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The most important quality of a student is not limited to always being the first person to arrive in the classroom, but extends to other values and attitudes exhibited by the student.
Every good student needs to have these five qualities.
Going to school on time, finishing and submitting your assignments as scheduled and being punctual to school is the beginning of being discipline. It is important to know that being disciplined also extends to abiding by the rules of the school and sticking to the code of conduct of your school. By extension, disciplined students also respect their parents and teachers in different areas of their lives.
2. Implementing what you learn
Good students do not just write and record notes to make good grades. They go beyond theory to practice the things they are taught in the classroom. One of the best ways to learn is to research, practice and look out for more answers and ways in which the things you learn can be implemented in real life. If they are things that will help you in future, go ahead and implement them.
3. Building relationships
Schools are one the best places where people meet new people and build relationships. It is important to maintain a cordial relationship with the people you meet in the school environment. These people include teachers and students and your colleague students. This helps you build your networking skills for the future.
4. Participating in extra curricula activities.
As a student, it is important to engage in extra curricula activities. This helps students to start developing their social skills. Most schools have groups which participate in different activities. Students can join debating clubs, drama clubs, sports teams and other groups in the school and participate actively in them. These groups are also learning opportunities and give students avenues to explore and expand their minds.
5. Continuous Learning
Good students do not limit themselves to what they are taught in the classroom and do not stop learning once a class is over or once schools are on holidays. They learn continuously to upgrade their knowledge and skills on what they are taught in school (and even what they have not been taught).
To conclude, schooling can be tough and challenging, so it is important for students to develop certain attributes to help them succeed in their education and also build their skills and social lives..
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2Risk factors in the incidence of an antibody A researcher has reason to believe that there may be a higher incidence of a potentially harmful antibody in patients whose tissue is of a particular âcriticalâ type.In a study of 79 patients, the incidence of the antibody in patients of four different tissue types is recorded.
3Two variables or attributes In this study there are two variables:Tissue Type;Presence (or absence) of the antibody.We are trying to ascertain whether there is an association between them.
4Contingency tablesA CONTINGENCY TABLE is a CROSSTABULATION of a nominal data set showing the frequencies of observations in different combinations of the categories making up two QUALITATIVE variables or attributes.
5Here is a contingency table showing counts of the presence or absence of an antibody in the four different patient groups.
8Todayâs topicYou are already familiar with the chi-square test for association between two qualitative variables or attributes.Today, I shall be considering the investigation of associations among the variables in more complex frequency tables with THREE OR MORE variables or attributes.
9An experiment on helping Male and female interviewers asked male and female participants whether, in a certain situation, they would be prepared to help someone in a jam.
10A complex frequency table The results of the helping experiment can be summarised in a contingency table with THREE VARIABLES:Interviewerâs sex;Participantâs sex;Help (Yes or No).
12Scientific hypothesis In the Tissue Type and Presence experiment, the SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS is that there IS an association between the two attributes.
13The null hypothesisThe NULL HYPOTHESIS (H0) is that there is NO association between Tissue Type and Presence: the two attributes are INDEPENDENT.It is the NULL HYPOTHESIS of independence, not the scientific hypothesis, that is tested by the traditional chi-square test for association.With just two attributes, the interpretation of the test result is clear: if the null hypothesis is falsified, we have shown the presence of an association between the two attributes.
14The chi-square test with three attributes With three or more attributes, the traditional chi-square test can easily be adapted to test the null hypothesis of total independence among the attributes.A significant result confirms that there is an association among the variables.
15AmbiguityThe mere presence of an association, however, does not tell us which of the several variables are involved.Are just two of the three variables associated? Are all three variables involved in associations? Are female participants more helpful than male participants? (That implies that the attributes of Help and Paricipantâs sex are associated.)A significant result for the chi-square test cannot answer such questions.
16The traditional follow-up analysis Following the initial test, associations between specific pairs of variables were investigated by COLLAPSING the frequency tables across unwanted variables, leaving the pair you were investigating.The usual chi-square test for association between the two variables could then be made.
17Are females more helpful? I collapse the frequencies across the variable of Interviewerâs sex.I test for an association between Help and Participantâs sex.The result is significant.I conclude that females are more helpful.Unfortunately, this conclusion is FALSE!
18Danger!The strategy of collapsing across variables in complex frequency tables is fraught with danger.You can collapse across unwanted variables, make a chi-square test for an association between two target variables and obtain a significant result.There may actually be NO association between those variables!
20Hidden variablesThe practice of collapsing across some variables makes them âdisappearâ.But the vanished variables (Interviewerâs Sex) can continue to affect the appearance of the two-way table.As a result, the researcher can come to a false conclusion.
21The opposite-sex dyadic hypothesis The helping experiment was designed to test the OPPOSITE-SEX DYADIC HYPOTHESIS, which holds that we are more likely to offer help to someone of the opposite sex than to one of our own sex.None of the three possible two-way interactions (Help à Participant, Help à Interviewer, Participant à Interviewer) captures this hypothesis.
22A three-way interaction No test of any two-way association can confirm the opposite-sex dyadic hypothesis.The hypothesis implies a THREE-WAY ASSOCIATION or THREE-WAY INTERACTION among the three variables.The traditional chi-square test cannot test such a hypothesis.
23Loglinear modellingRecent years have seen great advances in the analysis of complex contingency tables.A LOGLINEAR MODEL is an equation which accounts for the cell frequencies.Any cell frequency is stated to be the sum of several terms, each of which resembles those in an ANOVA model: There are MAIN EFFECT terms and there are INTERACTIONS.From the model, the UNIQUE contribution of each effect to the cell frequencies can be seen and each effect can be tested for statistical significance.
24Complex interactionsIn loglinear modelling, even complex interactions can be included in the model and their unique contribution to the overall association among the variables can be safely determined.
25Where we are goingI shall start with the traditional chi-square test for association between two attributes.I shall then compare the ordinary chi-square test with a loglinear analysis of the same data.I shall then demonstrate the superiority of the loglinear approach by analysing the three-way contingency table of the results of the gender and helping experiment.
26Returning to the incidence of the antibody in different tissue groups âŠ.
28Expected frequenciesFor each cell of the contingency table, the EXPECTED FREQUENCY (E) is calculated on the assumption that the variables of Tissue Type and Presence are INDEPENDENT.The values of E are calculated on the basis of the NULL HYPOTHESIS.
29Rationale of the testThe expected frequencies E are compared with the OBSERVED FREQUENCIES (O).If the values of O are very different from the values of E, we have evidence against the null hypothesis of independence.We infer that there is indeed an association.
31Finding the expected frequencies The expected frequencies E are calculated using estimates of probability.Their values are calculated from the MARGINAL TOTALS of the contingency table and the TOTAL NUMBER of observations in the whole table N.Note that for fixed marginal totals and grand total, the cell frequencies can vary considerably.
34An implicit multiplicative model In the rule for the expected freqencies, estimates of probability are MULTIPLIED together.Implicitly, we have applied a multiplicative INDEPENDENCE MODEL to the data.If the independence model is a good fit, the values of E will be close to the values of O; it it isnât, there may be large discrepancies.
36Degrees of freedomIn physical science, the DEGREES OF FREEDOM of a system is the number of constraints you need to determine its state fully.Viewing the marginal and grand totals of the contingency table as a system, you have 8 cell frequencies.But you need only specify values for THREE of them to determine those of the others.
40One parameterThe chi-square distribution has ONE parameter, the degrees of freedom.You cannot assign a probability to an obtained value of chi-square until you have specified the sampling distribution by assigning a value to the degrees of freedom (df ).
41The target distribution Our chi-square statistic has THREE degrees of freedom.To make a significance test, we must refer this value to the distribution of chi-square on THREE degrees of freedom.
42Suppose the null hypothesis is true, you run your experiment 10, 000 times and calculate chi-square from each data set. Through sampling error, you will occasionally obtain large values.
44The p-valueThe p-value of in the chi-square distribution on 3 degrees of freedom is âŠThis value is less than 0.05, but greater than 0.01.We report the test result as follows:âThe chi-square test for association is significant beyond the 0.05 level: Ï2(3) = 10.66; p = 0.01.âSo the result is significant beyond the 0.05 level but not beyond the 0.01 level.
45The likelihood-ratio (LR) chi-square There is another statistic, known as the LIKELIHOOD-RATIO (LR) CHI-SQUARE, which is also approximately distributed as true chi-square.For a given data set, the two statistics have similar values.Tests for significance usually lead to the same result.
48Similar valuesThe value of the likelihood ratio (LR) chi-square (11.06) is close to the value of the Pearson chi-square (10.66).The significance test with either statistic results in the same decision about the null hypothesis.It is the LR chi-square statistic that is used in loglinear modelling because, as we shall see, it has a very important property that the Pearson chi-square lacks.
49Measuring strength of association The chi-square statistic is unsafisfactory as a measure of association, because its value reflects the size of the data set.Statistics such as the PHI COEFFICIENT, CRAMERâS V and GOODMAN AND KRUSKALâS LAMBDA provide measures of the strength of the association between the two attributes.They are all available on SPSS.
532 Ã 2 tablesWith two by two tables, there is another useful measure of association based on a measure of likelihood known as the ODDS.
54The oddsThe ODDS is a measure of likelihood which, like PROBABILITY, arises in the context of an EXPERIMENT OF CHANCE, such as rolling a die or tossing a coin.The ODDS in favour of an outcome is the number of ways in which the outcome could occur, divided by the number of ways in which it could fail to occur.
56ExampleRoll a die. Thereâs one way of getting a six; there are 5 ways of not getting a six.The odds in favour of a six when a die is rolled are 1 to 5, or 1/5, to express it as a proper fraction.Suppose we know that out of 100 people, 44 have a certain antibody in their blood.The estimate of the ODDS in favour of a person having the antibody is 44 to 56 or 44/56.
57The odds ratio (OR)We can compare the odds in favour of an outcome in TWO groups simply by dividing the two values.This provides a useful measure of association known as the ODDS RATIO (OR).
61Interpreting the ORThe odds in favour of the antibody in the Critical category are FIVE TIMES the odds in favour in the Other category. In other words, you are five times as likely to get the antibody in someone from the Critical group.We shall see that the OR can be a valuable tool for exploring more complex contingency tables in which at least two of the attributes are DICHOTOMIES, that is, they each comprise only two categories.
62The two-factor loglinear model I am going to use SPSS to construct a loglinear model of the original 4 à 2 Tissue Type à Presence of Antibody contingency table.The two-way loglinear model bears more than a superficial resemblance to the two-way fixed effects ANOVA model.
64A drug experimentHere is a summary of the results of a drug experiment, in which the effects of two factors upon skilled task performance were studied.The factors were Drug (Placebo, A, B) and Alertness (Fresh, Tired).
71DeviationsWith the exception of the grand mean, the components of the ANOVA model are all DEVIATIONS, with the property that they sum to zero over all levels of either factor.Although they are all calculated from the statistics of the sample, they are regarded as ESTIMATES of the corresponding population PARAMETERS.The ANOVA model is expressed in terms of parameters, rather than sample statistics.
73Model-buildingEVERY statistical test is based upon a model, or interpretation of the data, which usually takes the form of an equation.There is a model for every type of ANOVA.But using the ANOVA is NOT a process of model-building as such.The underlying model is retained regardless of the results of the ANOVA tests.
74Loglinear modellingLike the ANOVA model, a loglinear model interprets the data as the sum of a set of effects.In model-building, however, terms are added or removed according to how well the model FITS the data.A model might have many possible terms; but a much simpler model with very few terms might turn out to fit the data very well indeed.
75The saturated modelA loglinear model that contains all possible terms is known as a SATURATED model.The most complex term is so defined that a saturated model must predict the values of the cell frequencies (or their logs) PERFECTLY.A saturated model has as many parameters as there are cells in the contingency table, leaving no degrees of freedom for any differences between the observed and expected frequencies.
76The total degrees of freedom The cells have 3 df.The marginal row totals have 3 df.The marginal column totals have 1df.For a fixed N, there are a total of 7 degrees of freedom in this table.The SATURATED MODEL has 7 degrees of freedom.
77The saturated loglinear model The saturated (or full) loglinear model of the cell frequencies in a two-way contingency table bears more than a superficial resemblance to the ANOVA model.There is a grand mean, or CONSTANT.There are MAIN EFFECT terms.There is an INTERACTION term.
79NoteWe are effectively modelling the cell frequencies, not an individual score. There is NO RANDOM ERROR TERM in the loglinear model.We are modelling, not the frequencies themselves, but their NATURAL LOGARITHMS.
80Why logs?We have seen that the expected frequencies are estimable from the marginal means by MULTIPLICATIVE, not SUMMATIVE rules. In fact, a multiplicative model of the expected cell frequencies is quite feasible.The log of a PRODUCT is the SUM of the logs.So if we model the LOG of the frequency, rather than the frequency itself, we shall have a SUMMATIVE, rather than a MULTIPLICATIVE, model.This is the meaning of the term LOGLINEAR.
81Parallels with the ANOVA model The constant is the grand mean of the logs of the cell frequencies.The main effects are the deviations of the logs of the marginal totals from the means of the logs of the marginal totals.The interaction effect is what is left of the log of the cell frequency when the main effects have been removed.
82Non-independence of marginal frequencies and effects In the ANOVA, estimates of main effects and interactions are based upon MEANS.The values of means are not dependent upon the numbers of observations from which the means have been calculated.When we are modelling cell frequencies, however, the marginal frequencies do affect both main effect and interaction terms.
83The hierarchical principle When an interaction term is included in a loglinear model, the main effects of the factors involved must also be included.When the interaction is complex (say three-way), all lower-order interactions among the factors must also be included in the model, as well as the main effects of the factors involved.
84The generating class of a model In most (though not all) SPSS procedures, you need specify only an interaction term: the procedure will follow the hierarchical principle and generate all lower order interactions (if there are any), as well as the main effect terms.The GENERATING CLASS of a model is a list of all its distinct terms at highest level.A model of generating class A, BÃCÃD, for example, will contain the main effect terms A, B, C and D, and the two-way interactions AÃB, AÃC and BÃC, as well as the three-way interaction.
86The main effects modelIf the interaction is removed from the saturated model, we have an UNSATURATED MODEL known as the MAIN EFFECTS (or INDEPENDENCE) MODEL.This, implicitly, is what is being tested by the traditional chi-square test.
88The use of chi-square in loglinear modelling We use the LR chi-square statistic as a measure of a modelâs GOODNESS-OF-FIT.If the model is a GOOD fit, the value of chi-square is SMALL and statistically insignificant.If the model is a POOR fit, chi-square is LARGE and statistically significant.
89Backward elimination strategy Start with the saturated model. Chi-square has no degrees of freedom and a value of zero.Remove the highest-order interaction. Chi-square will increase.If chi-square increases significantly, the term must be retained in the model.If the increase in chi-square is small and insignificant, the term can be dropped from the model.The process continues until no term can be dropped without a significant increase in chi-square.
90Using SPSS to model the Tissue Type à Presence contingency table
101The additive propertyThe advantage of the LR chi-square is that the total value for all effects can be partitioned into non-overlapping contributions from the different effects, so that the total value is the sum of the values associated with the separate effects.You will see that the total Pearson chi-square is not quite equal to the sum of the chi-squares of the components.
102Now, weâll fit an unsaturated, main effects model Now, weâll fit an unsaturated, main effects model. Click the Model button.
105Graphing the residuals A loglinear model is rather like a regression equation.As in regression, the study of the residuals (O â E) affords insight into the goodness-of-fit of the model.Difference kinds of residuals serve different purposes.ADJUSTED and DEVIANCE residuals are good for identifying cells where the fit is poor.
117Interpretation of the odds ratios For the males, OR = They were four times as likely to help if the interviewer was female than if the interviewer was male.For the females, OR = They were twice as likely to help if the interviewer was male than if the interviewer was female.There would appear to be some support for the opposite-sex dyadic hypothesis.
118Effects in loglinear analysis and ANOVA Suppose we had measured helpfulness on a continuous scale and analysed the data with ANOVA.A main effect would have signified different levels of helpfulness.A two-way interaction between Interviewerâs sex and Participantâs sex would have supported the opposite-sex dyadic hypothesis.
119Interpreting effects in loglinear analysis In our example, a main effect simply compares male and female interviewers and participants on frequency.Main effects are often of trivial interest in loglinear analysis.Differences in level of helpfulness emerge in TWO-WAY interactions. If female interviewers receive more help than male interviewers, there should be an interaction between Help and Interviewerâs Sex.The opposite-sex dyadic hypothesis predicts a THREE-WAY interaction involving all three attributes: Help, Participant and Interviewer.
123Notice that the two-way Participant Notice that the two-way Participant*Help interaction does not make a significant contribution! It is only retained in the model in accordance with the hierarchical principle
125Extension of the traditional chi-square test The rule for obtaining the expected frequencies from elementary probability theory can be extended to complex contingency tables with three or more attributes.A three-way contingency table can be presented as two two-way tables, each at a different LAYER of the third attribute.Let R, C and L be the marginal total frequencies for the three attributes for one particular cell of the three-way classification.
130Equivalence of chi-square test and total independence model When we apply an extension of the traditional chi-square test to a three-way contingency table, we are effectively testing the goodness-of-fit of the main effects or total independence model.But a significant result doesnât confirm any specific association.It could be one or more two-way interactions. It could be the three-way interaction. There could be interactions at both levels.Our loglinear analysis has shown that the ONLY SIGNIFICANT TERM IN THE MODEL IS THE THREE-WAY INTERACTION.
131SummaryThe traditional chi-square test of independence can be extended to more complex frequency tables.The rejection of the total independence hypothesis does not answer our research questions.The traditional collapsing approach is dangerous; nor does it always answer the research question.Loglinear modelling enables us to pinpoint the real associations and to test complex hypotheses that the traditional approach cannot test.
133Practical advice Kinnear, P. R., & Gray, C. D. (2007). SPSS 15 Made SimpleHove and new York: Psychology Press.Chapter 13 outlines the rationale of loglinear modelling and gives you step-by-step instructions on how to run the procedure.
134An excellent textbookHowell, D. C. (2007). Statistical methods for psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.Thereâs a helpful introduction to loglinear modelling in Chapter 17.
135Tabachnik, B. G. , & Fidell, L. S. (2007) Tabachnik, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 16.Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS for Windows: Advanced techniques for the beginner (2nd ed.). London: Sage. Chapter 16.
137A logarithmic systemIn a LOGARITHMIC SYSTEM, numbers are expressed as POWERS of a constant known as the BASE.The numbers 10, 100, 1000, 10,000,100,000 and 1,000,000 can all be expressed as powers of 10 thus:
139Definition of a logThe log of a number is the power to which the base must be raised to equal the number.So, since 1000 = 103, the log of 1000 to the base 10 is 3.The two most common bases are 10 and the number e, where e â 2.72Logs to the base e are known as NATURAL LOGS.
149Three laws of logs The log of the PRODUCT is the SUM of the logs. The log of the QUOTIENT is the DIFFERENCE between the logs.The log of the POWER is the power TIMES the log.
150Things to remember about logs There is no log for a negative number.The log of zero is minus infinity.A log can have a negative value. It does so when the number is a PROPER FRACTION (numerator less than the denominator, so with a value between zero and 1).The log of 1 is zero. |
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One reason disagreements turn into conflict and ongoing tension is our failure to see â or acknowledge that we see â the other person in the way they most deeply wish to be seen in the world. One way to disagree better is to respond to their bid to be seen, not with miserly reticence, but with generosity of spirit.
In Zulu, a traditional greeting is Sawubona â I see you. A traditional response is, Yebo sawubona â Yes, I see you, too.
The greeting is a recognition and acknowledgement that truly being seen by others is deeply important to humans. We want others to recognize our humanity, to affirm that weâre valued for who we are.
Truly seeing another is about seeing the equal human in front of us, beautiful and ugly, perfect and flawed, just like us.
When disagreements turn into ongoing friction and conflict, our ability to recognize and acknowledge the other in their entirety diminishes. We tend to stop seeing them whole and instead focus on, and even amplify in our minds, the parts that irritate, frustrate, or anger us. They are likely doing the same about us.
This is one of the reasons that runaway arguments and ongoing interpersonal conflict can feel like such struggles to sort out. Weâre no longer discussing the precipitating issue; weâre defending our very identities.
What needs to be seen
When we conflict, we tend not to talk explicitly about the parts of our identities that we want seen and acknowledged. We talk around it. We make them guess.
Maybe we get angry, too, first because weâre not being seen, later because we expect them to just know how we want to be seen. The closer they are to us, the more frustrating this feels.
Anger can be understood as amplification of the desire to be seen.
We want to be seen as someone who matters, matters enough that others will pause and pay attention, even for just a little while. This is true at work and it is true with our loved ones at home.
We want to be seen as someone whose words, ideas, and opinions have value, even if thereâs disagreement over the specifics in those words, ideas, and opinions.
We want to be seen as a generally fair and reasonable human being, even if we donât seem very reasonable at this very moment. Surely they understand that moments of unreasonableness do not make us entirely unreasonable beings.
We want to be seen as a valued member of our tribe (team, family, friends), valued enough that our place in the group is secure and we can remain in fellowship with others.
We want to be seen as capable, even if we are not competent in every single thing we do. When we make a mistake or suck at a certain task, we still want to be valued for being a generally effective human.
This is not an exhaustive list, of course. Some of the most common big identity triggers in conflict tend to be fellowship, reliability, autonomy, competence, integrity, and status. I wrote a lot about these triggers in my second book, The Conflict Pivot.
How to see more deeply during conflict
One way to disagree better is to try seeing the person weâre arguing with, and make sure they know we are trying to see them.
This could take some effort because we may have to wrangle our ego and our confirmation bias into submission for a while. Sometimes, when Iâm struggling with this, I remind myself that having a thought and believing it are two different things.
What does it sound like to communicate weâre trying to see someone?
Maybe we say, âWhat youâre saying matters to me. Help me understand better.â
Maybe we ask, âWhat is the most important thing you want me to understand right now?â or âWhat do you most want them to understand about you?â
Maybe we stop being miserly with our acknowledgements. We become miserly in conflict because we donât think they deserve our generosity of spirit. This is a shame, because thatâs when generosity can have the truest impact.
When we stop being miserly, we allow ourselves the space to say things like, âYou know, when I said that you arenât pulling your weight with the housekeeping, I wasnât meaning to imply you donât pull your weight at all. I am grateful for how much you contribute to our lives together.â
Or like, âI want you to know that task wasnât handled well. And I also want you to know that it stood out to me because so much of what you do here is done with excellence.â
Another way to disagree better is to help them save face, because losing face is a blow to identity. Identity is about how we see ourselves in the world and want others to see us. When we lose face, we work extra hard to try to get it back. This makes conflict and disagreements more tangled.
How do we help someone save face in the midst of an argument?
Maybe we donât confront them in front of others, because being called out in front of others makes them lose face.
It is very hard to keep a conversation productive when one person is losing face just by being there.
Maybe we try not to blame, because while blame makes us feel good, it makes them lose face. They will struggle very hard to be seen more fully when we blame.
Maybe we bite our judgmental tongues, knowing that phrases like, âCanât you just be a little reasonableâ donât work and make them lose face. They will work unreasonably hard to show us just how reasonable they really are.
Maybe, when we realize weâve got the upper hand, we donât take it.
Maybe, if weâre leading the conversation and we see their frustration escalating, we take a break and give them time to get their feet back under them.
How to be seen during conflict
If we fear theyâre not seeing us, we can ask, âCan you help me out here? What do you understand Iâm trying to say?â
We can also do the harder thing and name our fear out loud. It might sound like, âThe most important thing to me here is acknowledgement that Iâm good at what I do, even if in this one instance I screwed up.â Or, âIt feels to me like my integrity is in question here and I want to talk about that.â |
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As with great works of art, you must look into the past to appreciate the future. With roots as far back as the 1970â²s, the humble icon has come a long way. Following is a collection of icons though history. Although there have been many other operating systems in the time between 1981 â 2010, Iâve hand picked the ones of the most significance to modern icon design. These designs show just a small fraction of the icons in the many and varied User Interfaces throughout the years. To learn more about the history of User Interface Design
you can find a comprehensive article on the subject on Wikipedia.
1981 Xerox 8010 Star â The First Consumer GUI Computer
In 1973 the Xerox Alto
was the worldâs first GUI (Graphical User Interface) based computing system. Designed around an "office" metaphor (also a first), the Alto was built as a research computer and therefore wasnât available for commercial release. With 2,000 machines worldwide, the Xerox Alto was so significant, it was a source of inspiration for the Apple Lisa (1983). In 1981 the Xerox Star
was released, incorporating many of the design features of the Alto. The Xerox icons demonstrate a consideration for human interaction. As you can see, Calculator, Document, Folder and Trash havenât changed in almost 30 years.
1981 â Xerox 8010 Star
1983 Apple Lisa â Popularized the GUI
Development of the Apple Lisa
started in 1978 and was heavily influenced by the earlier Xerox computers. Hoping to carve a niche in the personal computing market, Apple adopted the office metaphor to make navigation easier for new users. Lisa was an advanced GUI for the time as it had movable "Desk Accessories" (early Widgets), drop-down menus and folder based directories. You can see the icons are not much different from the Xerox, except for the size and single pixel outlines, and the use of the computer as the preferences icon (itâs now common to use cogs).
1983 â Lisa Office System 1
1984 Apple Macintosh 1.0 â Artist Designed Icons
A year after Lisa the Apple Macintosh 1.0
was released. We now see drag and drop file copying, movable windows and fancy new icons! The Macintosh icons were designed by the now legendary Susan Kare
. Susan Kare has to be the all time master of Icon design and was responsible for many icons including the MacPaint interface (fig 2). Kareâs philosophy on icon design is simple, "I believe that good icons are more akin to road signs rather than illustrations, and ideally should present an idea in a clear, concise, and memorable way. I try to optimize for clarity and simplicity even as palette and resolution options have increased." This philosophy is at the core of Appleâs early commercial success.
1984 â Macintosh System 1.0 (fig 1)
1984 â Macintosh System 1.0 (fig 2)
1985 Atari TOS â Isometric Icons
Itâs important to note â for those a bit younger than us old sentimental computer users â that the GUI was not only for the Apple systems. The Atari ST
had an OS called TOS which had a minimal interface also using the desk metaphor, which by then had become a computer standard. Itâs interesting to see that the TOS has Isometric Disk icons (file drawers).
1985 â Atari TOS Version 1.0
1985 Amiga Workbench â Four Color Icons
The Amiga Workbench was made for the Amiga 1000
personal computer. Despite the crudely designed icons, Workbench was actually ahead of its time. Including features such as customizable mouse cursors, four color graphics and multi-state icons. You can see the two states of the "Workbench" icon in the example below. The Amiga broke with the desktop convention and chose to use a workbench with drawers instead of files.
1985 â Amiga Workbench 1.0
1985 Windows 1.0x â Microsoftâs First GUI OS
In 1985 Microsoft finally released its first GUI
. The icons are just as crude as the Amiga but donât include color. Itâs interesting to see that the first icons for Windows Paint employ different symbols to MacPaint, in particular the Spray Painter.
1985 â Windows 1.0x
1986 GEOS for Commodore 64 â The Alternative OS
Iâve included GEOS for the Commodore 64 as, at the time, it was the second most popular GUI behind Macintosh 1.0 (based on units shipped). The icons have more character than Windows OS and share the Mac philosophy of clearly expressed metaphors.
1986 â Commodore C64 GEOS
1991 Macintosh System 7 â First Mac OS with Colors
With System 7 we saw the introduction of color to the icons. You may notice that the icons are now slightly raised to appear "clickable".
1991 â Macintosh System 7
1992 Windows 3.1 â New Designer Icons!
In Windows 3.0 (1990) Microsoft employed Susan Kare (who first made icons for the Macintosh 1.0) who greatly improved the designs. In 3.1 Kare further refines the colors and designs for the icons. Windows 3.1 was the first Windows platform with pre-installed True Type Fonts.
1990 â Windows 3
1995 Windows 95 â The Start Button
Windows 95 introduces more colors to the icons and a few more isometric designs. The Windows 95 design is a complete re-build and includes elements that are still part of Windows designs to this day. The elements include, the taskbar, the menu and Microsoftâs famous Start Button
1995 â Windows 95
1997 Macintosh OS 8 â Brighter Icons for Mac
In Mac OS 8 the icons are now beginning to look brighter and rendered to show a strong light source. Macintosh also starts to implement an isometric style with a strong "drop shadow".
1997 â Macintosh OS 8
2001 Mac OS X v10.0 â Jelly Mac
Mac OS X was released around the time I was studying for my degree in Multimedia. Lovingly called the "Jelly Mac" by most of the students. We couldnât help but notice the ultra shiny and plastic-jelly like finish of the icons. The icons in OS X are also a huge leap forward in design from the previous OS 9, which was released just two years earlier (OS 9 looks almost the same as OS 8 above.) Presumably, due to the Dock, the icons are rendered either from a straight forward point of view or slightly above. Designed around the new Aqua
theme, icons show complex reflections, highlights and textures. Without the Aqua theme, I doubt that icon design would be as desirable as it is today.
2001 â Mac OS X v10.0
2001 Windows XP â Bright Soft Icons
In 2001 Microsoft introduced, yet another, completely new OS system. Adopting a saturated color palette, the icons are rendered with a soft illustrative look that uses a single light source and a semi transparent drop shadow. They continue to use the isometric style.
2001 â Windows XP
2007 Mac OS X Leopard â Reflective Dock
Mac ditches the stripes and adopts a 3D reflective doc for the icons to "sit on". The use of chrome, glass and reflections is as popular as ever. The icons donât change much from v10.0.
2007 â Mac OS X Leopard
2009 Windows 7 â Soft and Reflective
The Windows 7 icons are completely different from Windows XP and similar to Windows Vista. The major difference between Vista and 7 is the direction the icons are facing. I havenât been able to find any official documentation on the change, but Iâm not the only one whoâs asking the question
. The icons in Windows 7 are also softer and more glassy than previous ones.
2009 â Windows 7 |
Attend a screening of The Great Invisible to witness the impacts of the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon disaster on Gulf Coast communities. Local experts and elected officials will be on hand to deliver comments and answer questions.
About the film
On April 20, 2010, communities throughout the Gulf Coast of the United States were devastated by the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon, a state-of-the-art, offshore oilrig operated by BP in the Gulf of Mexico. The blast killed 11 of 126 rig crewmembers and injured many more, setting off a fireball that was seen 35 miles away. After burning for two days, the Deepwater Horizon sank, causing the largest offshore oil spill in American history. The spill flowed unabated for almost three months, dumping hundreds of millions of gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic ocean, shutting down the local fishing industry, polluting the fragile ecosystem, and raising serious questions about the safety of continued deep-water offshore drilling.
Brown traveled to small towns and major cities across Alabama, Louisiana and Texas to explore the fallout of the environmental disaster. Years later, the Southern Americans still haunted by the Deepwater Horizon explosion provide first-hand accounts of their ongoing experience, long after the story has faded from the front page. |
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Severe winters may be helping our wildlife
A return to more 'traditional' weather in the UK has helped our wildlife thrive during the last year.
Many of us have not enjoyed the past month or so when the UK has experienced record low temperatures coupled with heavy snow and ice. However, conservationists working for the National Trust have reported that the last year has seen British wildlife largely flourish.
Matthew Oates, a Nature Conservation Advisor has been speaking recently about a Trust survey looking at the effect of the weather during 2010 on our wildlife.
"For the first time in a generation we have experienced a traditional year of weather and our wildlife has mostly responded favourably."
"A cold winter enabled wildlife to hibernate properly while a warm spring and early summer created ideal conditions for insects and led to bumper autumn berry crops in our orchards, woods and hedgerows."
Climatologists and environmentalists have for several years been warning that rapid changes in rainfall and temperature will affect many animal and plant species throughout the UK who may not be able to adapt quickly enough to cope with the disappearance of their traditional habitats.
This year the National Trust survey has shown that there have been more winners than losers. Several native endangered species such as the heath fritillary butterfly on Exmoor, netted carpet moth in Cumbria and the Farne Island puffins have all had a good year. Flowers too enjoyed the late Spring and early Summer when dry weather reduced the competition from usually vigorous grasses.
Other encouraging signs highlighted in the survey include:
- the re-appearance of the white coated mountain hare in a wintry Peak District
- unusualy large numbers of queen wasp because of a longer (more successful) hibernation
- bluebells - were still in flower at end of May as far south west as Devon
- good numbers of aphid-feeding hoverflies and ladybirds
- a bumper crop of berries and hedgerow fruit
- bats thriving
- superb autumn colours across the UK because of an extended warm phase and limited wind in November
- mammals generally entered winter in good condition
- bumper crop of mistletoe!
There is undoubtedly more winter still to come - so if you're planning on enjoying the outdoors (including our flora and fauna!), have a look at our guide on what to wear for winter walking.
The views expressed by contributors to this discussion are not necessarily those held by go4awalk.com. |
Noise and Vibration
We understand that noise and vibration from the subway may be of concern for nearby residents and we are committed to minimizing any potential impacts wherever possible.
During construction, heavy equipment and activities like excavation can be a source of increased noise and vibration. Once the line is operational, the potential for ground vibration and a low frequency ârumbleâ are two of the most important factors to consider for noise/ vibration sensitive areas located close to the subway alignment.
To identify potential impacts, we have carried out a Noise and Vibration Impact Assessment.
How are noise and vibration studied?
Models are used to predict the noise and vibration at certain points near noise/vibration sensitive areas. These predictions are compared to existing noise and vibration at the same points.
What is a noise/vibration sensitive area?
A noise/vibration sensitive area is a land use that is sensitive to noise and vibration, whether inside and/or outside the property. Examples include:
How will we reduce the impacts?
With the implementation of these mitigation measures, any impact is expected
to be minor, and within recommended thresholds.
Existing noise and vibration sources
Currently the main source of the existing â i.e. ambient â noise and vibration in the area are trucks and buses.
Estimated future noise and vibration
Our extensive studies predict that:
1. Air-borne noise impact from the bus terminal at Scarborough Centre on the closest residential receptor would not noticeably change due to the existing ambient and vehicular traffic on the nearby roads.
2. Properties around the proposed SSE alignment may experience between 10 (barely audible) and 35 (just above a soft whisper) dBA. Vibration levels will also be generally imperceptible in the urban context. |
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Do the animals at the bottom of the ocean know itâs dark season?
Do the animals at the bottom of the ocean, that might never have been exposed to sunlight, notice the dark season as we do? It seems logical to assume that the polar night should go by completely unnoticed by them. But it doesnât.
Itâs impossible for us to overlook the dark time since we see the sun on a daily basis, but what about animals at the bottom of the ocean, who might have never in their lives been exposed to sunlight? It seems logical to assume that the polar night should go by completely unnoticed by these animals that live out their entire lives in total darkness.
As it turns out, even animals in the deepest reaches of the ocean feel the effects of the winter darkness. This is because of the way in which food is produced on our planet. All life on earth is carbon based, so all living creatures need carbon to sustain their bodies. Unfortunately, not any carbon will do, we specifically need organic carbon. This means that we cannot just eat carbon dioxide from the air. Instead, that inorganic carbon needs to be converted to organic carbon, which is not easy, and something animals cannot do that conversion. Green organisms like plants and algae can do it, but even they need an external power source to fuel the process. Usually the energy source is the Sun, so we refer to the procedure as photosynthesis. It is primarily through this process that organic carbon becomes available for all living beings, whether they are herbivores who directly consume the plants generating organic carbon, or carnivores, which eat the herbivores.
In oceans, photosynthesis can be problematic since sunlight only penetrates the top few hundred meters. The surficial, sun-exposed layer is a tiny fragment of the large water body that makes up an ocean, meaning that in most parts of the worldâs oceans, photosynthesis is not possible. As a result, deep-sea animals have to rely on food trickling down to them from the surface, and naturally, the quantity and quality of food reaching the seafloor decreases the deeper you descend.
In the dark season, photosynthesis at the surface comes to a halt (though not completely), and the already food-poor seafloor becomes even more starved, and desert-like. One of the ways that deep-sea animals survive on the lean pickings of the polar night is by doing everything slowly and keeping their metabolic rates low. Less energy expended means less food needed. Seafloor animals also tend to be good at alternating between feasting and fasting, so sudden influxes of food can provide sustenance for a while. One of my favourite ideas is that deep-sea animals ride out the polar night by hanging out at ecosystems like hydrothermal vents and hydrocarbon seeps, where food production is powered by chemical energy from the earth, instead of sunlight, and is therefore not seasonal. Similar to that one restaurant that stays open during Christmas; these locations are oases within the desert of the deep sea and the polar night.
Itâs hard to imagine that the dark season is life threatening for animals that have never experienced the sun in any shape or form. Maybe swallowing âTranâ (cod liver oil) is not the worst effect of the polar night after all.
Welcome to a journey through the Arctic!
This blog is written by researchers and participants linked to The Nansen Legacy Project.
They will share their experiences and knowledge from research cruises in the Barents Sea.
The research vessel F/F «Kronprins Haakon» gives unique opportunities to explore the rapidly changing climate and ecosystems in the Arctic.
To ensure a sustainable management of the Northern Barents Sea and the adjacent Arctic Basin throughout the 21st century a new knowledge base is required.
(Top picture: Christian Morel / www.christianmorel.net / The Nansen Legacy)
Read more blog posts from the Nansen Legacy Project Blog. |
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Our nation celebrated Martin Luther King Day this week; therefore, it seems only reasonable that I write something about segregation and the fight for civil rights. Early screenings of a new film entitled "Red Tails" are about over, and the film will be released to the general public on January 20. The film tells the story about the Tuskegee Airmen, the first African-American pilots to fly in a combat squadron in World War II. Their job was to defend the
bombers, and they did it through courageous and fearless air battles. The film tells a fictionalized story inspired by a group of unsung heroes, and it stars Cuba Gooding Jr. and Terrence Howard. A movie trailer can be found here. My husband and I are anxiously awaiting the arrival of the film in United States . Anchorage
A documentary film entitled "The Tuskegee Airmen" was made in 1995 and was based on a true story. I found it interesting that this film also stared Cuba Gooding Jr. This 1995 film was about an "experiment" done in 1942 when a group of college graduates were selected for training as pilots in Army Air Corps at the
training base. The men faced prejudice from white officers who clearly wanted the experiment to fail, including their own major. The men distinguished themselves and served their country with distinction and bravery. A trailer for this film can be seen here. Tuskegee
According to Wikipedia, "The Tuskegee Airmen is the popular name of a group of African American pilots who fought in World War II. Formally, they were the 332nd Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group of the U.S. Army Air Corps.
"The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African American military aviators in the
armed forces. During World War II, African Americans in many United States states still were subject to the Jim Crow laws. The American military was racially segregated, as was much of the federal government. The Tuskegee Airmen were subject to racial discrimination, both within and outside the army. Despite these adversities, they trained and flew with distinction. U.S.
"Although the 477th Bombardment Group `worked up' on North American B-25 Mitchell bombers, they never served in combat; the Tuskegee 332nd Fighter Group was the only operational unit, first sent overseas as part of Operation Torch, then in action in Sicily and Italy, before being deployed as bomber escorts in Europe where they were particularly successful in their missions.
"The Tuskegee Airmen initially were equipped with Curtiss P-40 Warhawks fighter-bomber aircraft, briefly with Bell P-39 Airacobras (March 1944), later with Republic P-47 Thunderbolts (June-July 1944), and finally the fighter group acquired the aircraft with which they became most commonly associated, the North American P-51 Mustang (July 1944). When the pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group painted the tails of their P-47's red, the nickname `Red Tails' was coined. Bomber crews applied a more effusive `Red-Tail Angels' sobriquet."
The Tuskegee Airmen trained at the Tuskegee Army Air Field, which was located at the Tuskegee Institute in
; it was the training center for all black fighter pilots. There were 996 original Airmen, including pilots, bombardiers, and navigators, and there were nearly ten times as many black men and women serving them on the ground as mechanics, medical technicians, administrative support, and cooks. Alabama
There were 450 Airmen who served combat missions overseas in Europe, North Africa, and the
Mediterranean, flying 15,533 sorties in the two years between May 1943 and June 1945. They destroyed 251 enemy aircraft, sank a German destroyer, and disabled more than 600 box cars, locomotives and rolling stock. They earned more than 850 medals. The group saw 33 Airmen become prisoners of war and 66 die in combat.
Their greatest accomplishment is shown in these words by Master Sgt. Merrie Schilter Lowe in an August 1995 article in Air Force News Service: "They battled Nazism and Fascism in the skies over North Africa and Europe, and racism on the ground back in the
. They painted the tails of their P-51s bright red, and names like `Hammerin' Hank,' `Creamer's Dream,' and `"Mo" United States Downs' on the sides of their aircraft. But what really made the Tuskegee Airmen distinct was the fact that they never lost a bomber during some 200 escort missions during World War II."
According to Wikipedia, there is some controversy over the escort record. "⊠The Air Force conducted a reassessment of the history of the unit in late 2006. The subsequent report, based on after-mission reports filed by both the bomber units and
fighter groups, as well as missing air crew records and witness testimony, document 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen." Tuskegee
The Tuskegee Airmen had to fight for the right to fly airplanes. They faced great prejudice and discrimination before they were able to prove themselves. In the end, bomber crews were requesting Red Tails to escort them on missions.
In spite of the fact that their record may not be perfect, the story of the Tuskegee Airmen is just one of many examples that show that all of us - no matter our race, creed, religion, etc. - are all children of our Heavenly Father and fully capable of great deeds. |
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A file extension is a three-letter code at the end of the file name which tells your computer how to interpret it and how it was created. This is how Windows or macOS can determine that an MP3 file needs to be opened by your music player, or a PDF by a PDF reader. If the file has the wrong file type, then Windows will use the wrong program to open it.
Itâs possible to change the file type for files in Windows 10, but this depends on the file itself. Changing file types isnât just about changing the extension at the end of a file name. If a file isnât created the right way then simply changing the extension wonât work. Without further ado, hereâs how to change the file type in Windows 10 by renaming it.
Methods To Change File Type/Extension
Method 1: Change File Extensions in File Explorer
Before you rename files in Windows 10 to change their extension, you first need to change some settings.
- Open File Explorer and press View in the ribbon.
- Tick File name extensions on the right-hand side of the ribbon.
- In the View tab of File Explorer, click the Options button on the far right.
- In the Folder Options window, click the View tab, then scroll down and tick the Hide extensions for known file types option.
- With this setting disabled, you should now be able to view file extensions as part of each file name in Windows File Explorer.
- Right-click the file or files you want to change the type of in File Explorer and select Rename.
- Replace the older file extension with the new file extension, then press the Enter key or click in the empty white space to save the changes.
- Windows will warn you that changing file extensions in this way can break the file. If youâre sure you wish to continue, select OK to confirm.
Once confirmed, the file extension will be changed and the file will be listed as the new file type in the Type column. Depending on the file extensions used, you should now be able to open the file. If the process hasnât worked, rename the file and return it back to the previous extension.
Method 2: Change File Types Using Online Converter
If the above method canât help you expectably, then you can consider using a professional online conversion tool. When it comes to the conversion between PDF and other document formats like Word, TXT, Excel, PPT, PNG, etc. or the conversion of different images, you can choose Bitwar Online Converter. The conversion steps are simple as below:
- Open Bitwar Online Converter website and select the conversion way you want in the menu.
- Add the files by dragging and dropping or clicking the Choose Files button.
- After the file is uploaded successfully, click the Convert button.
- When the page displays File conversion completed, click the Download button to save the converted file on your computer.
Method 3: Change File Types Using Bitwar Video Converter
When it comes to the conversion of all popular video files, including protected formats: QSV, QLV, KUX to MP4, AVI, FLV, WMV, MKV, MOV, GIF and so on, you can choose Bitwar Video Converter.
- Download the video converter from Bitwarsoft Download Center and install it on you computer.
- Launch the software and click choose file to upload the video.
- Choose the target format from the preset menu and choose the format quality.
- Click convert to start the file conversion and wait patiently for the conversion to complete.
- Click the folder icon to preview the new video file.
Changing the file type or extension is often used in daily work. While Method 1 does not necessarily apply to all conversions, methods 2 and 3 cover the vast majority of file types encountered in everyday office work. Hope todayâs article can help you!
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Essay Topics/Writing Assignments
These 20 essay questions can be used as essay questions on a test, or as stand-alone essay topics for a take-home or in-class writing assignment. Students should have a full understanding of the text in order to answer these questions. They ask for a thorough analysis of the text.
1. The author begins the story in the present day and tells the story through some flashbacks. Why did he choose to tell his story this way? In what way is a flashback technique more interesting for a reader? In what ways is it more complicated?
2. Describe the setting at the beginning of the novel. Does the author paint a complete picture for the reader? What, if anything, is missing?
3. Stofsky spends some alone time throughout the novel to contemplate his life. What does he think about? ...
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The idea that the Jews are the âchosen peopleâ and have a special relationship with God is ubiquitous in Jewish sources. However, the nature of this relationship is not without complication and ambiguity.
Origins of the Chosen Concept
The notion of Jews being chosen has its root in several biblical verses. One of the most prominent, Deuteronomy 7:6, says, âFor you are a people consecrated to Adonai your God: of all the peoples on earth Adonai your God chose you to be Godâs treasured people.â The next two verses provide the reason for this choice. God did not choose the Israelites because of their numbers; rather, God chose the Israelites and freed them from slavery because God loved them and because God had made promises to their ancestors, the biblical patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
This, of course, begs the question: why did God choose the patriarchs?
In the Bible, the choice of Abraham is assumed and no explanation for it is given. In Genesis 12, God appears to Abraham without any introduction, and commands him to leave his fatherâs home. But a rabbinic source â embraced and embellished by the 12th-century philosopher Maimonides â asserts that it was in fact Abraham who found God. Abraham alone among his contemporaries established the falsehood of idolatry, affirming that there was only one God who ruled the earth. It was only after this that God appeared to Abraham.
Were Jews Actually Godâs Last Choice?
The covenant between God and the freed Israelite slaves at Mount Sinai is central to the idea of being chosen. The covenant concretized Jewish chosenness by establishing that the Israelites would abide by the Torah in return for special divine protection. Though God chose the Jews for this purpose, an amazing rabbinic source claims that the Jews were, in fact, Godâs last choice.
God first offered the Torah to the children of Esau, the children of Ammon and Moab, and the children of Ishmael, but when they were told about the Torahâs prohibitions against murder, adultery, and robbery, respectively, they turned down the offer. Only after going to every nation in the world did God finally offer the Torah to the Jews.
Are Jews Only Chosen if They Keep the Covenant?
This tradition assumes that chosenness is not an essential characteristic of the Jewish people, but rather a result of the covenantal relationship. Exodus 19:5 captures this view: âNow then, if you will obey Me faithfully and keep My covenant, you shall be My treasured possession among all the peoples.â
Many later thinkers embraced this conditional understanding of chosenness, but there is another strand of thought which maintains that chosenness derives from an inherent quality. Perhaps the most famous proponent of this view was the medieval philosopher Judah HaLevi (1086-1145). According to him, the Jews are endowed with âdivine influence.â This trait is passed on genetically, and it includes a capacity for prophecy and the privilege of receiving special divine providence. All the other nations of the world are subject to a more general providence and the whims of the natural world.
Is It Racist to Believe Jews Are Chosen?
Interestingly, though some have seen this position as racist, it was embraced in different forms by some modern liberal thinkers. The Reform leader Abraham Geiger (1810-1874), for example, believed that Jewish chosenness is reflected in a ânative talent for religion.â But many modern Jews have been uncomfortable with the idea of being chosen, particularly the genetic variety.
Some thinkers, influenced by egalitarianism and universalism, rejected the notion of Jews as chosen. Foremost among such thinkers is Mordecai Kaplan (1881-1983), the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism. Kaplan was a humanist and a naturalist; he did not believe in a supernatural God that could bestow favor upon one nation, and he believed that it was practically and morally problematic to posit the fundamental superiority of one people.
Still, most forms of contemporary Judaism have not rejected the concept, but have played down its importance or stressed its more benign interpretations.
Pronounced: ah-doe-NYE, Origin: Hebrew, a name for God.
Pronunced: TORE-uh, Origin: Hebrew, the Five Books of Moses. |
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Opium is from the poppy plant.
The term opiates are applied to compounds that are purified directly from opium without modification, like morphine and codeine.
The term opioid refers to compounds that are synthetic forms of opium, like Fentanyl. Fentanyl is the deadliest drug in America.
Members of our military and military veterans are plagued with musculoskeletal pain problems. In addition, for a number of years, the public has been informed of the depth of problems in the health care delivery for members of our military and our veterans. A recent Defense Department report (December 2018) indicated that 25% of active-duty service members had at least one prescription for an opioid in 2017 (2).
Opioids, especially with long-term use, increase the risks of addiction, overdose and death. According to the Centers for Disease Control, opioid use disorder and overdose have been a growing problem throughout the U.S. The amount of opioids prescribed has been dramatically increasing since the 1990s, and the number of overdoses and deaths from prescription opioids has also increased. A study last year (2018) authored by physicians from Harvard, Johns Hopkins, and Louisiana State University stated (3):
âTragically, opioids claimed over 64,000 lives just last year .â
These problems are particularly affecting active-duty military personnel and military veterans. Consequently, the Department of Defense is establishing a comprehensive, standardized pain management model for the system to provide consistent, quality and safe care for patients with pain (2).
There is evidence that military personnel in combat zones suffer increased spinal and upper extremity complaints/injuries as a consequence of prolonged wearing of body armor (4).
Chiropractic services for musculoskeletal conditions were introduced to Veterans Health Administration in 2004.
A noted leader in helping our active duty military and veterans with improved healthcare access, outcomes, and safety, is Anthony J. Lisi, DC. Dr. Lisi is Chiropractic Section Chief, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT; Assistant Clinical Professor, Yale Center for Medical Informatics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT.
In 2010, Dr. Lisi published the first published data on chiropractic services for Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom (OIF/OEF) veterans. It is a retrospective review of 31 consecutive cases consulted at a Veterans Health Administration chiropractic clinic. It was published in Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, and titled (5):
Management of Operation Iraqi Freedom
and Operation Enduring Freedom Veterans
in a Veterans Health Administration Chiropractic Clinic:
A Case Series
In this study, Dr. Lisi notes that the two most frequent diagnoses seen in military veterans receiving Veterans Health Administration services are musculoskeletal system and connective tissue disorders. Not surprisingly, Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Free¬dom (OIF/OEF) veterans now commonly seek care for musculo-skeletal complaints in Veterans Health Administration (VHA) facilities.
The Veterans Health Administration established chiropractic clinics at 26 facilities beginning in 2004. By 2010, the number of clinics increased from 26 to 36, a 38% increase. Also, the number of veterans seen at these clinics increased from more than 4,000 to more than 13,000, an increase of 225%.
Spinal manipulation is a central component of chiropractic treat¬ment, and it may provide benefit in cases of low back and neck pain.
In the 31 patients reviewed for this study, the most common reasons for seeking chiropractic care were low back pain with or without leg pain (48%), and mid back (thoracic) pain (32%). The duration of complaint was on average 14 months (range 2 to 72 months).
The onset of pain in these subjects was as a result of military trauma and blast injuries. Six of the thirty-one cases (19%) were diagnosed with traumatic brain injury.
All cases in this series were chronic and had failed to adequately respond to prior treatment interventions, including:
- NSAIDs 100%
- Muscle relaxants 65%
- Physical therapy 61%
- Opioids 39%
Chiropractic Services included:
- Education on natural history and self-care
- Manual spinal manipulation
- Therapeutic exercise
- Seventy-four percent of cases received physical modalities and manual myofascial release.
- Patients were seen for an average of 6.1 visits (range 2 to 19).
- Fifty-five percent of cases reported no adverse events.
- Forty-five percent of cases reported increase soreness, but in all cases âthe increase in pain self-resolved within 4 to 48 hours.â
- Treatment duration: no improvement over two to four consecutive visits during the trial typically indicated the end point.
- Pain intensity was measured using the 11-point numeri¬cal rating scale (NRS); a predetermined mini¬mum clinically important difference of 2 points was established. Patients who reached resolution of pain (0/10 on the NRS) were discharged.
- Sixty-one percent of the subjects reported a pain decrease that exceeded the threshold for minimally important change (2 points).
Dr. Lisi concluded:
âVeterans Health Administration primary care and specialty providers may consider chiropractic services when managing musculo¬skeletal conditions in OIF/OEF patients.â
âThis report shows that chiropractic management was safe and may be effective in reducing pain in some cases.â
âChiropractic management was safe in these cases, and the results sup¬port the hypothesis that chiropractic management may be effective in certain OIF/OEF veterans.â
Dr. Lisi also noted that sixty-eight percent of the subjects screened positive for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD and chronic pain often co-occur and âmay interact in such a way as to negatively impact the course of either disorder.â The high prevalence of PTSD in this sample may have reduced outcome.
Six years later, in 2016 Lisi and colleague updated the status in the trends of the use of chiropractic services in the Department of Veterans Affairs. The authors presented a serial cross-sectional analysis of the VA administrative data from the first record of chiropractic services in the VA in 2004 through September 30, 2015. Their findings included (6):
- From October 1, 2004, through September 30, 2015, the annual number of different patients seen in VA chiropractic clinics increased from 4,052 to 37,349, which is an increase of 822%.
- From October 1, 2004, through September 30, 2015, the annual number of chiropractic visits increased from 20,072 to 159,366, which is an increase of 694%.
- The typical VA chiropractic patient is male, is between the ages of 45 and 64, is seen for low back and/or neck conditions, and receives chiropractic spinal manipulation and evaluation and management services.
- The total number of VA chiropractic clinics grew from 27 to 65, and the number of chiropractic employees grew from 13 to 86.
- The typical VA chiropractic employee is a 46-year-old male who has worked in VA for 4.5 years, and receives annual compensation of $97,860.
- During this period of time, the VA also purchased care from private sector chiropractors, growing to 159,533 chiropractic visits for 19,435 patients at a cost of $11,155,654 annually.
The authors concluded:
âUse of chiropractic services and the chiropractic workforce in VA have grown substantially over more than a decade since their introduction.â
In February 2018, a group of researchers published a study in the journal Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, and titled (7):
Changes in Female Veteransâ Neck Pain Following
Chiropractic Care at a Hospital for Veterans
The objective of this study was to determine if US female veterans had demonstrable improvements in neck pain after chiropractic management at a Veterans Affairs (VA) hospital. Thirty-four veterans met the inclusion criteria and received a mean of 8.8 chiropractic treatments.
At the time of this study, no randomized controlled trials had been conducted evaluating chiropractic management for neck pain in the veteran population and there was no literature specifically about chiropractic care for female veterans with neck pain.
The type of manual therapy typically included spinal manipulative therapy (SMT), spinal mobilization, flexion-distraction therapy, and/or myofascial release.
- SMT was a manipulative procedure involving a high-velocity, low-amplitude thrust to the cervical spine.
- Spinal mobilization was manually assisted passive motion involving repetitive joint oscillations at the end of joint play and without the application of a high-velocity, low-amplitude thrust.
- Flexion-distraction therapy is a gentle form of spinal manipulation using traction and manual pressure applied to the neck in a prone position.
The authors note that neck pain is a common complaint among U.S. military active duty personnel and veterans. Musculoskeletal conditions are the leading cause of morbidity for female veterans. There has been a 400% increase in overdose deaths since 1999 for women, and that 1 in 10 suicides by women in the United States involves prescription opioids or narcotics. They state:
âOne potential non-pharmacological treatment option for musculoskeletal pain is chiropractic care.â
âFemale veterans in the present study receiving chiropractic management for neck pain had demonstrable improvement which was statistically and clinically significant.â
âChiropractic management may be an effective treatment strategy for female veterans with neck pain complaints.â
âNo significant adverse events were reported for any of the patients in the sample.â
In May 2018, a group of researchers published a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association Network Open, and titled (8):
Effect of Usual Medical Care Plus Chiropractic Care
vs Usual Medical Care Alone on Pain and Disability
Among US Service Members With Low Back Pain:
A Comparative Effectiveness Clinical Trial
The lead author of this study is Christine M. Goertz, DC, PhD, from Palmer Chiropractic College.
The objective of this study was to determine whether the addition of chiropractic care to usual medical care (UMC) for low back pain results in better pain relief and pain-related function when compared with usual medical care alone. The study used 750 active-duty US service members aged 18 to 50 years with low back pain from a musculoskeletal source. The intervention period was 6 weeks. Clinical status was assessed at 6 weeks and 12 weeks. This is the largest trial evaluating usual medical care with chiropractic care vs usual medical care alone.
The usual medical care (UMC) included:
- Physical Therapy
- Pain clinic referral
The chiropractic care included:
- Spinal manipulation in the low back and adjacent regions
- Other manual therapies
- Rehabilitative exercise
- Superficial heat
The outcome measures used included:
- Numerical Rating Scale (NRS)
- Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire
- Medication use
The authors note that musculoskeletal disorders are the second leading cause of disability worldwide, led by low back pain (LBP). They state:
âIn the US military, LBP is one of the most common reasons members seek medical care and one of the most likely conditions to interrupt combat duty.â
âCommon medical therapies for LBP, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, spinal fusions, and epidural steroid injections, demonstrate limited effectiveness; furthermore, many of these treatments have unacceptably high risk profiles.â
âThe US opioid crisis creates an urgent need to evaluate cost-effective and low-risk non-pharmacological treatments.â
âIt is critically important to evaluate the effect of non-pharmacological treatments on low back pain and associated disability.â
The authors note that chiropractic care has been integrated into more than half of military treatment facilities across the United States, and that âspinal manipulation or chiropractic care is recommended as a first line of treatment for pain.â They also note that chiropractic care is an option to the opiate crisis, and that current clinical guidelines recommend the use of spinal manipulative therapy and/or chiropractic care for low back pain.
Chiropractic care provides conservative care focused on diagnosis, treatment, co-management, or referral for musculoskeletal conditions, including low back pain. The primary therapeutic procedure used by doctors of chiropractic is spinal manipulative therapy.
In this study, the primary chiropractic service was spinal manipulation in the low back and adjacent regions. No serious related adverse events were reported. Reported outcomes included:
âChiropractic care, when added to usual medical care, resulted in moderate short-term treatment benefits in both LBP intensity and disability, demonstrated a low-risk of harms, and led to high patient satisfaction and perceived improvement in active-duty military personnel.â
âParticipants receiving usual medical care with chiropractic care had significantly better global perceived improvement at 6 weeks at all sites.â
âThose receiving usual medical care with chiropractic care had significantly greater mean satisfaction with care at 6 weeks at all sites.â
âParticipants allocated to receive usual medical care with chiropractic care self-reported significantly less pain medication use than those receiving usual medical care alone at week 6 [by 27%] and week 12 [by 24%].â
Odds ratios âwere statistically significant in favor of usual medical care plus chiropractic care overall for perceived improvement and self-reported pain medication use.â
âThis trial provides additional support for the inclusion of chiropractic care as a component of multidisciplinary health care for low back pain, as currently recommended in existing guidelines.â
âPatients who received usual medical care plus chiropractic care reported a statistically significant moderate improvement in low back pain intensity and disability at 6 weeks compared with those who received usual care alone.â
âThe changes in patient-reported pain intensity and disability as well as satisfaction with care and low risk of harms favoring usual medical care with chiropractic care found in this pragmatic clinical trial are consistent with the existing literature on spinal manipulative therapy in both military and civilian populations.â
âThis trial provides additional support for the inclusion of chiropractic care as a component of multidisciplinary health care for LBP, as currently recommended in existing guidelines.â
âOur findings further support existing guidelines that recommend non-pharmacological treatments as a first line of treatment for LBP.â
âThis is a critically important issue as the US health care delivery system struggles to adequately address the challenges of managing LBP and the opioid epidemic.â
This study generated an Invited Commentary by Daniel Cherkin, MD, PhD (9):
Innovating to Improve Care for Low Back Pain
in the Military Chiropractic Care Passes Muster
After reviewing the studyâs outcomes, Dr. Cherkin notes:
An explanation as to why chiropractic care improved outcomes is:
- Chiropractors are specialists in back problems and enjoy seeing patients with low back pain.
Dr. Cherkin concludes:
âTrue integration of chiropractic care into the military health care system involving professional communication and referrals between chiropractors and medical personnel has the potential for more effectively and efficiently serving patients and for providing models for other integrated health care systems in civilian settings to follow.â
In September 2018, a group of researchers, many of whom we have referenced in prior studies, published another study in the journal Pain Medicine, and titled (10):
Opioid Use Among Veterans of Recent Wars
Receiving Veterans Affairs Chiropractic Care
This study was funded by the US Department of Veterans Affairs, the Palmer College Foundation, and the NCMIC Foundation. It explores the relationship between timing of chiropractic care and receipt of an opioid drug prescription in Veterans of Operations Enduring Freedom/Iraqi Freedom/New Dawn (2004-2014).
For military and veteran populations, the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department of Defense, and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) have âidentified non-pharmacological approaches to pain management as a national research priority.â For the VA in particular, treatments for pain recommend broader use of a group of evidence-based non-pharmacological therapies, including spinal manipulation, massage, acupuncture, and exercise. These types of interventions are standard in chiropractic clinical practice, especially spinal manipulation.
A reduction in opioid use remains a national priority. Apart from the potential to reduce pain and improve function in patients with musculoskeletal conditions, chiropractic care may have an impact on opioid use in such patients. In private sector populations, an increase in chiropractic care is correlated with reduced opioid use.
The outcomes from this study include:
âNearly one-third of veterans receiving VA chiropractic services also received an opioid prescription, yet the frequency of opioid prescriptions was lower after the index chiropractic visit than before.â
âThe percentage of veterans receiving opioid prescriptions was lower in each of the three 30-day time frames assessed after the index chiropractic visit than before.â
The percentages of veterans receiving opioid prescriptions was higher before the chiropractic visit than after the visit. The delivery of chiropractic care may have been a substitute for opioid use. These authors suggest that âchiropractic care is more likely to be a replacement for, rather than an addition to, opioid therapy for chronic musculoskeletal pain conditions in the VA.â
These authors concluded:
âOur results, along with the previous literature, suggest that expanding access to chiropractic care should be a key policy consideration for the VA, congruent with national initiatives aimed to increase the use of evidence-based non-pharmacological treatments for chronic musculoskeletal pain.â
Media reports little good news pertaining to the crisis in healthcare delivery and options for active duty military and military veterans. The studies reviewed here, although rarely reviewed in the lay media, are from a pubmed (www.pubmed.gov) search of the US National Library of Medicine. They represent a rare bit of good news for our military personnel. In short, they indicate that for musculoskeletal pain and dysfunction, especially for back and neck complaints, chiropractic care, including principally spinal manipulation, is effective, cost effective, safe, reduces narcotic drug use, and has high levels of patient satisfaction. These outcomes are good news for all concerned, and the recommendation is that government and non-government entities should be increasing the utilization of chiropractic services.
- Paul Offit P; Pandoraâs Lab: Seven Stories of Science Gone Wrong; National Geographic; 2017.
- Jowers K; One in Four troops have an opioid prescription in a given year; Military Times; December 4, 2018.
- Jones MR, Viswanath O, Peck J, Kaye AD, Gill JS, Simopoulos TT; A Brief History of the Opioid Epidemic and Strategies for Pain Medicine; Pain Therapy; June 2018; Vol. 7; No. 1; pp. 13-21.
- Konitzer LN, Fargo MV, Brininger TL, Lim Reed M; Association between back, neck, and upper extremity musculoskeletal pain and the individual body armor; Journal of Hand Therapy; 2008; Vol. 21; No. 2; pp. 143â48.
- Lisi AJ; Management of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom veterans in a Veterans Health Administration chiropractic clinic: A Case Series; Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development; 2010; Vol. 47; No. 1; 2010; pp. 1â6.
- Lisi AJ, Brandt CA; Trends in the Use and Characteristics of Chiropractic Services in the Department of Veterans Affairs; Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics; June 2016; Vol. 39; No. 5; pp. 381-386.
- Corcoran KL, Dunn AS, Green BN, Formolo LR, Beehler GP; Changes in Female Veteransâ Neck Pain Following Chiropractic Care at a Hospital for Veterans; Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice; February 2018; Vol. 30; pp. 91-95.
- Goertz CM, Long CR, Vining RD, Pohlman KA, Walter J, Coulter I; Effect of Usual Medical Care Plus Chiropractic Care vs Usual Medical Care Alone on Pain and Disability Among US Service Members With Low Back Pain: A Comparative Effectiveness Clinical Trial; Journal of the American Medical Association Network Open; May 18, 2018; Vol. 1; No. 1; e180105.
- Cherkin DC; Invited Commentary; Innovating to Improve Care for Low Back Pain in the Military Chiropractic Care Passes Muster; Journal of the American Medical Association Network Open; May 18, 2018; Vol. 1; No. 1.
- Lisi AJ, DC, Corcoran KL,DeRycke EC, Bastian LA, Becker WC, MD, Edmond SN, Goertz CM, Goulet JL, Haskell SG, Higgins DM, Kawecki T, Kerns RD, Mattocks K, Ramsey C, Ruser CB, Brandt CA; Opioid Use Among Veterans of Recent Wars Receiving Veterans Affairs Chiropractic Care; Pain Medicine; September 1, 2018; Vol. 19 supplemental; pp. S54âS60. |
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The team at Disability Visibility Project came across this great blog post about the importance of accessibility in all products and websites. Haben Girma is a Skadden Fellowship Attorney at Disability Rights Advocates in Berkeley, California, where she works to ensure that students with disabilities have equal access to education. This blog post was originally published it itublog on May 8, 2014. Below is an excerpt.
Mainstreaming Accessibility: Deafblindness, Assistive Technology and Advocacy
Even to this day, many people think that providing access for a person with a disability is an act of charity, a favor to bestow during a free moment. Such attitudes lead to discrimination. We need to change peopleâs attitude towards accessibility. In the United States, providing access is a legal obligation. I am happy to say that countless times I have requested and received accommodations through friendly discussions rather than by invoking the law.
Creative thinking forms the basis for assistive technologies, as most tools must be adapted to the specific needs of individuals with disabilities.
Take the deaf-blind community for instance. We have a need for technology greater than the average person. These tools are necessary to facilitate communication and independence in our communities. I myself rely on technology for everything from communicating with store clerks, conducting my assignments, to chatting with friends.
It is rare for me to use one single device. Often I have to combine two or three of them together. Unfortunately, some of these devices, like braille displays, cost several thousand U.S. dollars. Reducing the cost of digital braille would make these devices more affordable to deafblind individuals. Perhaps engineers could develop more affordable methods for producing digital braille, or perhaps organizations could provide grants to cover the cost of these devices to deafblind individuals who cannot afford them.
If major tech companies included accessibility features in their mainstream products, individuals with disabilities would have greater access to information and tools. Mainstreaming accessibility features would also significantly reduce the cost of assistive technology. Rather than thinking of accessibility as an extra feature, like a cherry on top of the sundae, programmers and developers should treat accessibility as a necessary component, something to think about from the very start. |
Artist's concept of dwarf planet Ceres
For nineteen years, NASA/ESAâs Hubble Space Telescope has made some of the most dramatic discoveries in the history of astronomy but it has also helped scientists learn more about our own Solar System. From its vantage point 600 km above the Earth, Hubble has studied every planet in our Solar System except Mercury where light from the Sun would damage its instruments. Part of Hubblecast 27, this clip is an artistâs concept of dwarf planet Ceres
ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser & L. L. Christensen).
About the Video
|Release date:||16 January 2012, 11:22|
About the Object
|Type:||⢠X - Hubble Images Videos|
⢠X - HD Videos |
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Are candy, cookies and other food rewards for students minimizing classroom nutrition education?
Food rewards minimizing classroom nutrition education can negate proper instruction.
Students are receiving powerful motivation through food rewards. These incentives are used to assist children in learning and achieving immediate and short-term goals in classroom assignments. Sweet treats are also often used to reward or recognize students for good behavior and grades.
Nutrition experts state that in order to promote a healthy school environment, which helps to improve eating behaviors; students need to receive consistent, reliable health information and ample opportunity to use it.
Healthy celebrations are an important part of providing a healthy school environment. Parents and teachers both should know that there are consequences for using candy and food as rewards:
- They compromise classroom nutrition learning â nutrition instructors teach nutrition principles, but later students may receive candy and other food as rewards.
- Using sweet food as a reward increases a childâs preference for sweets.
- Giving students candy, cookies, cupcakes, etc. can contribute to childhood obesity, diabetes, hypertension and cavities.
- Treats as rewards encourages overeating of unhealthy foods. Food rewards are usually high in sugar, salt and fat. Schools can promote healthier school environments by decreasing the availability of unhealthy snacks, which contributes to childhood obesity.
- Children need to learn how to respond to hunger cues and stop eating when they are satisfied. Sweets interfere with this mechanism and they learn to eat when they are not hungry to reward themselves. This can lead to eating disorders.
According to Marlene Schwartz from the Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity, rewarding children with healthy foods in a school undermines efforts to teach them about good nutrition.
Michigan State University Extension encourages parents and schools to incorporate alternative treats and healthy snacks for school celebrations and rewards, which will make for healthy school environments for students. |
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Thomas Livingstone Mitchell was an explorer.
He named the Grampian Mountains in Victoria.
He named the town of Swan Hill in Victoria.
His expeditions found new lands for farming.
A cockatoo is named for him.
Thomas Livingstone Mitchell (1792 â 1855)
Thomas Mitchell was born in Scotland. He joined the army and learned how to be a surveyor. He was a talented artist and writer, and was also a geologist and botanist. The books he wrote about his journeys were very popular. He married in 1818, and had 12 children; 6 girls and 6 boys. He was known for losing his temper quite explosively.
In 1827, Major Thomas Mitchell arrived in Australia to become the Surveyor-General of the colony of New South Wales, taking over from John Oxley. He held the position for 27 years, and was responsible for the placement of roads, bridges and towns throughout the colony.
He led four expeditions of exploration and carried out most of the surveys of Eastern Australia, which led to new grazing lands being established in southern Victoria.
Mitchell's First expedition
Mitchellâs first expedition was in 1831. He set off to explore a river north west of Sydney, that had been reported by an escaped convict. The expedition passed a number of rivers and Mitchell believed that they were all part of the Darling River system. His path was blocked by a war party of Aboriginal people who killed two of his men and stole their supplies. Without fresh supplies, Mitchell had to turn back and return to Sydney.
Mitchell's Second expedition
On his second expedition, in 1835, Mitchell planned to trace the course of the Darling River to the sea. He followed the Darling for about 500 kilometres. Again Aboriginal people were sighted. The party saw a group of Aboriginal people and this time Mitchellâs men opened fire and killed several. Again Mitchell was forced to turn back.
Mitchell's Third expedition
On his third expedition, Mitchell travelled to where the Lachlan, Murrumbidgee and Darling Rivers joined the Murray River in what is now Victoria. Camped near a hill on the banks of the Murray, at a place today known as Riverside Park, he was kept awake by the loud calls of some black swans. On 21st June 1836, Mitchell wrote in his diary: âI therefore named this isolated and remarkable feature Swan Hill.â Swan Hill is today a large and thriving town.
Mitchell found that the local Aboriginal people were friendly. He mapped the western part of Victoria and named the Grampian Mountains, on the other side of which he found rich grazing land. The expedition travelled south west, and crossed mountains and rivers that no white people had ever seen. They reached the Glenelg River and rowed down to the sea at Portland Bay. Here Mitchell was surprised to find the Henty brothers and a thriving community that had been settled there since 1834. The Henty brothers were raising sheep and cattle and catching whales. They supplied food and other goods to the whalers who sailed there.
When Mitchell returned to Sydney with news of the excellent farming land he had seen, it started a land rush.
Mitchell's Fourth expedition
Mitchellâs fourth expedition was into central Queensland with a party of 29 men, two of whom were Aboriginal guides and 23 of them convicts. They took bullock drays and carts, and two iron boats that could be bolted together when needed. They took enough supplies to last a year, including 250 sheep. They found and named Victoria River before returning to Sydney a year later. This expedition led to the opening up of rich pastoral land in Central Queensland.
Counting the steps
On his expeditions, Mitchell counted how far they had travelled by counting the beat of his horseâs hooves. When he reached 100, he would move a counter such as a bean from one pocket to another, take a new compass reading and then start counting again. He estimated that every1.6 kilometres travelled was 950 paces of his horse.
In 1837 Mitchell was knighted for his discoveries and became Sir Thomas Mitchell.
In 1855 Lieutenant Colonel Sir Thomas Mitchell developed pneumonia and died.
How Thomas Mitchell remembered?
- The town of Mitchell in Queensland is named for him.
- There is a highway in Queensland and New South Wales named for him too.
- The Major Mitchell's cockatoo is named for him. |
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Beirut, 16 December 2019 (ESCWA)--The region is caught in an inequality trap, argue the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) and the Economic Research Forum (ERF) in their new report titled âRethinking Inequality in Arab Countriesâ, which was launched today in Beirut.
âPolicymakers in the Arab region are confronted with a significant knowledge deficit on inequality issues,â underlined the reportâs foreword. Realizing the importance of addressing this knowledge gap, ESCWA and ERF partnered to ârethinkâ the stylized âfactsâ of inequality in Arab countries, with the aim of presenting a holistic analysis of its main determinants and offering consequent policy considerations.
The report, an outcome of the largest research project on inequality in Arab countries to date, shows that the region has achieved significant human capital gains. However, these gains were not closely matched with a decline in inequality of opportunities.
Increased inequality in conflict areas
Indeed, the report shows that the Arab region has made progress in areas including health, education and living conditions. This is reflected in improvements in basic indicators such as infant mortality, primary and secondary education and access to water and sanitation. Since 2000, infant mortality per 1000 live births has declined to 20.1 and adult literacy rates have increased to 74% of the population.
However, starting 2010, there were setbacks in several basic health and education indicators due to conflicts, especially in the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen. The most recent data show a substantial decline in overall enrolment rates for children of all ages, especially for girls.
Inequality within countries
According to the report, the gains in health and education that had been achieved in Arab countries were accompanied, generally, with decreasing within-country inequalities, whether between rich and poor, rural or urban areas, or men and women, even in least developed countries.
However, according to a finer analysis of data in some countries, health and education gaps between the rich and poor are again on the rise, such as in the case of secondary completion rates in Iraq and stunting in Yemen.
High inequality in opportunities
The report sheds light on high and increasing levels of inequality in opportunities linked to secondary education, with factors such as family wealth and parents' education explain over 60% of the observed inequality outcomes. Inequality in health opportunities was generally lower, but its levels have increased since 2000.
The report shows that human capital gains remain an untapped resource due to poor economic policies and governance. Increases in national income do not systematically result in higher household incomes.
Despite reasonably high growth at the aggregate level, many countries have witnessed rising poverty to more than 25% in 2018, due to conflicts and economic downturns. This has also put pressure on the size of the middle class, which may have declined to below 40% in non-Gulf Arab countries.
Lower employment opportunities
Arab economies tend to be disproportionately concentrated in low value-added, unproductive sectors. This is manifested in labour market informalisation, low productivity and poor employment outcomes, especially for women and youth.
The region registers very low labour force participation rates and very high unemployment rates for young people. The female labour force participation rate was approximately 21% in 2018, one of the lowest worldwide.
The report suggests that tax policy should be more progressive, which would increase revenues by 5% of the gross domestic product in some countries while promoting fairness between the rich and the poor. It also invites Arab countries to reverse the concentration of economic activities in low value-added sectors or in central urban areas.
According to the report, to encourage higher productivity sectors, Arab policymakers should enact economic policies that help to diversify economies away from capital-intensive and natural-resource sectors, increase productivity and generate employment by prioritizing industrial development, facilitated by technology transfer and innovation.
Addressing informality and generating employment for young entrants to the labour force is vital to reduce inequality. Employment guarantee schemes can help to close the wage gap between the formal and the informal sectors, and this would facilitate formalizing the latter.
Moreover, Arab States need to restore credibility and trust in public institutions. Reforms should begin by empowering those institutions to improve service delivery. This includes rule of law, good governance, transparency in resource mobilization and spending, as well as social dialogue as a central means to enhance communication between government and people.
The report recommends capitalizing on young people and improving policies to effectively target the disadvantaged, and reduce poverty and inequality, while simultaneously ensuring a competitive thriving economy. All this would foster political stability, increase economic growth and enhance human development.
For more information:
-Ms Rania Harb, Public Information Assistant, +961-70-008-879; email: [email protected] |
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Protecting watersheds in the Marcellus Shale region and forcing driller disclosure of fracking chemicals are the foremost demands of those concerned about potential environmental harm from natural gas activity.
The focused attention leaves out potentially greater threats, said Conrad "Dan" Volz, Ph.D., director and principal investigator of University of Pittsburgh's Center for Healthy Environments and Communities. The region's air could face a so far undetected threat, he said.
While a spill at a natural gas drilling site that contaminates water is catastrophic, air pollution can be a more insidious problem - one he said he feels is being overlooked.
While environmental groups and citizens scour lists of chemicals added to hydraulic fracturing fluid used to break up the shale formation, the greater threat may come from toxins that come to the surface as flowback, said Mr. Volz. He said state air-monitoring stations tend to be located in urban areas, away from rural areas where much of the drilling would be taking place.
He said the flowback is a slurry that can contain naturally-occurring benzene, strontium and arsenic. The flowback is often stored in uncovered fracking ponds where volatile organic compounds evaporate into the air. Condenser stations, wells and pipelines also discharge VOCs.
VOCs, both manmade and naturally occurring, are emitted into the air by certain liquids and solids. Some can adversely affect health in cases of chronic exposure, according to the Environmental Protection Agency.
VOCs emitted by a single well pad may not be that significant, and Dr. Volz said there's debate over the risk to air quality and health. But as drilling intensifies, however, air quality will become an issue, he said.
Dr. Volz delivered his comments at a rollout of his group's Marcellus Shale website, www.fractracker.org, to a group of stakeholders that included economic development officials, environmental groups and academics in Danville on Thursday.
He hopes Fractracker.org will help inform policymakers on issues such as where to place permanent air-monitoring stations.
Compounding air quality unknowns is the lack of state Department of Environmental Protection air-monitoring stations in many parts of the Marcellus Shale region. The stations tend to be in urban areas with historically high industrial activity. Stations are in Swiftwater, Peckville, Scranton, Wilkes-Barre and Nanticoke. None are in Wayne, Wyoming, Susquehanna or Bradford counties, where drilling activity is more common.
The DEP has a mobile air-quality lab collecting data around natural gas activity. The data has not been released, said DEP spokesman Mark Carmon. But Mr Carmon said it can provide a snapshot of the impact of natural gas activity on air quality.
Chris Tucker, spokesman for Energy In Depth, an oil and gas producers' association, said open fracking pits are increasingly being replaced by closed loop systems such as one being used by Anadarko Petroleum Corp., reducing the release of VOCs.
He also said that unlike natural gas in Southwestern Pennsylvania, natural gas coming from the Northeast is so- called "dry gas," nearly pure methane, with fewer condensates and VOCs.
University of Scranton chemistry professor Michael C. Cann said thousands of different chemicals come out of the earth in fracking fluid, but without research or testing, it's hard to assess the impact of the process.
"Certainly there are dangerous, naturally-occurring volatile organic compounds, but without research and testing, there's no way to know the risk," Dr. Cann said.
Contact the writer: [email protected] |
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Subsets and Splits