas and recreational bag limits, the spinner shark is categorized as a "large coastal shark".	[ "## Taxonomy and phylogeny", "## Distribution and habitat", "## Description", "## Biology and ecology", "### Feeding", "### Life history", "## Human interactions" ]	2,575	13,199
30,115,354	Collybia cookei	1,063,247,970	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1928", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of North America", "Tricholomataceae" ]	Collybia cookei is a species of fungus in the family Tricholomataceae, and one of three species in the genus Collybia. It is known from Europe, Asia, and North America. The fungus produces fruit bodies that usually grow on the decomposing remains of other mushrooms, like Meripilus giganteus, Inonotus hispidus, or species of Russula; occasionally fruit bodies are found on rich humus or well-decayed wood. The fungus produces small white mushrooms with caps up to 9 mm (0.35 in) in diameter, supported by thin stems that originate from a yellowish-brown sclerotium. The mushroom is difficult to distinguish from the other two species of Collybia unless an effort is made to examine the sclerotia, which is usually buried in the substrate. The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined. ## Taxonomy and phylogeny The species was first described in the scientific literature in 1928 as Collybia cirrhata var. cookei by the Italian mycologist Giacomo Bresadola. In a 1935 publication, Jean D. Arnold reported a series of cultural studies with monokaryon isolates (hypha having only a single haploid nucleus) of several Collybia species to determine their mating type. All attempts to produce hybrids between C. cirrhata var. cookei and C. cirrata or mycelial fusions between the two species failed. This sexual incompatibility indicated that the two taxa were separate species, and she raised the taxon from varietal to specific status, calling it Collybia cookei. The species has also been called Microcollybia cookei in a 1979 publication by Joanne Lennox, but the genus Microcollybia has since been folded into Collybia. Marcel Bon and Régis Courtecuisse considered the species a variety of Collybia tuberosa in a 1988 publication. A 2001 molecular analysis based on the ribosomal DNA sequences confirmed that C. cookei is phylogenetically related to C. tuberosa and C. cirrhata, and that the three species form a monophyletic group that comprise the genus Collybia. The specific epithet cookei honors the British mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke. ## Description The caps of young mushrooms are roughly spherical, but soon become convex to flattened in maturity, and reach diameters of 2–9 mm (0.08–0.35 in). The cap margin is rolled or curled inward when young, but straightens out as it matures. The cap color is white to cream. The gills are broadly adnate to slightly decurrent, with a color similar to the cap; their spacing is close to subdistant. The whitish stem is equal in width throughout, usually not straight but with curves, and 2–5 cm (0.8–2.0 in) long by 0.3–1.0 mm (0.01–0.04 in) thick. The upper region of the stem surface can be covered with what appears to be a white powder, and there are thin hairs near the base. The stems originate from a yellowish-brown sclerotium that is up to 6 mm (0.24 in) long. The sclerotium ranges in shape from roughly spherical to almond-shaped to irregular, and its surface is often wrinkled and pitted. The mushroom has no distinctive odor or taste, and its edibility is unknown. In deposit, the spore color is white. The spores are smooth, ellipsoidal to tear-shaped, hyaline (translucent), not amyloid, and measure 3.9–5.2 by 2.6–3.3 μm. The basidia (spore-bearing cells in the hymenium) are four-spored and hyaline, with dimensions of 16–20 by 4–5 μm. They have clamps at their bases. There are no cystidia on either the edges (cheilocystidia) or faces (pleurocystidia) of the gills. The arrangement of the hyphae in the hymenophoral tissue varies from regular to interwoven. The cap cuticle is a cutis (a type of tissue where the hyphae are arranged more or less parallel to the surface), formed by hyphae with septa, roughly 4–9 μm in diameter. Clamp connections are present in the hyphae. The sclerotium is made of hyphae that have yellow pigment in their walls that appear in cross-section to be pseudoparenchymatous (compactly interwoven short-celled hyphae that resemble parenchyma of higher plants), and measure 5–10 μm in diameter. ### Similar species Collybia cookei is most likely to be confused with the two other members of Collybia, both of which are outwardly similar in appearance; distinguishing between the three typically requires excavating the stem base away from the moss or debris in which the stem is embedded. In the field, C. tuberosa may be distinguished from C. cookei by its dark brown sclerotia that somewhat resembles an appleseed. Using a microscope provides a more definitive way of distinguishing the two: the hyphae in the sclerotia of C. cookei are rounded, while those of C. tuberosa are elongated; this diagnostic character is apparent with both fresh and dried material of the two species. C. cirrhata does not produce sclerotia. Another mushroom that grows on decomposing fruit bodies is Asterophora lycoperdoides, which is distinct from C. cookei because of the powdery brown asexual spores (chlamydospores) produced on the cap surface. Alexander H. Smith has noted a general similarity in appearance between C. cookei and the North American species Clitocybe sclerotoidea (then known as Tricholoma sclerotoideum), which is parasitic to Helvella lacunosa. However, C. sclerotoidea is larger than C. cookei, with cap diameters up to 3 cm (1.2 in), and has more distantly spaced gills. ## Habitat and distribution Like all members of the genus Collybia, C. cookei grows on the well-rotted, blackened remains of mushrooms, such as species of Russula, Meripilus giganteus, and Inonotus hispidus. Fruit bodies occasionally grow on well-decayed wood or rich humus. The fruit bodies grow scattered, clustered, or in groups. A field study conducted near a Brass mill in Sweden revealed that heavy metal contamination had little effect on the appearance of the mushroom, possibly because its substrate of partially decomposed fruit bodies has a lower metal concentration that the underlying topsoil. Collybia cookei is found in Europe, Asia (Japan), and North America. The European distribution extends north to the Arctic Circle and the Lofoten Islands. The species is widely distributed in North America; it was reported from Mexico for the first time in 1998. The fungus is partial to mixed forest dominated by aspen and conifers in montane and subalpine environments. In The Netherlands, it was a component of one of three communities of saprobic fungi associated with roadside verges (the land between the road edge and the adjacent wall, fence or hedge) planted with common oak (Quercus robur); the verges also supported the growth of the mushroom Russula ochroleuca, a host of C. cookei.	[ "## Taxonomy and phylogeny", "## Description", "### Similar species", "## Habitat and distribution" ]	1,626	20,860
21,604,718	Frank Lukis	1,153,545,507	Royal Australian Air Force senior commander	[ "1896 births", "1966 deaths", "Australian Army officers", "Australian Commanders of the Order of the British Empire", "Australian aviators", "Australian military personnel of World War I", "Deaths from cancer in Victoria (state)", "Military personnel from Western Australia", "People educated at Hale School", "People from the South West (Western Australia)", "Royal Australian Air Force officers", "Royal Australian Air Force personnel of World War II" ]	Air Commodore Francis William Fellowes (Frank) Lukis, CBE (27 July 1896 – 18 February 1966) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). A veteran of World War I, he first saw combat as a soldier in the Australian Imperial Force at Gallipoli. In 1917, Lukis transferred to the Australian Flying Corps and flew with No. 1 Squadron in the Middle East, where he was twice mentioned in despatches. A member of the Australian Air Corps following the war, he transferred to the fledgling RAAF in 1921, and became the first commanding officer of the newly re-formed No. 3 Squadron at RAAF Station Richmond, New South Wales, in 1925. Lukis went on to lead No. 1 Squadron in the early 1930s, and was promoted to group captain in 1938. Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire the same year, he was in charge of RAAF Station Laverton, Victoria, during the early years of World War II. He later held forward commands in the South West Pacific theatre, including Northern Area (later North-Eastern Area), for which he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire, and No. 9 Operational Group (later Northern Command). Lukis also served on the Air Board, the RAAF's controlling body, as Air Member for Personnel. After retirement from the Air Force in 1946, he became a manager with Australian National Airways, and was active in veterans' associations. He died in 1966 at the age of sixty-nine. ## Early life and World War I Born on 27 July 1896 in Balingup, Western Australia, Frank Lukis was the son of grazier William Fellowes Lukis and his wife Jean. He was educated at The High School, Perth, and later worked on the family farm. In October 1914, he joined the Australian Imperial Force as part of the 10th Light Horse Regiment, the only such regiment raised in Western Australia. Ranked corporal, Lukis sailed from Fremantle aboard A47 Mashobra on 17 February 1915, seeing combat first at Gallipoli and then in Egypt. At Gallipoli, the 10th Light Horse went into action in the Battles of the Nek and Hill 60, before being withdrawn in December and redeployed to Egypt. There it took part in the campaign against the Turks in Sinai, including the Battle of Romani. Lukis was commissioned as a second lieutenant in July 1916 and promoted to lieutenant in December. On 25 February 1917, he transferred to the Australian Flying Corps (AFC) and was posted to No. 1 Squadron (also known until 1918 as No. 67 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps), operating in Sinai and Palestine. He undertook reconnaissance missions as an observer in Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s from April to September 1917. In January 1918 he completed pilot training and began flying fighter and ground attack sorties in Bristol Fighters. He was twice mentioned in despatches for distinguished service with the AFC in the Middle East, the first gazetted on 16 January 1918, and the second on 12 January 1920. Lukis finished the war a flight commander with the temporary rank of captain, and returned to Australia on 5 March 1919. ## Between the wars With the disbandment of the wartime AFC, Lukis joined the short-lived Australian Air Corps early in 1920. He transferred to the newly formed Royal Australian Air Force in March the following year. Ranked flying officer (honorary flight lieutenant), he was one of the original twenty-one officers on the Air Force's strength at its formation, and became popularly known as "Luke". In February 1922, he surveyed the air route between Perth and Port Augusta, South Australia. He took part in one of the embryonic service's earliest public flying displays in May that year, when he and another pilot flew Airco DH.9s in mock dogfights with four Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s during the New South Wales Aerial Pageant at Victoria Park, Sydney. On 21 January 1925, he married Florence St Aubyn Allen at St Mary's Anglican Church, West Perth; the couple later had two sons. The previous year, Lukis had been best man at the wedding of Squadron Leader Frank McNamara, the AFC's only Victoria Cross recipient in World War I. No. 3 Squadron was re-formed at RAAF Point Cook, Victoria, on 1 July 1925, with Lukis as commanding officer (CO). Over the next week, operating DH.9s and S.E.5s, the unit established itself at the Air Force's newest base, RAAF Station Richmond, New South Wales. Alerted to a forthcoming inspection by the Chief of the Air Staff, Group Captain Richard Williams, Lukis had the foresight to engage in a speedy beautification program at the base, arranging delivery of pot plants and shrubs; the notoriously fastidious Williams concluded the inspection by pronouncing himself "happily surprised ... that so much had been done so quickly". For the duration of his tour as No. 3 Squadron commander, Lukis doubled as CO of the base. He was promoted squadron leader on 2 July 1927, and handed over command to Squadron Leader Harry Cobby on 13 January 1930. Lukis served as CO of No. 1 Squadron from 1930 to 1934, interrupted in 1931 by a posting to Britain to attend RAF Staff College, Andover. Raised to wing commander, he was placed in charge of No. 1 Aircraft Depot at RAAF Station Laverton, Victoria, in 1936. He held command of No. 1 Flying Training School at Point Cook from January 1938 to November 1939, receiving appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1938 King's Birthday Honours, and promotion to group captain in July the same year. ## World War II The CO of RAAF Station Laverton from December 1939, Lukis was made acting air commodore and posted to Townsville, Queensland, on 8 May 1941 as the inaugural Air Officer Commanding (AOC) Northern Area. Described by Major General Lewis H. Brereton, commander of the US Far East Air Force, as "a dark, husky, energetic man with a keen sense of humour" who was very much "alive to the situation", Lukis was in charge of air defence for the north coast of Australia. His task was complicated by the poor standard and quantity of available equipment, with only CAC Wirraways as fighters. In January 1942, Northern Area was split into North-Western Area and North-Eastern Area, Lukis remaining in charge of the latter as a temporary air commodore. The following month, he warned higher command of the poor state of preparedness and low morale of Australian Army troops at Port Moresby, New Guinea, due to lack of air cover and apparent lack of interest from government echelons. In March, seventeen P-40 Kittyhawks of No. 75 Squadron, newly formed under North-Eastern Area Command, were deployed; the unit would shortly distinguish itself in the Battle of Port Moresby. By the end of April 1942, Lukis' forces consisted of three squadrons (general purpose, transport, and fighter) at Townsville, one general purpose squadron at RAAF Station Amberley in southern Queensland, and four squadrons (three general purpose and one fighter) at Port Moresby. Posted to RAAF Headquarters, Melbourne, as Air Member for Personnel, he handed over command of North-Eastern Area to Group Captain (later Air Commodore) Harry Cobby on 25 August. On 23 March 1943, Lukis was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for the "courage, enterprise and devotion" that he had displayed at North-Eastern Area. As Air Member for Personnel, he occupied a seat on the Air Board, the RAAF's controlling body that was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff. In this position he clashed with Group Officer Clare Stevenson, Director of the Women's Auxiliary Australian Air Force, over plans to reduce the number of female officers in technical roles. Stevenson was forced to apologise to Lukis for going over his head to the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff to voice her opposition to the scheme; nevertheless, cuts to these positions did not eventuate. In November 1943, Lukis took over No. 9 Operational Group (No. 9 OG), the RAAF's main mobile formation in the Pacific at the time, after its commander, Air Commodore Joe Hewitt, was sacked by the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Vice Marshal George Jones, over allegations of poor discipline and morale. The change in leadership dismayed the US-led South West Pacific Area Command, whose senior air officers, Lieutenant General George Kenney and Major General Ennis Whitehead, did not hold Lukis in the same high regard that they did his predecessor. For the next two months, No. 9 OG supported the Allied invasion of New Britain. On 17 January 1944, Lukis mounted an operation with a force of seventy-three aircraft comprising Bristol Beaufort light bombers and Kittyhawk and Spitfire fighters, the largest strike undertaken by the Australians to that date. It encountered no opposition, and Lukis voiced his concerns to Whitehead that the "mopping up" role he had been assigned was costing his fighter pilots the opportunity to engage in air-to-air combat. As the Pacific conflict shifted further north, No. 9 OG's operational tasking lessened and it became colloquially known in the RAAF as the "Non-Ops Group". When ordered to transfer one of his fighter wings, No. 73, to the Admiralty Islands for convoy escort in late February, Lukis complained directly to Kenney that it was a waste of resources, but was over-ruled. The rest of No. 9 OG became a garrison force in New Guinea, and was renamed Northern Command on 11 April 1944 to better reflect this new status; its original mobile strike role was taken over by No. 10 Operational Group (later the Australian First Tactical Air Force). Lukis was again considered for the position of Air Member for Personnel when the incumbent, acting Air Vice Marshal Adrian Cole, was removed from his position following accusations of drunkenness at an RAAF Headquarters meeting in November 1944. In the event, Lukis remained in charge of Northern Command. The following April, he took command of No. 2 Training Group in Melbourne, and held this post for the remainder of the Pacific War. ## Later life Lukis took up his final RAAF posting, as Air Officer Commanding Eastern Area, in December 1945. With the end of hostilities, he was summarily retired along with several other senior commanders and veterans of World War I, ostensibly to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers. According to RAAF historian Alan Stephens, the Air Board believed that Lukis "had not taken a role commensurate with his seniority during the war, a strange accusation to make against a man who had been Air Member for Personnel and AOC of the RAAF's most important operational group in the Southwest Pacific Area". He was officially discharged on 2 May 1946. Employed by Australian National Airways (ANA) after leaving the Air Force, Lukis become airfield manager at Essendon, Melbourne. He took over the airline's Canberra office in 1952, before joining a stockbroking firm in 1957, the year that ANA merged with Ansett Airways to become Ansett-ANA. Active in veterans' organisations, he served as president of the Air Force Association in Victoria during 1947–48, and helped found the Commonwealth Club in Canberra in 1954. Survived by his wife and children, Frank Lukis died in Melbourne of cancer on 18 February 1966, and was cremated.	[ "## Early life and World War I", "## Between the wars", "## World War II", "## Later life" ]	2,534	22,947
5,655,235	How to Grow a Woman from the Ground	1,135,144,462	null	[ "2006 albums", "Chris Thile albums", "Sugar Hill Records albums" ]	How to Grow a Woman from the Ground is a 2006 album by Chris Thile and Punch Brothers. It was released on Sugar Hill on September 12, 2006. The album is named after a song on the album; a cover of the original by folk singer Tom Brosseau. The album debuted to positive reviews from major music critics, with critics calling the album “fantastic, eclectic”, and “genius”. The album earned Thile a Grammy Award-nomination in 2006. ## Conception and production For one of his side projects, Chris Thile knew he wanted to form a string quintet composed of mandolin, violin, banjo, guitar, and bass with childhood friend and fiddler Gabe Witcher, but didn’t know which direction he wanted to take the band. At the Telluride Bluegrass Festival in Telluride, Colorado, Thile met banjoist Noam Pikelny and later commented that “every note he played was something I wish I’d played”. It was then that Thile realized that he wanted to “put [his] stamp on the traditional bluegrass ensemble”. Thile wanted to get five musicians together for a Nashville jam session in 2005, after he found talented bluegrass musicians that could fill the positions. The bassist Thile was searching for, Greg Garrison, was recommended to Thile by Pikelny, who had performed alongside Garrison in the Cajun jam band Leftover Salmon. The guitar position was filled by Chris Eldridge, from the bluegrass band the Infamous Stringdusters. The five musicians met up in Nashville one day in 2005 and decided that they needed to “do something musical together”. A few nights later, the group met again “just to drop a ton of money, drink too much wine, eat steaks, and commiserate about our failed relationships”. That night, they came to an agreement and formed a bluegrass band. The quintet decided to make this project serious and record an album. The album was recorded over the course of two days in 2006 at Sear Sound Recording Studios in New York. The album was not recorded digitally, but rather on tape. In an interview with the United States magazine Guitar Player, Chris Thile explained the old fashioned style in which the album was recorded: > It was recorded at Sear Sound in New York using two vintage Telefunken ELA M 251 E mics into a Forsell Technologies FetCode preamp. Most of it was recorded onto the same Studer 1" two-track that was used to mix Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band! Everything was tracked live, and I’ve decided never to record wearing headphones again unless I absolutely have to. Wearing headphones is bullshit, because you’re in your own little world playing to a mix that no one will ever hear but you. What’s the point? How to Grow a Woman from the Ground was self produced by Thile, and had no guest musicians, just the quintet. Other than the band, which in promotion of the album was named the How to Grow a Band, the album had a fairly small production crew; an engineer, an assistant engineer, two mastering people, and an artist. ## Musical style How to Grow a Woman from the Ground takes influence from different genres, “drawing equally from traditional bluegrass, progressive acoustic, and singer/songwriter traditions”, with one critic calling the majority of the album very “roots oriented”. The album has a bluegrass or progressive bluegrass core; bluegrass mandolinist Ronnie McCoury became the album’s official “bluegrass guru” to ensure that there was “someone who could make sure we didn’t do anything clichéd or trite”. In regard to the album’s style, Thile said that “All in all, How to Grow a Woman from the Ground is a bluegrass record. There are definitely some musical things that are out of the ordinary, but it sounds like a bluegrass record to me. It’s not all like “Brakeman’s Blues,” but “Brakeman’s Blues” doesn’t sound out of place, and neither does “The Beekeeper” sound out of place. It’s all related.” Much of Thile's work on the album was influenced by his divorce, and Thile claims that he could relate to the title of the album, a Tom Brosseau song. Thile said that he "got my ass kicked by the last relationship I was in. This girl just left. It created a pretty serious complex for me. I’ve always been able to talk to girls, but I’m scared of them. I just could relate to it. Like, man if I could just grow one, that would take care of a lot of problems." ## Critical reception How to Grow a Woman from the Ground received positive reviews from country and bluegrass music critics. AllMusic called it "fantastic", and JamBase described it to be "a tasteful string dinner" and stated that "this is only the beginning of great things to come". However, some critics found particular tracks too pale in comparison to the rest of the material. The Arizona Republic stated that the album was "amazing", except for "Dead Leaves and the Dirty Ground" because "Thile [couldn't] quite match Jack White's musical hysteria". Music Box also said that tracks like "Stay Away" and "I’m Yours If You Want Me" "completely fell flat". Regardless, the review still stated that "the bulk of How to Grow a Woman from the Ground is remarkably engaging". Bullz-Eye criticized Thile's vocal quality, saying that "his voice often lacks the strength and/or character to carry the song". On the contrary, the previously mentioned JamBase article complimented Thile's vocal strength, saying "it's the soul in Thile's voice and the heart and intensity of the musicianship that give the album its power." ## Track listing ## Personnel - Chris Thile – mandolin, lead vocals, producer - Noam Pikelny – banjo, vocals - Greg Garrison – bass, vocals - Chris Eldridge – acoustic guitar, vocals - Gabe Witcher – fiddle, vocals - Ronnie McCoury – "bluegrass guru" - Loren Witcher – artwork - Gary Paczosa – mastering - Fred Forsell – mastering engineer - Matthew Gephart – engineer - Ethan Donaldson – assistant engineer ## Chart performance	[ "## Conception and production", "## Musical style", "## Critical reception", "## Track listing", "## Personnel", "## Chart performance" ]	1,330	15,781
6,358,930	Acoustic Hearts of Winter	1,140,439,970	null	[ "2006 Christmas albums", "Albums produced by Rock Mafia", "Aly & AJ albums", "Christmas albums by American artists", "Hollywood Records albums", "Pop Christmas albums" ]	Acoustic Hearts of Winter is a Christmas album and the second studio album by American pop duo Aly & AJ. The album was released on September 26, 2006 in the United States, via Hollywood Records. The album was conceived as a project after completing the deluxe edition of their debut album, Into the Rush (2005). All production of the album was done by Antonina Armato and Tim James. The majority of songs are cover versions of religious Christmas carols or contemporary classics. Two originals appear on the set, which were written by Aly & AJ with Armato and James. Musically, the album has an instrument-driven acoustic feel, primarily by guitar. It utilizes pop music influences on Christmas music. The album sold 110,000 copies in the United States. The album received generally positive reviews, with critics complimenting the lyrical content of the original songs and the overall sound. Acoustic Hearts of Winter debuted on the US Billboard 200 at 78, and peaked on the Top Holiday Albums chart at 14. It was the second best-selling holiday album of 2006. The sole single from the album, "Greatest Time of Year", used to promote The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause, peaked at 96 on the Billboard Hot 100. Aly & AJ promoted the album mainly on CD USA and at the 2006 Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade. In 2007, the album was re-released with three new traditional cover songs. ## Background During the summer of 2006, after wrapping up the production and recording of their debut album, Into the Rush, Aly & AJ began recording their first Christmas album. Antonina Armato and Tim James who worked on the duo's debut album and several other Disney-related acts, were recruited to executive produce the effort. They anticipated finishing the album by the end of the summer, in order for it to be released for the holiday season. Aly & AJ thought it ironic that they were prepping a Christmas album during the hottest days of the year. Alyson Michalka told the Saginaw News that producers Armato and James filled the studio with Christmas decorations, Christmas cookies, and a tree with gifts to open after they were done, in order for them to get in the Christmas spirit. ## Composition Acoustic Hearts of Winter is musically based on Christmas music with pop, pop rock and teen pop inclinations. All songs were produced by Antonina Armato and Tim James. Aly & AJ, along with executive producers Armato and James, adapted and arranged most of the cover songs on the album. Many of the songs incorporate heavy instrumentation, such as guitar, cello, percussion, bass, and piano. The album is mainly composed of cover versions of Christmas carols and contemporary holiday classics, while two original numbers are included. "Joy to the World", "We Three Kings", "The First Noel", "God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen", and "Silent Night" are religious traditional carols. Also included are the traditional "Deck the Halls", as well as "I'll Be Home for Christmas", "The Little Drummer Boy", originally performed by Harry Simeone and "Let It Snow", notably performed by Vaughan Monroe. The album's opening number "Greatest Time of Year", the first of the album's two originals, was written by Aly & AJ, Armato, and James. The second original and closing track, "Not This Year" is a reflection about past Christmases, and how the current is different. According to the duo, the song is dedicated to their grandmother Carmen, who died on Christmas Eve a few years previous. On the 2007 edition of the album exclusively available at retailer Target, the traditionals "We Wish You a Merry Christmas" and "Winter Wonderland" were bonus tracks, as well as "Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree", originally performed by Brenda Lee. ## Reception ### Critical reception Matt Collar of Allmusic complimented the classic Christmas songs composed in a "light, contemporary pop fashion," noting Aly & AJ's original songs as standouts on the album. Logan Leasure of Jesus Freak Hideout commended Aly & AJ's "powerhouse" vocals on the tracks, but said carols such as "The First Noel" and "Deck the Halls" were a bit boring, due to the acoustic feel of the set. Overall, Leasure said "This album has its good share of standout tracks that are sure to satisfy any fan of modern Christmas music." He specifically pointed out "Little Drummer Boy" and the impressive lyrical content of "Not This Year. Tampa Bay Times critic Sean Daly praised the duo's original songs, on which they "ditch the wispy routine". On the other hand, he viewed the rest of the album as "flat and forgettable". ### Chart performance On the chart dated November 25, 2006, nearly two months after initial release, Acoustic Hearts of Winter debuted at number 114 on the Billboard 200. The album rose to its peak position of 78 the following week. It remained inside the top half of the chart for three weeks, and maintained a position inside the top 200 albums for seven weeks. On the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart, on the chart issued November 25, 2006, the album debuted at number 20. A week later, it moved up to number 14, where it peaked, and spent 14 weeks on the chart. Acoustic Hearts of Winter was the second best-selling Holiday album of the 2006 holiday season. During the 2007 and 2008 holiday seasons, the album re-entered the Holiday Albums chart at 45 and 28, respectively. The album had sold 110,000 copies in the United States to date. ## Promotion "Greatest Time of Year" was used to promote the Disney-affiliated film, The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause. On November 21, 2006, it was released as a single on the iTunes Store in conjunction with Radio Disney, as the song was packaged with an interview with the duo on the station. The song first appeared on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart on the December 2, 2006 issue. Propelled by its debut at number 67 on the Hot Digital Songs chart, "Greatest Time of Year" debuted at number 96 on the Billboard Hot 100. Additionally, it peaked at number 72 on the Pop 100. Two music videos were developed for the song, one that is intercut with scenes from the film, and a second, which solely features the sisters. The duo performed the "Greatest Time of Year" live on CD USA. Additionally they performed it at the 2006 Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade, and in 2007 on tour as an opening act for Miley Cyrus on The Best of Both Worlds Tour. Also in 2007, the album was re-released as a deluxe edition by Target, and included covers of the traditional Christmas song "We Wish You a Merry Christmas" as well as "Winter Wonderland" and "Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree." Variations of "Greatest Time of Year" are also included on the Walt Disney Records compilation albums Disney Channel Holiday (2007), and All Wrapped Up (2008). ## Track listing - writer credited as Traditional ## Personnel Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. - Aly Michalka – vocals (all tracks) - AJ Michalka – vocals (all tracks) - Carrie Michalka – executive production - Gerry Cagle – executive production - Jon Lind – A&R - Jamie Muhoberac – piano & wurley (tracks 2–9), keyboards (tracks 1, 11) - Antonina Armato – production (all tracks) - Tim James – production (all tracks) - Tim Pierce – guitar (all tracks) - Sean Hurley – bass (all tracks) - Dean Parks – guitar (tracks 2–9) - Luis Conte – percussion (tracks 2–9) - Cameron Stone – cello (tracks 3–6) - Dorian Crozier – drums (tracks 1, 10, 11) - Bob Zamitti – vibes (track 8) ## Charts	[ "## Background", "## Composition", "## Reception", "### Critical reception", "### Chart performance", "## Promotion", "## Track listing", "## Personnel", "## Charts" ]	1,704	13,106
35,211,741	Nabulsi soap	1,170,383,825	Type of castile soap	[ "10th-century establishments in Asia", "Arab culture", "Economy of the State of Palestine", "Nablus", "Palestinian handicrafts", "Palestinian inventions", "Soaps" ]	Nabulsi soap (Arabic: صابون نابلسي, ṣābūn Nābulsi) is a type of castile soap produced in Nablus in the West Bank, Palestine. Its chief ingredients are virgin olive oil (the main agricultural product of the region), water, and an alkaline sodium compound, such as sodium hydroxide. The finished product is ivory-colored and has almost no scent. Traditionally made by women for household use, it had become a significant industry for Nablus by the 14th century. In 1907 the city's 30 Nabulsi soap factories were supplying half the soap in Palestine. The industry declined during the mid-20th century following the destruction caused by the 1927 Jericho earthquake and later disruption from the Israeli military occupation. As of 2008, only two soap factories survive in Nablus. The old Arafat soap factory has been turned into a Cultural Heritage Enrichment Center. ## History Nabulsi soap was traditionally made by women for household use, even before the appearance of small soap-making factories in the 10th century. Trade with Bedouins was indispensable for soap-making, both in Nablus and Hebron, since they alone could furnish the alkaline soda (qilw) required by the process. By the 14th century a significant soap-making industry had developed in Nablus and the soap, reputedly prized by Queen Elizabeth I of England, was exported throughout the Middle East and to Europe. The 19th century saw a major expansion of soap manufacturing in Nablus, which became the center of soap production throughout the Fertile Crescent. By 1907, the city's 30 factories were producing nearly 5,000 tons of Nabulsi soap annually, over half of all soap production in Palestine. John Bowring wrote of Nabulsi soap in the 1830s that it was "highly esteemed in the Levant," and Muhammad Kurd Ali, a Syrian historian, wrote in the 1930s that "Nablus soap is the best and most famous soap today for it has, it seems, a quality not found in others and the secret is that it is unadulterated and well produced." The soap industry in Nablus began to decline in the mid-20th century, caused in part by natural disasters, especially a 1927 earthquake, which destroyed much of the Old City of Nablus, and in part by Israeli military occupation. Israeli military raids during the Second Intifada destroyed several soap factories in the historic quarter of Nablus. Several soap factories remain in Nablus; currently, products are sold primarily in Palestine and the Arab countries, with some fair-trade exports to Europe and beyond. On the continuing problems both in terms of the soap's manufacture and its export, the General Manager of the factory owned by the Touqan family commented in 2008: > Before 2000, our factory used to produce 600 tons of soap annually. Due to the physical and economic obstacles we face now because of the Israeli occupation – and especially the checkpoints – we produce barely half that amount today. According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, the checkpoints and roadblocks set up throughout the West Bank have created problems in the transportation of supplies and material to and from the factories as well as making it difficult for workers to get from their homes to the factories. However, Nabulsi soap is still widely sold in Nablus and the West Bank. It is also exported to Jordan, Kuwait, and Arab-Israeli cities such as Nazareth. Considered an important aspect of Nablus's cultural heritage, the preservation of the Nabulsi soap-making industry has been the focus of several local projects, including the restoration and conversion of the old Arafat soap factory into a Cultural Heritage Enrichment Center. The center has research and exhibition facilities and includes a small model soap factory that makes Nabulsi soap using traditional methods. Project Hope and other local non-governmental organizations market the soap in the West to raise funds for their other community projects. ## Production process Like Castile soap, the chief ingredients of Nabulsi soap are virgin olive oil, water, and an alkaline sodium compound. The compound is made by mixing the powdered ashes of the barilla plant (qilw), which grows along the banks of the River Jordan, with locally supplied lime (sheed). The sodium compound is then heated with water and olive oil in large copper vats over fermentation pits. The solution of water and sodium compound becomes increasingly concentrated in a series of 40 cycles repeated over eight days. During that time, an oar-shaped wooden tool known as a dukshab is used to stir the liquid soap continuously. The liquid soap is then spread in wooden frames to set. After setting, it is cut into the classic cube shape of Nabulsi soap and stamped with the company's trademark seal. The soap cubes then undergo a drying process that can last from three months to a year and involves stacking them in ceiling-high structures resembling cones with hollow centers that allow the air to circulate around them. The finished product is ivory-colored and has almost no scent. (Perfumes are never used in Nabulsi soap.) Before leaving the factory, the individual cubes that are to be sold locally are wrapped by hand in paper that is waxed on one side. Cubes that are destined for export are left unwrapped and usually dispatched in stiff sacks to protect them from damage. ## Gallery ## See also - African black soap - Aleppo soap - Castile soap - Marseille soap - Palestinian handicrafts - Vegan soap	[ "## History", "## Production process", "## Gallery", "## See also" ]	1,181	31,127
24,576,054	Leucopholiota decorosa	1,153,622,681	Species of fungus	[ "Fungi described in 1873", "Fungi of Asia", "Fungi of Europe", "Fungi of North America", "Taxa named by Charles Horton Peck", "Tricholomataceae" ]	Leucopholiota decorosa is a species of fungus in the mushroom family Tricholomataceae. Commonly known as the decorated pholiota, it is distinguished by its fruit body which is covered with pointed brown, curved scales on the cap and stem, and by its white gills. Found in the eastern United States, France, and Pakistan, it is saprobic, growing on the decaying wood of hardwood trees. L. decorosa was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck as Agaricus decorosus in 1873, and the species has been transferred to several genera in its history, including Tricholoma, Tricholomopsis, Armillaria, and Floccularia. Three American mycologists considered the species unique enough to warrant its own genus, and transferred it into the new genus Leucopholiota in a 1996 publication. Lookalike species with similar colors and scaly fruit bodies include Pholiota squarrosoides, Phaeomarasmius erinaceellus, and Leucopholiota lignicola. L. decorosa is considered an edible mushroom. ## Taxonomy and naming The species now known as Leucopholiota decorosa was first described by Charles Peck in 1873, based on a specimen he found in New York State; he placed it in Tricholoma, then considered a subgenus of Agaricus. In 1947, Alexander Smith and Walters transferred the species into the genus Armillaria, based on its apparent close relationship to Armillaria luteovirens; the presence of clamp connections in the hyphae, the amyloid spores, and the structure of the veil and its remnants. The genus Armillaria, as it was understood at the time, would later be referred to as a "taxonomic refugium for about 270 white-spored species with attached gills and an annulus." Smith later transferred the species to the genus Tricholomopsis; however, he neglected the amyloid spores, the recurved scales of the cap cuticle, and the lack of cells known as pleurocystidia, features which should have ruled out a taxonomic transfer into the genus. In 1987, the species was transferred yet again, this time to the genus Floccularia. The appearance of a specimen at a 1994 mushroom foray in North Carolina resulted in a collaboration between mycologists Tom Volk, Orson K. Miller, Jr. and Alan Bessette, who renamed the species Leucopholiota decorosa in a 1996 Mycologia publication. Leucopholiota was originally a subgenus of Armillaria, but the authors raised it to generic level to accommodate L. decorosa, which would become the type species. In 2008, Henning Knudsen considered L. decorosa to be the same species as what was then known as Amylolepiota lignicola, and considered the two names to be synonymous. However, Finnish mycologist Harri Harmaja rejected this interpretation. Originally, Harmaja believed Lepiota lignicola sufficiently distinct from other similar taxa to deserve its own genus Amylolepiota, which he described in a 2002 publication. He changed his mind in 2010, writing "the differences between the type species of both genera are small and are thus best considered as differences at the species level"; with this he transferred the taxon to Leucopholiota, and it is now known as Leucopholiota lignicola, the second species in genus Leucopholiota. The genus name Leucopholiota means "white Pholiota" (from λευκός, leukós), referring to the gills and the spores; it was proposed in 1980 by Henri Romagnesi who originally described it as a subgenus of Armillaria. The specific epithet decorosa, though intended for "elegant" or "handsome", actually means "decent", "respectable", "modest", or "decorous". L. decorosa is commonly known as the "decorated Pholiota". ## Phylogenetics Phylogenetic analysis based on evidence from ITS and large subunit ribosomal RNA sequence data have not confirmed that Leucopholiota decorosa belongs in the family Tricholomataceae. However, the analysis does show it to be phylogenetically related to Phaeolepiota aurea, a species of unclear status in the Agaricales, and it confirms that L. decorosa does not belong in the family Agaricaceae. According to the species authors, L. decorosa would fit best in the tribe Biannularieae of the Tricholomataceae as described by Rolf Singer in his comprehensive monograph on the Agaricales. This tribe also contains the genera Catathelasma and Armillaria. ## Description The caps of L. decorosa, initially conic or hemispherical in shape, later expand to become convex or flattened in maturity. The caps are typically between 2 and 6 cm (0.8 and 2.4 in) in diameter, with surfaces covered with many small curved brown scales. The edge of the cap is typically curved inwards and may have coarse brown fibers attached. The cap is cinnamon brown, darker in the center. The gills are spaced together closely; they have a narrow (adnexed) attachment to the stem, and their edges are "finely scalloped". The stem is 2.5 to 7.0 cm (1.0 to 2.8 in) tall by 0.6 to 1.2 cm (0.2 to 0.5 in) thick, and like the cap, is covered with scales from the bottom to the level of the annular zone; above this point the stipe is smooth. The partial veil is made up of brown fibers "that flare upward as an annulus." It is roughly the same thickness throughout the length of the stem, or may be slightly thinner near the top. The flesh is white and thick, and has a firm texture; its odor is indistinct, and the taste either mild or bitter. The spore deposit is white. The spores are hyaline (translucent), roughly elliptical in shape, have thin walls, and are amyloid, meaning they absorb iodine stain in Melzer's reagent. Additionally, in acetocarmine stain, they appear binucleate (having two nuclei). They have dimensions of 5.5–6 (more rarely 7) by 3.5–4.0 μm. The spore-bearing cells, the basidia, are club-shaped, translucent, and four-spored. The cheilocystida (cystidia on the gill edge) are club-shaped and 19-24 by 3–5 μm. The cap cuticle is a trichodermium—a type of tissue composed of erect, long, threadlike hyphae of same or different lengths, and originating from an interwoven layer of hyphae that ascends gradually until terminal cells are somewhat parallel to each other. The trichodermal hyphae are thin-walled, measuring 7.6–22.0 μm, and stain yellowish in Melzer's reagent. The hyphae comprising the cap tissue are thin-walled and 5–10 μm in diameter, while those of the gill tissue are also thin-walled, and 3.5–7.0 μm, and interspersed with oleiferous cells (characterized by strongly refractive, homogeneous contents). Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of all tissues. ### Edibility Leucopholiota decorosa was recorded as edible in 1900 by McIlvaine and MacAdam, who wrote that "it is of good consistency and flavor, having a decided mushroom taste." Later sources report the edibility as unknown. ### Similar species The species Pholiota squarrosoides has a similar outward appearance, but it may be distinguished by its brown spores and sticky cap surface underneath the scales. In the hedgehog pholiota (Phaeomarasmius erinaceellus), the overall size is smaller—cap diameter 1 to 4 cm (0.4 to 1.6 in)—and the spores are cinnamon-brown. Some species in the genus Cystoderma also appear similar, but can be distinguished by microscopic features, like the presence of spherical (rather than club-shaped) cells in the cuticle of the cap, and also their habitat—Cystoderma usually grows on soil, rather than wood. The only other species of Leucopholiota, L. lignicola, may be distinguished from L. decorosa by the following characteristics: free gills in L. lignicola compared with adnexed gills in L. decorosa; L. lignicola tends to grow on the wood of Birch, and preferably in old-growth forests; L. lignicola is restricted to boreal forest, compared to L. decorosa that grows in temperate regions; L. lignicola has a wide distribution throughout northern coniferous forests in Eurasia. ## Habitat and distribution Leucopholiota decorosa is a saprobic species, deriving nutrients from decaying organic matter, particularly the rotting branches and stumps of deciduous trees. One field guide notes a preference for sugar maple. It grows singly or in bunches, clustered together at the base of the stem. In Ohio, it typically fruits from late September to mid November. In addition to its known distribution in mostly eastern North America, Leucopholiota decorosa has also been collected from France. In 2007, it was reported from the Astore District of Pakistan, at an altitude of about 3,600 m (11,800 ft). ## See also - List of Tricholomataceae genera	[ "## Taxonomy and naming", "## Phylogenetics", "## Description", "### Edibility", "### Similar species", "## Habitat and distribution", "## See also" ]	2,116	15,051
33,790,495	Start Over (Beyoncé song)	1,164,733,406	null	[ "2010s ballads", "2011 songs", "Beyoncé songs", "Contemporary R&B ballads", "Song recordings produced by Beyoncé", "Song recordings produced by Shea Taylor", "Songs written by Beyoncé", "Songs written by Ester Dean", "Songs written by Shea Taylor" ]	"Start Over" is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé taken from her fourth studio album, 4 (2011). It was written by Shea Taylor, Beyoncé Knowles and Ester Dean and produced by Taylor and Knowles. The song's development was motivated by the fact that Knowles traveled around the world and experienced different cultures which inspired love and purity inside her. A mid-tempo pop, pop rock and soul-influenced R&B ballad, "Start Over" finds the female protagonist affirming her individuality and expressing her love for a man with whom she attempts to start a relationship all over again. Knowles' vocals are accompanied by electric and enticing beats; the song's instrumentation includes drums and synthesizers. "Start Over" received mixed to positive reviews from music critics, who noted that the song was quite similar to Knowles' older material. The placement of the song on the track-listing was criticized by critics, who thought that it made "Start Over" barely distinguishable. However, the beats arrangement and the vulnerability of Knowles' vocals were highlighted by many critics. Following the release of 4, "Start Over" charted at number 43 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart based on downloads alone. ## Conception "Start Over" was written by Shea Taylor, Knowles and Ester Dean and produced by the Knowles and Taylor. It was recorded at MSR Studios and Jungle City Studios in New York City, New York. "Start Over" was mixed by Serban Ghenea with further assistance from Phil Seaford and it was engineered by John Hanes with further assistance from Ramon Rivas and Pete Wolford. Beginning on June 16 to June 27, 2011, the songs from 4 were available to listen to in full each day on Knowles' official website, paired with its accompanying photo spread from the album packaging and an insightful quote. On June 22, 2011, "Start Over" was the fourth song to be chosen. The quote found Knowles elaborating on what motivated her to record a song like "Start Over": "For the first time in my life I was able to travel the world, hear different influences, see different types of dance and choreography and taste different types of food. It was important that I was able to digest everything: It inspired purity, more heart and more love." ## Composition ### Music and lyrical content "Start Over" is a midtempo R&B ballad, which contains elements of pop, soul and "angst-ridden" pop rock and is built on hollow electric beats. The song's instrumentation consists of gleaming synthesizers, a piano, loud and echoing drums, and minimal percussion instrument. According to Amanda Hensel of Pop Crush, the arrangement of the synthesizers is reminiscent of the Destiny's Child era. Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy compared the song with Knowles' own "1+1" (2011) from the same album. Andrew Unterberger of the website Popdust compared the song with Ryan Tedder-produced songs like Jordin Sparks' "Battlefield" and Kelly Clarkson's "Already Gone". Priya Elan of NME felt that the piano parts in "Start Over" were similar to songs by rock band Evanescence because of its processed drums and piano riffing. "Start Over" finds Knowles affirming her individuality and expressing her love for a man with whom she attempts to start a relationship all over again rather than losing it. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times added that Knowles' emotional radar "is set to loyalty, for better or worse — sometimes that loyalty is rewarded, and sometimes it has been betrayed, but over all, she operates on the axis of faithfulness". Her vocals throughout the song are "so vulnerable that they're almost tortured" as stated by Rubenstein. Lewis Corner of Digital Spy further noted that the "raspy and husky growls" that Knowles adopts occasionally on "Start Over", show an "offering moments of raw, heartfelt emotion". ### Song structure The song begins with Knowles singing: "I feel weak / We've been here before / 'Cause I feel we keep going back and forth / Maybe it's over, maybe we're through / But I honestly can say I still love you." The introduction is skeletal as it contains only atmospheric synthesizers and insistent drum tapping, which have been further described as "warbly [and] lighthearted". Throughout the song, the swaths of reverb occasionally pierce through the production. In the pre-chorus lines, Knowles sings: "Maybe it's over, maybe we're through, but I honestly can say I still love you / Maybe we reached a mountain peak and there’s no more left to climb / and maybe we lost a magic piece and we're too blind to find" while her vocals are followed by background sounds. The beat steadily grows from the verses to the bridge and, finally, to the chorus, with pounding drums coming into the loop during the refrain as Knowles sings: "Let’s start over / Let's give love their wings / Let’s start over / Stop fighting bout the same old thing". As she belts the high notes and the drum beats continue to catch up, she urges her man to "give love another life". During the bridge, Knowles sings: "I know I called you selfish / But that’s a lie", over a simple piano line. ## Critical reception "Start Over" earned mixed to positive reviews from critics, some of whom felt it was too similar to Knowles's older material. MTV's Jenna Hally Rubenstein wrote that in the song, Knowles shows her best side, which according to her were the "larger-than-life, emotionally tortured, breathy ballads." Writing for MTV UK, Joanne Dorken concluded that the song was "stonking and dramatic" but also "single-worthy." Dorken added: "Knowles shows off that big voice of hers, leaving us wanting more from the lady herself." While reviewing 4, Gary Graff of Billboard magazine noted that several songs on the album, including "Start Over", were talking about "the gray areas in between". Erika Ramirez of the same magazine said: "Again honest when it comes to love, Bey[oncé]' won't surrender till she and beau 'give love another life.' Bey[oncé]'s roar matches the song's fight." Ben Cardew of Music Week stated that "Start Over" was the first indication that Knowles might have picked "some leftfield influences during those nine months off", making reference to the way the song starts, as he wrote, "with what sounds like – but most probably isn't – distorted pan pipes before kicking into a massive R&B number." Robert Copsey of the website Digital Spy found similarities between the song and Knowles' older material. Chad Grischow of IGN commented that the chiming blend of synth and piano over a hollow beat on "Start Over" showcase the vulnerability in Knowles' vocals effectively. Amanda Hensel of the website Pop Crush graded the song with three out of five stars and called it one of the "begging and pleading love songs, but it also has that element of 'Yeah, it's probably time to call this off.'" She added that: "This feels like more of a filler track than a chart-topping single, and because she's the best of the best, it's easy for her to knock out a killer song without really trying." Hensel finished her review by saying "'Start Over' is good, but it's not amazing, and we know she can do better." Cristin Maher of the same publication in his review of 4 wrote: > "Although it is easy for some to get sick of the repetitive lovesick theme B seems to gravitate towards, the music in this song nothing short of epic, as is Beyonce's vocal performance. The beat steadily grows from the verses to the bridge and, finally, to the chorus, with pounding drums coming in to the loop during the refrain as B[eyoncé] sings, 'Let's start over / Let's give love their wings / Let's start over / Stop fighting bout the same old thing.'" A mixed review was given by Andy Gill of The Independent who said that "the vocal editing on 'Start Over' is far too sloppy, confirming again that a series of individual flourishes doesn't pass muster as a performance." David Amidon of PopMatters also gave a mixed review for "Start Over" and "Countdown" saying that they "just don't seem to be listening to themselves, and will get by on listenability more than lyrical wizardry if they get by at all." Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone also gave a mixed review for the song, saying: "While the other songs on 4 all have a distinct flavor and give Beyoncé an opportunity to try something new in some way or another, 'Start Over' just kind of sits there at the middle of the disc not doing much of anything." He also noted that "Start Over" was an "inoffensive ballad that doesn't do much for the record aside from break its momentum at the halfway point." Although Becky Bain of Idolator called Knowles' vocals "gorgeous", he gave a mixed review for the song because it "could have been recorded by anyone and ended with similar results" with the one done by Knowles. Bain stated that Knowles should have "procure more polarizing songs and take bigger risks — at least then half of her fans would love it, as opposed to her entire fanbase shrugging at everything they hear." NME's Hamish MacBain classified the song as one of the "barely distinguishable slowies" and added that the "will to continue listening [the album] departs." Andrew Unterberger of the website Popdust gave a negative review for "Start Over" grading it with two out of five stars. Comparing it with Knowles' older material, Unterberger concluded: "Beyoncé tries her best to imbue them with legitimate emotion, especially on the chorus, but it's just not happening this time around." Ricky Schweitzer of the website Beats Per Minute concluded that songs like "I Miss You" and "Start Over" would earn deserved spots in "the Beyoncé pantheon" once fans take the time to grow attached to them. Elan Priya of NME wrote that the song was a "trouble-in-paradise tune" with an "overblown chorus with hair-rock aspirations". However, he commented that the song was "rather buried under sonic bluster". ## Promotion Although set to showcase Knowles' fourth album 4, "Start Over" was noticeably missing from her set list for the 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé revue. Elementary school chorus PS22 chorus covered the song in March 2012. Their cover appeared on Knowles' official website. A remix of the song from Polish house band WAWA premiered online on July 8, 2013. Mike Wass of the website Idolator classified the original song as the "album's only not-completely-brilliant moment", he noted "the WAWA boys did a great job transforming it into a dark and dangerous house anthem that stands toe-to-toe with Bey’s best floorfillers." ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from 4 liner notes. - Ester Dean – songwriter - Serban Ghenea – mixer - John Hanes – engineer mixer - Beyoncé Knowles – vocals, songwriter, producer - Ramon Rivas – assistant engineer - Phil Seaford – assistant mixer - Shea Taylor – songwriter, producer - Jordan "DJ Swivel" Young – engineer - Pete Wolford – assistant engineer ## Chart performance For the week ending July 2, 2011, "Start Over" debuted at number 43 on the South Korean International Singles Chart, selling 14,192 digital downloads.	[ "## Conception", "## Composition", "### Music and lyrical content", "### Song structure", "## Critical reception", "## Promotion", "## Credits and personnel", "## Chart performance" ]	2,487	34,728
31,883,099	Highgrove House, Eastcote	1,148,802,983	Country house in Eastcote, London	[ "1881 establishments in England", "Country houses in London", "E. S. Prior buildings", "Eastcote", "Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Hillingdon", "Grade II listed houses in London", "History of Middlesex", "Houses completed in 1881", "Houses in the London Borough of Hillingdon", "Middlesex" ]	Highgrove House, also known as High Grove House or High Grove, is a Grade II listed mansion in the suburban area of Eastcote, within the London Borough of Hillingdon. Originally built in 1750 by the Reverend John Lidgould, the house was rebuilt in 1881 by Sir Hugh Hume-Campbell following a catastrophic fire. Along with Haydon Hall and Eastcote House, Highgrove was one of the three main houses of Eastcote and eventually became a residential hostel for homeless families, run by the local council from the 1960s until 2007. An area of the estate was sold to the local council in 1935 by the then-owner Eleanor Warrender to become what is now Warrender Park. In 1975, the house was granted Grade II listed status on account of its special architectural character. The house was subsequently closed as a hostel by the council and sold for £1.295m to Westcombe Estates. Planning permission was granted to the new owners in January 2007 for the conversion of the building into a luxury housing block of 12 units and expanded for a further three years in February 2010. ## History ### First house The site of the present house was originally owned and lived on by the Hale family in the 13th century. Reverend John Lidgould of Harmondsworth bought part of the land owned by Martha Hale and Elizabeth Kelly in 1747 and had the first house built. Robert Turner bought the house and lived there from 1758; his son sold it in 1787 to the canon of Wells Cathedral, William Blencowe. John Humphrey Babb leased the house from the early 19th century, purchasing it outright from the Blencowe family in 1813. Upon his death in 1825, his successor as Deliverer of the Vote in the House of Commons, James Mitchell, moved to the house, living there until his own death in 1833. His widow subsequently sold Highgrove at auction. In 1843, the house was bought by Lieutenant General Joseph Fuller. Days before his death, his daughter Juliana married Sir Hugh Hume-Campbell in October 1841. Ownership based to Fuller's daughter, the new Lady Hume-Campbell, although in 1879 the house was destroyed by fire. The Uxbridge Volunteer Fire Brigade with assistance from a pump provided by Pinner Hall were unable to save the building. ### Second house The ruins of the house were cleared following the fire, and Sir Hugh contracted Edward Schroeder Prior to design the new house, which was completed in 1881. Prior followed the Queen Anne and early Georgian architecture styles in his design, which is based around an "L" shape with a southern extension for the house's domestic services. Highgrove was built of red brick, with two storeys and an attic. The window arches were also made of brick. On the ground floor facing the gardens, three sets of three windows in bays were included. Prior's design drawings for the house were shown in an exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1882. The Hume-Campbells had no children, and the house eventually passed to the Warrender family in 1894, who, as the grandchildren of Sir Hugh from his first marriage, were the next of kin. Brother and sister Hugh and Eleanor Warrender shared the house and were friends with Jenny Churchill, the mother of the future British prime minister Winston Churchill. He stayed at the house for his honeymoon in the early 1900s. In 1935, Eleanor Warrender sold 10.5 acres (4.2 ha) of the grounds of the house to the local council to establish a new playground and park, now named Warrender Park, and 13 acres (5.3 ha) to Ideal Homes for a residential development. During the Second World War, she made Highgrove available to the military, and British and American personnel from RAF Northolt stayed there. Highgrove was bought by the Ruislip-Northwood Urban District Council in 1949 following Eleanor Warrender's death. The Council gave it to the Middlesex County Council and the house became a home for the elderly. In 1965, ownership passed to the newly established London Borough of Hillingdon and Highgrove became a residential hostel for homeless families. The house received Grade II listed status on 26 November 1975 due to its special architectural character, though was slightly damaged by a fire in the attic in 1979. According to English Heritage, a Grade II listing denotes "buildings that are of special interest, warranting every effort to preserve them." ### Restoration The house closed as a hostel in 2007, after the London Borough of Hillingdon chose to replace its temporary accommodation with affordable permanent housing, in light of a directive from the Government for all local authorities to reduce the number of families in temporary housing by half by 2010. Highgrove, together with six other buildings was put forward to be sold for redevelopment, with the proceeds to be invested in the construction of new housing. Permission was granted for the restoration of the house and its conversion into a 12 unit luxury housing block in January 2007. Part of the conversion work by the new owners, Westcombe Estates, involved the demolition of an annex building to make way for a sheltered housing block. At that time, the total land around and including the house included with the sale was 0.74 hectares (1.8 acres). In February 2010, the planning permission for the work was extended for a further three years. In June 2010, an arson attack damaged sections of the ground floor and first floor. Two people were arrested the following day and released on bail in relation to the attack. The construction of mews houses behind Highgrove House as part of the development was halted in July 2011 after it was found they were being built 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) out of the positions set in the planning permission. Following a review, the council agreed to allow the developers to continue the work, despite the close proximity to several existing houses bordering the site.	[ "## History", "### First house", "### Second house", "### Restoration" ]	1,282	5,560
56,776,366	Brad Davison	1,173,213,756	American basketball player (born 1999)	[ "1999 births", "American expatriate basketball people in Lithuania", "American football quarterbacks", "American men's basketball players", "BC Nevėžis players", "Basketball players from Minnesota", "Living people", "People from Maple Grove, Minnesota", "Shooting guards", "Sportspeople from Hennepin County, Minnesota", "Wisconsin Badgers men's basketball players" ]	Bradley Davison (born April 22, 1999) is an American professional basketball player who plays for HLA Alicante of the LEB Oro. He played college basketball for the Wisconsin Badgers. Davison attended Maple Grove High School where he played basketball and football. He was named to the Big Ten All-Freshman Team after averaging 12.1 points per game. ## High school career Davison attended Maple Grove High School and played both basketball and football. He played as a quarterback on the football field and led the Crimson to an 8–3 record as a senior. He led the West Metro South subdistrict in passing with 2,418 yards and 23 touchdowns, completing 62.9 percent of his throws. Davison finished second in the subdistrict in rushing with 891 yards and 15 scores. Davison was named 2016 Star Tribune Metro Player of the Year. He completed 43 career touchdown passes and rushed for 25 touchdowns. Throughout his career under center, Davison led Maple Grove to three state tournament appearances and a 27–7 record. On the basketball court, Davison was a four-year starter and captain and earned All-Conference honors during all four of his years playing. He averaged 21.2 points, 6.4 rebounds, and 7.3 assists per game as a junior in leading Maple Grove to a 25–5 record and a state tournament berth. He was named to the Star Tribune All-Metro First Team as a junior. As a senior, he led the team to a 28–4 record and state tournament appearance and was a finalist for Minnesota's Mr. Basketball. Davison earned a spot on USA Today's Minnesota All-State Team after averaging 24.4 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.9 assists and 4.2 steals per game. He finished his career at Maple Grove as the school's all-time leader in points (2,300), assists (899) and steals (365). He was ranked the No. 119 recruit in his class by Rivals and committed to playing basketball at Wisconsin on July 11, 2016, choosing the Badgers over offers from Minnesota, Michigan, Butler, Stanford and Northwestern. ## College career ### Freshman season (2017–2018) Davison scored 20 points on December 9, 2017, in an 82–63 loss to Marquette. On February 25, 2018, Davison scored a career-high 30 points in a 68–63 loss to Michigan State. Davison finished as Wisconsin's second-leading scorer as a freshman, averaging 12.1 points per game while shooting 81.8 percent from the free throw line and making a team-high 60 shots from the three-point range. Davison earned a spot on the Big Ten’s All-Freshman team. He sustained numerous shoulder injuries throughout the course of his freshman season, resulting in successful offseason left shoulder surgery. During his freshman season, the Wisconsin men's basketball team missed the NCAA tournament for the first time in 20 years and finished with a 15–18 record and 9th in the Big Ten Conference. The team saw their season end following a loss to the Michigan State Spartans in the Big Ten tournament on March 2, 2018. ### Sophomore season (2018–2019) Davison began his sophomore season in a slump, hitting 10-for-35 (28.6 percent) of his shots in his first 10 games. In a 12-game stretch in the middle of the season, Davison shot much better, hitting 29-for-53 (54.7 percent) of his three-pointers. He finished the season in a slump as well, going 13-for-61 (21.3 percent) in his final 12 games. He averaged 10.5 points per game as a sophomore, shooting 34.9 percent from beyond the arc. Davison was an Academic All-Big Ten honoree. He dealt with a foot and ankle injury throughout the season, often wearing a protective boot after games. He gained a reputation from opposing fan bases for receiving flagrant fouls and tripping players, something Wisconsin coach Greg Gard attributed to Davison playing extremely hard. Davison also received attention for excessive flopping, and the NCAA rule to combat it was informally called "the Brad Davison rule." ### Junior season (2019–2020) As a junior, Davison became the team's emotional leader with the departure of Ethan Happ. During a three-game stretch in November and December 2019, Davison shot 3-of-20 as Wisconsin lost all three games. He scored 14 points and hit the game-winning three-pointer with 9.1 seconds remaining in a 56–54 upset of Maryland on January 14, 2020. On January 29, Davison was suspended one game by the Big Ten for a flagrant foul he committed the previous game in which he struck Iowa's Connor McCaffery in the groin. On February 15, Davison tied a career-high with 30 points and his eight three-pointers tied a school record set by Bronson Koenig in an 81–64 win over Nebraska. On February 23, Davison became the 45th player in Wisconsin history to score 1,000 points during a game against Rutgers. Davison averaged 9.9 points and 4.3 rebounds per game as a junior. ### Senior season (2020–2021) Davison scored a season-high 29 points in an 85–62 win against North Carolina in the Round of 64 of the NCAA Tournament. As a senior, Davison averaged 10 points, 3.5 rebounds, and 2.4 assists per game. He announced that he would be returning for a fifth season of eligibility, taking advantage of the NCAA's decision regarding athletes who participated in the 2020–21 season. ### Fifth season (2021–2022) Coming into the 2021–22 season, Davison assumed a leadership role with the departure of several top players, although teammate Johnny Davis emerged as a national player of the year candidate. On January 27, 2022, Davison broke the Wisconsin career record for made three-pointers during a game against Nebraska, breaking Bronson Koenig's mark of 270. He finished with 21 points including five made three-pointers in a 73–65 win. Davison was named to the Second Team All-Big Ten by the coaches and Third Team by the media. Davison averaged 14.1 points, 4.0 rebounds and 2.1 assists per game as a fifth-year senior. ## Professional career On August 2, 2022, Davison signed with Nevėžis Kėdainiai of the Lithuanian Basketball League (LKL). In his first professional season, Davison averaged 13.7 points, 3.5 rebounds, 3.4 assists and 1.5 steals in 35 LKL games played. ## Career statistics ### College \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| 2017–18 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| Wisconsin \\| 33 \\|\\| 29 \\|\\| 31.2 \\|\\| .405 \\|\\| .355 \\|\\| .818 \\|\\| 2.3 \\|\\| 2.5 \\|\\| 1.2 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 12.1 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| 2018–19 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| Wisconsin \\| 34 \\|\\| 34 \\|\\| 32.2 \\|\\| .385 \\|\\| .349 \\|\\| .809 \\|\\| 3.3 \\|\\| 1.8 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| .1 \\|\\| 10.5 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| 2019–20 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| Wisconsin \\| 30 \\|\\| 30 \\|\\| 30.9 \\|\\| .395 \\|\\| .359 \\|\\| .844 \\|\\| 4.3 \\|\\| 1.9 \\|\\| .8 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 9.9 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| 2020–21 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| Wisconsin \\| 31 \\|\\| 31 \\|\\| 31.0 \\|\\| .345 \\|\\| .389 \\|\\| .868 \\|\\| 3.5 \\|\\| 2.4 \\|\\| 1.1 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 10.0 \\|- \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| 2021–22 \\| style="text-align:left;"\\| Wisconsin \\| 33 \\|\\| 33 \\|\\| 34.4 \\|\\| .384 \\|\\| .347 \\|\\| .864 \\|\\| 4.0 \\|\\| 2.1 \\|\\| 0.8 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 14.1 \\|- class="sortbottom" \\| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\\| Career \\| 161 \\|\\| 157 \\|\\| 32.0 \\|\\| .383 \\|\\| .359 \\|\\| .840 \\|\\| 3.5 \\|\\| 2.1 \\|\\| 1.0 \\|\\| .0 \\|\\| 11.3 ## Personal life Davison identifies as a Christian. He has two older sisters, Stephanie and Angie, both of whom played on the Northern Iowa Panthers women's basketball team, graduating in 2016 and 2017 respectively. In high school, Davison achieved a 4.0 GPA and was named the 2017 Scholar-Athlete award from the Minnesota Chapter of the National Football Foundation. He was a member of National Honor Society in high school. Throughout his life, Davison has participated in more than 120 hours of volunteer work, going on service trips to Jamaica and Costa Rica and also at Shriners Prom. Davison was a member of Maple Grove's Fellowship of Christian Athletes and its GOLD program, which feeds impoverished peoples across the world. He is majoring in business management and human resources at Wisconsin. In July 2021, Davison became engaged to Tyra Buss, an assistant coach at Milwaukee and former Indiana player.	[ "## High school career", "## College career", "### Freshman season (2017–2018)", "### Sophomore season (2018–2019)", "### Junior season (2019–2020)", "### Senior season (2020–2021)", "### Fifth season (2021–2022)", "## Professional career", "## Career statistics", "### College", "## Personal life" ]	2,204	36,689
13,340,397	Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2000	1,171,944,580	null	[ "2000 in Northern Ireland", "Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning Northern Ireland", "Government of Northern Ireland", "Northern Ireland peace process", "Police Service of Northern Ireland", "Police legislation in the United Kingdom", "Royal Ulster Constabulary", "United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 2000" ]	The Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2000 (c 32) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The act renamed the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) to the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI). It also created the Northern Ireland Policing Board and District Police Partnerships. The act was designed to gain cross-community support for law enforcement in Northern Ireland with several initiatives included in the act, including a change of oath of office and a 50:50 recruitment policy for Protestants and Roman Catholics. The Bill for this Act received its first reading in the House of Commons on 16 May 2000. ## Background The Royal Ulster Constabulary had been responsible for law enforcement in Northern Ireland since being split from the all-Ireland Royal Irish Constabulary before the partition of Ireland. During The Troubles, they had been accused by nationalists of having a unionist bias against the nationalist minority. Despite this, they had a reputation as an efficient anti-terrorism police force and were collectively awarded the George Cross by Queen Elizabeth II. Following the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 to end hostilities in Northern Ireland, a report was set up led by the former Governor of Hong Kong Chris Patten to look into giving policing in Northern Ireland cross-community consent. The majority of the report from the Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland (known as the Patten Report) suggested substituting the Royal Ulster Constabulary for a more representative force with a change of name and reduction of numbers. The Police (Northern Ireland) Act was intended to fulfill this report though it was amended when going through Parliament. ## Name of the force The first clause of the act covered the name of the police force. The Patten Report originally suggested naming the force the "Northern Ireland Police Service". The government of the United Kingdom adapted the proposal and put forward for the force to be named "Police Service of Northern Ireland" instead as they disliked the acronym of NIPS. Unionists wanted to retain the royal title in the name of the new police force, with the Ulster Unionist Party leader and First Minister of Northern Ireland, David Trimble citing not many British police forces had a royal title and felt that the heritage of the Royal Ulster Constabulary was being ignored. During the debate on the bill, MPs cited that there were several organisations in the Republic of Ireland, such as the Royal Irish Yacht Club and the Royal Irish Academy, that retained a royal title without comment. In the House of Lords, the former leader of the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party, Lord Fitt also requested that the Royal Ulster Constabulary retain its name. Following pressure from the Conservative Party, the government compromised and the Police (Northern Ireland) Act decreed the official name of the force to be the "Police Service of Northern Ireland (incorporating the Royal Ulster Constabulary)". The act also provided for the Royal Ulster Constabulary George Cross Foundation to be established for "marking the sacrifices and honouring the achievements of the Royal Ulster Constabulary". ## Police authority A new Northern Ireland Policing Board would be created under the act to replace the Police Authority of Northern Ireland. The Patten Report suggested having political representation on the board with local divisions corresponding to Northern Irish district councils being appointed with full administrative oversight. The Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams wanted the Patten Report's suggestions to be fully implemented. However following unionist concerns that the proposed districts would give members of the IRA too much influence over the police, the proposals were watered down to allow Chief Constables to challenge decisions made by the board. Sinn Féin initially refused to take their seats on the Policing Board as a result. They would eventually do so in 2007. ## Recruitment The act included a provision regarding recruitment for new police officers. It stated that the force's size should be reduced by 4,500 officers over ten years. It was felt that the force was too large for a peacetime service. A generous severance scheme was set up to compensate any officers who left the police as a result. At the time of the act's passage, the Royal Ulster Constabulary had a 9:1 ratio of Protestant to Roman Catholic officers. The act provided that recruitment would be done on a 50:50 basis to gradually lead towards a police force that was 50 per cent Protestant and 50 per cent Catholic. This proposal in the Patten Report was made in the hope that the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) would repeal Rule 21 which prohibited members of British police forces from playing Gaelic games. The GAA eventually did this in 2001. The act also followed on from a policy change that stated constables would no longer have to swear an oath of allegiance to the Queen in 1997. In 2011, the British government voted to repeal the 50:50 recruitment requirement when Catholic membership numbered 30 per cent of the police. Nationalist politicians believed it was a successful policy however unionists stated that the policy had discriminated against Protestants. Calls have been made by Catholic clergymen for the policy to be restored until the force was 50:50. ## Miscellaneous provisions The act provided for cross-border support with the police of the Republic of Ireland, Garda Síochána, with the opportunities for PSNI officers to go on secondment with the Garda and vice versa. The act also stated that the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland had the power to decide the PSNI's uniform and flags. Their new uniform retained the rifle green colour of the Royal Ulster Constabulary but included name tags, against the wishes of the Police Federation. The Secretary of State would also be able to rule if the Union Jack would be able to fly over PSNI police stations as they had under the Royal Ulster Constabulary. ## See also - Belfast Agreement - Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland - Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2003	[ "## Background", "## Name of the force", "## Police authority", "## Recruitment", "## Miscellaneous provisions", "## See also" ]	1,233	14,808
16,737,720	Washington State Route 243	1,146,477,081	State highway in Grant County, Washington	[ "State highways in Washington (state)", "Transportation in Grant County, Washington" ]	State Route 243 (SR 243) is a state highway in Grant County, Washington. It travels north–south along the Columbia River for 28 miles (45 km), connecting SR 24 at the Vernita Bridge to SR 26 near Vantage. The highway travels through a predominantly rural and desert area, serving two hydroelectric dams and the communities of Desert Aire, Mattawa, and Beverly. The highway was established as a branch of Secondary State Highway 7C (SSH 7C) in 1957, to be built uphill from the reservoir of the new Priest Rapids Dam. Construction was completed in the early 1960s and it was re-designated as SR 243 during the 1964 state highway renumbering. ## Route description SR 243 begins at a junction with SR 24 at the north end of the Vernita Bridge, located in the Hanford Reach National Monument. Traffic continuing on SR 24 towards Othello is forced to turn east, while the highway continues northwest as SR 243. The highway turns west and follows the Columbia River upstream, passing a public boat launch and a campground within the Saddle Mountain National Wildlife Refuge. As the terrain transitions from brushland and sand dunes to irrigated farmland, SR 243 turns northwest and passes the Priest Rapids Dam and Wanapum Heritage Center at the south end of Desert Aire, a resort town with its own golf course and public airport. The highway continues north through the vineyards of the western Wahluke Slope and passes a roundabout at the west end of Mattawa. North of Mattawa, the bluffs of the Saddle Mountains cause the river and its valley to narrow, leaving SR 243 to run directly on the eastern bank as it traverses the Sentinel Gap. Near Beverly, the highway passes under the Beverly Railroad Bridge, which carries the Palouse to Cascades State Park Trail, and moves away from the river bank to serve Wanapum Village near the Wanapum Dam. SR 243 continues north across the hills overlooking the dam's reservoir, passing through several rock cuts near the Sand Hollow Recreation Area, and descends to an intersection with SR 26, where the highway terminates. The junction is located one mile (1.6 km) south of an interchange with Interstate 90 (I-90) at the east end of the Vantage Bridge, where SR 26 itself terminates. The highway is maintained by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), which conducts an annual survey of traffic volume on state routes, expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic. Average vehicle counts on SR 243 measured in 2016 ranged from a minimum of 2,800 vehicles near Beverly to a maximum of 4,600 vehicles between Desert Aire and Mattawa. ## History A road following the un-dammed Columbia River from the Priest Rapids to Vantage was built by the early 1910s, roughly along the path of modern SR 243. The state legislature authorized construction of a new state highway between Vantage and the Vernita ferry in 1957 and designated it as a branch of Secondary State Highway 7C (SSH 7C). The highway was created to serve the under-construction Priest Rapids and Wanapum dams, the former of which would inundate a section of the old road with its new reservoir. Construction on the highway began later in the year and was completed in the early 1960s, shortly before the opening of the Vernita Bridge at its southern terminus with SSH 11A. During 1964 state highway renumbering, the Priest Rapids branch of SSH 7C was re-designated as SR 243, while the main route became SR 26. The intersection with Road 24, a county road that serves as the main entry to Mattawa, had been the site of several major and fatal collisions in the late 2000s, prompting WSDOT to propose construction of a roundabout. The \$1.25 million roundabout was the first to be built in a rural area and was subject to opposition from local residents. After it was completed in 2014, the opposing residents apologized for their stance on the project, having adjusted to the change. ## Major intersections	[ "## Route description", "## History", "## Major intersections" ]	871	2,950
40,157,493	New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light	1,165,954,588	null	[ "2013 albums", "Colin Stetson albums", "Constellation Records (Canada) albums" ]	New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light is the fourth studio album by Canada-based saxophonist Colin Stetson, released by Constellation Records in 2013. It is the final part of a trilogy of albums that also encompasses New History Warfare Vol. 1 (2007) and New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges (2011). Stetson, whose contributions to the album were recorded live without overdubs or loops, is the sole musical performer on the album, with Bon Iver's Justin Vernon later providing vocals on four tracks. Production on the album was undertaken by Stetson in collaboration with Ben Frost. New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light was met with critical acclaim upon its release in April 2013 and was shortlisted for the 2013 Polaris Music Prize three months later. ## Background and recording Stetson's original concept for the New History Warfare trilogy was largely skeletal, and developed as the albums were recorded. New History Warfare Vol. 1 was released in 2008 and had a narrative concept of a story of people who had been living at sea for generations. New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges, released in 2011, told the story of one of these people finally arriving on land. New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light expanded on this, with Stetson stating that "it’s a war story. It’s finding your way to this shining beacon on the mountaintop," and that it "deals with death and love." Stetson's playing technique includes multiphonics and overblowing, and he uses circular breathing to produce continuous tones without interruption, allowing him to perform an extended stream of notes. The physical and technical demands of this style of playing require Stetson to adhere to a fitness routine that includes running, yoga, breathing exercises and meditation. During the course of his career, his playing proficiency had been developing and each album in the New History Warfare trilogy marked a musical progression from the last. By the time he recorded New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light, Stetson's playing capability had improved to such a level that he claimed "there’s almost nothing in there that I could have played when I recorded Vol. 2." Stetson's parts on Vol. 3 were performed and recorded live without overdubs or loops in various studios in Montreal, where he had wanted to use the large rooms to provide more reverb. Using an arrangement of microphones placed in strategic places including on the side of the saxophone, on his own throat, hanging from the ceiling and at different points around the studio, Stetson captured not only the sounds of the instrument but also the percussive sound of the keys and the sounds of his own breathing and vocalizing through the horn. Producer Ben Frost, whom Stetson had previously worked with on New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges, mixed between fifteen and twenty recordings of the same performance into a cohesive piece of music at Greenhouse Studios in Iceland. The vocals of Justin Vernon were recorded at April Base studios in Fall Creek, Wisconsin, and were overdubbed later in the recording process. ## Musical content New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light contains eleven tracks with a total running time of fifty-two minutes. Ten tracks were written by Stetson, with three of these featuring additional writing from Justin Vernon. The track "What are They Doing in Heaven Today?" is a cover version of a gospel song written by Charles Albert Tindley in 1901 and recorded by Washington Phillips in 1928. Stetson has stated that the songs are "based in traditional American song," and the music was described by AllMusic reviewer Fred Thomas as containing "elements of jazz, modern composition, and... aspects of repetition and textural drone found in certain branches of electronic music and noise." Fact called the album "a rich, multi-layered sonic world" and noted that the presence of Vernon's vocals meant that "Stetson’s approach feels considerably poppier this time around." Pitchfork Media opined that Stetson has "plowed a unique path through the music landscape in the last five years," stating that "his music is heady but always rooted in the body." Jeremy D. Larson concurred with this idea, claiming that Stetson's music is "alien but human, technically astounding but filled with passion – the saxophone acts as a medium of expression tied to his whole body", but admitted that "to most ears, Stetson’s music is hard to classify." Reviewer Daniel Paton also found classification of the music difficult, saying that it "doesn’t really meet even the most open-minded definitions of jazz, neither is it really an example of free improvised music." In his review for Drowned in Sound, Alexander Tudor observed the album's "abrasiveness, brute force, and determination to push the instrument to its limits," describing a "relentless pummelling of metal in motion; often aggressive or chaotic, but using scales to evoke a sense of discipline" while noting that Stetson was "equally at home with classical minimalism." Exclaim! reviewer Vincent Pollard noted how Vol. 3 "organically and coherently blends Stetson's avant-garde playing and dark, complex themes with accessible and compelling compositions," while MusicOMH commented that Stetson was "finding guttural, fuzzy, violent sounds from his saxophone... but also finding a disarming warmth where necessary." In his review for No Ripcord, Stephen Wragg stated that "there’s such a polyphonic richness to these recordings that it sounds, at times, like five people are present" and noted that the techniques employed in the recording of the album "creates this heady, vertiginous rush – adrenaline-inducing in its deftness; and that’s an effect that strikes me as incredibly difficult to recreate in music." Spin's Richard Gehr suggested that the music was "densely multiphonic, often claustrophobic, and reeks of fear and flight" but that it "offers at least a slight sense of salvation," and concluded that the final album in the trilogy was "music of the moment, a work of granular epiphanies that accrete, finally, into a magnificent whole." ## Release At the announcement of the album in January 2013, the track "High Above a Grey Green Sea" was made available for streaming on the Constellation Records SoundCloud website. In March, four more tracks from the album ("And in Truth", "Hunted", "Who the Waves Are Roaring For" and "Part of Me Apart From You") were able to be streamed following their premiere on the Belgian radio station Radio Scorpio. A short film made to accompany the tracks "In Mirrors" and "And in Truth" was released on 5 April 2013, directed by Kurtis Hough, Dan Huiting and Tabb Firchau. New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light was released on 29 April 2013 in Europe and the following day in North America. The album was released on compact disc, 180g vinyl and digital download. Following the release of the album, a promotional video was made for the track "Who the Waves Are Roaring For", created by videographers Isaac Gale and David Jensen. In July 2013, New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light was shortlisted for the Polaris Music Prize, which was Stetson's second nomination for the award after Vol. 2: Judges in 2011. ## Reception New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews and ratings from mainstream critics, the album has received a metascore of 81, based on 18 reviews. AllMusic rated New History Warfare Vol. 3: To See More Light four stars out of five with reviewer Fred Thomas commenting that "Stetson explores scorched landscapes and heavenly scenes alike with his stylized playing." In his review for Consequence of Sound, Jeremy D. Larson lauded Stetson's album as "his strongest and most cohesive collection in his career" and suggested that "you’ve never heard anything like it", giving a mark of four-and-a-half stars out of five. Vol. 3 received an eight out of ten review from Drowned in Sound, where Alexander Tudor found the album to be "essential listening and another triumph." Exclaim! magazine's Vincent Pollard awarded the album a perfect ten out of ten score, praising its "accessible and compelling compositions" and dubbing it a "masterpiece." Angus Finlayson of FACT magazine was more critical, rating the album three-and-a-half out of five and commenting that Vernon's vocals "run the risk of taming Stetson’s playing." A favorable review from musicOMH's Daniel Paton described Vol. 3's "unpredictable and challenging but frequently awe-inspiring terrain" and gave the album four-and-a-half stars out of five. No Ripcord reviewer Stephen Wragg was less impressed, rating it a seven out of ten, but offered that the album was "stacked with jaw-dropping moments, underpinned by seismic emotional shifts." Mark Richardson, writing for Pitchfork Media, awarded Vol. 3 8.1 out of 10 and noted Stetson's "impressive achievement" before concluding that "the result is a sound that could come only from one person on earth." Spin magazine's Richard Gehr described the music as "peerless at conveying isolation, loneliness, and alienation" and scored the album eight out of ten. Rob Young of The Wire praised the album's "extraordinary aural illusionism", noting that Stetson's playing technique finds "timbres in the saxophone's tubing that are rarely brought out." Jazz critic Tom Hull said there is "nothing else quite like it", highlighting the eerie quality provided by Vernon's overdubbed vocals and the live, versatile playing of Stetson: "[He] plays everything from alto down but favors the big bass sax, and makes extensive use of circular breathing, which gives his tones resonance and a warbly rhythm". ## Track listing All songs written by Colin Stetson except where noted. ## Personnel Performers - Colin Stetson – alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, bass saxophone, vocals, production - Justin Vernon – vocals Recording personnel - Mell Dettmer – mastering - Ben Frost – mixing, production - Jon Ottosen – mixing - Vid Cousins – recording - Marcus Paquin – recording - BJ Burton – recording - Brian Joseph – recording - Mark Lawson – engineering, recording Additional personnel - Tracy Maurice – artwork, design - Matt Moroz – artwork, design	[ "## Background and recording", "## Musical content", "## Release", "## Reception", "## Track listing", "## Personnel" ]	2,266	22,242
8,051,685	Hasvik Airport	1,099,271,157	Airport in Hasvik, Norway	[ "1973 establishments in Norway", "Airports established in 1973", "Airports in Troms og Finnmark", "Avinor airports", "Hasvik" ]	Hasvik Airport (Norwegian: Hasvik lufthavn; ) is a regional airport serving Hasvik Municipality in Troms og Finnmark county, Norway. The airport is located in the village of Hasvik on the island of Sørøya. In 2012, Hasvik Airport had 7,629 passengers, making it the third-least busy airport operated by the state-owned Avinor. The airport consists of a 909-meter (2,982 ft) runway and is served by Widerøe with Dash 8-100 aircraft. The airport tower is operated remotely from Bodø. Planning started in 1972 for an airport to serve air taxi and air ambulance services. The original 421-meter (1,381 ft) gravel runway opened on 17 May 1973, allowing Norving to operate flights with their Britten-Norman Islanders. The airport was upgraded with a longer runway and a larger terminal in 1983, allowing Norving to start scheduled services to Alta and Hammerfest. Widerøe took over the routes in 1990, at first using the de Havilland Canada Twin Otter. The runway was asphalted in 1995, allowing Widerøe to introduce the Dash 8. The airport was nationalized two years later. ## History The first aircraft in Hasvik was an emergency landing carried out en route to Svalbard in the early 1970s. The plain where the aircraft landed, located near the village, became the site of the airport. The regional airline Norving took the initiative in 1972 to construct a simple airfield at Hasvik; they hoped to finance along with the municipality, the National Insurance Administration and the local chapter of the Norwegian Red Cross Search and Rescue Corps. In addition to being able to operate an air taxi service and land air ambulances, locals hoped that the construction would be a first step to becoming part of the state-financed construction of regional airports in Finnmark. However, Hasvik was not selected as one of the original regional airports. The initial airport consisted of a 421-meter (1,381 ft) gravel runway and a spartan terminal consisting of no more than a shack. The airport opened on 17 May 1973 and Norving started an air taxi service using the eight-passenger Britten-Norman Islander. Grants of 3.5 million Norwegian krone (NOK) were issued from the state in 1981, which was supplemented with funding from Norving, the National Insurance Administration, Kommunalbanken and local interests. The new facilities opened in early 1983, consisting of a larger terminal and control tower and a lengthening of the runway—although it retained the gravel surface. The upgrades cost NOK 5.8 million; they allowed Norving to operate a daily scheduled taxi route to Hammerfest and Alta, and for the first time Hasvik was able to receive same-day newspapers. The flights corresponded with Scandinavian Airlines System's Oslo-flights at Alta Airport. Norving operated at the airport until 1990, when the route was taken over by Widerøe, who initially used the de Havilland Canada Twin Otter. The Ministry of Transport and Communications announced in February 1993 that they were considering taking over ownership and operations of the airport through the Civil Aviation Administration (CAA, later renamed Avinor). Along with Båtsfjord Airport and Vardø Airport, Svartnes, Hasvik Airport was one of three regional airports in Finnmark with government-subsidized routes which did not receive state operating grants. In December Widerøe articulated that Hasvik Airport did not meet the demands for future operation as it lacked proper instruments and did not have an asphalt runway. Widerøe stated that with the introduction of the Dash 8 they would no longer be able to serve the airport. Additional navigation aids were installed in 1993 and the runway was asphalted in 1995, subsequently resulting in Dash 8 services being introduced. The state and the Civil Aviation Administration took over ownership and operations of the airport from 1 January 1997. The runway lights were upgraded in 2008 and 2009, followed by the installation of the Global Positioning System-based landing system SCAT-I. Avinor wants to extend most short airports to 1200 m by year 2030, because they see a lack of aircraft types which have more than 19 seats able to use 800-meter runways. Dash 8 built after 2009 can't use them. Few countries apart from Norway have such short airports. There is however no room for this at Hasvik, so the plan here and for some other airports with few passengers, is to use small planes with less than 20 seats. Land reclamation in order to expand the airfield could be considered, however it is economically unviable. ## Facilities Hasvik Airport has a simple terminal building with a capacity for 20 passengers per hour. It has a 909-by-30-meter (2,982 by 98 ft) asphalt runway aligned 11/29. The tarmac has a place for one airliner. There is a harbor southeast of the runway which limits any expansion. The airport is located two minutes drive from the village center; free parking is available. ## Airlines and destinations The airport is served by Widerøe, who operates flights based on a public service obligation contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications. All flights are operated using 39-seat Dash 8-100 aircraft. Flights are flown to Tromsø and Hammerfest and can continue to other villages and towns in Finnmark. In 2014 the airport served 7,629 passengers, 1,272 aircraft movements and handled 0.2 tonnes of cargo. Hasvik is the third-least busy airport operated by Avinor, ahead of Berlevåg Airport and Fagernes Airport, Leirin. ## Statistics	[ "## History", "## Facilities", "## Airlines and destinations", "## Statistics" ]	1,230	23,115
46,991,438	Agar.io	1,172,133,642	2015 multiplayer video game	[ ".io video games", "2015 video games", "Action games", "Android (operating system) games", "Battle royale games", "Browser games", "Browser-based multiplayer online games", "Casual games", "Free-to-play video games", "IOS games", "Miniclip games", "Multiplayer video games", "Social casual games", "Video games about microbes", "Video games developed in Brazil" ]	Agar.io is a massively multiplayer online action game created by Brazilian developer Matheus Valadares. Players control one or more circular cells in a map representing a Petri dish. The goal is to gain as much mass as possible by eating agar and cells smaller than the player's cell while avoiding larger ones which can eat the player's cells. Each player starts with one cell, but players can split a cell into two once it reaches a sufficient mass, allowing them to control multiple cells. The name comes from the substance agar, used to culture bacteria. The game was released to positive critical reception; critics particularly praised its simplicity, competition, and mechanics, while criticism targeted its repetitive gameplay. Largely due to word of mouth on social networks, it was a quick success, becoming one of the most popular browser and mobile games in its first year. The mobile version of Agar.io for iOS was released on 8 July 2015 and Android on 7 July 2015 by Miniclip. Agar.io has inspired similar web games called ".io games", including games with a similar objective but different characters, and games that incorporate elements of other genres like shooter games. ## Gameplay The objective of Agar.io is to grow a cell on a Petri dish by swallowing both randomly generated pellets, known as "agar", which slightly increases a cell's mass, and smaller cells, without being swallowed by even larger cells. The browser version currently holds five game modes: FFA (Free-For-All), Battle Royale, Teams, Experimental, and Party. The mobile version of the game includes Classic (like FFA), Rush Mode, and Battle Royale. The goal of the game is to obtain the largest cell; players must restart from a small cell when all their cells are eaten by larger players or fountain viruses. Players can change their cell's appearance with predefined words, phrases, symbols, or skins. The more mass a cell has, the more slowly it will move. Cells will gradually lose a small amount of mass over time. Viruses are green, spiky circles that split cells that consume them into many smaller cells, rendering them vulnerable and attractive targets to other players. Players can hide under viruses if their cell is small enough and their name short enough. Viruses are normally randomly generated, but players can also cause viruses to split in two by "feeding" them mass—typically in the direction of another nearby cell which the player wants to consume. Players can split their cell into two, and one of the two evenly divided cells (if the mass of the original cell is odd, one cell will be slightly bigger than the other) will be shot in the direction of the cursor when the space bar was pressed. This can be used as a ranged attack to shoot a cell in order to swallow other smaller cells or to escape an attack and move quickly around the map. Split cells merge back into one cell if a bigger cell of the same player consumes it. Aside from feeding viruses, players can release a small fraction of their mass to feed other cells, an action commonly recognized as an intention to team with another player. ## History ### Development Agar.io was created by nineteen-year-old Brazilian developer Matheus Valadares, written in JavaScript and C++. Valadares shared an IP address to the game for playtesting on the 4chan video game board /v/ and game development forums, before releasing it on the domain agar.io on 28 April 2015. It is named after agar, a substance used to grow cell cultures. Valadares continued to experiment with adding new featuresexperimental mode was created specifically for this purpose. He thought about adding more complex biological features like photosynthesis and mitochondria, but ultimately decided to strip the game down to its current simple mechanics. In-game advertisements covered server costs. ### Popularity Valadares never marketed Agar.io outside of his single post on 4chan, where he received feedback and users formed "cartels" to get on the in-game leaderboard. Its initial success is instead attributed to its popularity among online content creators such as YouTubers and Twitch streamers. Only a week later, the YouTube channel Vinesauce uploaded a gameplay video of Agar.io. On 30 May, PewDiePie, a YouTuber who then had over 42 million subscribers, uploaded the first of nine Agar.io videos and called it his "new favourite game". However, he stated in the video that his fans had been requesting an Agar.io video for a long period of timeit had already become popular via word-of-mouth across social media. Dedicated Agar.io YouTubers saw their subscriber counts quickly rise. Commentators also suggested Agar.io's accessibility as a free browser game, as well as the addictiveness of its simple and intuitive mechanics, as reasons for its unexpected success. In March 2016, Agar.io videos reached two billion views on YouTube. Digital Trends said in 2021 that Agar.io still maintained an active core fanbase. ### Mobile game After meeting with him in Lisbon, mobile game publisher Miniclip began working with Valadares at the end of April 2015. They were attracted by Agar.io's wide appeal; the game already had five million daily players and Miniclip executive producer James Carson that their staff were all playing it within a week. Miniclip released mobile ports of Agar.io on the App Store and Google Play on July 8. It became the number one app on the App Store in the United States, United Kingdom and 32 other countries. ## Reception Agar.io was praised for the addictive nature of its simple gameplay and graphics. PC Gamer included it on its list of the best browser games. Engadget described the game as "a good abstraction of the fierce survival-of-the-fittest competition that you sometimes see on the microscopic level." TouchArcade praised its simplicity, strategic element, and "personality". It was chosen by SFGATE as App of the Week in August 2015. Criticism was mainly targeted towards its repetitiveness and the controls of the mobile version. Tom Christiansen of Gamezebo was mixed on the game, saying that there was "nothing to hold my attention" and that it was "highly repetitive, overall". Pocket Gamer, reviewing the mobile version, described its controls as "floaty". Game journalists also noticed that the ability to choose usernames and skins enabled players to declare their support for geopolitical causes and figures in-game. Some even formed alliances with players supporting the same causes. Others adopted internet memes and online platforms as their skins, as well as offensive usernames. One reviewer jokingly recounted: "I've ... seen the Earth be swallowed by Pubes, Steam absorb EA, and France split in two and flee from Mars before being eaten by Your Mom's Ass (which was, quite frankly, enormous)." In the weeks leading up to the June 2015 Turkish general election, Kotaku noticed that players using names related to Turkish politics were prevalent and often cooperated against other political parties. An article in the journal Games and Culture argued that the feature was the main reason for Agar.io's success. It noted that Agar.io provided a platform for competing ideologies in a "survival of the fittest" simulation when they would instead be shut down on social media. In an effort to make the game more commercial, Miniclip improved moderation and removed the Swastika and ISIS skins, a move which was described as furthering the game from its original 4chan audienceValadares himself had refused to remove the Nazi skin on Reddit. Because it was frequently propagated through social media and broadcast on Twitch and YouTube, Agar.io was a quick success. The agar.io website (for the browser version) was ranked by Alexa as one of the 1,000 most visited websites and the mobile versions were downloaded more than ten million times during their first week, and 113 million times as of December 2016. During 2015, Agar.io was Google's most searched video game. It was Google's second-most searched game in the United States in 2016. A 2015 press release by Miniclip stated that Agar.io was listed as the fifth top game on YouTube's list of top games. ## Similar '.io' games Inspired by Agar.io's success, Steven Howse released the snake-themed Slither.io in March 2016. The game soon reached the top 10 most downloaded apps on iOS and Android, buoyed by the similar word-of-mouth and attention from YouTubers that had propelled Agar.io. By June, Slither.io had hit over sixty million daily players. It eclipsed Agar.io's popularity, pushing it to second place to become the most Googled game of 2016. The rapid rise of Agar.io and Slither.io led to the beginning of a new genre of browser games, dubbed ".io games" for the domain name they use. Characterized by simple graphics and gameplay in a free-for-all multiplayer arena, .io games received around 192 million visits in 2017. Many .io shooters launched after Slither.ioValadares released Diep.io in July 2016. Miniclip also began developing new .io games. ## In popular culture - In the fourth season of the television series House of Cards, the character Frank Underwood is briefly shown playing Agar.io. Underwood compares its objective of eating smaller cells to get bigger to a presidential campaign.	[ "## Gameplay", "## History", "### Development", "### Popularity", "### Mobile game", "## Reception", "## Similar '.io' games", "## In popular culture" ]	1,954	153
28,834,757	Es wartet alles auf dich, BWV 187	1,109,091,354	Church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach	[ "1726 compositions", "Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach", "Psalm-related compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach" ]	Johann Sebastian Bach composed the church cantata Es wartet alles auf dich (Everything waits for You), BWV 187 in Leipzig for the seventh Sunday after Trinity and first performed it on 4 August 1726. The text came from a 1704 libretto cycle published in Meiningen, following a symmetrical pattern in seven movements, which opens with a quotation from the Old Testament, is focused on a central quotation from the New Testament, and ends with a closing chorale. Symmetrical recitatives and arias form the other movements. Bach set the opening as a chorus based on two verses from Psalm 104, set the central movement as a bass solo on a quotation from the Sermon on the Mount, and concluded with two stanzas from Hans Vogel's hymn "Singen wir aus Herzensgrund" in a four-part setting. The arias and recitatives are performed by three vocal soloist. The cantata is scored for a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two oboes, strings and continuo. Bach later used the music from four movements of this cantata for his Missa in G minor, BWV 235. ## History and words Bach wrote the cantata in 1726 for the Seventh Sunday after Trinity as part of his third cantata cycle. The prescribed readings for the Sunday are from the Epistle to the Romans, "the wages of sin is death; but the gift of God is eternal life" (), and from the Gospel of Mark, the feeding of the 4000 (). During 1726, Bach had performed several cantatas by his cousin Johann Ludwig Bach who worked in Meiningen, from 2 February (Purification) to 30 May (Ascension). The texts for these cantatas came from a 1704 anonymous libretto cycle published in Meiningen. They follow a symmetrical pattern: structured in seven movements, they begin with a chorus on a quotation from the Old Testament, turn in the central movement to a quotation from the New Testament, and end with a closing chorale, while a librettist added text for the inner movements as recitatives and arias. Bach began to compose cantatas on texts in this format on the first Sunday after Trinity in 1726, with Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot, BWV 39. The text for Es wartet alles auf dich follows the same pattern. The opening chorus is based on , directly related to the reading. A possible parallel source is Psalm 145:15-16. Part two is opened by a bass solo on from the Sermon on the Mount. The cantata is closed by stanzas 4 and 6 of Hans Vogel's hymn "Singen wir aus Herzensgrund" (1563). The poet of the other movements is unknown; Walther Blankenburg suggested Christoph Helm. The librettist paraphrased in the third movement . Bach first performed the cantata on 4 August 1726. He used the music of four movements, the opening chorus and the arias, for four movements of the Gloria of his Missa in G minor, BWV 235. ## Music ### Structure and scoring Bach structured the cantata in seven movements in two parts, the first three movements to be performed before the sermon, the others after the sermon. The first movement is a choral setting of psalm verses, followed by recitative and aria, the fourth movement is a bass solo on a quotation of Jesus, followed by aria and recitative, and closed by a chorale. Bach scored the work for three vocal soloists (soprano (S), alto (A) and bass (B)), a four-part choir, and a Baroque instrumental ensemble: two oboes (Ob), two violins (Vl), viola (Va), and basso continuo (Bc). The duration of the cantata is around 25 minutes. In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr, using the symbol for common time (4/4). The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings, while the continuo, playing throughout, is not shown. ### Movements #### 1 The opening chorus is a setting of psalm verses, "Es wartet alles auf dich, daß du ihnen Speise gebest zu seiner Zeit." (These wait all upon You, that you may give them nourishment in due saeson). Grammatically this is a passive form where the subject (God) comes after the verb. This underlines the faith of the writer, who knows (s)he can totally rely on God for his/her daily needs. The following subjunctive (conditional form) underlines that God does this by grace, totally undeserved by the recipient. This is central to Bach's Lutheran faith. These verses are often used as a prayer before a meal. Bach achieves a unity of form, but at the same time an individual handling of the four ideas of the text, as in a motet. The motifs of the instrumental sinfonia of 28 measures are continued through most of the movement, creating unity. "Es wartet alles auf dich" (a) is expressed in free polyphony embedded in the instrumental music, then repeated together with "daß du ihnen Speise gibest" (b) in free polyphony with canonic imitation on two themes, with the instruments playing mostly colla parte, then a and b are repeated within a part of the sinfonia, which is continued instrumentally. In the following second section, "Wenn du ihnen gibest ..." (c) is the theme of a choral fugue, "Wenn du deine Hand auftust ..." (d) is the countersubject. The instruments play colla parte first, then add motifs from the sinfonia. In the third concluding section the complete text is repeated within a part of the sinfonia. #### 2 In the first recitative, "Was Kreaturen hält das große Rund der Welt!" (What creatures are contained by the great sphere of the world!), the librettist paraphases ideas from verses 17 to 25 of the same psalm, which praises God as the Creator of the universe. #### 3 The first aria addresses God as the sustainer of life: "Du Herr, du krönst allein das Jahr mit deinem Gut." (You Lord, You alone crown the year with Your good.), in a close paraphrase of . The alto voice is accompanied by the full orchestra in a dance-rhythm with irregular grouping of measures in the ritornellos. #### 4 The fourth and central movement sets the biblical words "Darum sollt ihr nicht sorgen noch sagen: Was werden wir essen, was werden wir trinken" (Therefore, do not be anxious, saying: "What will we eat, what will we drink), from the Sermon on the Mount. Bach gives them to the bass as the vox Christi (voice of Christ), accompanied by the violins in unison and the continuo, which also takes part in their motifs. #### 5 The soprano aria, "Gott versorget alles Leben" (God takes care of every life), is in two contrasting parts. The first section is accompanied by festive dotted rhythms and a broad melody of the solo oboe, the second section, marked un poco allegro, is again like a dance. Only the instruments repeat afterwards the dotted rhythm of the beginning. The dance seems to have an unusual confidence, almost a cheeky or upstart like confidence. It sounds more like a bassoon than an oboe. So God's grace allows the believer this confidence. It reminds me a little of Luther's instruction to his newborn son, who wouldn't be dissuaded from crying endlessly. Finally in desperation, Luther asked him, "Is the devil bothering you again? Why not do what I do and pull your pants down and fire a blast in his face." John Osborne used this scene in his "Luther" play. The incident may well be apocryphal, and my 'quotation' is based on my memory. Were he based in England, Luther may well have been nicknamed "fartin' Martin" (as I like to be). The bassoon/oboe certainly mimics the methanous outburst well. I can't help wondering if Bach had this Lutheran outburst in mind as he wrote.... I guess it should be added, this is about as irreverent as Bach got in his music. #### 6 In the recitative "Halt ich nur fest an ihm mit kindlichem Vertrauen" (If I can only hold onto Him with childlike trust), the last words of the soprano are enriched by the strings, like the vox Christi in Bach's St Matthew Passion. #### 7 The final chorale is a four-part setting for the choir and all instruments. It features two stanzas of the hymn. The fourth stanza, "Gott hat die Erde zugericht'" (God has provided for the earth) relates to the beginning, God as the Creator, while the sixth stanza, "Wir danken sehr und bitten ihn, daß er uns geb des Geistes Sinn, daß wir solches recht verstehn" (We thank profoundly and pray to Him that He give us the will of His Spirit, that we understand it rightly), expresses thanksgiving, ending on the Latin word "Gratias". ## Publication The cantata was published in the first edition of Bach's works by the Bach-Gesellschaft in volume 37, edited by Alfred Dörffel in 1891. In the Neue Bach-Ausgabe, it appeared in volume I/18 in 1966, edited by Leo Treitler, followed by a critical report in 1967. ## Recordings A list of recordings is provided on the Bach Cantatas Website. Ensembles playing period instruments in historically informed performance are shown with green background.	[ "## History and words", "## Music", "### Structure and scoring", "### Movements", "#### 1", "#### 2", "#### 3", "#### 4", "#### 5", "#### 6", "#### 7", "## Publication", "## Recordings" ]	2,101	3,301
37,745,677	2012 New Mexico Bowl	1,171,449,644	null	[ "2012 in sports in New Mexico", "2012–13 NCAA football bowl games", "Arizona Wildcats football bowl games", "December 2012 sports events in the United States", "Nevada Wolf Pack football bowl games", "New Mexico Bowl" ]	The 2012 Gildan New Mexico Bowl was a post-season American college football bowl game that was held on December 15, 2012, at University Stadium on the campus of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque, New Mexico in the United States. The seventh edition of the New Mexico Bowl began at 11:00 a.m. MST and aired on ESPN. It featured the Nevada Wolf Pack, who represented the Mountain West Conference in their first year as a member, against the Arizona Wildcats, who represented the Pac-12 Conference. The Wolf Pack accepted their invitation with a 7–4 record in their first eleven games of the season, while the Wildcats accepted their invitation after finishing the regular season at 7–5. The bowl was the first of 35 played in the 2012–13 bowl game season. Coming into the game, both teams had sound offenses and were led by their respective running backs, sophomore Ka'Deem Carey for Arizona and senior Stefphon Jefferson for Nevada, who ranked number one and number two respectively in total rushing yards during the regular season. Arizona and Nevada ranked third and fourth respectively in total offense. Both teams' defenses were ranked towards the bottom of college football. Consequently, the game was widely expected to be high-scoring. Arizona won the game 49–48 after scoring two touchdowns in the final two minutes to come back for the victory. As expected, the game was dominated by offense; Arizona and Nevada combined for 1234 total yards and 70 first downs. Despite losing the game, Nevada possessed the ball nearly twice as long and gained twice as many rushing yards as Arizona. Arizona quarterback Matt Scott was named the game's offensive most valuable player (MVP), and teammate Marquis Flowers, a linebacker, was named the game's defensive MVP. ## Teams The New Mexico Bowl is played annually at the campus stadium of the University of New Mexico, a founding member of the Mountain West Conference which has had a tie-in since the game's establishment in 2006. 2012 was the first year of the Pac-12's tie in. The game featured the nation's top rushers, Arizona's All-American Ka'Deem Carey (146.4 ypg) and Nevada's Stefphon Jefferson (141.9 ypg). It also featured Arizona quarterback Matt Scott (3,723 total offense yards) and Nevada quarterback Cody Fajardo (3,511 total offense yards). This was the fourth meeting between these two teams. Arizona leads the all-time record 2-1-1. The last time they played was in 1941. ### Arizona Arizona came off of a 7-5 (4-5 in conference) season in coach Rich Rodriguez's debut with the team. Arizona started their season by beating Toledo, Oklahoma State, and South Carolina State prior to getting blown out 49-0 by Oregon. Later in the season, Arizona beat USC who was ranked \#9. Star running back Ka'Deem Carey had his best game of the year against Colorado totaling 366 yards to give the Wildcats their sixth win of the season. Their regular season concluded with a loss to rival Arizona State 41-34. The 2012 edition was the first appearance in the bowl for both Arizona and for the Pac-12. Arizona, seventh best in the nation in total offense (521.83 ypg), was led by quarterback Matt Scott (338.45 ypg, 3,238 yards passing), All-American running back Ka'Deem Carey who led the nation in rushing (146.42 ypg) and set a school record with his 1,757 rushing yards, good for 21 touchdowns, and wide receiver Austin Hill who totaled 1,189 yards. 2012 was the first season in Arizona's history during which they had a 3000-yard passer, a 1000-yard rusher, and a 1000-yard receiver. Senior place kicker John Bonano was named the 2012 Pac-12 Football Scholar-Athlete of the Year (Physiology major with a 3.927 GPA). ### Nevada The Wolf Pack came off their inaugural season as a member of the Mountain West, during which they compiled a conference record of 4-3, good for fifth place in the conference. They began their season by defeating rival California 31-24. After losing to South Florida by a single point, Nevada won five consecutive games to achieve bowl eligibility. The Wolf Pack then dropped three of their final four to bring their record to 7-5. After defeating the New Mexico Lobos to improve their record to 7-4, the Wolf Pack accepted an invitation to the New Mexico Bowl. Nevada coach Chris Ault was one of three members of the College Football Hall of Fame to lead a team into a bowl game, along with Barry Alvarez (Wisconsin interim coach) and Steve Spurrier (South Carolina). Nevada's senior receiver Brandon Wimberly had caught a pass in all 39 games of his college career. This was the Wolf Pack's second New Mexico Bowl; they had previously played in the 2007 edition (then as a member of the Western Athletic Conference), losing to the hometown New Mexico Lobos by a score of 23-0. ## Pregame buildup This was the first bowl of the 2012-13 College Football Bowl season. Prior to 2012, the teams had not met since 1941 despite their close proximity. In 1941, Arizona beat Nevada 26–7. Overall, the series record prior to the game was 1–1–1. Arizona, who had appeared in a bowl game in four of the previous five seasons, made the Pac-12's first appearance in the New Mexico Bowl. Nevada made its eighth consecutive bowl appearance and second all-time in the New Mexico Bowl. ### Offense Coming into the game, Arizona and Nevada were two of the top offenses in the country, ranking 7th and 10th in yards per game respectively. There was also significant hype surrounding the game because it featured two of the best running backs in the country, Ka'Deem Carey for Arizona, and Stefphon Jefferson for Nevada. Carey was ranked number one in the country in total rushing yards, while Jefferson was ranked number two. The duo were also prolific scorers; Jefferson was second in the country in rushing touchdowns with 25 and Carey was third with 24. The game was widely expected to be a shoot-out, as both teams were in the top-20 scoring offenses in the regular season. ### Defense There were very low expectations for the defenses; the over/under was set at 75.5 total points. During the regular season, both defenses were ranked in the bottom 30 (out of 120) in points allowed. Despite having three players on the All-Mountain West team, Nevada allowed opponents to convert third downs 47.2% of the time (107th in the country). Arizona was led defensively during the regular season by Jake Fischer, who accumulated 119 total tackles, while Nevada was led by Albert Rosette who totaled 135 regular season tackles. ## Game summary ### First quarter Nevada methodically moved down the field on their first drive and scored first on a 16-yard run by Stefphon Jefferson to cap off an 8-play, 75-yard drive. Later in the quarter, the Wolf Pack took a 14-0 lead following a 17-yard touchdown pass from quarterback Cody Fajardo to Zach Sudfeld. Arizona fumbled on the ensuing kickoff. On the first play of their drive, Nevada took a 21-0 lead on a 28-yard touchdown pass to Sudfeld. All-American running back Ka'Deem Carey finally got Arizona on the board with a 21-yard touchdown run late in the first quarter. ### Second quarter In the second quarter, Arizona outscored Nevada 21-10. Taking advantage of two Nevada turnovers, an interception thrown by Cody Fajardo and a fumble by Stefphon Jefferson, Arizona was able to tie the game at 21 with one-yard touchdown runs by Matt Scott and Carey, respectively. Nevada regained the lead on a 14-yard rushing touchdown by Jefferson, but Arizona tied the game once again on a 9-yard Carey touchdown run, his third of the game. Nevada enjoyed a three-point lead at the half after a 27 field goal by Allen Hardison capped off a 16-play, 65-yard drive and made the score 31-28. ### Third quarter After kicking off to start the game, Arizona got the ball first in the second half. Their first drive went three-and-out. After a 51-yard punt, Nevada took over at their own 11-yard line. They put together an 11-play, 89-yard drive that culminated with a 33-yard touchdown pass from Cody Fajardo to Richy Turner. During the course of throwing the touchdown pass, Fajardo hurt his hand and was seen shaking it on his way to the end zone to celebrate the score. He returned for Nevada's next offensive drive. Arizona's next drive got them into Nevada territory, but an interception thrown by Matt Scott ended any hopes of scoring. Nevada took the field and drove 84 yards down the field on 15 plays. Near the end of the drive once Nevada was inside the 10-yard line, Fajardo ran the ball for a gain of three yards. During the course of the play, he took a hit to the head from an Arizona defender. He exited the game for one play, but subsequently returned on that drive and scored a one-yard rushing touchdown. Arizona was held scoreless in the quarter, and heading into the final quarter of regulation, Nevada possessed a 45-28 lead. ### Fourth quarter Arizona came into the fourth quarter trailing Nevada by 17 points. Arizona was able to cut the lead to 45-35 on a 63-yard touchdown pass from Scott to Austin Hill soon after the 4th quarter began. Nevada then took a 48-35 lead on a 25-yard field goal from Hardison, for a 13-point lead with only 1:44 left in regulation time. Arizona, with no timeouts and needing two scores to win the game, was able to cut the lead down to 48-42 with only 42 seconds left in regulation on a short touchdown pass from Scott to Hill. After Marquis Flowers successfully recovered the onside kick, Arizona quickly scored with another short Scott touchdown pass, this time to Tyler Slavin, to take tie the game at 48 with only 19 seconds left in regulation. Prior to the extra point attempt, Nevada coach Chris Ault called his final timeout to try to ice kicker John Bonano. The tactic was unsuccessful, as Bonano made the extra point to give Arizona a one-point lead. The final 19 seconds of the game were the only time that Arizona led. Arizona held on to the lead after Arizona's Flowers intercepted a Fajardo pass with a few seconds remaining in the game. ## Scoring summary ## Statistics ### Individual statistics Passing Rushing Receiving ## Aftermath On December 28, 2012, nearly two weeks after the bowl game, Nevada head coach Chris Ault announced that he would resign from his position as head football coach at Nevada. Son of former National Football League executive Bill Polian Brian Polian was subsequently signed a five-year contract to be the new head coach of the Wolf Pack on January 7, 2013.	[ "## Teams", "### Arizona", "### Nevada", "## Pregame buildup", "### Offense", "### Defense", "## Game summary", "### First quarter", "### Second quarter", "### Third quarter", "### Fourth quarter", "## Scoring summary", "## Statistics", "### Individual statistics", "## Aftermath" ]	2,371	19,103
63,830,147	HMS Cato (1782)	1,166,731,512	Royal Navy fourth rate	[ "1782 ships", "Maritime incidents in 1783", "Missing ships", "Ships built in Gravesend", "Ships of the Royal Navy", "Warships lost with all hands" ]	HMS Cato was a 50-gun Grampus-class fourth rate ship of the Royal Navy. One of a class of ships constructed for service in the American Revolutionary War, Cato was commissioned in 1782. She became the flagship of Sir Hyde Parker, and sailed with him to the East Indies Station later in the year. After stopping at Rio De Janeiro on 12 December, the ship sailed for the Cape of Good Hope and was never seen again. Theories on her disappearance include her being shipwrecked in locations such as the Malabar Coast and the Maldives, and the crew being murdered by natives. Sir John Knox Laughton argues that it is more likely that Cato caught fire and blew up at sea. ## Design In the American Revolutionary War the Royal Navy was in need of warships that were small enough to capably operate in the shallow waters around North America, but that were still large enough to provide effective firepower. The traditional two-decker ships of the line were too large to combat the smaller craft operated by the Continental Navy, while frigates were deemed too small and inappropriate to assist with expected amphibious operations. Instead the Royal Navy looked towards 44-gun fifth rates and 50-gun fourth rates, both of which were anomalous types of ships not large enough to join the line of battle but equally incapable of serving as a frigate would. These ships were however perfect for the war in America, and between 1775 and 1781 twenty-nine of them were ordered, of which ten were 50-gun fourth rates. By 1780 the extant fourth rates in Royal Navy service were becoming worn, and several had been lost in the years of war. The Surveyor of the Navy Edward Hunt thus provided a new design to assist in replacing these. He produced the Grampus class, which was a version of Sir John Williams' proven Portland class with an extended gun deck. The class copied the Portland armament, with eleven lower deck gunports and twelve on the upper deck, but also incorporated some features from Williams' Experiment class, which had been an attempt to produce a lighter and faster fourth rate design. As such the Grampus ships were not to have the traditional roundhouse, with a set of false stern lights in place to infer otherwise. Other new features included a more substantial bow that connected the forecastle all the way to the sternpost; this feature subsequently became standard in all frigates but was only used in other fourth rates from the start of the nineteenth century. ## Construction Named after Cato the Elder, a Roman soldier and statesman, Cato was the second of two ships built to the Grampus design. Contracted to William Cleverley at Gravesend, Cato was ordered on 17 February 1780, laid down in June 1780 and launched on 29 May 1782 with the following dimensions: 147 feet 10 inches (45.1 m) along the gun deck, 121 feet 5 inches (37 m) at the keel, with a beam of 40 feet 8+3⁄4 inches (12.4 m) and a depth in the hold of 17 feet 9 inches (5.4 m). She measured 1,071 33⁄94 tons burthen. Despite what Hunt's design expected, Cato was given a full roundhouse and a true stern gallery during her construction. This was at odds with her sister ship HMS Grampus, which was built true to the design. The addition of the roundhouse suggests that Cato was planned for use as a flagship, thus requiring the extra space. However, this meant that the number of gunports on her quarterdeck were decreased from four a side to three. Cato also received built-up bulwarks on her quarterdeck rather than the planned open rail design. Cato sailed from Gravesend to Woolwich Dockyard later in the month of her launch. By the time of her completion copper sheathing was becoming a standard inclusion on ships, and she was coppered between 1 June and 12 June. She received her fitting out at the same time, and was completed on 10 October. Her construction and fitting out cost a total of £28,037. With a crew complement of 350, Cato was armed with twenty-two 24-pounder long guns on her lower deck, with twenty-two 12-pounder guns on her upper deck. On her quarterdeck were four 6-pounders, and a further two were on the forecastle. A new establishment for carronades on 50-gun ships was created in July 1779, but it is not recorded whether Cato received these additions. ## Service Captain James Clarke commissioned Cato in May 1782. The ship sailed on 13 October for the East Indies Station, serving as the flagship of Vice-Admiral Sir Hyde Parker who was travelling to take up his position as commander-in-chief on the station. Cato was in company with the 14-gun sloop HMS Hound. They reached Madeira on 27 October and continued their journey on 1 November. ### Disappearance Having reached South America, Cato left Rio de Janeiro on 12 December and soon disappeared. Stores identified as belonging to Cato were later seen on vessels trading in the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. Several suggestions have been put forward as to what happened to Cato and her crew. Having passed the Cape of Good Hope she likely reached the Indian Ocean. Subsequent theories on her fate have included her being shipwrecked off South Arabia, the Malabar Coast, Madagascar, or the Maldives, in around January 1783. ### Possible accounts After Cato's disappearance a wreck was discovered near King's Island in the Maldives, and it was inspected by the East India Company in 1786 with the assumption that it was Cato. In 1805 a report was received from the captain of the country ship Fancy that described how the crew of the ship had been rescued, but after one attempted to rape a native girl, the entire crew had been tied together in pairs and thrown into a hole which was then filled in by the native population. In 1791 the English captain of a vessel belonging to Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah, the Nawab of Arcot, reported that he had seen stores, including the mainsail, from Cato on a Malay boat at Mecca. The Malay on the boat stated that a large ship had wrecked some years earlier on the Malabar Coast. They believed that most of those aboard her had gotten safely ashore but that the Malay king there had most of them put to death immediately. Theories continued to be proposed after this; on 1 November 1805 the East Indiaman Britannia and transport ship King George were wrecked on Rocas Atoll. While there they noted another shipwreck on the beach, and from its age they suggested that it was the wreck of Cato, however the location did not match Cato's route. Naval historian Sir John Knox Laughton, in his biography of Parker, discards all of the aforementioned theories, arguing that since none of the stories were able to provide any hard evidence of Cato or her crew's fate, it is more likely that the ship accidentally caught fire at sea and blew up. Biographer John Charnock comes to the same conclusion.	[ "## Design", "## Construction", "## Service", "### Disappearance", "### Possible accounts" ]	1,518	44,284
2,011,213	I Love Lisa	1,168,150,005	null	[ "1993 American television episodes", "Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln", "Cultural depictions of George Washington", "The Simpsons (season 4) episodes", "Valentine's Day television episodes" ]	"I Love Lisa" is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 11, 1993. In the episode, Lisa gives Ralph Wiggum a Valentine's Day card when she sees that he has not received any. Ralph misinterprets Lisa's gesture and, much to Lisa's dismay, relentlessly pursues her with affection. Lisa snaps at Ralph and angrily tells him they are not together and that she never liked him. Heartbroken, Ralph channels his feelings into his performance as George Washington in the school's President's Day pageant. After a thunderous applause from the audience, he is able to accept Lisa as just a friend. The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Wes Archer. Michael Carrington guest-starred as Sideshow Raheem. Al Jean, show runner of the episode, came up with the idea for the story when he remembered that he had received a valentine from a girl in third grade that read "I Choo-Choo-Choose You". The episode features cultural references to songs such as "Monster Mash" and "Break on Through", as well as a reference to the fictional character Droopy. Since airing, "I Love Lisa" has received mostly positive reviews from television critics; Entertainment Weekly placed the episode twelfth on their top 25 The Simpsons episodes list. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 14.9 and was the highest rated show on the Fox network the week it aired. ## Plot On Valentine's Day, Lisa's class at the Springfield Elementary School constructs paper mailboxes for the Valentine cards they are about to receive from each other. When Ralph cries after getting no cards, Lisa gives him one out of sympathy. Ralph cheers up, develops a romantic interest in Lisa, and walks her home from school. This leaves her feeling nervous around him, not knowing how to tell him she is not interested. The next day at school, on Marge's suggestion, Lisa tells Ralph she is not ready to be romantic. Ralph asks his father Chief Wiggum for advice on romance and is told to be persistent. He soon uses his position as the police chief's son to get Lisa tickets to Krusty the Clown's upcoming 29th Anniversary Special; and he annoys her by getting the part of George Washington for himself in the school's President's Day pageant, in which Lisa plays Martha Washington. Lisa reluctantly joins Ralph for Krusty's show. When Krusty starts interviewing audience members, Ralph takes the opportunity to declare that Lisa is the love of his life, and he intends to marry her. Furious, Lisa loses her temper and tells Ralph she never liked him and only gave him a Valentine card because she felt sorry for him. Later at home, Bart, having taped the event, replays the scene to Lisa where Ralph is humiliated and deeply hurt, making her feel guilty and regretful. Wiggum comforts Ralph and attempts revenge on Lisa by smashing the taillight on Homer's car, but is alarmed when Homer warns him that one day, honest citizens will retaliate against the corrupt police. On the night of the pageant, Lisa tries to apologize to Ralph, but he ignores her. Ralph proves to be a remarkably effective and eloquent actor, gaining the approval of the audience and even reducing Groundskeeper Willie to tears. Lisa approaches Ralph on the swing set after the performance and gives him a new card with a picture of a bee on it, reading "Let's 'Bee' Friends". Ralph laughs at the pun and happily accepts the offer of friendship as Wiggum fondly watches them from his car. ## Production This was the first episode Frank Mula wrote for The Simpsons. Mula had previously worked with Simpsons executive producer Sam Simon at another Gracie Films show. This was the first season four episode that Wes Archer directed. Jeff Martin and Mula wrote the music for the President's Day pageant. Michael Carrington guest-stars in the episode as Sideshow Raheem, one of Krusty's old sideshows from the 70s. The story of "I Love Lisa" originated from a personal episode of Al Jean's life; when Jean was in third grade, he received a valentine from a girl that read "I Choo-Choo-Choose You". Years later, Jean wondered if the girl had really liked him. He told writing partner Mike Reiss about it, and they thought it could be an idea for an episode where Lisa could give such a valentine to Ralph Wiggum, who would then take it too far. At that time, Ralph and Chief Wiggum were not established as being related. Jean thought it would be funny if Ralph was Wiggum's son, considering both characters are "fat and dumb". Despite this, Ralph's last name was already revealed to be Wiggum in the episode "Kamp Krusty". A technique the staff used to come up with stories and ideas was to think "what holiday haven't we done on The Simpsons, or done lately?". As they had done several Halloween and Christmas episodes before, the staff liked the idea of doing a Valentine's Day episode. ## Cultural references The title plays on I Love Lucy, an American television sitcom. The songs "Monster Mash" (by Bobby "Boris" Pickett) and "Break on Through (To the Other Side)" (by The Doors) are featured in the episode. Ned Flanders serenades his wife, Maude, to Rod Stewart's 1979 number-one hit "Do Ya Think I'm Sexy?". The orchestral version of Tony Bennett's "Stranger in Paradise" can be heard in an Itchy and Scratchy cartoon. Homer's conscience, which tells him that stealing is wrong, speaks with the voice of the fictional character Droopy. Principal Skinner's flashback is based on the movie Apocalypse Now, with Laurence Fishburne and Frederic Forrest's characters visible in the background during the sequence. Newly inaugurated President Bill Clinton and first lady Hillary Clinton appear as a part of the audience in Krusty's anniversary show. Krusty shows clips of him with Robert Frost reading "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" in 1963 and Krusty singing "Break On Through (To the Other Side)" in 1973. The Presidents' Day pageant opens with a "tribute to our lesser known Presidents," including John Tyler, Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, Rutherford B. Hayes, and William Henry Harrison, who mentions that he died 30 days after his inauguration. During the segment, the children on stage sing "You won’t find our faces on dollars or on cents!" and "We are the adequate, forgettable, occasionally regrettable caretaker presidents of the U.S.A.!" and is meant to reference the general obscurity and ineffectiveness of U.S. Presidents during the 19th century. During the re-enactment of the Abraham Lincoln assassination at the school pageant, Bart says "Hasta la vista, Abie" while playing John Wilkes Booth in reference to the film Terminator 2: Judgment Day. The scene of Chief Wiggum sitting behind Krusty at an adult movie theater and Krusty thinking he is about to be arrested is a reference to Paul Reubens' arrest for masturbating at a pornographic movie theater in Sarasota, Florida. Additionally, the positioning of Krusty's hands on his face as he watches the movie pay homage to a similar scene in Taxi Driver. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "I Love Lisa" finished eighteenth in the ratings for the week of February 6 to February 12, 1993, with a Nielsen rating of 14.9. The episode was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. Since airing, it has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics. Entertainment Weekly's Dalton Ross said the episode was both touching and humorous. He added that in the scene where Bart runs a videotape in slow motion to show Lisa how "you can actually pin-point the second when [Ralph Wiggum's] heart rips in half", the audience does not really know "whether you're shedding tears of laughter, empathy, or both—you just know that it's damn good any way you slice it." The Arizona Republic's Bill Goodykoontz named the episode one of his five favorites and highlighted Ralph's line "and my doctor said I wouldn't have so many nosebleeds if I kept my finger out of there" as one of the best lines in the history of the show. In a review of The Simpsons season four, Lyndsey Shinoda of Video Store cited "Brother from the Same Planet" and "I Love Lisa" among her "personal favorites" from the season. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, said their favorite scenes from the episode include Principal Skinner's flashback to Valentine's Day in Vietnam, the scene in which Chief Wiggum chases a duck to get his badge back, and the one where Bart and Milhouse play John Wilkes Booth and Abraham Lincoln respectively at the school pageant. They added that those scenes were "just the icing on the cake of the main plot." In 2003, Entertainment Weekly placed the episode twelfth on their top 25 The Simpsons episodes list, and in 2008 placed the episode second on their top "25 New Classic Holiday TV Episodes" list. In 2019, Consequence ranked it number eight on its list of top 30 Simpsons episodes. When Principal Skinner tells the children at school that Valentine's Day is not a joke (due to Bart fabricating candy hearts with mean insults), he has a flashback in which he is sitting in a PBR somewhere in Da Nang in 1969. On an oil drum next to him is a manila envelope and a photograph of Colonel Kurtz. Skinner sees Johnny, one of his army friends, holding a Valentine card and asks him, "Sending your chick a Valentine?", to which Johnny replies "Yep", right before he is shot to death. Cutting back to the present, Skinner repeatedly calls out Johnny's name in anguish, to which a perplexed Bart states "Cool! I broke his brain." After the episode aired, a Vietnam veteran sent in a letter to the show that read, "I was watching the Valentine's Day episode of your cartoon and I saw the horrifying Vietnam flashback. Do you really think this was funny, this horrible experience?" The staff ignored the letter and, as Wes Archer pointed out, the scene was "an obvious" reference to Apocalypse Now even featuring characters that resembled Chef (Frederic Forrest) and Mr. Clean (Laurence Fishburne). In contrast, Mark Groening—the brother of Matt Groening and himself a Vietnam veteran—"loved" the sequence as well as the episode.	[ "## Plot", "## Production", "## Cultural references", "## Reception" ]	2,251	11,199
1,420,470	Missouri Fox Trotter	1,092,540,901	American horse breed	[ "Horse breeds", "Horse breeds originating in the United States" ]	The Missouri Fox Trotter is a horse breed that originated in the state of Missouri in the United States. It was developed in the Ozark Mountains by settlers in the early 19th century, and quickly developed into a gaited breed appreciated for its stock horse abilities, stamina and smooth gaits. It performs an ambling gait known as the "fox trot", a four-beat broken diagonal gait in which the front foot of the diagonal pair lands before the hind, eliminating the moment of suspension and increasing smoothness. The main breed registry was begun in 1948 and as of 2012 registers almost 100,000 horses. A European registry was begun in 1992, and as of 2009 recognizes around 600 Fox Trotters living in Europe. In 2006, a smaller registry, focused on the preservation of the original, historic type, was begun in the United States. The Fox Trotter is a mid-sized, muscular breed, used mainly for trail riding and ranch work. ## Breed characteristics Missouri Fox Trotters stand high, and weigh between 900 and 1,200 pounds (410 and 540 kg). Begun in 2004, the Missouri Fox Trotting Horse Breed Association also maintains a separate registry for fox trotting ponies standing between . Fox Trotters may be any solid color or pinto. White facial and leg markings are common. The facial profile is straight, set upon a neck of medium length than ends in pronounced withers. The breed is muscular, with sloped shoulders, a short back and sturdy legs. The Missouri Fox Trotter performs an ambling gait known as the "fox trot", which replaces the trot seen in many other breeds. The fox trot is a four-beat broken diagonal gait in which the front foot of the diagonal pair lands before the hind, eliminating the moment of suspension and giving a smooth, sure-footed ride. The gait is sometimes described as having the horse walk with the front feet and trot with the back. In a fox trot, the horse must keep one front foot on the ground at all times and display a sliding motion with the hind legs. The fox trot and the regular trot are both at a speed between a walk and a canter or gallop; ambling gaits are four-beat gaits, whereas the trot is a two-beat gait. The extra footfalls provide additional smoothness to a rider because the horse always has at least one foot on the ground. This minimizes movement of the horse's topline and removes the bounce of a two-beat gait, caused by a moment of suspension followed by the jolt of two feet hitting the ground as the horse shifts from one pair of legs to the other. The value of an intermediate speed is that the horse conserves energy. More than thirty horse breeds are "gaited", able to perform a four-beat ambling gait; some can also trot. A Missouri Fox Trotter, with rider, can maintain a speed of 5 to 8 miles per hour (8.0 to 12.9 km/h) while using the fox trot, and can cover short distances at up to 10 miles per hour (16 km/h). In comparison, the average medium trot speed is 6 to 8 miles per hour (9.7 to 12.9 km/h). ## History The Missouri Fox Trotter was developed from equine stock, including gaited horses, brought to Missouri by settlers from Tennessee, Kentucky and Virginia. Breeds that contributed to the Fox Trotter included the Arabian, Morgan, American Saddlebred, Tennessee Walking Horse and Standardbred. By the time of Missouri's statehood in 1821, the horses of the state were known for their unique gait, which was useful in the rocky terrain of the Ozark Mountains. The breed became popular with cattlemen for their smooth gaits and ability to work with cattle. In 1948, the Missouri Fox Trotting Horse Breed Association (MFTHBA) was founded in Ava, Missouri, with an open stud book that registered all horses with the fox trot gait and other specified physical characteristics. The first Fox Trotters were exported to Europe in the 1950s, when the Queen of the United Kingdom imported several palomino-colored horses. In 1982, the stud book was closed, allowing only horses from registered parents to be entered. The Fox Trotter became the official state horse of Missouri in 2002. Missouri Fox Trotters are seen throughout the United States, as well as in Canada and several European countries, and as of 2012 the MFTHBA had registered over 97,000 horses and counts over 8,000 current members. In 1992, the European Missouri Fox Trotting Horse Association (EMFTHA) was formed as the Fox Trotter association for Europe and an affiliate of the MFTHBA. The first European Championship Show for the breed took place in 1996, and in 2010 the EMFTHA and the Free University of Berlin began working together to start a European stud book for the breed. As of 2009 there were approximately 600 Missouri Fox Trotters in Europe, with around 350 of these living in Germany. In 2006, a new registry, the Foundation Foxtrotter Heritage Association (FFHA), was formed with a goal of preserving and promoting the original heritage type of Fox Trotter that was seen in the first 20 years of the MFTHBA registry, in large part through reducing the amount of Tennessee Walking Horse blood. The Tennessee Walker did not figure prominently in original Missouri Fox Trotter pedigrees, and so the FFHA, by restricting the amount of Walker blood, is attempting to develop horses that more closely resemble the original Fox Trotter type. ## Uses Missouri Fox Trotters are used extensively by trail riders, who appreciate their gaits, stamina and weight-carrying abilities. They are also used in handicapped riding programs, and their smooth gait has proven useful for riders with minor physical disabilities. Crosses between Fox Trotter mares and donkey jacks are often made, creating mules with the fox trot gait that are used to carry hunters and trail riders, especially in the western United States. The US Forest Service also employs Fox Trotters for their speed, stamina and gait, and members of the breed were used to make the first horse-back descent of the north rim of the Grand Canyon. Ava, Missouri hosts the largest annual Fox Trotter show, called the Missouri Fox Trotting Horse World Show and Celebration. Approximately 1400 horses compete there every year.	[ "## Breed characteristics", "## History", "## Uses" ]	1,367	23,405
60,458,878	Kandake of the Sudanese Revolution	1,172,944,929	2019 Sudanese protest photograph	[ "2010s photographs", "2018–2022 Arab protests", "2019 in Sudan", "2019 in art", "2019 protests", "2019 works", "April 2019 events in Africa", "Color photographs", "People notable for being the subject of a specific photograph", "Photographs of protests", "Photography in Sudan", "Protests in Sudan", "Sudanese Revolution" ]	Kandake of the Sudanese Revolution (also known as Woman in White and Lady Liberty of the Sudanese Revolution) is a photograph of Alaa Salah, a 22-year-old student, standing on top of a car, dressed in white and gold, and leading a crowd of demonstrators in chant during the Sudanese anti-government protests on 8 April 2019. The photograph, taken by activist Lana Haroun using a smartphone, gained world-wide media attention and went viral in April 2019, and was described by several media organisations as iconic, representing women's participation in the revolution who were dubbed the Kandakas. ## Background Since December 2018, a series of protests against President Omar al-Bashir took place, demanding economic reforms and the resignation of the president. A state of emergency was declared in February 2019 as a result of the protests; yet, 6 and 7 April saw the largest protests. As protests continued, the army was observed protecting protesters from security forces on 10 April. Eventually the protests led to the military removing al-Bashir from power, installing a transitional council in his place led by Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf. The move was seen as a change of leadership of the same regime by the protesters who demanded a civilian transitional council. On 6 April, the Sudanese Professionals Association called for a march to the military headquarters in Khartoum. Hundreds of thousands of people protested and converged at the headquarters, where the security forces and military appeared to be divided in their allegiances. Some security forces tried to attack the protesters, while the military took the protesters' side and fired at the security forces. The following Sunday, social media was blocked and the power was cut in Sudan as protesters began a sit-in at the military headquarters in Khartoum, which lasted for a week until the Khartoum massacre on 3 June. ## The photograph On the morning of 8 April, the army and secret services faced off at the headquarters, resulting in six deaths, 57 injuries, and 2,500 arrests in Khartoum over the weekend. The police were instructed not to intervene. “Every day I was there, capturing photos,” Haroun recalls. “It felt like history itself.” On the same day, Lana Haroun took four images, using her smartphone (Huawei Mate 10, back camera, HDR technic), of an initially unknown woman dressed in a white thoub standing on top of a car, who spoke to and sang with other women around her during a sit-in near the army headquarters and the presidential palace. A line from Sudanese poet, Azhari Mohamed Ali's poem recited by the woman, “The bullet doesn’t kill. What kills is the silence of people”, has been a well-known slogan chanted by protesters during the 2018-2019 Sudanese protests and earlier in the 2011–2013 Sudanese protests. Haroun shared the image online. ### Response and impact Salah's white robe, a traditional Sudanese thoub, resembles the dress of female Sudanese protesters against previous dictatorships, as well as that of student protesters who were referred to as "Kandake" after ancient Nubian queens. Her golden earrings are traditional feminine wedding attire. The image has been seen as a symbol of the Sudanese people's pride in their culture and identity. According to Nesrine Malik from The Guardian, the image captured the energy and determination of the Sudanese people as they called for political change and social justice. Commentators referred to her pose as "the image of the revolution". The image that came to be known as the Kandake of the Sudanese Revolution (also known as Woman in White and Lady Liberty of the Sudanese Revolution) was widely shared on social media and caught international media attention. According to Lana Haroun, there was a dearth of global attention on the events unfolding in Sudan, but after her picture gained traction, it seemed as if there was a sudden shift in the world's attention and people from all over the world started taking notice of the situation in Sudan. The image become a symbol of the Sudanese Revolution and a representation of women's leadership in social movements. Salah, a 22-year-old student studying engineering and architecture, has become a symbol of women's leadership in the protests and a role model for young Sudanese women. In her first interview since the picture went viral, she spoke about the importance of women's participation in the protests and their role in shaping the future of Sudan, with some estimates claiming that up to 70 per cent of the protesters had been women. The image has also inspired a wave of feminist and women's rights activism in Sudan, with many women taking to the streets and using social media to voice their demands for equality and representation. Hala Al-Karib, a Sudanese women's rights activist, said: "It is a symbol of an identity of a working woman — a Sudanese woman that's capable of doing anything, but still appreciates her culture." According to a list compiled by The Guardian, Alaa Salah's iconic photograph has been included among 48 protest photographs "that changed the world". The symbolism of the photo also inspired many Sudanese artists. ## Aftermath ### Sudanese revolution The sit-in at the military headquarters in Khartoum, Sudan came to a violent end on 3 June 2019. The armed forces of the Sudanese Transitional Military Council, headed by the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), used heavy gunfire and tear gas to disperse the sit-in by protesters, killing 112 and injuring more than 700 protesters, and destroying the peaceful atmosphere of the sit-in. The Khartoum massacre resulted in widespread national and international condemnation due to the \#BlueforSudan and calls for justice from the international community. Following the massacre, protests continued across Sudan, which led to negotiations between the Transitional Military Council and civilian representatives eventually and the signing of a power-sharing agreement in August 2019, which established a joint civilian-military Sovereign Council and a civilian-led government. ### Alaa Salah Alaa Salah (Arabic: آلاء صلاح, pronunciation: ), born 9 March 1997, was 22 at the time when the photo was taken and a student studying engineering and architecture at Sudan International University in Khartoum. She gained world-wide media attention due to the photo, and she was dubbed the Sudanese revolution's icon. Salah was invited to several interviews to talk about the revolution, the photograph and her experience. Salah co-wrote the book The song of revolt - The Sudanese uprising told by its icon (French: Le chant de la révolte - Le soulèvement soudanais raconté par son icône) with Martin Roux, providing her personal account of the Sudanese revolution. As a member of MANSAM, one of the main Sudanese women's networks that signed the 1 January 2019 Forces of Freedom and Change declaration, Salah was later invited to give a speech at the 29 October 2019 meeting of the United Nations Security Council. In her speech, she insisting on equal representation of women in the Sudanese transitionary institutions. ### Lana Haroun Lana H. Haroun (Arabic: لانا هارون), a musician and photographer who was 34 at the time when she took the photo, gained prominence for capturing the photograph. Lana Haroun's followers increased to thousands, and her photograph was shared by thousands, while comments poured in from various parties, asking her for permission to publish the image, and expressing admiration for the photograph. In an interview, Lana Haroun expressed her perspective on photography as an integral part of her activism. Haroun stated, "It is not about the photo ... it is about Sudanese people and Sudan's situation now", and the photograph captured the essence of the Sudanese revolution, highlighting the emotions, determination, and hope of the protesters through her lens. ## See also - Photography of Sudan - Soudan 2019, année zéro - 2019–2022 Sudanese protests - Aed Abu Amro - Women in Sudan - Hawa Al-Tagtaga	[ "## Background", "## The photograph", "### Response and impact", "## Aftermath", "### Sudanese revolution", "### Alaa Salah", "### Lana Haroun", "## See also" ]	1,697	33,599
50,137,772	Mama Africa (Yemi Alade album)	1,152,989,572	null	[ "2015 albums", "Afro pop music albums", "Albums produced by DJ Coublon", "Albums produced by GospelOnDeBeatz", "Albums produced by Masterkraft (producer)", "Albums produced by Mr Chidoo", "Albums produced by Selebobo", "Contemporary R&B albums by Nigerian artists", "Coupé-Décalé albums", "Highlife albums by Nigerian artists", "Hip hop albums by Nigerian artists", "Igbo-language albums", "Yemi Alade albums" ]	Mama Africa (also known as Mama Africa: The Diary of an African Woman) is the second studio album by Nigerian singer Yemi Alade. It was released on March 25, 2016, by Effyzzie Music Group. The album is the follow-up to her debut studio album King of Queens (2014). It features guest appearances from P-Square, Sarkodie, Sauti Sol, Flavour N'abania, Rotimi Keys, DJ Arafat and Selebobo. The album was produced by GospelOnDeBeatz, DJ Coublon, Selebobo, Philkeyz, BeatsByEmzo, Masterkraft, Rotimi Keys and Mr. Chidoo. It was supported by six singles: "Na Gode", "Do As I Do", "Ferrari", "Kom Kom", "Africa" and "Tumbum". The album's deluxe edition features collaborations with South African musicians Bucie and AKA. Mama Africa won World Beat at the 2017 Independent Music Awards. ## Background Yemi Alade announced that the album would be released in March 2016. She disclosed its title was Mama Africa and said it would focus on the strengths and weaknesses of an African woman. The album combines elements of Afropop, highlife, R&B, coupé-décalé, hip-hop and pop. Yemi Alade said recording the album was a struggle because she was constantly traveling to different countries every day. She also said she recorded the album to "capture all of Africa on one CD". Yemi Alade told The Fader magazine she collaborated with artists from West Africa, East Africa and South Africa. She enlisted GospelOnDeBeatz, DJ Coublon, Selebobo, Philkeyz, BeatsByEmzo, Masterkraft, Rotimi Keys and Mr. Chidoo to produce the album. Mama Africa features guest appearances from P-Square, Sarkodie, Sauti Sol, Flavour N'abania, Rotimi Keys, DJ Arafat and Selebobo. It was made available for pre-order on iTunes a week before its official release. Yemi Alade announced that proceeds from the sale of the album will go to the Feed a Child charity initiative. The album's deluxe edition was released on April 6, 2016, and features collaborations with South African musicians Bucie and AKA. Mama Africa charted in Germany, Malaysia and France. ## Composition The album opens with "Na Gode", an energetic song that adulates God. In "Tumbum", Yemi Alade laments about an undependable lover who likes Nkechi's Jollof but prefers her delicious beans. The house-influenced record "Tonight" features vocals by P-Square. "Kom Kom" borrows from Onyeka Onwenu's "Iyogogo". The Latin-inspired track "Marry Me" is a blend of Nigerian pidgin, Igbo and salsa. The highlife song "Ferrari" has been described as "blatantly materialistic" because of lyrics like "Oga I don tire to stay Mainland/ E no go bad if you buy me mansion for Banana Island/ Open supermarket for me for Netherlands." In "Kelele", Yemi Alade channels King Sunny Adé. In "Ego", she grapples with her need for happiness and the good life. "Nakupenda" contains backup vocals and drumbeat sounds. ## Singles The album's lead single "Na Gode" was released on July 10, 2015. It translates to Thank You in Hausa and preaches the message of gratitude and giving. The song was produced by Yemi Alade's frequent collaborator Selebobo. The music video for "Na Gode" was directed by Paul Gambit and released on November 4, 2015. It features cameo appearances from Skales and Baci. A Swahili version of "Na Gode" was released on January 8, 2016. In an interview on the Homeboyz Radio Morning Show, Yemi Alade said Bien-Aimé of Sauti Sol convinced her to record the song in Swahili. The DJ Arafat-assisted track "Do As I Do" was released on December 8, 2015, as the album's second single. The song was described as a fusion of Afropop and Coupé-Décalé. "Ferrari" was released as the album's third single on March 9, 2016. It was produced by DJ Coublon and features strings by Nigerian guitarist Fiokee. Yemi Alade debuted the song at the 2016 Africa Magic Viewers Choice Awards. TooXclusive described the song as a highlife song that "talks about love as an action word." The Clarence Peters-directed music video for "Ferrari" was released on March 25, 2016. Nigerian actor Kunle Remi plays Yemi Alade's love interest in the video. Prior to releasing the video, Yemi Alade released a teaser clip of it on March 14. The Flavour N'abania-assisted track "Kom Kom" was released on May 18, 2016, as the album's fourth single. Its music video was shot and directed by Clarence Peters. The album's fifth single "Africa" was released on July 5, 2016. It features vocals by Kenyan band Sauti Sol and was produced by BeatsByEmzo. The music video for "Africa" was directed by Ovie Etseyatse and contains clips of different streets and iconic towers in African cities, as well as pictures of renowned leaders fighting for independence. The Selebobo-produced track "Tumbum" was released on November 9, 2016, as the album's sixth single. The music video for the song was directed by Paul Gambit and features appearances from Ime Bishop Umoh and Beverly Osu. In the video, Yemi Alade plays a restaurant cook who serves up tasty jollof and fufu in a rural Nigerian community. In a chat with The Fader magazine in November 2016, Yemi Alade said the video was filmed after several weeks of dance rehearsals. "Tumbum" was featured in Just Dance 2018, an interactive dance rhythm game developed by Ubisoft. ## Critical reception Mama Africa received mixed reviews from music critics. A writer for Pulse Nigeria awarded the album 3.5 stars out of 5, commending Yemi Alade for improving "significantly from her last solo album with mundane love expressions and stories seemingly turned up a notch." Ade Tayo of Simply Africa Music said with the album's release, Alade "has ample material to use for performance purposes on any platform, across Africa." Adaobi Nezianya of Circulation magazine praised Alade for "curating the right sounds from diverse places to craft an excellent album." In a less enthusiastic review, Music in Africa's Oris Aigbokhaevbolo said the album has "zero replay value" and further stated that numerous songs on it "carry the specifically vapid materialism of the stereotypical Lagos girl." Wilfred Okiche of 360nobs described the album as "one big dance party" and said its title is "only a ruse to thread her influences and copy catting into a cohesive effort." Okichie also wrote that the album is "as Nigerian pop as they come". Temitope Delano of TooXclusive granted it 2.5 stars out of 5, calling it "boring" and saying it is a "far cry from what was expected from this brilliant artiste." ### Accolades ## Track listing Credits adapted from the back cover of Mama Africa. ## Personnel Credits adapted from the album's back cover and AllMusic. - Yemi Alade – primary artist - Koribo Harrison – executive producer - Taiye Aliyu – executive producer - Udoka Oku – producer, featured artist - Rotimi Keys – producer, featured artist - Philkeyz – producer, featured artist - GospelOnDeBeatz – producer - Sunday Nweke – producer - Akwuba Ugochukwu – producer - BeatsByEmzo – producer - Chidozie Ekeh - producer - Kamera - producer - El Emcee - producer - P-Square – featured artist - Flavour N'abania – featured artist - Sauti Sol – featured artist - DJ Arafat – featured artist - Sarkodie – featured artist - AKA – featured artist - Bucie – featured artist - Mix Monster – mixing, mastering - Suka Sounds – mixing, mastering - Tee Piano – mixing, mastering - Olaitan Dada – mixing, mastering - Fiokee – strings - Onazi Ogaba (Unravel GFX) – art design - Emmanuel Oyeleke – photography ## Release history	[ "## Background", "## Composition", "## Singles", "## Critical reception", "### Accolades", "## Track listing", "## Personnel", "## Release history" ]	1,890	13,659

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