Dataset Viewer
Query
stringlengths 19
110
| Open Coding
stringclasses 5
values | Answer
stringlengths 34
1.81k
| First Relevant Paper
stringlengths 6
107
⌀ | Second Relevant Paper
stringlengths 8
64
⌀ | Third Relevant Paper
stringlengths 9
78
⌀ | Fourth Relevant Paper
stringlengths 8
59
⌀ | Fifth Relevant Paper
nullclasses 5
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Why do low-mass galaxies typically have low gas-phase oxygen abundances?
|
KS: broad description
|
Low-mass galaxies typically have low gas-phase oxygen abundances due to inefficient metal retention. Their shallow gravitational potential wells make it easier for supernova-driven outflows to eject metal-enriched gas. Additionally, these galaxies have lower star formation rates, producing fewer heavy elements. Their reduced ability to accrete enriched gas from the intergalactic medium also contributes to their lower metallicity.
|
405537
|
1001.1728
|
0804.2671
| null | null |
Does the Milky Way have a classical or pseudo-bulge?
|
Deep knowledge
|
The Milky Way appears to have a composite bulge structure. It primarily exhibits characteristics of a pseudo-bulge, with a boxy/peanut-shaped structure formed through secular evolution processes. However, there's evidence for a smaller, classical bulge component at the very center. This dual nature suggests our galaxy's bulge formed through a combination of merger events and internal dynamical processes.
|
0910.0448
|
1109.2898
| null | null | null |
What is the age of the Beta Pictoris moving group?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The age depends upon the method used. The widely accepted methods are lithium depletion boundary (LDB) and kinematics. The later yielding smaller age in genenral. The latest estimate of kinematic age using 16.3 Myr (+3.4,-2.1) while that using LDB 21-26 Myr (Binks & Jeffries 2014; Malo et al. 2014; Mamajek & Bell 2014).
|
2404.07391
|
1409.2737
|
1310.2613
|
1406.675
| null |
Can photometry of exoplanets constrain their atmospheric chemistry?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Yes, the photometry of exoplanets can provide constraints on their atmospheric chemistry, mainly through observations of thermal phase curves and secondary eclipses. Multi-wavelength photometry allows the probing of different atmospheric layers. It can reveal the presence of molecular species like H2O, CO, and CH4 and provide insights into temperature structures and energy transport in the atmosphere.
|
0705.0993
|
1410.2241
|
1904.0319
| null | null |
Please list all major discoveries in astronomy made by citizen scientists.
|
Deep knowledge
|
While a full list of major discoveries in astronomy made by citzen scientists be infeasible to capture here, several notable discoveries include the discovery of green pea galaxies (0907.4155), insights on environmental dependence of galaxy morphology and color (0805.2612), the discovery the K2-138 exoplanet system (1801.03874), and aperiodic and irregular dips in flux for the star KIC 8462852 (1509.03622).
|
0907.4155
|
0805.2612
|
1801.03874
|
1509.03622
| null |
How are the magnetic dynamos of M dwarfs different from the Sun?
|
KS: broad description
|
Currently, the geometry and width of the tachocline (the transition region between the radiative interior core and differentially rotating outer convective zone), are hypothesized to play an important role in models of the solar dynamo by winding up the weaker poloidal field to create a much stronger toroidal field. However, recent radio observations of cooler stars like M-dwarfs, which do not have a radiative core and only have a convection zone, have demonstrated that they maintain large-scale, solar-strength magnetic fields and display solar-like activity despite the absence of tachoclines. The fact that M-dwarf objects with similar
| null | null | null | null | null |
Do galaxy mergers trigger AGN?
|
Unresolved topic
|
Galaxy mergers likely play a role in triggering AGN, but this is not a universal mechanism. The conditions under which mergers lead to AGN activity are complex and may depend on various factors, including the mass ratio of the merging galaxies, the amount of gas available, and the specific dynamics of the merger.
|
1905.0883
|
1703.06143
|
1303.1874
| null | null |
Should I expect polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) line strengths to be correlated with ionized gas ratios?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Yes. PAHs are complex organic molecules that can emit light at specific wavelengths when they are excited. The presence of ionized gas, which consists of charged particles, can influence the excitation and emission properties of PAHs. More specifically, the strength ratio of PAH emissions varies linearly with the ionized fraction, which is described by the PAH ionization parameter. This means that as the ionized fraction of the gas increases, the PAH emissions also change in a predictable manner.
|
2402.0433
|
2003.02823
| null | null | null |
What is the smallest known dwarf galaxy?
|
KS: specific factual
|
As of Jan 17 2024, Ursa Major III/UNIONS 1 (UMa3) appears to be the smallest known dwarf galaxy satellite of the Milky Way. This ultra-faint dwarf galaxy is estimated to have an absolute V-band magnitude of +2.2−0.3+0.4 mag, which corresponds to an incredibly low total stellar mass of only 16−5+6 solar masses.
|
2311.10147
| null | null | null | null |
How many galaxies are in the SDSS catalog?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The SDSS Main Galaxy Sample contains 930,000 spectroscopically confirmed galaxies.
|
812.0649
| null | null | null | null |
How many planets does the Troppist-1 system have?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The TRAPPIST-1 System has 7 known exoplanets, all of which are relatively close to Earth in size and mass.
|
1703.01424
| null | null | null | null |
What is the most massive galaxy known in the universe?
|
KS: specific factual
|
As of now, the most massive galaxy known in the Universe is IC 1101. It is an enormous giant elliptical galaxy located in the center of the Abell 2029 galaxy cluster. Although there is widespread disagreement about the total stellar mass of IC 1101, the supermassive black hole at its center has a mass of 40-100 billion solar masses, making it the most massive known supermassive black hole in the Universe.
|
1509.04782
|
1707.02277
| null | null | null |
What is the sigma-8 tension in cosmology?
|
KS: broad description
|
Sigma-8 is the standard deviation of density fluctuations in an 8 Mpc/h radius sphere. The tension is that what is predicted by that expected from the standard ΛCDM cosmological model with parameters determined by cosmic microwave background (CMB) measurements differs from what is measured by multiple probes of the inhomogeneity in the nearby Universe (weak gravitational lensing at low redshift, z< 1).
|
2102.12498
|
1708.0153
|
2209.06217
|
2203.06142
| null |
What causes cosmic rays to be accelerated in super nova remnants?
|
KS: broad description
|
Diffusive Shock acceleration is widely believed to be the source of acceleration of cosmic rays in supernovae remnants. However, exact details are poorly uderstood. There is some tension in matching the observed energy spectrum to that of the prediction of the standard model (Gabici 2019).
| null | null | null | null | null |
What is the distance to HVCs?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Most high-velocity clouds (HVCs) are located within 20 kpc of the Galactic disk, with many prominent complexes (like Complex A, Complex C, and others) found at distances of 5-15 kpc. The Magellanic Stream is a notable exception, extending much farther out to distances of 50-100 kpc. While the majority of neutral gas HVCs are relatively nearby, some ionized HVC structures may exist at larger distances, particularly in the direction of the Local Group barycenter, though these are more challenging to detect and measure.
|
2406.04434
|
1612.00449
|
0911.2732
| null | null |
Are there open-source radiative transfer codes for stellar or planetary atmospheres?
|
KS: procedure
|
Yes, marcs (Model Atmospheres with a Radiative and Convective Scheme), bifrost, or phoenix are open-source radiative transfer codes for stellar atmospheres. Other similar softwares include cloudy, mappings, skirt, or sunrise for simulating or generating spectra with radiative transfer and helios for planetary atmospheres. Other models are listed here: https://psg.gsfc.nasa.gov/helpmodel.php
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/0805.0554
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.05474
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https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2011/07/aa16520-11/aa16520-11.html
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https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/304233/fulltext/
| null |
If a star is 10 solar masses at birth, how is it most likely to end its life?
|
Deep knowledge
|
A star that is 10 solar masses at birth (Zero Age Main Sequence) is most likely to end its life by undergoing a core-collapse supernova and becoming a neutron star. However, the minimum mass for core-collapse increases with metallicity, so at very high metallicities it is possible that a 10 solar mass star could end its life as a white dwarf.
| null |
1205.3657
|
2008.08599
|
1301.5783
| null |
What is the most massive known spiral galaxy in the universe?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The most massive known spiral galaxy is OGC 0139, with a total baryonic mass of $\log(M_b/M_\odot) = 11.8$.
|
1909.0908
| null | null | null | null |
How many galaxies are in the NGC catalogue?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The New General Catalogue (NGC) contains 7840 galaxies.
|
NOTE: this catalog was compiled in 1888, so no modern citation should be given.
| null | null | null | null |
What is the redshift of the farthest known AGN?
|
KS: specific factual
|
We report the discovery of an accreting supermassive black hole at z=8.679, in CEERS_1019, a galaxy previously discovered via a Lyα-break by Hubble and with a Lyα redshift from Keck. As part of the Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science (CEERS) survey, we observed this source with JWST/NIRSpec spectroscopy, MIRI and NIRCam imaging, and NIRCam/WFSS slitless spectroscopy. However, this is a rapidly evolving field of study and is subject to updates.
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.08918
| null | null | null | null |
What mechanism causes gas to fall inward in an accretion disk?
|
Deep knowledge
|
In an accretion disk, gas falls inward primarily due to viscous forces that transfer angular momentum outward. These forces arise from turbulence and magnetic fields within the disk. The primary mechanism that drives this process is magnetorotational instability (MRI), which generates turbulence in weakly magnetized, differentially rotating disks. MRI amplifies small magnetic perturbations, creating turbulent eddies that efficiently transport angular momentum outward. As a result, inner material loses energy and spirals inward toward the central object.
|
astro-ph/0504029/
|
1305.077
| null | null | null |
What are the various measurements of circular velocity of the Milky Way galaxy at the location of the Sun?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The actual estimated values of circular velocity differ quite a lot based on estimates of the distance of the Sun from the Galactic center. However, the angular velocity with respect to the Galactic center (proper motion of Sgr A* star) is well constrained by Reid and Brunthaler (2009) to be 30.24 km s−1 kpc −1 and subtracting the solar peculiar motion which ranges between 5-12 km/s we get the circular velocity.
|
1401.5377
|
1209.0759
|
0907.5423
|
0902.3913
| null |
What is the core Python library for astronomy?
|
Deep knowledge
|
Astropy is the core Python library for astronomy and support FITS file and table operations, units and physical quantities, celestial coordinate and time transformations, WCS support, and other helper functions. Additional Astropy-affiliated packages can extend the functionality provided by the core Astropy library.
|
1307.6212
|
1801.02634
|
2206.1422
| null | null |
How does SN 1006 differ from other supernova remnants?
|
Deep knowledge
|
SN 1006 exhibits a distinctive double structure and bright "limbs" in X-ray and gamma-ray bands, deviating from the typical rounded morphology of other supernova remnants. IXPE observations reveal that SN 1006 demonstrates higher polarization compared to Cassiopeia A and Tycho, indicating unique magnetic field properties and particle acceleration dynamics in this remnant.
|
2309.01879
| null | null | null | null |
What is the distance to the Small Magellanic Cloud?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The distance to the Small Magellanic Cloud is measured to be 62.44 +/- 0.46 kpc using detached eclipsing binaries.
|
2010.08754
| null | null | null | null |
What is the value of the Hubble Constant?
|
Unresolved topic
|
The value of the Hubble Constant ($H_0$) can differ depending on how it is measured and on other model assumptions. Generally, $H_0$ takes on a biomodal distribution: early universe measurements such as CMB anisotropies settle on a low value of around 67 km/s/Mpc, whereas late universe observations like Cepheid variables and supernovae give higher values closer to 73 km/s/Mpc.
|
1807.06209
|
2308.01875
|
2112.0451
|
2404.03002
| null |
What object has the highest spectroscopic redshift?
|
KS: specific factual
|
As of July 2024, the highest-redshift object is JADES-GS-z14-0, with a spectroscopic redshift of z=14.32.
|
2405.18485
| null | null | null | null |
What is the star formation rate of the Milky Way?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Licquia & Newman (2015) find a star formation rate for the Milky Way of 1.65 +/- 0.19 solar masses per year using a Bayesian meta-analysis of the literature. Elia et al. 2022 find a consistent star formation rate of 2.0 ± 0.7 solar masses per year, using observations from the Hi-GAL program on Herschel.
|
1407.1078
|
2211.05573
| null | null | null |
What are Little Red Dots?
|
KS: broad description
|
Recently, a new population of compact, high-redshift (z>7) galaxies appeared as little red dots (LRDs) in deep JWST observations. The latest spectroscopic data indicates that these galaxies contain an evolved stellar population, reflecting an early episode of high star-formation-rate. A lot of these objects also host supermassive black holes. If the LRDs contain supermassive black holes, these would seem much more massive than what that well-known scaling relation would dictate, weighing in at up to a mind-boggling 40 percent of the stellar mass of their entire galaxy. This peculiarity could be crucial evidence for establishing how the first black holes formed at even earlier cosmic epochs scarcely plumbed even by JWST.
|
https://astrobites.org/2024/01/29/little-red-dots-and-big-black-holes/ and https://arxiv.org/abs/2401.09981
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.05448
|
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad1e5f
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/2401.08782
| null |
What are the different observing modes on the JWST?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Here is a nasa.gov blog post describing the 17 observing modes on the JWST: https://blogs.nasa.gov/webb/2022/05/12/seventeen-modes-to-discovery-webbs-final-commissioning-activities/ - 1. Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) imaging. 2. NIRCam wide field slitless spectroscopy. 3. NIRCam coronagraphy. 4. NIRCam time series observations – imaging. 5. NIRCam time series observations – grism. 6. Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) multi-object spectroscopy. 7. NIRSpec fixed slit spectroscopy. 8. NIRSpec integral field unit spectroscopy. 9. NIRSpec bright object time series. 10. Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS) single object slitless spectroscopy. 11. NIRISS wide field slitless spectroscopy. 12. NIRISS aperture masking interferometry. 13. NIRISS imaging. 14. Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) imaging. 15. MIRI low-resolution spectroscopy. 16. MIRI medium-resolution spectroscopy. 17. MIRI coronagraphic imaging.
|
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa5faa/meta
|
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1538-3873/acb293/meta
| null | null | null |
What is the difference between a faint dwarf galaxy and a star cluster?
|
KS: broad description
|
Both galaxy and star cluster are clustering of stars typically gravitationlly bound. However the gravitational potential of a galaxy is dominated by dark matter whereas a star cluster is dominated by baryonic matter. There are also some other criteria that can be used to distinguish between the two.
|
1101.3309
|
0711.4795
| null | null | null |
Do any binary star systems have exoplanets?
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KS: specific factual
|
Yes example is OGLE-2013-BLG-0341.
|
1407.1115
| null | null | null | null |
What are some results using integral field spectroscopy of AGN with JWST?
|
Deep knowledge
|
Overall, JWST has identified an abundance of AGN at high redshifts, a lot of which have been followed up with IFU observations. These are not comprehensive by any means but : 1. maybe found AGN signatures with IFU in GN-z11, 2. nalysis of JWST NIRSpec/IFU data reveals spatially extended Ha emission with velocities of ~ -600 - -500 km/s relative to the central black hole, indicative of robust nuclear driven outflows. LID-568 represents an elusive low-mass black hole experiencing super-Eddington accretion as invoked by models of early black hole formation. 3. z∼5.7 Lyman-break galaxy HZ10 represents an ongoing merger, with a complex distribution of stars, gas, and dust <1 Gyr after the Big Bang. 5. We find at least five concentrations of line emission, coinciding with discrete continuum features previously detected in imaging from HST and JWST, over an extent of ~2'' (~15 kpc). The spectral diagnostics enabled by NIRSpec unambiguously trace the activity of the obscured AGN plus interaction between the interstellar medium and the radio jet as the dominant mechanisms for the ionization state and kinematics of the gas in the system.
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/2404.16963
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.05333
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.12955
|
https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.03589
| null |
What is Zooniverse?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The Zooniverse is the world's largest platform for people-powered research, allowing volunteers worldwide to contribute to scientific projects across various disciplines. It enables research that would otherwise be impractical or impossible by harnessing the collective efforts of citizen scientists to analyse large datasets, make discoveries, and advance knowledge in fields ranging from astronomy to zoology.
|
https://www.zooniverse.org/about
| null | null | null | null |
Is Kriging used in astronomy?
|
Deep knowledge
|
Yes, Kriging (also know as Gaussian process regression) is widely used in astronomy for interpolation and model predictions.
|
1703.0971
|
1204.2272
|
1901.02877
|
1109.3251
| null |
Have spiral galaxy halos been measured in X-rays?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Yes, X-ray halos have been detected around individual and stacked spiral galaxies.
|
1803.08963
|
astro-ph/9903179
| null | null | null |
What creates linear sturcture in the difffuse, high-latitude, atomic interstellar medium of the Milky Way?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Linear structures in the diffuse, high-latitude, atomic interstellar medium of the Milky Way are created by density structures of the cold neutral medium (CNM) that are anisotropically distributed and aligned with the local magnetic field.
|
1902.01409
| null | null | null | null |
What are the various measurements of solar motion?
|
KS: specific factual
|
The widely accepted value is (U, V, W) solar = (11.1, 12.24, 7.25) kms-1 from Shcoentich and Binney (2010), for the 3 components of the solar motion with respect to the local standard of rest (LSR). While the W value is pretty settled. There is some debate regarding the exact value of U and V components. Specially, some studies differ significantly in the ir estimates of the V component.
|
0912.3693
|
1209.0759
|
1405.7435
|
1507.05624
| null |
What is the power source in quasars?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Quasars are powered by supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies. These black holes accrete surrounding matter into a disk, which spirals inward and releases enormous amounts of energy. This accretion process produces the intense luminosity characteristic of quasars. Note that the physical mechanisms behind the conversion of the accreting matter into energy are still poorly understood.
|
0807.3703
|
1909.07582
| null | null | null |
Which exoplanets have known atmospheres?
|
KS: specific factual
|
Our ability to understand an exoplanet's atmosphere is dependent on the ability for the gases that make up the atmosphere to produce an effect observable by us. This prohibits us from knowing every component of an exoplanet's atmosphere, though it is possible to make educated guesses to fill in the gaps. In cases where atmospheric species do have an observable effect, we can detect this based on how the species blocks (or sometimes emits) light. These interactions occur at specific energies due to the quantum mechanical nature of atoms and molecules as they interact with light, with atomic transitions usually occurring at relatively higher energies and molecular transitions occurring at relatively lower energies. In order to probe as many species as possible, it is necessary to have broad wavelength coverage, typically ranging from the near ultraviolet to the mid infrared, and high spectral resolution. Exoplanet atmospheres have been characterized by numerous instruments both on the ground and in space, most notably with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), through the transmission spectroscopy or emission spectroscopy techniques, depending on which is more favorable. Transmission spectroscopy requires the planet to transit, or pass in front of, its host star; when it does, atmospheric species block light at wavelengths corresponding to their atomic or molecular transitions, making the planet appear to be larger (with a larger transit depth) at those wavelengths. Alternatively, emission spectroscopy requires the transiting planet to be observably luminous such that there is a secondary eclipse when the planet passes behind the star; the flux ratio between the planet and star varies with wavelength due to the presence of atmospheric species.
| null | null | null | null | null |
AstroLLMs Gold Benchmark Dataset
This dataset is a collection of queries that astronomers asked to an astronomy research Slack chatbot. Along with the questions, there are open coding labels determined by a team of researchers and expert astronomer answers to these queries. Astronomers were asked to respond using citations and without the help of Large Language Models. This dataset of answers and responses is called the "Gold Benchmark Dataset".
Dataset Structure
The columns of this dataset include Query, Open Coding (the label that was assigned about the type of query asked), Answer (by expert astronomers), and First through Fifth Relevant Paper (the research paper related to the expert answer).
Citation
Please refer to the paper below and cite if this dataset was used in your work.
Hyk, A., McCormick, K., Zhong, M., Ciucă, I., Sharma, S., Wu, J. F., Peek, J. E. G., Iyer, K. G., Xiao, Z., & Field, A. "From Queries to Criteria: Understanding How Astronomers Evaluate LLMs," Conference on Language Modeling, 2025.
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